Datasets:

CGIAR
/

gardian-ai-ready-docs

+ {"metadata":{"id":"00610dd941df55b6346ab41b1c47fd9c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9145d267-69de-4d36-b709-33e9855ce18d/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"AICCRA are being implemented by a broad coalition of CGIAR centers and partners working at regional, sub-regional, and national level."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"AICCRA investments are concentrated in six anchor countries: Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Senegal, and Zambia, with spill-over benefits expected in other countries, as AICCRA will also work with Africa's regional economic communities (RECs) and their associated regional agricultural research and climate-change networks."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"The project runs from 2021 to 2023."}]},{"head":"About the AICCRA project","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Overview AICCRA aims to enhance access to climate information services (CIS) and validated, bundled, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies/ practices in Africa. With the support of AICCRA project, farmers and livestock keepers will be able to better anticipate climate-related events and take preventive actions, with better access to climate advisories linked to information about effective response measures. This will help communities better safeguard their livelihoods and the environment."}]},{"head":"AICCRA in Senegal","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"In Senegal, AICCRA is implemented by the The project aims to implement the sub-regional component of AICCRA in West Africa through building multi-actor partnerships among existing scientific and educational networks and centers to achieve outcomes through engaging with individual partners at the country level. Specifically, this project will enhance the capacity of national and regional public institutions and the private sector (e.g., input providers, information and communication technology companies, agribusinesses, and media) to develop delivery models for CIS 1 and for Climate-smart Agriculture CSA 2 knowledge, and approaches and tools to support climate-smart value chains (VCs) harnessing intraregional and south-south synergies."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Building on prior knowledge from CCAFS and available infrastructure in Senegal, AICCRA is focusing on the thematic areas that will foster digital agricultural advisories and decision-making tools, partnerships, and capacity building for climatic information dissemination in order to scale CSA innovations in key value chains and regions."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"1 CIS is the packaging and dissemination of climate information targeted to/for specific users 2 CSA is defined as improved production, adaptation, or resilience to climate change, and reduced emissions from agriculture FJ, CERAAS/ISRA), who will bring their relevant expertise and contextual experience to the process. They will also act as mentors, available to advise the 20 finalists."}]},{"head":"BOX 1: Evaluation criteria","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Proposals are expected to present the applicants' intended focus, predictable results, and key preliminary indicators that the project will deliver within the project period. AICCRA aims to reach at least 2,500 beneficiaries within the project duration. The number of expected beneficiaries reached through the business model should be reflected in the application. Applicants exhibiting the following criteria will be shortlisted and will progress to the next phase of evaluation:"}]},{"head":"I.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"A minimum of 2 years of operations"}]},{"head":"II.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A concrete business model aligned with the four priority areas:"},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"a. Sustainable intensification of production through access to finance, inputs, and CSA advisory b. Value-added, efficient processing through reduction of post-harvest losses and compliance with food safety standards c. Improvement of market linkages through the promotion of sustainable and inclusive retail food brands d. Uptake of CIS and CSA practices (such as index-based insurance) by smallholder farmers III. Ability to seek and secure funding between USD 100K-500K for follow-on capital in CAPEX or working capital and has previously received external funding."}]},{"head":"IV.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"A commitment to two of the three CSA pillars: Productivity, Adaptation, and Mitigation."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"a. Productivity indicates that the company has the potential to positively impact the environment through developing more efficient use of land and inputs, reducing wastage, and boosting local economies. b. Adaptation indicates that the company has the potential to positively impact the environment through fostering climate resilience and implementing adaptation actions to respond better to climate variability and change (e.g. drought resilience, water management) c. Mitigation indicates that the company has the potential to positively impact the environment through encouraging and supporting practices that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g. alternative energy, reduced nitrogen fertilizer usage)."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"V. A clear gender and social inclusion strategy within the business model and one at least one of the following gender dimensions:"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• ownership (more than 51% owned by women)"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• management team (more than 40% women in management positions)"},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"• workforce and policies demonstrating a clear commitment to gender and social inclusion • within its supply chain (participation of women in smallholder farmer suppliers, distributors, and end clients) • products and services that benefit women VI. Preference will be given to the SMEs operating in the following value chains:"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"The SMEs that will be selected to move to the next stage need to demonstrate:"}]},{"head":"Innovation of business case","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Proposals should present clear product(s) and clear business model(s) for the products or services proposed The business model(s) should indicate objective(s) for growth of their CSA/CIS solution in the selected supply chain and markets, while engaging and supporting smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Commercial viability and sustainability","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Applicants will be evaluated on the potential for growth of the product or service in the selected market(s). A sustainability and/or exit strategy should be indicated. Applicants should provide a two-year projection of revenue, costs, and net income."}]},{"head":"Implementation plan","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Applicants should outline their plan for implementation, including key activities/ milestones to be completed and the timeframe for each. Applicants should discuss with other actors and stakeholders that will need to be engaged to support implementation (for example, cooperatives, industry associations, marketing agents, etc.) and describe who these partners are, how and when that engagement will take place."}]},{"head":"Impact on smallholder farmers and social inclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Proposals should demonstrate how: (i) the business model(s) will oversee opportunities for and constraints to include women along CSA/CIS scaling pathways, (ii) address challenges in existing gender norms and power structures preventing women from adopting CSA/CIS, (iii) manage the risk of women being left behind in the up-take of labor-saving mechanized irrigation technologies, and (iv) contextualize the products and services to the given context where women clients live and to their needs."}]},{"head":"Organizational, management and technical capacity","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Applicants will be evaluated on business, "}]},{"head":"What AICCRA offers to successful applicants","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CSA technical assistance","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The successful applicants will also receive technical assistance in the form of trainings and capacity building events on CSA and CIS, as well as digital technologies. The support will be tailored to their needs and focus of their activities. Participants are expected to work closely with the CGIAR Centers and partners that will deliver the assistance. "}]},{"head":"Business Development/","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Investment Readiness"}]},{"head":"CSA Technical Assistance","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"De-Risking Grant"}]},{"head":"The process and timeline","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" the AICCRA Senegal Gender-Smart Accelerator Grant Aim of the Gender-Smart Accelerator Grant Scope of the grant/program Eligibility Evaluation criteria 4. What AICCRA offers to successful applicants 5. The process and timeline 6. Acknowledgement "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: AICCRA-Senegal Thematic Areas "},{"text":" International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT (The Alliance), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), in partnership with the Centre d'étude régional pour l'amélioration de l'adaptation à la sécheresse (CERAAS), which is a part of the Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), the Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de la Météorologie (ANACIM), and the Agence Nationale de Conseil Agricole et Rural (ANCAR). "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 1: AICCRA Senegal Thematic Areas "},{"text":" management, and technical qualifications with regard to scaling products or services in smallholder markets. The proposals should present learning activities and mechanisms to enhance the capacity outcomes for the applicant. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2 illustrates AICCRA's value proposition to successful applicants.AICCRA's value proposition to successful applicants "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 2: AICCRA's value proposition to successful applicants "},{"text":" AICCRA-Senegal project team has developed this concept based on the results of a private sector scoping mission conducted in March 2022. Through a series of workshops and interactions with over 50 stakeholders including SMEs, producer associations, financial institutions and ecosystem actors, key priority areas have been refined to meet the needs of agribusiness SMEs to scale CSA/CIS in Senegal today.The following roadmap (Figure3) will guide the implementation of the process between the months of August and December 2022. "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 3: AICCRA-Senegal Accelerator Program process and timeline "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"7b62a403-5d86-4ec7-9d4d-1e2efbc27b0a","abstract":""}

data/part_3/00afe757335a8ba34df4cc7be9923916.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"00afe757335a8ba34df4cc7be9923916","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14a2eaf1-b810-42d7-9bfa-aaf41fe07587/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":["climate change management","multiple innovations adoptions","productivity and income","Zimbabwe & Malawi"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Smallholder agriculture in Southern Africa (SA) is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. This is mainly because the region is prone to extreme weather events, including floods, drought and heat waves (Kinuthia, 1997;Lyon, 2009;Masih et al., 2014;Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007). Drought events, extreme high temperatures and variable rainfall patterns continue to affect agricultural production and productivity in the region and this has had negative implications on welfare of the people. The implications of variable climate on agriculture in SA as in the rest of the Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) region is exacerbated by over-reliance of smallholder farmers on rain-fed agriculture (Runge et al., 2004), poverty (Rockstrom, 2000), land degradation and infertile soils (Ngwira et al., 2012), poor agricultural production related policies (Clay et al., 2003) , and governance related problems (Brown et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"For countries like Zimbabwe and Malawi, agriculture remain key to livelihoods of the rural poor (Baiphethi and Jacobs, 2009;Bryceson, 2002). Agriculture remains the main source of food, employment, income for much of the rural populace. For instance, in Malawi agriculture provides livelihoods for over 85% of the population many of which are smallholder farmers (Mangisoni, 2008;Silberg et al., 2017). Also, in Zimbabwe, over 80% of the population rely on agriculture for livelihoods, with 70% of the total population residing in rural areas. Likewise, agriculture is the main employer, in the two countries with over 65% of the rural populace employed in agriculture in Zimbabwe (Ruzivo Trust, 2013), and over 85 % of the population employed in the agricultural sector in Malawi (Chinsinga and Chasukwa, 2012;Chirwa, 2004). It therefore shows that, effective adaptation of smallholder agriculture to climate variability and change can have profound effects on livelihoods in SA."},{"index":3,"size":255,"text":"However, progress has been made in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) including in the SA region in promoting adoption and use of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) innovations in agriculture particularly improved legume varieties (e.g. improved drought resistant bean (Buruchara et al., 2011), soybean , groundnut & cowpea) , improved maize varieties (e.g. drought tolerant maize) (Abate et al., 2015;CIMMYT, 2013;Fisher et al., 2015), diversifying cropping systems (Makate et al., 2016;Mango et al., 2018;Waha et al., 2018), conservation agriculture practices (Giller et al., 2009;Mazvimavi and Twomlow, 2009;Nkala et al., 2011;Siziba, 2008) just to mention a few examples. Such CSA innovations are being promoted to improve productivity, farmer income, reduce poverty, tackle land degradation and reduce negative impacts of agriculture on the environment (FAO, 2018;Lipper et al., 2014). For instance, research has shown adoption of drought tolerant maize varieties to improve maize productivity, farm incomes and livelihoods in Zimbabwe (Lunduka et al., 2017;Makate et al., 2017b) and Malawi (Denning et al., 2009;Katengeza et al., 2016). Also, adoption of conservation agriculture has been shown to yield positive impacts on farm productivity, livelihoods and reducing negative externalities of farming practices to the environment in SA including Malawi and Zimbabwe (Senyolo et al., 2018;Tambo and Mockshell, 2018;Thierfelder et al., 2016). Improved legume varieties have also been linked with improved crop productivity, farmer incomes, nutrition and many other environmental benefits (Franke et al., 2018). More so, research has shown that adoption of the individual climate-smart agriculture innovations is explained by resource endowment theory, psychometric and cultural theories (Deressa et al., 2009;Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"Different socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental attributes influence adoption of climate-smart agriculture innovations. This is true for improved legumes, drought tolerant maize and CA. For example, research on drought-tolerant maize adoption show different factors (i.e. access to information, resource endowments, extension access, and gender) to explain disparity in adoption (Fisher et al., 2015;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Holden and Fisher, 2015;Holden and Quiggin, 2016;Makate et al., 2017b). Also, different socioeconomic and institutional factors shave been found to explain CA adoption in smallholder farming (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014;Chiputwa et al., 2011;Giller et al., 2009;Mazvimavi and Twomlow, 2009;Siziba, 2008). In addition, various factors have been found to explain adoption of legume varieties and their associated technologies (Makate et al., 2018;Ugochukwu and Phillips, 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":260,"text":"Despite, the proven significance of drought-tolerant maize and improved legume varieties and conservation agriculture in improving productivity, incomes and environmental sustainability in smallholder farming systems, little attention have been given to possible synergies and trade-offs of adopting the innovations in combination. More so, little attention has been given to factors that explain adoption of improved legume varieties, drought tolerant maize and conservation agriculture in different combinations. It is plausible that adoption of improved legumes, drought tolerant maize varieties and CA in different combinations can have differential impacts on productivity and livelihoods and that different factors can influence different combinations of adoption. Research focusing on the impact of multiple agricultural technologies related to climate change management at farm household level in SSA is scarce but emerging. For instance, Khonje et al. (2018) found the adoption of multiple agricultural technologies (conservation farming and improved maize varieties) in Zambia to have far greater impacts on yield, income and poverty reduction than when adopted individually. Also, Tambo and Mockshell (2018) carried out his study using data from several sub Saharan African countries and found that multiple adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) pillars (crop residue, rotation and minimum tillage) had far greater impacts on income than when adopted individually. In a study by Wainaina et al. (2017) multiple adoption of input intensive and natural resources management technologies was found to have greater impacts on income than individual adoption. Also Teklewold et al. (2013b) found multiple adoption of modern seed technologies, diversification and conservation farming practices to yield greater impact on income than when adopted individually."},{"index":6,"size":184,"text":"This study fills the gap in literature by examining: (i) the factors that promote or impede adoption of climate-smart agriculture innovations (improved legume varieties, drought tolerant maize and Conservation Agriculture (CA)) individually and in combinations, (ii) examining the differential impacts of adopting climate-smart agriculture innovations (improved legume varieties, drought tolerant maize and CA) on cereal and legume productivity, farm and household income individually and in combinations, (iii) evaluating whether impacts of multiple adoption are significantly greater than adopting the individual innovations, and (iv) evaluating whether, geographical context and gender significantly influence impact trends observed in results. This study hypothesizes that focus on adoption and impact dynamics of component climate-smart agriculture innovations as opposed to in combinations can underestimate or overestimate their (a) impacts and (b) the influence of various factors on technology adoption choices. It is alluded in literature that farmers can adopt and adapt multiple technologies as substitutes or compliments that deal effectively with their overlapping constraints and that technology choices by farmers are path dependent (i.e. technology adopted today can be related with technology adopted in earlier seasons) (Teklewold et al., 2013a)."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"The rest of the paper is organized as follows: section (2) outlines the approaches followed in this study to answer research questions whilst section (3) presents study findings and discussions. Section (4) is a presentation of conclusions from the study findings and study recommendations."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.1.Data and sampling","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"Data for this study comes from 1172 smallholder farming households gathered from Malawi and Zimbabwe. About 600 farming household from four districts (Goromonzi, Hwedza, Guruve and Mudzi) in three provinces (Mashonaland east, west and central) make up the Zimbabwean sample whilst 572 smallholder farming households from four districts (Salima, Mchinji, Dowa and Lilongwe west) found in Central province of Malawi make up the Malawian sub-sample (See Figure 1). The data was collected in Malawi and Zimbabwe in 2011 as part of the European Commission (EC) through the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) funded project named Increasing smallholder farm productivity, income and health through widespread adoption of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) in the great lake regions and southern Africa (EC-IFAD project). The simple random sampling technique was used to select districts in selected provinces in both Zimbabwe and Malawi. The lowest sampling unit was the village. Resident agricultural extension offices in randomly sampled districts provided a list of villages found in respective districts and households. Simple random sampling techniques were then used to select villages and farming households that were interviewed. Data collection was in the form of face-to-face administration of structured questionnaires. The surveys collected vital information on several aspects of crop production, crop management, adoption of improved agricultural technologies, returns from farming, farmer livelihoods and various other aspects. Adoption of drought tolerant maize varieties, conservation agriculture and improved legume varieties (bean, soybean, groundnut, pigeon pea) was part of the information gathered. "}]},{"head":"2.2.Empirical strategy 2.2.1. Factors influencing the adoption of CSA innovations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The empirical strategy focuses on addressing two aspects. First, we analyse the factors influencing individual and multiple adoption of CSA innovations within a multinomial logistic (MNL) regression frameworka model belonging to the much broader class of what the econometrics literature classifies as discrete choice models (Greene, 2012). The MNL model is particularly appropriate in modelling choice behaviour, where perceived outcomes are modelled in terms of the characteristics of the individuals, smallholder farmers, in our case. To formalise the MNL model, let denote the random variable that indicates the choice made by smallholder farmer , then, under certain assumptions, the probabilities of choosing or adopting CSA technologies can be expressed as follows (Greene, 2012):"},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"where is a vector and each smallholder farmer is faced with choices . The outcome, comprises of eight categories formed from a combination of three climate-smart innovations namely: drought tolerant maize (DTM), improved legume (IL), and conservation agriculture (CA), which are all dummy variables to indicate adoption of such technologies. A concatenation of these three variables makes the following eight categories that make the variable : that is, (a) no adoption (the base category), (b) CA adoption only, (c) IL adoption only, (d) IL and CA adoption, (e) DTM adoption only, (f) DTM and CA adoption, (g) DTM and IL adoption, and (h) DTM, IL, and CA adoption. The vector (see Table 1 for a complete list of the variables included in the analysis) contains conditioning variables measuring different household-level demographic, institutional, social, economic and environmental characteristics. Choice of these explanatory covariates was mostly guided by resource endowment, psychometric, cultural theories that link adoption dynamics of climate change management strategies to various socioeconomic, behavioural and cultural factors (Deressa et al., 2009;Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008;Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007). For instance, farmers with better access to resources (knowledge, finance, and labour) are more inclined to adopt new agriculture technologies compared to their relatively resource-poor counterparts. Also, cultural practices, mental abilities and farmer behavioural styles can impact on farmer perceptions regarding technologies and hence influence their adoption."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"Consistent estimation of equation ( 1) requires that the probability of choosing an combination of CSA innovations by any given smallholder farmer be independent from the probability of choosing a different combinationthe well-known assumption of independence from irrelevant alternatives (IIA) (McFadden, 1973). The IIA assumption is formally tested in this study using the Hausman test with a null hypothesis that IIA holds against an alternative hypothesis that the IIA assumption is violated. Given that the coefficient estimates from a MNL model are difficult to interpret and only provide the direction of effect or association of the explanatory variables on the outcome variable but do not represent the actual magnitude of change, marginal effects, which show the magnitude of change in the outcome variable due to a unit change in the explanatory variable (Greene, 2012) are reported. Following Greene (2012), differentiating equation (1) gives the marginal effects of the attributes, on the probabilities, and expressed as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"where, is the marginal effect associated with choosing category , the parameter is the coefficient estimate associated with choice which is calculated through equation (1) and represents the average of the regression coefficients. All the analysis is conducted using Stata's command with the base category chosen as \"no adoption\". The MNL model has been applied in several other studies that explore the factors associated with multiple adoption of farming innovations (see e.g. (Deressa et al., 2009;Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008;Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2007;Tambo and Mockshell, 2018;Teklewold et al., 2013a)). Moreover, the MNL model is relatively easy to apply and is perfectly suited for multi-category, individual-level analysis where there is no specific importance in the ordering of the outcome variable (Deressa et al., 2009;Greene, 2003;Tse, 1987)."}]},{"head":"The impact of multiple CSA innovations on productivity and income","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Second, we examine the impact of adopting multiple CSA technologies on maize productivity and income. The empirical approach to examine the potential relationship abstracts from a random utility framework in which a smallholder farmer adopts a specific CSA innovation or a combination of technologies only if the expected difference between the utility of adoption versus non-adoption is positive (i.e. adoption is better) (Greene, 2012;Heckman et al., 2001). The adoption of CSA technologies is not randomly assigned, and many farmers may decide to adopt or not adopt a technology depending on unobservable characteristics. Also, adopters of certain innovations or combination of innovations may differ systematically with their non-adopting counterparts thereby resulting in potential selfselection bias. The model we estimate addresses these issues to generate more credible estimates of the impact of adoption of CSA innovations on smallholder farmer livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"The basic formulation of the model including some terminologies is adapted from Lechner (2001). To motivate this model, consider the following potential outcomes , faced by a smallholder farmer adopting different and mutually exclusive climate-smart technologies or choices. Each smallholder farmer adopts only one out of the possible choices where the choice represents no adoption (the base category) and represents adoption of all the three strategies as described earlier. Thus, for each smallholder farmer, only one outcome variable is observable in the data and the remaining outcomes represent the counterfactuals. Adoption of a particular climate-smart technology is represented by the variable, as mentioned earlier. Following the potential outcomes approach developed in Rubin (1974), the observed outcome of each smallholder farmer can be summarised or expressed in terms of the multiple treatment indicator and given as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"where represents the potential outcome variables (all expressed in logarithms): cereal and legume productivity, farm income, and total household income of the smallholder farmer;"},{"index":4,"size":174,"text":"is the multiple treatment variable is described earlier; is the treatment dummy variable that takes one if the smallholder farmer adopted CSA strategy and zero otherwise; is a vector of household-level characteristics; and is a disturbance term. Legume productivity is calculated as the amount of legumes dry harvest (in kilograms) divided by total land allocated to legumes (in hectares). The legumes considered in the calculation of legume productivity include common bean (Phaseolous vulgaris), groundnut, soybean, and pigeon pea. Cereal productivity is proxied by maize yield (maize output in kgs divided by the area set aside for maize production). Farm income is the total earnings the farmer received after selling farm produce in a year while total income includes both farm and non-farm income from members within the same household. Equation (3) can further be expressed in terms of a multivariable linear regression equation where livelihood outcomes (i.e. all measured as continuous variables) are both a function of the multiple treatment variable, and the vector, , of pre-treatment smallholder farmerlevel characteristics and expressed as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"In equation ( 4), the logarithm of each outcome variable is regressed on the vector, , separately for each treatment level and the predicted outcome for each smallholder farmer is calculated using the data for those farmers adopting the specific level of CSA technology."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"To generate a consistent and more credible impact of adoption of CSA strategies, the study relies on inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) to control for potential selection bias associated with the multiple adoption decision. The IPWRA estimator simultaneously computes a generalised propensity score (GPS)defined as the conditional probability of receiving a specific treatment given a set of pre-treatment characteristics and computed as follows (Imbens, 2000):"},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"The GPS, is estimated using a MNL model as described earlier and is then used as a weighting function to calculate the average potential outcomes and expressed for each level of treatment as follows (Imbens, 2000):"},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"The expression represents the inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW). As a second step, the outcome model in equation ( 4) is then fitted by a weighted regression for each CSA treatment choice and thereby generating treatment-specific predicted outcomes for each smallholder farmer. The last step encompasses computing the expected means of the treatment-specific predicted outcomes. The average treatment effect can be computed by comparing the computed potential outcome means between arbitrary CSA strategies; for instance, CSA strategy versus strategy , and expressed as follows:"},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"where is the average treatment effect found by comparing CSA strategy versus strategy , is the estimated generalised propensity score and the superscript represents the weighting method (Uysal, 2015). In this study, the average treatment effect on the treated (ATET) sample is reported making the assumption that the conditional independence and overlap assumptions hold (Imbens, 2000;Uysal, 2015). The ATET measures the effect of adopting a particular CSA strategy compared to not adopting a strategy at all. To calculate the ATET, Stata's teffects ipwra command which uses a one-step GMM approach to compute correct standard errors of the ATET that incorporate the calculated generalised propensity score is used (StataCorp, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"3.1.Description of climate-smart agriculture innovations, household characteristics, farm productivity and incomes."}]},{"head":"Adoption rates for the three climate-smart innovations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"Improved legumes (IL) are essential for improving soil fertility (through biological nitrogen fixation) and their drought, disease and pest resistant traits make them well adapted to increased pest and water shortage stress that surge with climate variability and change. CA is important for improving soil fertility, conserving soil moisture and regulation of soil temperature which makes it an important climate stress management strategy for farmers. Also, drought tolerant maize (DTM) is high yielding and it is well-adapted to moisture stress. In Figure 2, adoption rates for the three climate-smart innovations (DTM, CA and IL) individually and in combination are shown. Non-adoption in the full sample was 24.7% with 28.8% and 20.8% in Malawi and Zimbabwe respectively. As for CA, adoption rates were low with 4.5, 3.7, and 4.1% adoption rates in Malawi, Zimbabwe and full study sample respectively. Low adoption rates are also observed for improved legume, only 3.2% in the full sample and 3.8% in Malawi compared to 3.2% in the Zimbabwe sub-sample. Adoption rates of DTM are overwhelmingly high in the studied sample with 34.1, 40.4 and 27.4% adoption rates in full sample, Zimbabwean sample and Malawian sample respectively. Coming to adoption in combination, IL& CA had 5.4 and 4.2% in Malawi and Zimbabwe respectively. Overall, IL & CA adoption was 4.8%. DTM & CA had slightly higher adoption rates with full sample rate at 8.5%, and 10.6 and 6.3% adoption rate in Zimbabwe and Malawi respectively. Also, adoption of DTM&IL had rates of 10.1% in Malawi, 5.3% in Zimbabwe and 7.7% in the whole sample. As for adoption in combinations, implementation of the three innovations was highest, with 12.9% rate in full sample, with 13.5 and 12.3 % adoption rates in Malawi and Zimbabwe respectively."}]},{"head":"Characterization of sampled farmers (socioeconomic characteristics)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Characteristics of studied smallholder farmers are shown in table 1. The sample was dominated by male farmers with 82, 76, and 79% male representation in Malawi, Zimbabwe and entire sample respectively. Most of the respondents were married with marriage rate at 82% in Malawi and 74.4% in Zimbabwe. Farmers in Malawi were relatively young with mean age at 43.1 years compared to 51.4 years in Zimbabwe. Farmers in Zimbabwe were more educated with 48% of farmers sampled with at least secondary education compared to 14% in Malawi. Also, mean household size was slightly higher in Malawi (5.9) compared to 5.4 in Zimbabwe. Related, average labour per household was 3.3 in Malawi compared to 3.2 persons in Zimbabwe. About 96% of the farmers indicated they were into fulltime farming in Malawi compared to 86 in Zimbabwe. Average land size holding owned was slightly higher in Zimbabwe (2.34 ha) as compared to 1.57 ha in Malawi."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Farmers in both countries indicated that legume cultivation was and has been their thing in the past as 94% indicated that they had cultivated legumes before survey date in Malawi compared to 90% in Zimbabwe. Access to extension services in Zimbabwe was higher (61%) as compared to 46% in Malawi. Also, credit access was slightly higher in Malawi (27%) when compared to Zimbabwe (12%). Access to fertilizer was also comparably higher in Malawi (91%) compared to Zimbabwe (87%). In terms of assets, 66% of farmers in Malawi owned bicycles as compared to only 38% in Zimbabwe. Also, cattle ownership was very low in Malawi (9%) compared to 57% in Zimbabwe. Almost 55% of sampled farmers in Malawi indicated the state of the main road to nearby main market was still good compared to 39% in Zimbabwe."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Average distance to the nearest town was about 61 km in Malawi compared to 98 km in Zimbabwe. "}]},{"head":"Cereal and legume productivity and income by CSA innovation adoption","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"Average statistics for cereal productivity, legume productivity and income are shown in table 1. Average cereal productivity in Malawi was about 2.5 tons compared to 1.6 tons in Zimbabwe. Also, legume productivity was about 1.2 tons in Malawi compared to 1.3 tons in Zimbabwe. Average household income was US$619 in Malawi compared to US$608 in Zimbabwe. Also, average farm income in the Zimbabwean sample was US$322 compared to US$444 in Malawi. In figure 3 average statistics for the four outcome variables are shown by CSA adoption regime. Generally, cereal productivity, legume productivity, farm and total household income are comparably higher for combination of CSA innovations adopted compared to no adoption and even adoption of single CSA innovations. For instance, average cereal productivity for farmers who adopted all the CSA innovations (DTM, IL&CA) is highest (2.7tons), average legume productivity for similar adoption regime is also highest (1.7 tons). Similar trends for farm and household income are also observed in figure 3. Farmers who adopted all the three innovations are better off in terms of income streams. For cereal productivity, combination of IL and CA was also very effective as shown by very high mean cereal yield (2.6 tons). No adoption in most cases yielded less in productivity and income for the farmer. Overall, results show that adoption of innovations positively relates to cereal and legume productivity and incomes. More so, adoption of the full package relates to the best dividends for the farmer in terms of cereal, legume productivity and income."}]},{"head":"3.2.Factors affecting adoption of climate-smart agriculture innovations in isolation and in combination","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Results from MNL regression are reported here to tell the determinants of adopting individual and or a suite of CSA innovations (IL, CA & DTM) in combination. Bias in focus is put on interpreting and discussing results on factors that influence multiple adoption of innovations particularly the full set (IL, CA & DTM) as a huge gap still exists in literature on that aspect. The base category used was non-adoption. The Hausman specification test showed that coefficients from the MNL regression results were independent of additional alternatives. Dropping a single alternative at a time was shown not to significantly change coefficients of the MNL regression, the values ranged between 4 & 19 with insignificant p-values at 5% level (showing independence of irrelevant alternatives). Table 2 & 3 report coefficients and marginal effects from MNL regression respectively. Marginal effects (Table 3) are reported and discussed here. They measure the expected change in probability of a certain choice (of a CSA innovation or combination of innovations) being made with respect to a unit change in an explanatory variable. "}]},{"head":"Factors explaining adoption of individual CSA innovations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":295,"text":"In all cases, results are compared to the base category of no-adoption. Results show that adoption of CA is negatively associated with age of farmer, access to inorganic fertilizers, and distance to town and positively associated with land size holding, and access to extension services. Results imply that probability of adopting CA decreases with ageing of farmer possibly due to risk aversion of innovative practices like CA by older farmers. Also access to fertilizers can discourage farmers to adopt CA, since CA itself is part of the soil fertility correction mechanism for smallholder farmers. Also, more distance to market may increase transaction costs of accessing input and output markets and this can discourage CA adoption. The positive association of CA adoption with land size imply that larger plot sizes could be more flexible to experiment with CA. Lastly, positive association of extension could be due to information advantage for farmers with access to it. The factors of CA adoption concur with vast literature see for example, Mazvimavi and Twomlow (2009) and Knowler and Bradshaw (2007). Also, adoption of IL is negatively associated with household size and positively associated with distance to town and central region. Results could be pointing to the fact that adoption of improved legume varieties is less likely in households overburdened by bigger family members to support. More so, results, point to the fact that the central region of Malawi positively enhance chances of adopting IL possibly due to inherent factors unique to the region. Distance to town was found to be positively related to adoption of improved IL varieties this could possibly be due to massive advertising (seed suppliers active at local community level) and availability of community seedbanks that could possibly offset the usual negative influence of distance to town."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Adoption of DTM was positively and significantly associated with married farmers, extension access, credit access, income and being located in Mashonaland east province of Zimbabwe and negatively associated with distance to town and being located in central province of Malawi. Results imply that marriage as an institution is important for adopting DTM and that income and credit enhances probability of adopting DTM. Income or capital access enhances flexibility of the farmer in accessing complementary inputs for DTM. Extension is critically important for availing necessary information on DTM. Also distance to town could decrease probability of adopting DTM due to increasing transaction costs with more distance. Also geographical variables significantly influence probability of adopting DTM because of different geographic specific contexts. For example Mashonaland east province is one of the main maize growing regions in Zimbabwe which could explain positive influence of the district on DTM adoption (Makate et al., 2017b)."}]},{"head":"Factors explaining adoption of a combination of CSA innovations.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Results show discernible differences in factors explaining adopting different pairs of CSA innovations. Adopting IL & CA was positively associated with access to extension and credit and negatively associated with married farmer, having cultivated legumes before, access to fertilizer and residing in Mashonaland east province of Zimbabwe. Access to resources and information chiefly explains the positive association of adopting the pair with access to credit and extension. Access to fertilizer could discourage adoption of the pair (CA & IL) as the pair is good for enhancing soil fertility hence to some extent adoption of the combination could act as a substitute for fertilizer. The negative influence of the marriage institution could be implying that not being married is not a serious constraint for adopting the pair."},{"index":2,"size":266,"text":"Adoption of DTM & CA was found to be positively associated with household size, number of workers, land size, ownership of a bicycle, extension access, and good road condition. The result implies access to labour chiefly increase chances of adopting the pair. Also, larger pieces of land increases chances of adopting the pair possibly due to the increasing returns on CSA innovations with larger farms (Bidogeza et al., 2009). Ownership of bicycle enhances mobility of the farmer which can enhance access to information and inputs from distant markets and hence increases odds of adopting the pair. Good road condition also reduces transaction cost of accessing markets and hence positively associates with adopting the pair. Access to extension chiefly enhances access to information which positively correlates with adoption of the pair (DTM&CA). Adopting DTM and IL was also positively correlated with land size holding, distance to town, and region (Central region). As alluded to earlier, land size can increase economies of scale from innovations which explains the positive association of adopting the pair with land size. Also, increasing participation of local institutions in seed supply for both legumes and maize varieties could explain the positive association of adopting the pair with distance. With easy access of innovations at local level distance will not significantly influence transaction costs that may discourage adoption. Adopting the pair was however, negatively associated with farmer being married. This could imply that among the single headed families (e.g. widowed), the need (propensity) to adopt the pair of innovations to positively influence household welfare could be more as compared to married and stable families."},{"index":3,"size":276,"text":"Coming to adoption of the complete package of DTM, CA, & IL, income, land size, cultivating legumes before, extension, credit, education and access to fertilizer positively explained adoption. The results communicate that when it comes to adopting the full set of innovation, access to resources chiefly matter. Access to information through extension, and access to financial resources through credit, access to fertilizer and household income become critically important for adoption. Fertilizer is a necessary complementary input for adopting the CSA innovations hence access to it enhances the propensity to adopt them. This concur with literature which show the importance of wealth or financial resources in adopting related agricultural innovations (Bidogeza et al., 2009;Deressa et al., 2009;Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008;Makate et al., 2018;Mazvimavi and Twomlow, 2009). Also results show that land size positively associates with propensity to adopt the full-set of innovations. This could be because, with larger land size, farmers can be flexible to experiment with the innovations which eventually increases their chances of fully adopting them. Also, larger land size can enhance economies of scale of adopting the full set. Likewise, and unlike adopting other combinations, education positively explains adopting the full set of CSA innovations. This could be because, knowledge demands increase with number of innovations adopted hence farmer with more education are likely to understand implementation of the innovations and hence get the best out of them. Also, having cultivated legumes before was also critically important in explaining adoption of the full set. Farmers who have cultivated legumes before possibly understand more the benefits of intercropping legumes with cereals (i.e.) and further having CA in that mix and this possibly explains the result."}]},{"head":"3.3.Impact of a package of climate-smart agriculture innovations on productivity and income","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Table 4 displays the results of the doubly robust IPWRA estimator that was adopted to evaluate impact of CSA innovations on productivity and income. Adoption impacts of individual innovations and a combination of innovations are compared to no adoption in all cases i.e. the no adoption group is the control. Results generally show that adoption of a combination of CSA innovations (as opposed to individual innovations) is greatly associated with augmented cereal productivity, legume productivity, farm and household income. The IPWRA estimates show that adopting CA only, DTM & IL and DTM, IL&CA significantly impacted on cereal productivity with ATET coefficients of 0.291, 0.268 and 0.378 respectively. Adoption of the full CSA package had far greater impact on cereal productivity. For legume productivity, the results show a similar trend; CA adoption only had a positive ATET of 0.471, DTM adoption only with a positive ATET of 0.449, DTM & CA with ATET of 0.504, DTM & IL with an ATET coefficient of 0.669 and the full package (DTM, CA& IL) with an ATET coefficient of 0.753 which is far greater than that of other packages."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The results also show that adopting all the CSA packages significantly influenced farm income. Adoption of CA only, IL only, DTM only significantly influenced farm income with ATET coefficients of 1.095, 1.248, and 0.766 respectively. The CSA packages of IL&CA, DTM&CA, and DTM, IL&CA had positive significant with ATET coefficients of 1.682, 1.244, and 1.095 respectively. For farm income IL &CA, and DTM & IL seemed to have greater impact on farm income."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Considering, total household income as the outcome variable, results show that adopting the full CSA package (DTM, CA & IL) had far greater impact as compared to other packages. ATET coefficients for CA only, IL only, IL&CA, DTM&CA, DTM&IL, and DTM, IL, &CA testify the result as they were found to be 0.542, 0.824, 0.661, 0.565, 0.689, and 0.912 respectively."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Largely, the results show significant differential impacts of adopting CSA innovations (CA, DTM&IL) in isolation and in combinations at farm household level. Adopting innovations in combinations seem to benefit the farmers more than as individual packages. The complementarities of the innovations in improving farmer resilience to climate change effects and overcoming other productivity related challenges at the farm level could explain the enhanced impacts of adopting packages in combination. The next sub-section analyses the impact by studied country and gender of farmer."}]},{"head":"Heterogeneities in Impact of climate-smart agriculture innovations on productivity and income","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Adoption impacts by country","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Adoption impacts by country show that in Malawi, adoption of IL only, DTM only, DTM&IL, and all the packages (DTM, CA & IL) significantly influenced cereal productivity whilst adoption of DTM only, and all the packages (DTM, CA & IL) significantly impacted on cereal yield in Zimbabwe. In Malawi, adoption of DTM&IL in combination had the greatest impact on cereal yield whilst in Zimbabwe, adoption of all the CSA packages had the greatest impact on cereal productivity. Further, only adoption of DTM & CA significantly impacted on legume productivity in Malawi, whilst in Zimbabwe, CA only, DTM only, IL&CA, DTM&IL and all (DTM, CA &IL) significantly impacted on legume productivity. In addition, in Malawi, adoption of IL only and all the packages (DT, CA, &IL) significantly impacted on farm income, whilst in Zimbabwe, the individual and combination of CSA innovations positively and significantly impacted on farm income. Also, in Malawi adoption of IL only, DTM&CA, DTM&IL and all the packages in combination (IL, CA, &DTM) significantly impacted on total household income, whilst in Zimbabwe, CA only, IL only, DTM&IL, and DTM, CA&IL combination, all significantly impacted on total household income."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Results continue to endorse the importance of CSA innovations on productivity and income and the enhanced impact of different combination of the innovations on productivity and income in both countries."}]},{"head":"Adoption impacts by gender of farmer","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Assessing the impact of differentiated CSA innovations adoption impacts by gender of farmer results portray that CSA innovations particularly in combinations enhance productivity and income irrespective of gender of farmer. In the male sub-sample, adoption of CA only and IL only, DTM&IL and DTM, CA&IL had a positive and significant impact on cereal productivity, whilst in the female sub-sample CA only, IL&CA, and all the CSA innovations (CA, DTM & IL) had a positive and significant impact on cereal productivity. Also, adoption of CA only, DTM only, DTM & IL, and all the innovations (DTM, CA& IL) significantly impacted on legume productivity in the male sub-sample, whilst adopting all the innovations (DTM, CA&IL) in combination significantly impacted on legume productivity in the female sub-sample. Further, all CSA treatment categories significantly impacted on farm income in the male sub-sample whilst adopting only CA only, IL&CA and all (CSA, DTM&IL) significantly impacted on farm income in the female-sub-sample. Also, adopting IL&CA in combination, and adopting all the three innovations (DTM, CA, IL) simultaneously significantly impacted on total household income in the female sub-sample whilst in the male sub-sample, adopting CA only, IL&CA, DTM &IL and adopting all the innovations (IL, CA&DTM) at once significantly impacted on total household income. Still, results show the differential impacts of adopting CSA innovations individually and in combination and enhanced impact of adopting them in combination irrespective of gender of farmer."}]},{"head":"Overall discussion: impact of CSA innovations","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"Overall, results point to the importance of CSA innovations at farmer level in building resilience to climate change and other productivity related challenges on the farm. Adoption of CSA innovations reduces the impacts of climate change on crop productivity and farmer incomes. The benefits of CSA innovations are greater when complementary CSA innovations like improved legume, drought tolerant maize and conservation agriculture are adopted in various combinations. The enhanced impact of adopting the innovations possibly arise, due to the combined effect on improving soil nutrient use, soil moisture retention, fertility and adaptation of legume and cereal crops to moisture, pests and diseases stress. Results conform to emerging literature that has shown adoption of agricultural technologies in combination to have an enhanced impact on productivity, income and other welfare related variables (Khonje et al., 2018;Makate et al., 2017a;Tambo and Mockshell, 2018;Teklewold et al., 2013b;Wainaina et al., 2017). For instance, Khonje et al. (2018) found joint adoption of multiple agriculture technologies to have greater impacts on crop yields, household income and poverty than adopting individual components. Also, (Teklewold et al. (2013b); Wainaina et al. (2017)) and Makate et al. (2017a) found sustainable agricultural practices to yield greater impacts on productivity and income in smallholder farming. More so, adopting conservation agriculture packages in combination were found to yield greater impacts on income in a study by Tambo and Mockshell (2018). Almost similar trends were observed by farmer country of residence and by gender which further confirm the importance of adopting CSA innovations in combination for greater productivity and income."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"The research and development community concerned with welfare of smallholder farmers in developing countries has found increased promotion of CSA innovations vital in a bid to improve climate resilience. Adopting improved legume and cereal crop varieties resistant to drought, pest and diseases and conservation farming are some of the approaches highly promoted in smallholder farming in southern Africa. Improved legume varieties are highly important for soil nutrition management, stress (moisture, heat, disease & pest) management, while drought tolerant maize varieties are highly important for water stress management (drought) among other benefits. Conservation agriculture is also highly important for improved soil fertility, soil temperature regulation, soil moisture management among other benefits. In combination, conservation farming, and adoption of improved legume and drought tolerant maize varieties can have enhanced impacts on farm yields, income and farmer welfare. However, adopting more than one of the innovations for the smallholder farmer can demand extra resources for the smallholder farmer which is often a huge constrain for the low-resourced smallholder farmers in southern Africa. This study therefore evaluates the adoption and impact dynamics of adoption of conservation agriculture, drought tolerant maize varieties and improved legumes individually and in combination in two southern African countries Malawi and Zimbabwe. Determinants of individual and combined implementation of the three innovations and their differential impacts on crop productivity and income are studied."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"The study outcomes have shown multiple adoption of improved legume, conservation agriculture and drought tolerant maize in combination to be essentially explained by access to resources (fertilizer, income, credit and information (through extension). education and land size holding. Greater access to resources enhances multiple adoptions of the climate-smart innovations. Also, the CSA innovations impact positively on crop productivity and income both individually and in combination. However, impacts are evidently greater for adopting innovations in combination than individually. Results were however, not 100% uniform across different geographical and gender contexts which highlight the importance of adhering to local specific contexts and addressing female farmer constraints when promoting adoption of multiple CSA innovations in smallholder farming. In conclusion, farmers are better off if they adopt beneficial synergistic CSA innovations such as drought tolerant maize, improved legume varieties and conservation agriculture in combination as they offer superior benefits towards adapting agriculture to climate variability and change. Also, better resourced farmers have a distinct advantage in adopting such multiple CSA innovations."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Results suggest for enhanced institutional and policy efforts towards reducing constraints of adopting multiple CSA innovations in smallholder farming. Access to financial resources, education, adequate land, and effective extension services can potentially assist farmers in building resilience to climate variability and change through multiple adoptions of conservation agriculture, improved legume and drought tolerant maize. In other words, for building adequate resilience of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change through multiple adoption of beneficial CSA innovations, governments and private sector should work tirelessly to improve farmer education and access to key resources (land, finance, extension, labour etc.). Improving the resource base for farmers will significantly enhance their propensity to adopt multiple CSA innovations. However, promotion of innovations and dealing with constraints of adoption must be local context specific, and gender sensitive for maximum impact."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The study is not without limitations. Relying on cross-sectional household level data did not allow the analysis to capture adoption and impact dynamics of CSA innovations through time. Also, relying on improved legume, CA and drought tolerant maize as only CSA innovations limited climate adaptation options embraced by other farmers. Adaptation is very much local context specific and in practice farmers can adopt more than the three CSA innovations. Despite the noted limitations, the study makes significant contribution to literature on climate change adaptation in smallholder agriculture as CA, drought tolerant maize and improved legumes are highly important innovations promoted for farmers in southern Africa to cope with climate change and variability effects."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map showing studied countries and respective regions covered in data collection "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: The adoption rates of climate-smart agriculture practices considered in the study for Malawi, Zimbabwe, and overall sample. Notes: CSA adoption categories: 1=no adoption; 2=Conservation agriculture (CA); 3=Improved legume (IL); 4=IL and CA; 5= Drought tolerant maize (DTM); 6=DTM and CA; 7=DTM and IL; 8=DTM, IL, and CA. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Distribution of smallholder productivity and income by CSA innovation adoption regimes. The abbreviations for the CSA innovations has been provided earlier. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Summary statistics of analysis variables by Country Variable description and measurement Malawi Zimbabwe Overall Variable description and measurement Malawi Zimbabwe Overall sample sample Variable mean mean mean Variablemeanmeanmean househ_male Binary variable =1 if farmer is male; 0 0.820 0.757 0.788 househ_maleBinary variable =1 if farmer is male; 00.8200.7570.788 otherwise otherwise househ_married Binary variable =1 if farmer is 0.820 0.744 0.781 househ_marriedBinary variable =1 if farmer is0.8200.7440.781 married; 0 otherwise married; 0 otherwise househ_age Age of household head in years 43.135 51.420 47.376 househ_ageAge of household head in years43.13551.42047.376 househ_size Household size 5.867 5.384 5.620 househ_sizeHousehold size5.8675.3845.620 workers Number of workers available to work 3.274 3.195 3.234 workersNumber of workers available to work3.2743.1953.234 in the field in the field emp_farmer Binary variable =1 if household head 0.955 0.864 0.908 emp_farmerBinary variable =1 if household head0.9550.8640.908 is a full-time farmer; 0 otherwise is a full-time farmer; 0 otherwise landsize Land size holding 1.570 2.344 1.967 landsizeLand size holding1.5702.3441.967 cultivt_legms_p Binary variable =1 if farmer 0.942 0.897 0.919 cultivt_legms_pBinary variable =1 if farmer0.9420.8970.919 rev cultivated legumes before; 0 revcultivated legumes before; 0 otherwise otherwise Ext_acc Binary variable =1 if household's has 0.463 0.612 0.540 Ext_accBinary variable =1 if household's has0.4630.6120.540 had contact with extension; 0 had contact with extension; 0 otherwise otherwise credit_acc Binary variable =1 if farmer has 0.269 0.118 0.192 credit_accBinary variable =1 if farmer has0.2690.1180.192 access to credit; 0 otherwise access to credit; 0 otherwise Fertilizer Binary variable =1 if farmer has had 0.913 0.865 0.888 FertilizerBinary variable =1 if farmer has had0.9130.8650.888 access to inorganic fertilizer; 0 access to inorganic fertilizer; 0 otherwise otherwise Atleast_sec Binary variable =1 if farmer had 0.138 0.478 0.312 Atleast_secBinary variable =1 if farmer had0.1380.4780.312 attained at least secondary education; attained at least secondary education; 0 otherwise 0 otherwise Bicycle Binary variable =1 if farmer owned a 0.663 0.376 0.516 BicycleBinary variable =1 if farmer owned a0.6630.3760.516 bicycle; 0 otherwise bicycle; 0 otherwise Cattle Binary variable =1 if farmer owned 0.093 0.571 0.338 CattleBinary variable =1 if farmer owned0.0930.5710.338 cattle; 0 otherwise cattle; 0 otherwise Good_RdCond Binary variable =1 if farmer's road to 0.554 0.393 0.471 Good_RdCondBinary variable =1 if farmer's road to0.5540.3930.471 the nearest market was in good the nearest market was in good condition; 0 otherwise condition; 0 otherwise dist_twn Distance to the nearest town in 61.268 97.796 79.984 dist_twnDistance to the nearest town in61.26897.79679.984 kilometers kilometers Cereal_pdctv Cereal productivity in kg per hectare 2450.923 1589.324 2009.473 Cereal_pdctvCereal productivity in kg per hectare 2450.923 1589.324 2009.473 Leg_pdctv Legume productivity in kg per hectare 1178.213 1320.888 1251.314 Leg_pdctvLegume productivity in kg per hectare 1178.213 1320.888 1251.314 Total_inc Total yearly household income in 618.950 607.499 613.083 Total_incTotal yearly household income in618.950607.499613.083 USD USD Farm_inc Total yearly farm income in USD 444.248 322.147 381.688 Farm_incTotal yearly farm income in USD444.248322.147381.688 N 572 601 1173 N5726011173 Data Source: Data for this study comes from smallholder farming households from Data Source: Data for this study comes from smallholder farming households from Zimbabwe and Malawi Zimbabwe and Malawi "},{"text":"Table 2 : Multinomial logit regression Coefficients VARIABLES DTM,IL & VARIABLESDTM,IL & CA IL IL & CA DTM DTM & CA DTM & IL CA CAILIL & CADTMDTM & CA DTM & ILCA househ_male 0.159 0.477 1.110* -0.0153 -0.172 0.316 0.504 househ_male0.1590.4771.110* -0.0153-0.1720.3160.504 (0.779) (0.793) (0.662) (0.350) (0.607) (0.576) (0.538) (0.779) (0.793) (0.662) (0.350)(0.607)(0.576)(0.538) househ_marrie -0.521 -0.0446 -1.072* 0.466 0.105 -0.819 -0.255 househ_marrie-0.521 -0.0446 -1.072*0.4660.105-0.819-0.255 d d (0.760) (0.773) (0.618) (0.358) (0.611) (0.569) (0.521) (0.760) (0.773) (0.618) (0.358)(0.611)(0.569)(0.521) Log_Total_inc 0.0533 0.228 0.0726 0.0470 0.0127 0.0668 0.191** Log_Total_inc 0.05330.2280.07260.04700.01270.06680.191** (0.122) (0.146) (0.113) (0.0485) (0.0754) (0.0928) (0.0822) (0.122) (0.146) (0.113) (0.0485) (0.0754) (0.0928) (0.0822) househ_size 0.0842 - -0.132 -0.0423 0.132** 0.00383 -0.0102 househ_size0.0842--0.132-0.0423 0.132** 0.00383-0.0102 0.256** 0.256** (0.0891) (0.120) (0.0950) (0.0473) (0.0648) (0.0728) (0.0628) (0.0891) (0.120) (0.0950) (0.0473) (0.0648) (0.0728) (0.0628) househ_age - - -0.00904 - -0.0164 -0.00810 -0.000837 househ_age---0.00904--0.0164 -0.00810 -0.000837 0.0371* 0.00772 0.00075 0.0371*0.007720.00075 * 2 *2 (0.0153) (0.0140) (0.0127) (0.00632 (0.0105) (0.0106) (0.00894) (0.0153) (0.0140) (0.0127) (0.00632(0.0105) (0.0106) (0.00894) ) ) workers -0.0521 0.0864 0.127 0.0400 0.141 0.0268 0.0388 workers-0.0521 0.08640.1270.04000.1410.02680.0388 (0.145) (0.170) (0.140) (0.0715) (0.106) (0.111) (0.0953) (0.145) (0.170) (0.140) (0.0715) (0.106)(0.111)(0.0953) landsize 0.474** 0.169 0.347*** 0.185** 0.372*** 0.386*** 0.362*** landsize0.474**0.169 0.347*** 0.185** 0.372*** 0.386*** 0.362*** * * (0.0962) (0.173) (0.118) (0.0886) (0.0964) (0.0972) (0.0942) (0.0962) (0.173) (0.118) (0.0886) (0.0964) (0.0972) (0.0942) emp_farmer -0.218 -0.182 -0.226 -0.00879 0.385 0.00679 0.0203 emp_farmer-0.218 -0.182-0.226 -0.008790.3850.006790.0203 (0.612) (0.613) (0.550) (0.291) (0.479) (0.505) (0.408) (0.612) (0.613) (0.550) (0.291)(0.479)(0.505)(0.408) cultivt_legms_ 0.389 0.285 -0.0636 0.482* 1.823** 1.104* 1.541*** cultivt_legms_0.3890.285-0.0636 0.482*1.823**1.104*1.541*** prev prev (0.653) (0.656) (0.525) (0.267) (0.759) (0.631) (0.571) (0.653) (0.656) (0.525) (0.267)(0.759)(0.631)(0.571) Ext_acc 2.033** 1.286** 2.109*** 0.180 1.762*** 1.161*** 1.996*** Ext_acc2.033** 1.286** 2.109*** 0.1801.762*** 1.161*** 1.996*** "},{"text":"Table 3 : Factor affecting multiple adoption CSA practices in Zimbabwe and Malawi Marginal effects Marginal effects IL & DTM & DTM DTM,IL IL &DTM &DTMDTM,IL CA IL CA DTM CA & IL & CA CAILCADTMCA& IL& CA househ_male -0.000 0.009 0.039 -0.039 -0.029 0.011 0.036 househ_male-0.0000.0090.039-0.039-0.0290.0110.036 (0.027) (0.023) (0.025) (0.060) (0.040) (0.035) (0.047) (0.027) (0.023) (0.025) (0.060) (0.040) (0.035) (0.047) househ_married -0.018 0.001 -0.042 * 0.132 ** 0.013 -0.057 * -0.019 househ_married-0.0180.001-0.042 * 0.132 **0.013-0.057 * -0.019 (0.026) (0.022) (0.023) (0.060) (0.039) (0.035) (0.044) (0.026) (0.022) (0.023) (0.060) (0.039) (0.035) (0.044) Log_Total_inc 0.001 0.006 0.001 0.021 *** -0.002 0.002 0.018 ** Log_Total_inc0.0010.0060.0010.021 *** -0.0020.0020.018 ** (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.008) (0.005) (0.006) (0.007) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.008) (0.005) (0.006) (0.007) househ_size 0.004 - -0.005 -0.009 0.012 *** 0.001 0.000 househ_size0.004--0.005-0.009 0.012 *** 0.0010.000 0.008 ** 0.008 ** (0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.008) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.008) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) househ_age -0.001 ** -0.000 -0.000 0.001 -0.001 -0.000 0.001 househ_age-0.001 ** -0.000-0.0000.001-0.001-0.0000.001 (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) workers -0.002 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.013 * 0.001 0.003 workers-0.0020.0020.0050.0080.013 *0.0010.003 (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.011) (0.007) (0.007) (0.008) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.011) (0.007) (0.007) (0.008) landsize 0.009 *** -0.002 0.004 -0.003 0.010 *** 0.012 ** 0.013 *** landsize0.009 ***-0.0020.004-0.003 0.010 *** 0.012 **0.013 *** * * ** (0.002) (0.005) (0.004) (0.011) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.002) (0.005) (0.004) (0.011) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) emp_farmer -0.009 -0.006 -0.010 -0.006 0.030 -0.000 0.001 emp_farmer-0.009-0.006-0.010-0.0060.030-0.0000.001 (0.021) (0.018) (0.021) (0.047) (0.031) (0.032) (0.035) (0.021) (0.018) (0.021) (0.047) (0.031) (0.032) (0.035) cultivt_legms_pre -0.014 -0.011 -0.036 * -0.032 0.087 0.031 0.096 * cultivt_legms_pre-0.014-0.011 -0.036 *-0.0320.0870.0310.096 * v v (0.023) (0.019) (0.020) (0.051) (0.054) (0.042) (0.055) (0.023) (0.019) (0.020) (0.051) (0.054) (0.042) (0.055) Ext_acc 0.041 *** 0.013 0.047 *** 0.155 *** 0.063 *** 0.018 0.117 *** Ext_acc0.041 *** 0.013 0.047 *** 0.155 ***0.063 ***0.018 0.117 *** * * * *** (0.014) (0.010) (0.016) (0.026) (0.019) (0.015) (0.023) (0.014) (0.010) (0.016) (0.026) (0.019) (0.015) (0.023) credit_acc -0.024 -0.010 0.062 *** 0.091 ** -0.008 -0.003 0.067 *** credit_acc-0.024-0.010 0.062 ***0.091 **-0.008-0.003 0.067 *** * * (0.015) (0.013) (0.013) (0.039) (0.020) (0.019) (0.021) (0.015) (0.013) (0.013) (0.039) (0.020) (0.019) (0.021) Atleast_sec -0.009 0.004 0.007 -0.016 -0.001 0.009 0.043 * Atleast_sec-0.0090.0040.007-0.016-0.0010.0090.043 * (0.015) (0.014) (0.016) (0.033) (0.020) (0.020) (0.024) (0.015) (0.014) (0.016) (0.033) (0.020) (0.020) (0.024) Bicycle 0.018 -0.015 -0.020 0.043 0.044 ** 0.008 -0.025 Bicycle0.018-0.015-0.0200.0430.044 **0.008-0.025 (0.013) (0.012) (0.014) (0.029) (0.018) (0.018) (0.021) (0.013) (0.012) (0.014) (0.029) (0.018) (0.018) (0.021) Cattle -0.001 0.019 0.026 -0.020 0.010 -0.032 0.018 Cattle-0.0010.0190.026-0.0200.010-0.0320.018 (0.015) (0.014) (0.016) (0.034) (0.019) (0.022) (0.024) (0.015) (0.014) (0.016) (0.034) (0.019) (0.022) (0.024) Good_RdCond 0.013 0.006 0.009 -0.044 0.027 * 0.003 0.021 Good_RdCond0.0130.0060.009-0.0440.027 *0.0030.021 (0.012) (0.011) (0.012) (0.027) (0.016) (0.016) (0.019) (0.012) (0.011) (0.012) (0.027) (0.016) (0.016) (0.019) log_dist - 0.024 ** 0.009 - 0.002 0.021 ** -0.013 log_dist-0.024 **0.009-0.0020.021 ** -0.013 0.016 *** * 0.035 *** 0.016 ****0.035 *** (0.005) (0.009) (0.008) (0.013) (0.009) (0.010) (0.010) (0.005) (0.009) (0.008) (0.013) (0.009) (0.010) (0.010) Fertilizer - -0.010 -0.040 ** 0.076 0.028 0.034 0.081 * Fertilizer--0.010 -0.040 **0.0760.0280.0340.081 * 0.049 *** 0.049 *** (0.015) (0.016) (0.017) (0.046) (0.033) (0.033) (0.042) (0.015) (0.016) (0.017) (0.046) (0.033) (0.033) (0.042) "},{"text":"Table 4 : Impact of CSA innovations on productivity & income VARIABLES Cereal Legume Farm income Household VARIABLESCerealLegumeFarm incomeHousehold productivity productivity income productivityproductivityincome CA vs No adoption 0.291** 0.471* 1.095** 0.542** CA vs No adoption0.291**0.471*1.095**0.542** (0.148) (0.241) (0.427) (0.212) (0.148)(0.241)(0.427)(0.212) IL vs No adoption -0.256 0.0566 1.248* 0.824*** IL vs No adoption-0.2560.05661.248*0.824*** (0.543) (0.318) (0.680) (0.308) (0.543)(0.318)(0.680)(0.308) IL & CA vs No adoption 0.304 0.376 1.682*** 0.661*** IL & CA vs No adoption0.3040.3761.682***0.661*** (0.213) (0.307) (0.442) (0.239) (0.213)(0.307)(0.442)(0.239) DTM vs No adoption 0.103 0.449** 0.766** 0.146 DTM vs No adoption0.1030.449**0.766**0.146 (0.151) (0.219) (0.320) (0.198) (0.151)(0.219)(0.320)(0.198) DTM & CA vs No adoption 0.0918 0.504** 1.244*** 0.565*** DTM & CA vs No adoption0.09180.504**1.244***0.565*** (0.194) (0.256) (0.355) (0.215) (0.194)(0.256)(0.355)(0.215) DTM & IL vs No adoption 0.268* 0.669** 1.628*** 0.689*** DTM & IL vs No adoption0.268*0.669**1.628***0.689*** (0.159) (0.266) (0.471) (0.259) (0.159)(0.266)(0.471)(0.259) DTM ,IL & CA 0.378** 0.753*** 1.095** 0.912*** DTM ,IL & CA0.378**0.753***1.095**0.912*** (0.162) (0.224) (0.427) (0.199) (0.162)(0.224)(0.427)(0.199) POMean 7.165*** 6.071*** 3.712*** 5.360*** POMean7.165***6.071***3.712***5.360*** (0.119) (0.185) (0.325) (0.163) (0.119)(0.185)(0.325)(0.163) Observations 1,172 1,172 1,172 1,172 Observations1,1721,1721,1721,172 Notes: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1; CA=Conservation Notes: Standard errors in parentheses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1; CA=Conservation agriculture; IL=improved legume; DTM=Drought tolerant maize; outcome variables are all in agriculture; IL=improved legume; DTM=Drought tolerant maize; outcome variables are all in logarithm form. logarithm form. "},{"text":"Table 5 : Impact of treatment on productivity & income by country Malawi Zimbabwe MalawiZimbabwe Cereal Legume Farm Househ Cereal Legume Farm Househ CerealLegumeFarmHousehCerealLegumeFarmHouseh productiv productiv incom old productiv productiv incom old productivproductivincomoldproductivproductivincomold ity ity e income ity ity e income ityityeincomeityityeincome ATET ATET CA vs 0.423 -0.234 - 0.138 0.325 1.339 *** 2.278 0.799 ** CA vs0.423-0.234-0.1380.3251.339 *** 2.2780.799 ** No 0.328 *** No0.328*** adopti adopti on on (0.322) (0.244) (0.46 (0.229) (0.265) (0.374) (0.60 (0.367) (0.322)(0.244)(0.46(0.229)(0.265)(0.374)(0.60(0.367) 4) 6) 4)6) IL vs 0.603 * -0.214 1.407 0.661 ** -0.321 -0.439 3.131 1.539 *** IL vs0.603 *-0.2141.4070.661 **-0.321-0.4393.1311.539 *** No *** ** No***** adopti adopti on on (0.341) (0.318) (0.45 (0.307) (0.822) (1.028) (1.22 (0.566) (0.341)(0.318)(0.45(0.307)(0.822)(1.028)(1.22(0.566) 4) 2) 4)2) IL & 0.424 -0.244 - 0.087 0.230 1.278 ** 2.668 0.569 IL &0.424-0.244-0.0870.2301.278 **2.6680.569 "},{"text":"Table 6 : Impact of multiple treatment by Gender Male Female MaleFemale Cereal Legume Farm Househ Cereal Legume Farm Househ CerealLegumeFarmHousehCerealLegumeFarmHouseh producti producti incom old producti producti incom old productiproductiincomoldproductiproductiincomold vity vity e income vity vity e income vityvityeincomevityvityeincome Treatme Treatme nts nts CA vs 0.285 * 0.629 ** 1.050 0.535 ** 0.625 * 0.440 0.825 0.460 CA vs0.285 *0.629 ** 1.0500.535 **0.625 *0.4400.8250.460 No ** * No*** adoptio adoptio n n (0.170) (0.277) (0.43 (0.246) (0.362) (0.446) (0.46 (0.416) (0.170)(0.277)(0.43(0.246)(0.362)(0.446)(0.46(0.416) 8) 6) 8)6) IL vs 0.420 ** 0.015 1.882 1.083 *** -0.942 0.271 - 0.443 IL vs0.420 **0.0151.8821.083 ***-0.9420.271-0.443 No *** 0.590 No***0.590 adoptio adoptio n n (0.207) (0.516) (0.49 (0.321) (1.525) (0.477) (1.55 (0.488) (0.207)(0.516)(0.49(0.321)(1.525)(0.477)(1.55(0.488) 1) 6) 1)6) IL & 0.193 0.491 1.346 0.548 ** 0.929 ** 1.212 2.427 1.542 *** IL &0.1930.4911.3460.548 **0.929 **1.2122.4271.542 *** CA vs *** *** CA vs****** No No adoptio adoptio n n (0.266) (0.308) (0.41 (0.261) (0.440) (0.961) (0.57 (0.500) (0.266)(0.308)(0.41(0.261)(0.440)(0.961)(0.57(0.500) 3) 8) 3)8) DTM vs 0.036 0.694 *** 0.551 -0.031 0.165 0.243 - DTM vs0.0360.694 *** 0.551-0.0310.1650.243- No * 0.137 No*0.137 "}],"sieverID":"860005d3-06d0-4ea9-93c6-8965cbebd457","abstract":"Increasing resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change through multiple adoption of proven climate-smart agriculture innovations. Lessons from Southern Africa The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

data/part_3/0109b873f036961294ad2ceaaa1cf583.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0109b873f036961294ad2ceaaa1cf583","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61e182fc-c407-402e-a3ec-9a436d7bed24/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Livestock and Fish (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) Presentation (30 min","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Agenda Details for Focus Groups June 27 Plenary Session 8:30 -10:30 -Partnerships, Boundary Work and Impact Pathways Discussion -Partnerships, Boundary Work and Impact Pathways Discussion Discussion Discussion 12:00 -12:30 Lunch 12:00 -12:30 Lunch 12:30 -14:00 Lunch 12:30 -14:00Lunch 12:30 -14:30 Continue Discussion Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 12:30 -14:30 Continue Discussion Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 14:00 -17:00 Roots, Tubers and Bananas (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 14:00 -17:00Roots, Tubers and Bananas (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) Presentation (30 min) 14:30 -17:30 Drylands Cereals (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) Presentation (30 min) 14:30 -17:30 Drylands Cereals (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) Presentation (30 min) -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) Presentation (30 min) -Flagship projects -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) -Flagship projects -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) -Partnerships -Flagship projects -Partnerships -Flagship projects - -Regional collaborations --Regional collaborations -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Regional collaborations -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Regional collaborations Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Budget Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Budget Discussion -Budget Presentation (30 min) Discussion -BudgetPresentation (30 min) Discussion Discussion DiscussionDiscussion 11:00-19:00 -21:00 Donors & Stakeholder Presentations & Feedback Discussion Group Dinner 12:00- Lunch 11:00-19:00 -21:00 Donors & Stakeholder Presentations & Feedback Discussion Group Dinner12:00-Lunch 12:30 17:30 - Close 12:30 12:30 17:30 -Close12:30 12:30- Lunch 12:30- Continue Discussion Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners 12:30-Lunch12:30-Continue Discussion Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners 14:00 June 28 14:30 and stakeholders) 14:00 June 2814:30and stakeholders) 14:00- RTB (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 14:30- Dryland Cereals (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 14:00-RTB (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders)14:30-Dryland Cereals (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) 17:00 Discussion 17:30 Discussion 17:00Discussion17:30Discussion 19:00-8:00 -11:00 Livestock and Fish (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) Group Dinner 17:30 Close 19:00-8:00 -11:00 Livestock and Fish (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) Group Dinner 17:30 Close 21:00 Presentation (30 min) 21:00Presentation (30 min) -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) -Flagship projects -Flagship projects -Partnerships -Partnerships -Regional collaborations -Regional collaborations -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Budget -Budget Discussion Discussion CRPs Presentations (10 min) Followed by Discussion (20 min) CRPs Presentations (10 min) Followed by Discussion (20 min) -Contribution to Common IDOs 11:00 -12:00 Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) -Contribution to Common IDOs 11:00 -12:00 Grain Legumes (closed session with investors, partners and stakeholders) -Regional Collaborations Presentation (30 min) -Regional Collaborations Presentation (30 min) -Partnerships -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) -Partnerships -Intermediate development outcomes (IDOs), Impact Pathways (IPs) and Theories of Change (ToCs) Discussion -Flagship projects Discussion -Flagship projects -Partnerships -Partnerships 10:30 -11:00 Coffee Break -Regional collaborations 10:30 -11:00Coffee Break -Regional collaborations 11:00 -12:30 Donors & Stakeholder Presentations & Feedback Followed by Discussion -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. 11:00 -12:30Donors & Stakeholder Presentations & Feedback Followed by Discussion -Phased work plan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023. -Donor Investment Priorities -Budget -Donor Investment Priorities -Budget "}],"sieverID":"70f97c3a-7ba3-498f-88c1-9ae3e6c67ae4","abstract":""}

data/part_3/010b944c64f51ff5aa0e5454415cdfa3.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"010b944c64f51ff5aa0e5454415cdfa3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00cf4529-9534-4aa6-afe3-ca21c6bf03d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Activity report: Livestock Genetics Flagship exposure farm visit and buck selection exercise by project beneficiaries from Turkana County Regional Pastoral Livelihoods Resilience Project (RPLRP)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s)."}]},{"head":"NOTICE:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"For any reuse or distribution, the licence terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Editing, design and layout-ILRI Editorial and Publishing Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Photo credit: Anne Muigai/JKUAT. Citation: Ojango, J.M.K., Gitau, J., Gachora, J., Muigai, A., Muliuki, R. and Eyanae, G. 2021 "}]},{"head":"Project background","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in partnership with the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives (MALFC) contributes to the World Bank-supported Regional Pastoral Livelihoods Resilience Project (RPLRP-Kenya) whose objective is to enhance livelihoods and resilience of pastoral and agropastoral communities in cross-border drought prone areas. The ILRI livestock genetics team is contributing to improving livestock productivity in Turkana, Isiolo and Marsabit counties through herd management and communitybased breeding in order to:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Build capacity within pastoral communities to maintain the genetic diversity of indigenous livestock while improving their productivity."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Promote behaviour change and reorient the pastoralists' mindset to more commercial livestock production."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Interventions are focused on sheep and goat production in pastoral communities as they play an integral role in supporting sustainable livelihoods and food security for livestock keepers living in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). Sheep and goats are also easier for women to acquire, own and manage."}]},{"head":"Community-based interventions in Turkana County","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Turkana County hosts large numbers of sheep and goats and has prioritized their productivity in the pastoral communities as a means of improving livelihoods. Through engagements with livestock keepers in 'core innovation community groups' (CIG) in the two sites, Napeikar and Kapua, previously selected as outlined in Oyieng et al."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"(2021) 1 , it was evident that over the years the growth rate and mature size of sheep and goats in pastoralists flocks has greatly declined. This results in very low off-take rates as due to the small size of animals, the price offered for mature animals in markets is low."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"The baseline evaluation of the flocks in Napeikar and Kapua (Oyieng et al. 2021) showed that the sheep and goats have been adversely affected by 'negative selection' whereby faster growing animals are taken to markets for sale, and long-term inbreeding occurs as both male and female animals are left to graze in close proximity in the open pastures. Following community training activities 2 and interactive engagements between the CIG, the County Livestock Department and the project team over two years, it was determined that the livestock populations required a 'genetic boost' through introducing better performing indigenous livestock from an unrelated population within Kenya. With the resources available through the RPLRP project, it was collaboratively determined that improved Galla bucks would be sourced and provided for the CIG members."},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"Community focus group discussions were held involving CIG members, the county livestock office and the RPLRP project team members implementing breeding improvement from ILRI and MALFC. The discussions focused on options for types of animals to be introduced, resources available for sourcing new animals, and priorities in sharing the new animals to be purchased. The community meetings were critical to manage expectations of the communities, and to ensure equity in sharing the improved genetic resources. The CIG members also organized for group discussions under the stewardship of community elders and the county livestock office. Collaboratively, CIG members agreed to share new breeding animals among villages in a manner that members from the different communities would have access to improved bucks for mating their animals in a coordinated manner. Minutes from the community meetings were signed and retained at the county livestock office for accountability in case of future challenges in sharing improved breeding animals. Additionally, the CIG members nominated two representatives, one man and one woman, from each project site to travel with the county veterinary doctor, the livestock extension officer and the community elder in order to participate in buck selection. The county veterinary doctor played a critical role in providing technical advice on select bucks and animal health inspection and screening."}]},{"head":"Sourcing of breeding bucks for CIG","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"In sourcing for improved animals, the project team noted that care should be taken to ensure the animals were reared by registered goat breeders in the country. The animals were to be between 1 and 2 years of age, with good conformation for growth and free of physical defects and diseases. Additionally, animals were to be vaccinated against pox, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), peste de petits ruminants (PPR) and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), and all protocols for animal movement across the country were to be implemented. It was evident that livestock keepers registered as breeders of pure-bred Galla goats are very few in Kenya. The project team thus engaged a registered livestock business consultant to source and purchase improved Galla bucks with the desired characteristics through MALFC. A total of 42 Galla bucks were purchased for distribution to the CIG."}]},{"head":"Farmer to farmer learning activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The National Small Ruminant Breeding Station -Naivasha"}]},{"head":"Animal handling and physical evaluation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"In line with guidelines provided in the second module on best practices for selective breeding for improved livestock productivity, a practical demonstration was provided for the CIG members on what is critical for them to inspect when evaluating a breeding animal. Information was presented to the CIG representatives on critical attributes in good breeding bucks, and routine management practices required to retain their good health and libido for breeding. Physical examination of the animals involved:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Palpation of the testicles and the tail end of the epididymis. The size of the testicles relates to the ability of the buck to produce larger quantities of quality sperm."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Visual appraisal of feet, legs and eyes to check for any lameness and evidence of foot rot or foot scald."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Body condition of the buck was done by handling the buck across the top and along the ribs."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"The buck should have some extra condition or fat reserves, but not be overly fat."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Age determination by dentition to ensure the select bucks are below two years."}]},{"head":"Tagging and recording of body measurements","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Individual animal identification enables producers to record physical features, pedigree details, critical dates of events on their animals. Identification is also important for ownership."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Picture 1. Improved Galla bucks purchased for CIG in Turkana County (photo by Muigai A. JKUAT)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The 42 bucks purchased were tagged and inspected by the representative CIG members and the county veterinary doctor."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Picture 2: Tagging and recording details of select bucks (photo by Gitau J/ILRI)."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Learning from large-scale livestock production farms in semi-arid environments Learning visits were organized to the Marula and KALRO farms in Naivasha. The team from Turkana County was given a tour of the two farms and introduced to different management practices adopted for various livestock species."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Training was also provided on management of different age categories by farm personnel."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Picture 3: Representative CIG members visit the Marula Farm-Naivasha (photo by Gitau J. /ILRI)."}]},{"head":"Core innovations group members in Napeikar and Kapua receive breeding bucks","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Selected and identified breeding bucks were transported to Turkana County under the stewardship of MALFC, the County Veterinary Department and security personnel. Distribution among the CIG was implemented as agreed in community meetings. With the extensive capacity development implemented in communities, and training provided to extension personnel at the county level, it is anticipated that the pastoralists will be able to apply the best practises learnt and change the trajectory in their flocks. Additional support in managing the breeding with new animals would be desireable. This will be provided through consultation with the County Livestock Department. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":". Flagship exposure farm visit and buck selection exercise by project beneficiaries from Turkana County-Regional Pastoral Livelihoods Resilience Project (RPLRP).Activity report: Livestock Genetics. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Patron: Professor Peter C. Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Patron: Professor Peter C. Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] "},{"text":" Picture 4: Animals arrive and are received by CIG in Turkana County (photo by Eyanae G. /TCG). No objection' to be written by Veterinary doctor in charge of Turkana County .Stopping points for the goatsAt Naivasha Sheep and Goats. 11th to 13th.At Nasukuta. To arrive on 13th afternoon/evening and leave for Lodwar on 14th. Judy to confirm this.Assessment of Bucks by team from TurkanaTeam from Turkana to evaluate and tag breeding bucks when at the Naivasha sheep and goat station on 12 NovemberProgram for farmer learning Annex Annex Preparation of animals for Turkana County Preparation of animals for Turkana County ITEM NOTES ITEMNOTES Goats purchase The selection Turkana County Saturday/Sunday, goats loaded for travel 1 Goats purchaseThe selection Turkana County Saturday/Sunday, goats loaded for travel 1 Transportation Organized by MALFC TransportationOrganized by MALFC Movement permit 'Day 1 12 th October 2021 Movement permit'Day 112 th October 2021 Time Session station TimeSessionstation 1230-1300 Team to have Lunch at ILRI 1230-1300Team to have Lunch at ILRI 1300 Team leaves for Naivasha 1300Team leaves for Naivasha 1500 -1530 Inspection of the bucks Sheep and Goats 1500 -1530Inspection of the bucksSheep and Goats station Naivasha station Naivasha 1530 -1600 Beneficiaries learn best herd management practices Sheep and Goats 1530 -1600Beneficiaries learn best herd management practicesSheep and Goats station Naivasha station Naivasha 1800 -1900 Interactive session -Key informant interviews on effect Hotel of residence 1800 -1900Interactive session -Key informant interviews on effectHotel of residence of covid-19 on livestock production of covid-19 on livestock production 1900 -2000 Dinner 1900 -2000Dinner Day 2 13 th October 2021 Day 213 th October 2021 0830 -1030 Exposure tour Marula farm 0830 -1030Exposure tourMarula farm 1100 -1300 Exposure tour KALRO 1100 -1300Exposure tourKALRO 1300 -1430 Lunch break 1300 -1430Lunch break Team leaves for Nairobi Team leaves for Nairobi "}],"sieverID":"ad05cb2f-9448-46ae-a196-f07d968a57d5","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund"}

data/part_3/0134b96b2c596d96a197a8ecd0f4008a.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0134b96b2c596d96a197a8ecd0f4008a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7b94ae2-97ec-4ddd-9c02-d7c7cc18b2cd/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"CGIAR Research Program Portfolio Report for Year","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Preamble","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"This sixth annual CGIAR Research Program Portfolio Report ('2016 Portfolio Report') provides a synthesis and analysis of progress and achievements by the portfolio of 15 CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) in 2016, together with reporting on management of CGIAR's Crop Collections -the Genebanks -in Appendix 1. Taking note that CGIAR has adopted a new Strategy and Results Framework to frame its strategic research agenda from 2017, the material presented represents the final year of reporting against CGIAR's 2010 Strategy and Results Framework 1 , which prioritized four system level outcomes (SLOs):"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1"},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"The main highlight for 2016 is that the volume and quality of outputs and outcomes produced is highly laudable (see Figure 1 below). This is so even though the volume of outcomes produced decreased compared to 2015, as could be expected given the two consecutive years of decline in Windows 1 and 2 (W1-2) funds experienced by all CRPs. Such a decrease was flagged as a risk for 2016 in the 2015 Portfolio Report, given the significant downsizing of staff positions triggered by decreasing W1-2 funds in 2015."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"The international public good nature of these outputs and outcomes means that these results have been used by stakeholders, including national governments in many countries where the CRPs do not work (in addition to those where they work), as well as by international NGOs and development institutions, such as the World Bank (see Section 2 for details)."}]},{"head":"3.","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"4.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"There has been a significant increase in published outputs from gender research and the effective integration of gender in the design of the 2017 -2022 Portfolio. Gender scientists contributed to and influenced the research agenda of Phase 2 CRPs (by comparison, the 2011/2012 -2016 CRPs were not designed with gender specialists, nor was the 2011 CGIAR System-wide Gender Strategy 5 (CGIAR Gender Strategy) approved when they were designed). Regarding the integration of gender in the research cycle of CRPs, CGIAR has now fully implemented the CGIAR Gender Strategy. The heterogeneity in scale and quality of gender mainstreaming among Programs that was previously observed has essentially been ironed out."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"The second major highlight of the 2016 Portfolio Reports, is that as a collective effort, the CRPs became better positioned to contribute to all four of the System Level Outcomes (SLOs) agreed for the2011/12 -2016 implementation period for the first time since its inception. This improved positioning results from an increase in the production of outputs and outcomes related to (i) policy bottlenecks to adoption of improved varieties and (ii) the sustainable intensification of agriculture (see Section 2 for examples). This increase was not accidental. Rather, it reflects a broadening of the scope of the investigations of type 1 and some type 2 CRPs to include foresight, ex ante analysis and analysis of bottlenecks to adoption in the context of farmers' systems. This broader scope will continue to produce more effective and integrated options (compared to individual options addressing one issue at a time), that better address the complexity of farmers' environments, over 2017 -2022."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"CRPs with a strong breeding emphasis (type 1 and some type 2) showed that a prerequisite to large scale adoption is to remove key policy bottlenecks (e.g. regarding seed and input systems, fiscal disincentives, rights over land and natural resources). The ensuing awareness of the role of the economic and policy environment in adoption and its scaling up augurs well for the agri-food systems (AFS) CRPs during the 2017-2022 implementation period."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Several type 1 and type 2 CRPs reported results demonstrating a credible system sustainability and resilience approach following their forging new strategic partnerships with upstream research institutes with highly reputable track records. This notably strengthens the sustainable intensification results produced by these CRPs and heralds well for the 2017 -2022 period."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"Third, systems approaches are becoming more embedded in the methodologies used by a greater number of CRPs, through increased collaborations across CRPs and communities of practices, so that results produced are better aligned with impact pathways and impact potential is increased. This trend bodes well for the 2017 -2022 Portfolio, as it contributes to embedding results produced in impact pathways, for greater impact on the ground. The leading role played by the three system CRPs (AAS, HT and DS) in initiating this trend deserves recognition."},{"index":6,"size":156,"text":"Fourth, a majority of CRPs now explicitly recognize in their Annual Report theimportance of robust baselines for credible and useful impact assessment in for the 2017 -2022 Portfolio, and have been taking steps to build these baselines. Several CRPs are also conscious that they need to use their theory of change (ToC) in their own internal monitoring evaluation and learning (MEL), with a strong emphasis on its 'learning' dimension. Many CRPs now use their ToC as a tool to: (i) align their partnerships to their ToC, including for identifying the new types of partnerships Page 8 of 43 they need for greater impact, (ii) align their capacity building activities to their ToC to strengthen impact, and (iii) align their fundraising to their ToC. It thus appears that CRPs have now internalized the roles and uses of their ToC and of their internal MEL system, emphasizing learning and feedback loops to research for greater research effectiveness. 5."}]},{"head":"6.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"7."}]},{"head":"8.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Finally, collaboration among CRPs increased notably, with more joint products reported, from jointly authored books and articles to jointly developed methods, tools and innovation and to joint scaling up (e.g., Aflasafe). Communities of practices such as for gender (GENNOVATE) and for monitoring and evaluation (MELIA) played a visible role in cross-learnings on these issues (e.g., by expanding the use of inter-operable IT tools such as MARLO 6 ). 9."}]},{"head":"Key messages on lessons learned for the future 7","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The positioning of the new 2017 -2022 Portfolio of CRPs and Platforms vis-a-vis the three SLOs that the System has agreed to take forward in the 2016 -2030 SRF is well-placed to improve continually over time given the steps taken by some CRPs in 2016 to strengthen their work on the sustainable intensification of agriculture, on policy bottlenecks, and on systems approaches. However, these trends will need to be supported financially and maintained over time during the 2017 -2022 Portfolio implementation period to bear their full fruits."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"AFS CRPs, for instance, may need to strengthen social science capacities to address policy bottlenecks to large scale adoption of their innovations, including through appropriate partnerships. These are often funded from W1-2."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"During 2017 -2022 better linkages between AFS and integrating CRPs may be needed at the national level to enhance influence on political economy processes towards the accomplishment of specific outcome targets. A consolidated and coordinated approach across AFS and integrative CRPs may be most effective whendialoguing with national policy-makers to bring about options for improving seeds and inputs systems, fiscal disincentives or land and natural resources tenure systems for instance."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"The integration of components of the 2011/12-2016 systems CRPs into various AFS CRPs in the 2017-2022 Portfolio is strengthening capabilities in systems approaches and agro-ecosystems approaches. This should lead to results that better address the complexities and multiple dimensions of agricultural and food systems. An open question for the 2017 -2022 implementation period is whether this integration of elements of three system CRPs into six AFS CRPs will be sufficient to maintain the momentum, or whether it should be complemented by additional capabilities in systems methods in some AFS CRPs."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"All CRPs need to work with partners and stakeholders to facilitate credible impact assessments and learn more about the adoption processes for their innovations (including improved policies). Numbers of beneficiaries need to be identified, as they are in the 2016 Annual CRP Reports, but these numbers are insufficient for claiming impact. Across the 2017 -2022 implementation period it will be essential to assess the positive and negative effects of adoption for beneficiaries in order to determine net effects and learn from the findings. This will provide new insights into pathways to impact by testing the hypotheses of the CRPs' theories of change. This will entail allocating funds to support (potentially costly) ex-post impact assessments."}]},{"head":"Given","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"the obvious benefits of greater communication and collaboration across CRPs (see Section 2), the 2017-2022 Portfolio of CRPs should include a stepping up of cross-CRP learnings with the goal of creating clear economies of scale."}]},{"head":"4.","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"5.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"6."}]},{"head":"1.","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"3.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"CIAT, Colombia. Photo -Neil Palmer, CIAT Key messages on risk for the new 2017-2022 Portfolio 8 1."}]},{"head":"2.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"As discussed in Section 5 in more detail, the single most important risk faced by the CRP portfolio in 2016 was that of ongoing financial uncertainty. Against the background of a 2008 CGIAR independent review setting a marker of no less than 30% of 'core' funding 9 (or W1-2 in current terminology), in 2016, 70% of CRPs received W12 allocations between 13 to 29% of their total expenditures, with actual W1-2 amounts from some of CGIAR's major funders being announced and received very late in 2016, sometimes even into early 2017. Whilst noted above that outputs and outcomes produced were fully satisfactory in 2016, outcomes decreased in volume to maintain quality of delivery."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The effects of a continuing shrinking in the percentage of W1-2 funds in CRPs' total expenditures are multiple. They include a decrease in the volume of results produced following the closing down of staff positions and the postponing of activities. Another effect is that partnerships with institutions external to CGIAR become more difficult to implement as the signature of contracts is delayed and a reputational risk arises (this risk is 3."}]},{"head":"4.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"reported by various CRPs in 2016). A third effect is that joint program planning by all partners over planning horizons of 3 to 4 years becomes very difficult. One component of the comparative advantage of the CGIAR system has been its ability to plan and implement work over multiple years, over different spatial scales and with a range of strategic partners outside of CGIAR. This component may be very much undermined if W1-2 resources remain at current levels for several years Since bilateral funds cannot substitute fully for W1-2 funds 10 , prolonging current low allocations of W1-2 resources is likely to jeopardize CRPs' ability to (i) engage with strategic partners from outside of CGIAR, (ii) conduct multiyear program planning and implementation, and (iii) deliver the outcomes and impacts promised in their Phase 2 proposals. It is in this sense that prolonged financial unsustainability ca undermine CGIAR comparative advantage."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The former CRPs started to mitigate this risk by seeking to mobilize bilateral resources jointly (across partners) for activities within impact pathways and CRPs' priorities. If this trend continues, the new Portfolio of CRPs and Platforms is likely to need to function with a very high percentage of bilateral funds (predictable and certain over a few years) and a very low percentage of W1-2 (unpredictable, uncertain on yearly basis). This will very much change the very nature and fabric of CGIAR and of the type of agricultural research for development it can conduct. "}]},{"head":"Traffic light assessment","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Figure 1 (following), provides an assessment of progress at CRP Portfolio level through a 'traffic light' system using the same set of criteria from 2013 to 2016. It shows at a glance that compared with previous years, the 2011/12 -2016 Portfolio progressed significantly in terms of these criteria. Furthermore, the evolution of the different traffic light colors overtime shows that the CRP portfolio became less uneven in its progress than it has been in previous years."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Output quality and quantity in 2016 were fully satisfactory for 80% of the CRPs, as was the case in 2015. This is remarkable considering the substantial decline in staff positions and research activities that followed the cuts in W1-2 funds in 2015, which had a flow on effect for the preparation and delivery of the 2016 research program across the whole Portfolio. It can be partly explained by the high priority given to wrapping up and publishing results by the six CRPs coming to an end at 31 December 2016. However, the proportion of CRPs producing a fully satisfactory quality and quantity of outcomes decreased compared to 2015 (47% of CRPs instead of 73% in 2015), as a direct result of these declining staff numbers and activities (see Key Message #1 concerning results)."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Full alignment of results with IDOs continued to increase from 73% of CRPs in 2015, to 93% of CRPs in 2016, following improvements in the implementation of systemic approaches (see Section 2 for details)."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Concerning gender research and its mainstreaming, the percentage of CRPs performing 'fully satisfactorily\" rose significantly compared to 2015, from 53% to 80% of the CRPs. Section 3 discusses the reasons for and implications of this rise."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"The Portfolio improved its performance in managing risks and learning lessons, with 87% of the CRPs performing fully satisfactorily in 2016, versus 80% doing so in 2015. CRPs' ability to learn from their experiences is documented in the individual Annual Performance reports of the CRPs, including for the six CRPs closing at the end of 2016 which all made a point of drawing many lessons from their years of existence, to pass on to other CRPs. Overall, the way CRPs managed the increasing uncertainty in the funding environment whilst continuing to produce results of high quality and relevance to IDOs and the SLOs demonstrates their resilience and the extremely high level of motivation of CGIAR scientific and other staff."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"Finally, concerning the effectiveness of CRPs' internal organization for results-based management, 67% of the CRPs had a fully satisfactory organization in 2016, whereas in 2015 only 47% of CRPs had the necessary organization and tools in place. This progress was due to the deliberate and systematic adoption by a number of CRPs of more rigorous internal monitoring and evaluation systems, including data management systems, in preparation for phase 2 (see section 4 and Key Message #9 above concerning 2016 results). "}]},{"head":"(outputs and outcomes)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Outputs Each year, the most significant outputs of these CRPs have been the release by national partners of new CGIAR-derived varieties with different improved characteristics and new geographic targets. In 2016, 111 improved maize varieties were released through MAIZE partners globally. WHEAT's partners released 61 improved varieties and GRiSP's 49."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"All the pre-breeding work and implementation of modern molecular methods which facilitated the release of these numerous improved varieties targeted at resource poor farmers and specific stresses -from climate change to viruses -produced significant scientific outputs continuing the trend of previous years."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"In addition to these outputs, type 1 CRPs started producing outputs of a different sort. They did this through a broadening of the scope of their investigations to include foresight and ex ante analysis and by analyzing bottlenecks to large-scale adoption of improved cereals varieties in the context of farmers' systems. Their aim was to produce more effective and integrated options (compared to individual options addressing one issue at a time), that better address the complexity of farmers' environments and the interactions among components of these environments."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"MAIZE showed that a combination of the best drought tolerant maize variety and conservation agriculture produced 60% higher yields under strong El Niño conditions in Malawi than the best non-drought tolerant (DT) variety under classical non-conservation agriculture practices (ridge tillage). They conclude that a joint promotion of both conservation agriculture and DT maize varieties can reap the benefit of the mutually reenforcing effects of these two technologies. Farmers could harvest more maize in the 2016 cropping season while also spending 35-45 less labor days in the direct seeded conservation agriculture system compared to conventional ridging and using traditional weed control strategies. These multiple benefits preferentially benefit women and children who are usually tasked for this back breaking work."}]},{"head":"Outcomes","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"In terms of outcomes, a study on adoption of DT maize (2007-2016) across 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa shows DT varieties outperformed popular commercial maize varieties in terms of more stable yields translating into more stable income. Total benefits were estimated at US$ 395 million for producers and consumers. However, the study found adoption rates high in some countries (61 % in Malawi) but very low in others (9 % in Zimbabwe). To remove bottlenecks to uptake of DT maize, MAIZE concludes that seed companies and agro-dealers need to redouble efforts to expand seed supplies in local markets, including selling seed in affordable 1-2 KG micro-packs and that major promotional efforts are needed to raise farmers' awareness and understanding of the benefits of DT maize."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"WHEAT's action research to integrate women beneficiaries into the ICARDA-led SARD-SC project in Sudan and Nigeria helped identify actions and approaches that can be applied more widely to enhance women's integration in wheat production systems. women in Sudan gained access to microcredit, providing them more sustained control over income-generating activities. To scale up, the project is linking with policy makers and gender-progressive institutions."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"GRiSP has been developing new collaborative mechanisms, rice hubs and innovation platforms within them, in sub-Saharan Africa. Facilitated by AfricaRice, in 2016 more than 74 rice hubs were operational across 25 countries. 17 innovation platforms at these hubs were established in 10 countries to bring together rice value chain actors, from researchers to farmers, advisory services, small scale private sector, traders, input dealers, financial institutions or policy-makers. National agricultural research and extension systems and other development partners have been implementing this approach in various countries across sub-Saharan Africa to facilitate technological and institutional change processes."}]},{"head":"Impacts","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Understanding impacts ex post, including the drivers and bottlenecks to adoption, is essential for designing options and innovations that contribute to long-term sustainable cereal-based food systems. Type 1 CRPs are now recognizing this need and have started to produce studies that explore more rigorously than before the multiple dimensions of the impacts of adoption. Indeed, consequences of adoption of improved varieties and improved practices need to be investigated, rather than simply extrapolated from models."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"For instance, GRiSP and partners published an article in the American Economic Review which indicates that adoption of Swarna-Sub1 (increased flood tolerance) has positive effects on area cultivated, fertilizer used, credit use and adoption of a more labor-intensive planting method. It is the conjunction of the use of Swarna-Sub1 with other inputs (fertilizer, credit, labor-intensive planting) which produces benefits to farmers. The percentage of Income spent on productive purposes (education, irrigation investment, etc.) was 18% higher for households that adopted Swarna-Sub1 than for non-adopting households."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"MAIZE, in a study in Zambia, reports that sustainable agricultural practices such as conservation agriculture are essential in mitigating risks from climate change. When practicing crop rotation and crop diversification (two components of conservation agriculture) farmers sow diverse ranges of crops that can perform well under different environmental conditions. They can then harvest produce at different times of the year thereby reducing the risk of total crop loss if drought strikes. In addition, retention of crop residue, another sustainable agricultural practice, was found to be a vital factor in improving soils and retaining moisture in drought prone areas. The study goes on to recommend policy interventions that promote the combined adoption of improved maize varieties and sustainable agricultural practices, such as a maize-legume rotation and residue retention, which can boost yields and farm incomes especially among resource poor farmers who cannot afford inorganic fertilizers."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"The results of a study completed in Morocco by WHEAT on the adoption of improved wheat varieties and on Morocco's seed system showed that wheat research can achieve large-scale impacts on food security and poverty reduction, but only if adoption of improved varieties and associated technologies and innovations is achieved at scale. This presupposes, inter alia, a robust national seed system, which provides timely availability of sufficient high-quality seed at affordable prices."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Type 1 CRPs contributed substantially to the food security SLO by facilitating increases in the availability of improved rice, maize and wheat varieties through their partnerships. They also made a marked contribution to the poverty reduction SLO by helping to raise the income of resource poor farmers, since many of these varieties have been adapted to the specific conditions of these farmers."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"Type 1 CRPs contributed to a lesser extent to the nutrition SLO, by developing enriched cereal varieties. These CRPs progressed in 2016 in their contribution to the SLO on natural resource management through their work on soil and water management practices and on the sustainable intensification of cereal-based systems. Their outputs and outcomes, as well as progress towards impact assessment studies indicate that they are adopting more systemic approaches and have set out to broaden the scope of their work to yield results that more effectively address the environmental footprint of cereal production as well as the real-world complexities of cereal-based systems."}]},{"head":"Recapping progress of Type 1 CRPs to end 2016 (GRiSP, MAIZE, WHEAT)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Indonesia. Aulia Erlangga, CIFOR"}]},{"head":"A key highlight","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The work of RTB on orange flesh sweet potatoes (OFSP) received the ultimate recognition of the 2016 World Food Prize 11 , both for the outputs and outcomesproduced by this strand of RTB's work. A crucial aspect of this approachhas been to integrate the OFSP breeding programs with extension-style agronomy and nutrition education for farmers and consumers and with the implementation of effective marketing and dissemination strategies. This multi-dimensional approach has ensured that OFSP were incorporated into the diets of rural families, resulting in significantly reduced levels of micronutrient deficiencies, hidden hunger, and disease for 10 million people across Sub-Saharan Africa."}]},{"head":"Outputs","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"As in previous years, the outputs produced by type 2 CRPs included significant advances in knowledge and new tools and methods."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"For example, to improve the identification and management of sweet potato viruses, in particular novel ones, RTB and CIP researchers developed an automated bioinformatics pipeline, combined with deep sequencing and assembly of virus derived small interfering RNAs (sRNA) for the analysis of large-scale sRNA datasets to identify known and novel viruses. Called 'Virus Detect,' the pipeline performs both reference-guided assemblies through aligning sRNA sequences to a curated virus reference database and de novo assemblies of sRNA sequences with automated parameter optimization. Once validated, this tool is expected to reduce costs and increase the speed of testing sweet potato germplasm, breeding material and propagation material for viruses."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"GL completed the high-quality sequencing of the ancestral genomes of groundnut, in a scientific breakthrough that promises accelerated gene discovery and development of improved cultivars. This was completed through an internationally coordinated effort that included ICRISAT."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"DC completed an open access dataset and information resource which provides a basis for future analysis of the geographic range of dryland cereals and grain legumes. 'DCL eATLAS' includes maps of (1) crop distribution and suitability, (2) abiotic and biotic constraints to crop production, (3) biodiversity of the crop and hotspots for collection of wild relatives of dryland cereal and legumes crops, (4) socioeconomic maps related to populations that may produce or consume these crop commodities and ( 5) reference maps on these crops and the farming systems in which they are found."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"WLE has been working on digital soil property maps for SSA that provide spatial predictions of soil properties, such as soil organic carbon (SOC), pH and nutrient content. Information about soil health and degradation is indeed critical for landscape management and for making smart land-use choices that optimize sustainable production. Building on this, WLE facilitated and helped set up Soil-Plant Spectral Diagnostic Laboratories in 10 African countries, with funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Scientists from these laboratories are preparing, with WLE, soil health baselines as part of the Africa Soil Information Service (AfSIS), the most comprehensive soil sample database available for Africa, with over 28,000 sampling locations by the end of 2016."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"PIM published a book, for an audience of policy-makers, which provides a comprehensive analysis of the pace and trends in agricultural productivity growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, incorporating geospatial data on production systems, quality of natural resources, population density, infrastructure, and market access to identify opportunities to accelerate productivity growth."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"FTA contributed to advancing the global understanding of timber legality by contributing key pieces to a synthesis Report coordinated by IUFRO on behalf of the Type 2 CRPs produced nevertheless a diverse range of outputs and outcomes, as these CRPs address more diverse issues and systems than type 1 CRPs. Their outputs and outcomes include influencing global agenda and policies and supporting national level policies and their implementation, in addition to developing innovations in methods, technical innovations and working on their scaling up."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"They maintained their overall focus on balancing productivity growth, profitability and sustainable intensification in furtherance of achievement of the four SLOs to end-2016, rather than on maximizing any one of these goals at the expense of the others. "}]},{"head":"Recapping progress of","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Outputs","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The key outputs produced by AAS, DS and HT included many published papers and books synthesizing and analyzing the results of the work of the three CRPs."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"In particular, the three CRPs worked jointly to co-edit a book 12 entitled: 'Sustainable Intensification in Smallholder Agriculture: An integrated systems research approach' which is grounded in empirical analyses and syntheses of AAS, DS and HT's respective experiences and common learnings. DS published an ISI paper: A new dryland development paradigm grounded in empirical analysis of dryland systems science which proposes a new system approach to dryland issues through transdisciplinary methods."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"AAS produced 28 Institute for Scientific Information articles of relevance to framing research and gender approaches to aquatic agriculture systems. These and other publications of AAS offer the opportunity for the 2017-2022 FISH CRP to build on lessons learned from AAS' experience. L&F, HT and CCAFS researchers co-authored an article published in the prestigious and high impact Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences (USA) that shows that targeting poverty through improving market access and off-farm opportunities may be a better strategy for increasing food security than just focusing on agricultural production and closing yield gaps. Technologies thus tested include stress-resistant varieties (maize, cassava, rice, beans, sorghum, pigeon pea) and improved management of soils (conservation agriculture, no-till, organic production, composting, planting pits, residues) and water (water harvesting, small-scale irrigation, drip irrigation) and livestock (small ruminants, improved forages). A4NH noted that biofortification is the A4NH flagship most involved in reaching households, as producers and consumers, for nutrition, health and income benefits. In 2016, HarvestPlus achieved a global reach of 14.5 million people in 2.9 million households. Major crop and country reached included:"}]},{"head":"A4NH published the","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"• Vitamin A cassava in Nigeria -4 million people • Vitamin A cassava in Democratic Republic of Congo -1.4 million people • High zinc rice in Bangladesh -2.5 million people • High iron beans in Rwanda -2.5 million people • Vitamin A maize in Zambia -0.9 million people • High-zinc wheat in India -0.6 million people • Orange-sweet potato in Uganda -0.6 million people Whilst assessments of number of people reached by CRPs innovations are essential, they are only the first step in impact assessment studies. The assessment of the different costs of adoption (monetary and non-monetary) and benefits (monetary and non-monetary), for beneficiaries and other stakeholders constitutes the core of impact assessment studies. For type 3, as well as the other types of CRPs, progress toward the assessment of all these costs and benefits is expected in Phase 2."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The outcomes produced by type 3 CRPs indicate progress toward all four SLOs. All type 3 CRPs contributed to the poverty alleviation and food security SLOs. While A4NH contributed very strongly to the nutrition SLO, the three systems CRPs (AAS, DS and HumidTropics) also contributed to this SLO, as they address nutrition challenges within a systems perspective, in their respective regions. Finally, type 3 CRPs contributed to the natural resources management SLO, with CCAFS contributing particularly to agriculture's adaptation to, and mitigation of climate change."}]},{"head":"Recapping progress of Type 3 CRPs to end 2016 (AAS, HT, DS,CCAFS, A4NH)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Photo -Neil Palmer, CIAT CGIAR's efforts to contribute to gender equality and rural poverty reduction through increased empowerment and participation of poor rural women in agricultural innovation produced meaningful results in 2016."}]},{"head":"Gender research mainstreaming","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"2016 saw an important increase in published outputs and in outcomes from gender research and whilst gender research was mainstreamed in about half of the work of the CRPs projects, the effective integration of gender in the design of the 2017 -2022 Portfolio has taken place."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"CGIAR implemented an accountability framework for gender mainstreaming such that CRPs maintained an overall level of around 15% of total budget earmarked for gender research at CRP portfolio level. CRPs also increased their staff capacity, including but not limited to employment of a cadre of 18 gender research Postdoctoral Fellows although some Programs coming to an end in 2016 or facing sizeable reductions in budget saw capacity decline, such as WLE, DC, HT and AAS. The Gender Network continued to promote knowledge sharing, cross-fertilization and cross-CRP gender research with the result that good practices for integrating gender into plant breeding were widely disseminated; novel capacity development approaches were trialed; and training continued in support of the cross-CRP study of gender norms, GENNOVATE, which completed all its data collection in 2016."},{"index":3,"size":269,"text":"CGIAR has now fully implemented the CGIAR Gender Strategy, a framework for mainstreaming gender research into the broader scientific agenda, which was approved in 2011. As a result, all CRP proposals approved as part of the 2017-2022 Portfolio appropriately integrated gender research, ensuring that gender is an adequately identified and considered element of CGIAR research approaches for the foreseeable future. The heterogeneity in scale and quality of gender mainstreaming among CRPs observed in previous years has very much decreased. Specifically, the CRPs approved as part of the 2017-2022 Portfolio meet requirements on the gender mainstreaming performance indicators included in annual reporting, and a majority exceed these requirements. These indicators were designed to track progress in the early stages of the implementation of the CGIAR Gender Strategy (2011). They show that all CRPs have now achieved gender integration in their research. All CRPs have paid more attention to considerations of gender in program-level planning, the design and targeting of specific innovations and the presentation of sex-disaggregated analysis in adoption and impact studies. For example, A4NH reports that three-fourths of its 2016 projects have a gender dimension in their research and around 65 per cent of project deliverables have a gender focus. A4NH exemplifies a systematic approach to gender auditing increasingly shared by other CRPs via the Gender Network. WLE for instance reports that 70% of all the technologies it developed, and 56% of all tools address gender issues. Livestock and Fish collected and analyzed sex-disaggregated data across all its flagships to re-orient its research priorities. DS disseminated its Gender Guidelines for Biophysical Researchers to mainstream gender across the flagship projects."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"CRPs are working towards a unified, programmatic approach to the design of gender research. This is reflected in the increased implementation by CRPs of unifying frameworks to facilitate integration of gender into research priority setting. For example, CCAFS' innovations in adaptation and mitigation integrate gender into prioritizing and scaling up climate smart agriculture using the Climate Change and Social Learning (CCSL) and Climate Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (CSA-RA) frameworks. In another example, RTB has standardized key gender research approaches and tools so that all partner centers incorporated common tools for gathering gender differentiated trait preferences in Participatory Varietal Selection. As part of the same cross-program initiative to increase standardization and sharing in the integration of gender in plant breeding throughout a CRP, DC conducted detailed analyses of gender-differentiated demand for specific traits and trait combinations."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In addition to their ongoing work with A4NH in numerous countries and projects on the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index, (WEIA), PIM disseminated several tools with wide application and relevance for standardization (e.g. quantitative tools for inclusion of gender in value chain analysis). This standardization and sharing of gender research tools, now a feature of gender research in a majority of the CRPs, is essential for increased gender research efficiency."},{"index":6,"size":176,"text":"Cross-program standardization and sharing of gender research approaches, methods and tools is creating opportunities for comparative studies to identify strategic constraints and targets across regions and target beneficiary populations. Notable work done by GRiSP in this respect includes studies conducted to build large datasets suitable for comparative analysis to discern gender dynamics in rice value chains and production systems in several countries. Understanding of gender roles and gaps in rice-based agriculture in Africa, Asia and Latin America has expanded, showing how and why gender gaps persist in access to productive resources, assets and services. This type of gender research represents significant progress in CRPs' ability and capacity to orient the gender relevance of their technical research. For example, L&F's integration of a standardized gender module into its technical feed assessment software, FEAST, makes it possible for feed assessment to consider gender in a way that is replicable, increasing the potential to build datasets that can be used for comparative, cross-site analysis of gender differences, thereby increasing the potential of the work to produce international public goods."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"CRPs made a notable effort in 2016 to report a solid set of outputs from gender research, evidenced in an upswing in all CRPs in the number of international refereed journal publications with gender as a focus. For example, gender is the topic of one of the five most down-loaded publications of FTA. AAS and HT in particular, made a major effort to publish legacy products from gender research before closure. CRPs also increased their reporting of gender research outputs in use with partners."},{"index":8,"size":95,"text":"Working with 12 partners across 3 countries, WLE gender research showed the importance for gender equality of women's collective action around water and land. WLE's model is now being piloted by government and NGO partners across the Eastern Gangetic Plains. In other engagement with partners, FTA prepared a report for Oxfam Novib and USAID that is the basis for a 'gender strategy' for high-level sustainable resource management policy. GL gave gender high visibility in signature events celebrating the International Year of Pulses and contributed gender content to the 10 year International Research Strategy on Pulses."},{"index":9,"size":78,"text":"Research targeting reduction of drudgery for females, previously scarcely addressed, has made progress. Several CRPs have impactful findings ready for scaling up. For example, DC reported improved productivity of sorghum farmers in Nigeria through the use by women and youth of small-scale mechanization technologies, designed to reduce drudgery in sowing. Using a field experiment method with selected planters, there was a 60-77% reduction in drudgery over manual sowing while grain yield increased by 66% compared with manual sowing."},{"index":10,"size":113,"text":"Survey research by DS in Morocco showed that specific interventions are needed to redress inequalities, since higher-paid equipment-intensive tasks tend to be assigned to men whereas women perform lower-paid time-intensive tasks and men are routinely paid more than women for the same work. Another example, already cited above in the discussion of the outcomes of type 1 CRPs, is the ICARDA-led SARD-SC project in Sudan, Ethiopia and Nigeria, with WHEAT support, which improved women access to microcredit in wheat based systems and diminished their workloads and drudgery through appropriate mechanization (thresher, harvester) and improved access to key inputs such as pesticides. Women's decision-making power also increased through participation in training and field days."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"The effectiveness of CRPs' partnership strategies is now unquestionable: the outputs, outcomes and progress towards impact synthesized in Section 2 could not have been produced without such alliances."}]},{"head":"Overall effectiveness of partnerships strategies and inter-CRP linkages","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"These partnerships range from research and capacity development partnerships, with research institutions and universities from the South and North, to partnerships for scaling up with development implementers and value chain actors in the countries concerned. These include alliances with national extension services, farmers' organizations, national, regional and international development organizations including NGOs, and the private sector, particularly in value chain and innovation platform contexts. CRPs' strategies also include different modes of engagement with key decision-makers and stakeholders at global, regional and national levels, for CRPs such as PIM, CCAFS, WLE, FTA, A4NH and also increasingly for a number of the AFS CRPs."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The uncertain funding environment in 2016 was not favorable for CRPs to expand their partnerships, though some CRPs successfully did so. Others (e.g., CCAFS) flagged that scaling back on some partnerships may take place in Phase 2 because of decreased human and financial capabilities following W1-2 decreases."},{"index":3,"size":199,"text":"In 2016 research and development partnerships and capacity development partnerships were consolidated by the CRPs, to better support their ToC and impact pathways. This was part of the lessons CRPs drew when designing their 2017-2022 proposals and thus built into their preparations for the new implementation period (e.g., PIM, A4NH, RTB). An example of new partnerships closely supporting the ToC and impact pathway is provided by MAIZE. They initiated collaborations with the University of Columbia (Earth Institute) to strengthen their data systems so they can support Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) decision-making at the national level, showing how sustainable maize options contribute to the SDGs. They also collaborated with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to develop and test a common framework for sustainability assessment of farming systems and landscapes that supports and adapts decision making for different stakeholders (e.g., farmers, farm advisors, policy makers) operating at different scales (e.g., field, farming system, landscape, institutional-market). A third new collaboration is with the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis to develop robust and cost effective sustainable intensification indicators and metrics at landscape level through matching monitoring and modelling technology to best characterize productivity, stability, resilience, systems' evolution and transition, and shock/impulse responses."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"These collaborations should allow MAIZE to improve its chances of delivering demonstrably sustainable maize options, contributing to the SDGs in a quantified and uncontroversial manner, and contributing to the decisions of national decision-makers regarding the SDGs. FTA similarly engaged in a new partnership with the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis to complement and improve its analytical capacity to examine impacts of sustainability processes at the macro-level in national economies. FTA also enlarged the number of its key non-CGIAR partners with INBAR and Tropenbos International."},{"index":5,"size":195,"text":"Inter-CRP linkages, which appeared somewhat ad hoc a few years ago, have been noticeably strengthened compared to previous years. Two CRPs, PIM and CCAFS, collaborated with a great number of the other CRPs, and with all CGIAR Centers. The number of outputs jointly produced by CRPs increased over past years. Examples include the article (mentioned in Section 2) in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) authored by researchers from L&F, HT and CCAFS on food security or the book co-edited by AAS, HT and DS scientists on integrated systems research, Sustainable Intensification in Smallholder Agriculture: An integrated systems research approach (mentioned in Section 2). There are many other examples of jointly produced results in the individual CRP Annual Reports, including collaborations leading to significant joint outcomes. One example is the collaboration between WLE and CCAFS and private sector insurance companies, government and research institutions to help farmers affected by extreme weather events in Bihar, India, with weather-based crop insurance, called Indexed-Based Flood Insurance (IBFI), as further detailed in Section 2. Another example is the collaboration between A4NH and MAIZE on the development and deployment of Aflasafe in diverse Sub Saharan African countries."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"Two communities of practices have played a key role in enabling learning and drawing of lessons across CRPs, thereby creating economies of scale and facilitating a more coherent approach at CRP portfolio level. One is the gender community of practice, which created GENNOVATE, a cross-CRP, global comparative research initiative which addresses the question of how gender norms and agency influence men, women and youth to adopt innovation in agriculture and natural resource management (NRM). The gender research carried out by each and every CRP has benefited from the lessons drawn from GENNOVATE's research in 125 rural communities in 26 countries."},{"index":7,"size":105,"text":"The other community of practice is the one on monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL). It has been playing a very effective role in facilitating learning across CRPs with different levels of experience in MEL and in engaging CRPs in joint work on monitoring and indicators and on results-based management. This facilitation enabled the realization, on the part of some CRPs of the strategic importance of appropriate baselines and of aligning results, partnerships and capacity building with ToC and impact pathways. It also led to the expanding voluntary adoption by CRPs of MARLO, an online platform assisting CRPs in their strategic results-based program planning and reporting."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"It covers the project cycle from planning to reporting and learning. Reports generated through MARLO support outcome-focused programmatic reporting with additional synthesis at the flagship and cross-cutting levels. MARLO was originally commissioned by CCAFS and has now been voluntarily adopted by 7 CRPs, providing further opportunities for cross learnings among these CRPs."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Carrying water in Khulna, Bangladesh. Photo -Felix Clay, Duckrabbit Three main lessons can be drawn from 2016 at the portfolio level."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and implications for the new 2017-2022 Portfolio","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The first is that the positioning of the new 2017-2022 Portfolio of CRPs and Platforms vis-a-vis the three revised SLOs that the System has agreed to take forward in the 2016-2030 SRF is well-placed to improve continually over time given the steps taken by some of the CRPs operating in 2016 to strengthen their work on the sustainable intensification of agriculture, on policy bottlenecks and on systems approaches."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"However, these trends will need to be nurtured, financially supported and maintained over time during the 2017-2022 implementation period. The AFS CRPs for instance may need to strengthen social science capacities to address policy bottlenecks to large scale adoption. They may also need to strengthen capacities in systems approaches and ecosystem approaches, to design options for sustainable intensification that better address the complexities and multiple dimensions of agriculture and food systems. Complementary partnerships may be needed, as well as working closely with PIM, WLE and CCAFS. At national level, AFS CRPs may contribute to policy and institutional processes most effectively by coordinating their messages for policy-makers around a few essential cross-cutting issues (e.g., seeds and input systems, land and resource tenure, fiscal incentives) and 'speaking with one voice' about these issues. Dedicated funding will be needed to accomplish all of this. This is going to be particularly challenging if the short to medium term financial environment remains under significant pressure."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"A second lesson is that all CRPs need to work with their partners and stakeholders to facilitate actual impact assessments and learn about the adoption process for their innovations (including improved policies)."},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"Although a prerequisite, reporting on numbers of beneficiaries (as carried out by most CRPs) is not in itself sufficient. Assessing both the positive and negative effects of adoption, including the unintended consequences, is essential to establish what the net effects of adoption were and learn from the findings, in a feedback loop to research plans. The MEL-CoP should play a key role in this. Assessing the positive and negative effects of adoption for beneficiaries is essential to (i) determine net effects, (ii) learn from the findings, for instance about unforeseen consequences of adoption, and if need be (iii) re-adjusting research plans based upon the empirical evidence collected. The CRPs will need to work collectively, in system-wide efforts to enhance impact assessment, augmenting the work of the SPIA group with individually crafted CRP assessments to create better system coverage of impacts and learnings. This will provide new insights into pathways to impact by testing the hypotheses of the CRPs' theories of change. In the same manner as for the first lesson, this will entail allocating funds to support impact assessments. Few CRPs currently allocate funds to such ex-post impact pathway assessments. It is going to be challenging for CRPs to earmark funds to such impact assessments in the current financial environment."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"A third lesson to emerge from the portfolio's performance in 2016 is that communication, collaboration and learning across CRPs create significant economies of scale for the CRPs through the synergies they trigger. There are no losers, only winners."},{"index":6,"size":170,"text":"The momentum from economies of scale created can be maintained, and perhaps increased, into the 2017-2022 implementation period without inordinate financial investments. There are a few areas in which such collaboration across most CRPs would be particularly beneficial. During 2017-2022 implementation CRPs will need to establish the track record and effectiveness of the scaling up processes that they set in motion over 2011/12 2016. For instance, the effectiveness of value chain approaches, of multi-stakeholders' platforms and of innovation platforms/hubs are unclear at this point in time. Sufficient work on these has been taking place across the CRPs that joint analyses of the effectiveness of these mechanisms in scaling up adoption of innovations would benefit all CRPs. Other issues that would benefit from CRPs' collaboration (e.g., including through the MEL-CoP) include designing joint baselines in key benchmark geographic areas and designing useful and credible indicators of progress at CRP level towards the SLOs and most likely also towards the SDGs, that capture the specificities of the results produced by diverse CRPs."}]},{"head":"Looking towards the future","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"For the first time since the inception of the CRPs in 2011/2012, the CRP portfolio as configured during 2016 demonstrated that it was on track to deliver against CGIAR's System-Level Outcomes, reflecting a year-on-year improvement since standardized reporting was introduced in 2013. Steps taken by type 1 CRPs (one crop, small number of Centers) and some type 2 CRPs (greater number of Centers, with an scientific integration approach) to better embrace sustainable intensification of cereal production in all its systemic dimensions and at multiple spatial scales, as well as the steps taken to strengthen work on the identification and removal of policy and institutional bottlenecks to adoption of technological innovations, underpinned this significant achievement and mean that the CRP portfolio is now fully positioned to deliver on all the SLOs."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The financial tables submitted by each CRP as part of their respective 2016 CRP Annual Report show that, when taken together, CRPs maintained their expenses in line with funds received for 2016, even though Centers' own funds had to be used in many instances. However, Table 1 (following) shows that the share of the different sources of funds used by the CRPs has evolved to a point where significant questions arise in regard to the overall ability of CGIAR to maintain a sufficiently cohesive and holistic research agenda to deliver on CGIAR's Strategy -recognizing that the fundamental premise of CRPs was to move CGIAR away from delivering against somewhat unconnected research/challenge projects, to a portfolio of integrated research actions that when taken together, the outcomes were greater than the sum of the individual parts."}]},{"head":"Consequences of continuing financial pressure and uncertainty","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Table 1 reports that for 2013 and 2014, the share of W1-2 in total budgets increased over 2012 levels for most CRPs. The increases did not address the issue of the wide-ranging differences in shares of W1-2 across CRPs, but they did contribute to the financial sustainability of the CRP Portfolio."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"There were signals in 2014 that this situation was about to change, such that the 2014 CGIAR Portfolio report flagged this as a key threat to CGIAR's research agenda. By 2015, the downward trend in the share of W1-2 in CRP budgets became more acute, and it worsened in 2016, raising an urgent question about the capacity of the CRP portfolio to continue delivering results of the highest scientific quality and of the highest relevance to the 'grand' development challenges they address."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Table 1 shows also that in 2016 70% of the CRPs (excluding those CRPs closing at the end of 2016 and which were therefore subject to special financial circumstances) received from between 13% and 29% of their funding from W1-2 13 against one of the clearly stated objectives of the 2010 CGIAR reform, namely to remedy the low average percentage of 'core funds' in Centers' total budgets. 14 2016 was the second consecutive year during which levels of W1-2 funds allocated to the CRPs decreased materially whilst bilateral income remained stable overall and thus grew as a percentage of total funding. In addition, actual amounts of W1-2 funds were announced by major funders very late in 2016, sometimes even in early 2017. Thus, perhaps one of the most significant challenges for the leadership of CRPs across 2016 was to maintain a coherent and well-planned research for development program, including with external partners and aligned to CGIAR's broad strategic goals, under conditions of high uncertainty regarding W12 funds."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"The consequences of the lack of financial predictability over successive years for a large majority of CRPs are multiple. First, as shown in Table 1, Centers have had to use their own resources to cover operating costs, in particular when cuts were made retroactively after funds were expanded. This has resulted in some Centers carrying a deficit on behalf of the CRP they lead. This cannot continue for many years; Centers' own resources are finite. Second, as discussed in Section 2 (above), the volume of outputs and outcomes produced by the CRP portfolio started to decline in 2016, reflecting cuts in key staff and research activities. If not reversed through actions that reinforce CGIAR's comparative advantage, the risks to CGIAR's reputation and the quality of its research results may be irreversibly negatively impacted. Third, according to analysis of the 2017 CRP and Platforms work plans and budgets (background "}]},{"head":"Mitigation strategies responding to financial uncertainty at a pivotal time","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"In 2016, after two years of significant decreases in 1-2 allocations to the CRPs, continuing financial ncertainty for a majority of CRPs presented as the most ignificant risk to CGIAR's capacity to deliver on its bold new Strategy -however the newly approved 2017-2022 CGIAR Portfolio of research programs and platforms was ultimately configured."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"In different sections, this report highlights that the amplitude of the decreases is calling into question some of the elements constituting the comparative advantage of CGIAR and is thus threatening the System's ability to deliver results contributing to CGIAR's newly stated three System Level Outcomes, and the SDGs."}]},{"head":"Mitigation strategies responding to financial uncertainty at a pivotal time","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The most effective mitigation strategy to counter this risk at CGIAR System-level would be that all CRPs in the 2017-2022 CGIAR Portfolio receive at least 30% of their budget from W1-2 in line with the recommendations of the 2008 Independent Review Panel 16 , together with some level of assurance that this percentage will be maintained across successive years so that program planning and implementation is not subject to a causally connected series of 'stop and go' measures."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Failing this, and still at CGIAR System-level, further mitigation can result from allocations of W1-2 funds to CRPs based upon agreed relative overall CGIAR priorities and an appropriate and transparently applied performance assessment process, being elements that were identified as critically absent in the 2015 Portfolio Report."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Table 1 (above) shows that allocations of W1-2 funds to CRPs have differed substantially since the creation of the CRPs. In 2016, they varied between a low of 13% to a high of 50% of the total expenditures of a CRP. These differences in percentages of W1-2 allocated to the CRPs currently do not reflect overall CGIAR priorities (these have not been identified in the 2016-2030 Strategy and Results Framework). Nor do they reflect the relative performance of the CRPs (a process is under development by CGIAR's MEL-CoP in close collaboration with CGIAR's Funders and considering CGIAR's longer-term research mandate). Addressing this issue would go some way in increasing transparency and decreasing some of the uncertainty in allocations."}]},{"head":"Program/Portfolio mitigation strategies","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"At CRP level, a mitigation strategy that some CRPs (and now also Platforms) have started to implement is joint fundraising by partners within specified research/integration agendas, targeting high priority CRP/Platform domains that match bilateral funder priorities (both existing and new)."}]},{"head":"The prognosis","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The conjunction of both mitigation options is the strategy most likely to be effective. The prolongation of financial uncertainty may result in CRPs and Platforms functioning with a very high percentage of bilateral funds (predictable and certain over a few years once obtained) and a low percentage of W1-2 (unpredictable, uncertain on yearly basis). This would change the strategic nature of the research for development conducted by the CRPs, create significant strain on the coherence of the research agenda and thus the potential to reach the agreed 2022 intermediate targets towards CGIAR's 2030 goals, as well as on the very fabric of CGIAR."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The 11 CGIAR Centers hosting genebanks have an obligation to the world to conserve and make available the 35-ex situ crop and tree collections under their management according to the provisions of the International Treaty of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). The Genebanks \"CGIAR Research Program\" (Genebank CRP) provides security in funding for the routine operations of the genebanks and works towards improving individual performance standards and strengthening quality and risk management systems in all genebanks. "}]},{"head":"Genebanks Program Highlights","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Cryobanking CIP, IITA and Bioversity continued their efforts towards building cryobanks of potato, sweet potato, cassava, yam and banana collections. Of particular note, a total of 591 potato accessions were cryopreserved in 2016, bringing the total number of potato in CIP cryobank to"}]},{"head":"Collecting","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"In 2016, ICARDA, IITA and IRRI completed collecting missions to fill priority gaps in their collections. All missions were successfully concluded with activities focused on multiplication and characterization of the collected accessions and their introduction into long-term storage. The collecting projects improved the representation of crops and their wild relatives in both CGIAR and national genebanks, contributed to knowledge of landrace distributions and strengthened CGIAR's partnership with national genebanks. Some of these collecting trips could be considered as \"rescue\" missions as a considerable number of indigenous landraces are threatened by extinction."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"1,742. The percentage survival and recovery of accessions continues to increase and levels of contamination or low viability continues to decrease. The success of the current cryopreservation method has increased substantially over the past four years (Figure 4)."}]},{"head":"Optimizing collections","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The 11 genebanks have achieved a large number of significant efficiencies that will play a role in improving germplasm conservation and use and reducing costs. Although such efficiencies are not systematically monitored or quantified, "}]},{"head":"Capacity building and outreach","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The genebanks undertake numerous individual capacity and partnership building activities to the benefit of both CGIAR and partners (Table 3). At the CRP level, five • % availability: % collection that is clean, viable, in sufficient seed number to be made immediately available for international distribution from medium term storage (90% target) • % security: % collection that is held in long term storage conditions in two locations and also in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault or for clonal crops and trees % collection in two locations (90% target seed collections; 90% clonal crop/tree collections)"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• % data availability: % collection with minimum passport or characterization data available online (90% target) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Legend Figure 1 Results are fully satisfactory Results are almost satisfactory Results do not fully meet expectations Results are below expectations "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Comparison of traffic light analysis for the CRP Portfolio from 2013 to 2016 "},{"text":"2. 1 Type 1 CRPs: One crop, few Centers, and long historical scientific base impacts progressed and evolved in 2016 from the CRP Portfolio and their bearing on progress towards CGIAR's strategic System Level Outcomes. A few examples of the diversity and quality of the outputs, outcomes and impacts generated are provided for illustrative purposes. The individual 2016 Annual Reports of the CRPs contain many more examples that go into greater detail. This section provides analysis of how outputs, outcomes and Nepal. Photo -Neil Palmer (CIAT) "},{"text":" Type 2 CRPs to end 2016 (RTB, L&F, GL, DC, FTA, WLE, PIM) Pakistan. Photo -Fasseh Shams, IWMIAs for the situation reported immediately above, three of the five type 3 CRPs (i.e., AAS, HT and DS) were focused during 2016 on managing the closing down of their activities by the end of 2016 and on negotiating which research elements from those programs would be integrated into the 2017-2022 Portfolio. Thus, as a group, type 3 CRPs produced a lower volume of outcomes than in 2015. The main challenge for type 3 CRPs continued to be to design new methods and innovative ways of working in domains that cut across many disciplines and in which the global scientific community has had relatively scant experience. "},{"text":"HT organized meetings with scientists of the planned 2017-2022 AFS CRPs to discuss HT tools and research experiences, including those in the book on sustainable intensification of smallholders' agriculture, thereby increasing awareness of these methods and lessons by scientists engaged in systems research in these CRPs. HT and RTB, in particular, agreed on parts of HT to become integrated in RTB from 2017. AAS did the same with FISH. DS (and GL and DC) contributed to the proposal for a new Phase 2 CRP, GLDC, although as referenced earlier, the proposed proposal is still under re-design and discussion among partners.CCAFS produced 134 peer-reviewed papers on climate change and agriculture in 2016 which had large readership. For instance, an article setting a global target for emissions reduction in agriculture to meet the 2 degrees target was widely communicated, as measured by Altmetric. It was in the top 5% of all research outputs, and #1 of 2,316 articles in the highimpact Global Change Biology. CCAFS also produced new technologies, for instance by trialing 47 climate-smart agricultural practices at 36 climate smart villages across 5 CCAFS regions, using the 'agricultural research for development approach' developed for climate-smart villages, including gender-disaggregated evaluations and the 'climate smart agriculture rapid rural appraisal tool' to assess within and between district variations in farming systems, agricultural management practices, challenges for current agricultural practices, and climate vulnerability, in order to inform targeting of climate smart agriculture. "},{"text":"Figure 1 .Figure 2 . Figure 1. Annual total samples distributed from CGIAR genebanks, 2012 to 2016 "},{"text":" Figure 4. % Success rate of potato cryobanking (% accessions > 30% recovery rate) "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. % Seed accessions available for international distribution from 2012 to 2016. (Trends in % availability relate not only to improved status of accessions and changing collection size, but also corrections in inventory and documentation). "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 3 . Figure 2. % Clonal crop accessions available for international distribution from 2012 to 2016 (Trends in % availability relate to improved status of accessions, changing collection size, the incidence of diseases of quarantine risk and the imposition of new standards to ensure trueness-to-type) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. % Clonal crop accessions in safety duplication in vitro or in cryopreservation from 2012 to 2016 (Trends in % safety duplication relate to improved status of accessions, changing collection size, the incidence of diseases of quarantine risk and the imposition of new standards to ensure trueness-to-type) "},{"text":" "},{"text":" The Report assesses the drivers, dynamics and impacts of illegal logging, and was launched at a special session of the UN Biodiversity Conference (Convention on Biological Diversity, 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties) in Cancun, Mexico.Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia (CCPP) is a transboundary disease which constitutes the most important threat to sheep and goats in Africa and Asia. L&F developed a rapid, inexpensive, field diagnostic tool which is a prerequisite to control the disease. The field diagnostic tool for CCPP includes a simple read-out device, powered by a car battery. It achieves a diagnosis in less than 45 minutes. The next step will be its commercial development. L&F. Beyond including crop quantitative and L&F. Beyond including crop quantitative and qualitative fodder traits as additional selection criteria, qualitative fodder traits as additional selection criteria, this work is changing crop improvement paradigms by this work is changing crop improvement paradigms by basing them on whole plant optimization rather than on basing them on whole plant optimization rather than on the optimization of single traits. the optimization of single traits. GL national partners released a total of 40 new varieties GL national partners released a total of 40 new varieties for pigeonpea, chickpea, faba bean and classical bean, for pigeonpea, chickpea, faba bean and classical bean, and DC national partners released a total of 45 new and DC national partners released a total of 45 new improved varieties for sorghum, barley, finger millet and improved varieties for sorghum, barley, finger millet and pearl millet. pearl millet. Impacts Impacts L&F reports an initial impact assessment of a large L&F reports an initial impact assessment of a large aquaculture project in Egypt, implemented by WorldFish aquaculture project in Egypt, implemented by WorldFish in partnership with CARE Egypt and the Egyptian in partnership with CARE Egypt and the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation from 2011 Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation from 2011 to 2015. The assessment found that $16,000 of extra to 2015. The assessment found that $16,000 of extra profits per farm were generated using best aquaculture profits per farm were generated using best aquaculture management practices, amounting to a USD 27 million management practices, amounting to a USD 27 million total value added by the project. Increased profitability total value added by the project. Increased profitability was mainly achieved by cost savings through more was mainly achieved by cost savings through more efficient feed management rather than increased efficient feed management rather than increased production. production. This also resulted in reduced environmental impacts This also resulted in reduced environmental impacts (greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient discharges). (greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient discharges). The work with women retailers increased understanding The work with women retailers increased understanding of this vulnerable group and led to the development of a of this vulnerable group and led to the development of a toolkit of approaches that could be scaled out to other toolkit of approaches that could be scaled out to other Research and policy dialogues led by ICRAF in communities. The main benefit achieved appears to Research and policy dialogues led by ICRAF incommunities. The main benefit achieved appears to collaboration between PIM and FTA have helped the have been the empowerment that they gained from collaboration between PIM and FTA have helped thehave been the empowerment that they gained from Indonesian Directorate General of Social Forestry and being able to work together in a group and advocate for Indonesian Directorate General of Social Forestry andbeing able to work together in a group and advocate for Environment Partnership to design a decree for their rights with local authorities and other value chain Environment Partnership to design a decree fortheir rights with local authorities and other value chain enforcing guidelines for the rapid assessment of actors, such as wholesalers. enforcing guidelines for the rapid assessment ofactors, such as wholesalers. tenurial conflict in forest areas. In addition, the tenurial conflict in forest areas. In addition, the guidelines have been modified for a teaching curriculum WLE and CCAFS are collaborating with private sector guidelines have been modified for a teaching curriculumWLE and CCAFS are collaborating with private sector and syllabus on conflict mediation. The curriculum, insurance companies, government and research and syllabus on conflict mediation. The curriculum,insurance companies, government and research designed to assist forest managers from government institutions to help farmers affected by extreme weather designed to assist forest managers from governmentinstitutions to help farmers affected by extreme weather agencies or private companies in identifying and solving events in Bihar, India, with weather-based crop agencies or private companies in identifying and solvingevents in Bihar, India, with weather-based crop forest tenure conflicts, has been endorsed by the insurance, called Indexed-Based Flood Insurance (IBFI). forest tenure conflicts, has been endorsed by theinsurance, called Indexed-Based Flood Insurance (IBFI). Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry. IBFI uses remote sensing and modelling to support a Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry.IBFI uses remote sensing and modelling to support a low-cost crop insurance product offered to farmers by a low-cost crop insurance product offered to farmers by a FTA research on synergies and tradeoffs of Joint major private-sector insurance provider, Bajaj Allianz. In FTA research on synergies and tradeoffs of Jointmajor private-sector insurance provider, Bajaj Allianz. In Mitigation and Adaptation (JMA), in particular, the 2016, 307,677 ha were under flood insurance coverage. Mitigation and Adaptation (JMA), in particular, the2016, 307,677 ha were under flood insurance coverage. production of new evidence for tropical landscapes and After a major flood in August, the project provided crop production of new evidence for tropical landscapes andAfter a major flood in August, the project provided crop new methods and tools, is influencing global climate damage estimates for rice and maize over an area of new methods and tools, is influencing global climatedamage estimates for rice and maize over an area of change negotiations. JMA is now entrenched in the on- 30,357 ha, for which Baja Allianz reportedly covered change negotiations. JMA is now entrenched in the on-30,357 ha, for which Baja Allianz reportedly covered going UNFCCC negotiations and in the work of the losses to farmers of some USD 34 million. going UNFCCC negotiations and in the work of thelosses to farmers of some USD 34 million. Green Climate Fund. Green Climate Fund. "},{"text":"3 Type 3 CRPs: Addressing newer, integrative and systemic issues outputs Global Nutrition Report 2016, as the go-to reference for decision makers, implementers and researchers for nutrition data globally. According to Altmetric, the Report is in the top 5% of all research 2.ever tracked. A4NH and ILRI scientists were involved in a series of papers on climate change and disease that highlighted the effects of climate change on the distribution of livestock diseases, priorities for modelling livestock health and pathogens and tracking progress on health and climate change. Climate change can indeed exacerbate disease in livestock and many of these are foodborne and/or zoonotic diseases. A4NH, ILRI and partners produced the first ever global mapping of antimicrobial use in livestock showing huge and increasing amounts driven by BRICs in 2015 and in 2016 they continued to build on the momentum generated through publications onantimicrobial use (and resistance) in agriculture in high impact journals, including The Lancet. GreenSeeker tool in 75% of the 666,000 ha of wheat production in Mexico to reduce N 2 O emissions by a minimum of 25%. Aflatoxins are one of the many 'silent' threats in Africa. A4NH research carried out by IITA, ILRI, and IFPRI has drawn attention to viable solutions for controlling and mitigating aflatoxins in specific African countries and contexts. One such solution is a biocontrol product, generically referred to as Aflasafe. IITA, with the US Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service and local national institutions, has successfully adapted the technology, reducing groundnut and maize aflatoxin contamination consistently by at least 80 percent. Supported by A4NH, other donors, and national governments, IITA's ambitious plan for expanding Aflasafe to 13 countries in Africa involves several steps, from collecting baseline data on aflatoxin prevalence to gaining regulatory approval and completing efficacy trials until partners, both public and private, are prepared to take the product to scale. The number of farmers using Aflasafe and selling certified aflatoxin safe maize in Nigeria has more than doubled in one year (13,241 farmer) and hectarage covered (19,726 ha) and safe maize produced (35,186 tons) have more than trebled in the same period. Outcomes Outcomes In terms of outcomes, HT reports that uptake of the In terms of outcomes, HT reports that uptake of the Rural Household Multiple Indicator (RHoMIS) survey Rural Household Multiple Indicator (RHoMIS) survey tool and resulting database was higher than expected. tool and resulting database was higher than expected. More than 10 agricultural development projects are More than 10 agricultural development projects are either using the tool or are planning to do so. RHoMIS either using the tool or are planning to do so. RHoMIS has now been applied in more than 30 sites in 15 has now been applied in more than 30 sites in 15 countries. Seven different agricultural research countries. Seven different agricultural research organizations have used it and are continuing to use it, organizations have used it and are continuing to use it, while 3 NGOs and one government organization are while 3 NGOs and one government organization are using it. RHoMIS is a spatial targeting tool which uses standardized indicator sets and procedures for data Impacts using it. RHoMIS is a spatial targeting tool which uses standardized indicator sets and procedures for dataImpacts collection and data analysis at smallholder farm Regarding progress towards impacts, CCAFS reported collection and data analysis at smallholder farmRegarding progress towards impacts, CCAFS reported household level. It quantitatively links agricultural that measurable impact in 2016 has included more than household level. It quantitatively links agriculturalthat measurable impact in 2016 has included more than management and production options to income, food 9 million people across 3 continents receiving new and management and production options to income, food9 million people across 3 continents receiving new and security and nutritional status and identifies and tracks improved climate advisory services, improved security and nutritional status and identifies and tracksimproved climate advisory services, improved different development pathways to improve income, weather-index insurance products reaching more than a different development pathways to improve income,weather-index insurance products reaching more than a food security and nutritional status of different groups million households, and reaching 50,000 women in food security and nutritional status of different groupsmillion households, and reaching 50,000 women in of smallholder farmers, within and across sites in the South Asia with peer-to-peer climate-smart training of smallholder farmers, within and across sites in theSouth Asia with peer-to-peer climate-smart training developing world. tailored to their needs and priorities. In terms of welfare developing world.tailored to their needs and priorities. In terms of welfare and climate resilience, CCAFS work has led for example and climate resilience, CCAFS work has led for example Whilst climate smart villages continue to be scaled up to increases in income for 179,000 dairy farmers in East Whilst climate smart villages continue to be scaled upto increases in income for 179,000 dairy farmers in East (in particular, in India and Nepal), CCAFS methods and Africa (ILRI and ICRAF), coupled with reduced (in particular, in India and Nepal), CCAFS methods andAfrica (ILRI and ICRAF), coupled with reduced tools developed in their climate smart villages and their emissions, raising wheat yields in South Asia by 9% tools developed in their climate smart villages and theiremissions, raising wheat yields in South Asia by 9% country climate risk profiles were used by the World (WHEAT, CIMMYT), through conservation agriculture country climate risk profiles were used by the World(WHEAT, CIMMYT), through conservation agriculture Bank to shape USD 360 million of investments in climate while also saving water costs via laser land levelling, Bank to shape USD 360 million of investments in climatewhile also saving water costs via laser land levelling, smart agriculture in Kenya and Niger. Another and saving rice farmers' water and input costs in smart agriculture in Kenya and Niger. Anotherand saving rice farmers' water and input costs in significant outcome is that 5 different countries Vietnam (GRiSP, IRRI) and West Africa (AfricaRice). significant outcome is that 5 different countriesVietnam (GRiSP, IRRI) and West Africa (AfricaRice). (Colombia, Kenya, Costa Rica, Peru, and Vietnam) used (Colombia, Kenya, Costa Rica, Peru, and Vietnam) used CCAFS science to inform CCAFS science to inform (i) their national decision-making related to Nationally (i) their national decision-making related to Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions, Nationally Determined Appropriate Mitigation Actions, Nationally Determined Contributions, (ii) their concept notes to the Green Contributions, (ii) their concept notes to the Green Climate Fund, or (iii) country planning processes to Climate Fund, or (iii) country planning processes to scale up low emissions practices. CCAFS continued to scale up low emissions practices. CCAFS continued to "},{"text":"Taking stock of key success elements achieved by end-2016 meeting paper to the 4 th System Council meeting in May 2017 15 ), W1-2 funds are mainly used by CRPs to support: baselines). Bilateral funds cannot really replace W1-2 baselines). Bilateral funds cannot really replace W1-2 funds for such uses as it is extremely difficult to credibly funds for such uses as it is extremely difficult to credibly (i) the delivery of international public goods by undertaking analyses of results across sites and and transparently apportion most of these uses to bilateral projects. (i) the delivery of international public goods by undertaking analyses of results across sites andand transparently apportion most of these uses to bilateral projects. regions; (ii) ensuring effective CRP management, including undertaking essential foresight, monitoring, evaluation and learning, gender and other cross cutting activities; (iii) collaborations with new partners; (iv) activities to respond to sudden changes in the research environment (e.g., emergence of a new crop disease), in addition to funding high priority research for Decreases in W1-2 thus threaten the ability of CRPs to continue functioning as global research for development partnerships, weaving diverse research projects together into a coherent global portfolio and planning work over multiple years with, in particular, NARS and other partners external to CGIAR. regions; (ii) ensuring effective CRP management, including undertaking essential foresight, monitoring, evaluation and learning, gender and other cross cutting activities; (iii) collaborations with new partners; (iv) activities to respond to sudden changes in the research environment (e.g., emergence of a new crop disease), in addition to funding high priority research forDecreases in W1-2 thus threaten the ability of CRPs to continue functioning as global research for development partnerships, weaving diverse research projects together into a coherent global portfolio and planning work over multiple years with, in particular, NARS and other partners external to CGIAR. development activities that are difficult to fund development activities that are difficult to fund bilaterally (e.g., design of new methodologies, work on bilaterally (e.g., design of new methodologies, work on "},{"text":"Table 1 -Evolution from 2012 to 2016 of W1-2 funds, as a percentage of CRPs total expenditures. "},{"text":"Appendix 1 Genebank CRP 2016 -Summary Annual Report CGIAR genebanks presently manage 757,767 The genebanks continue to improve the availability of CGIAR genebanks presently manage 757,767The genebanks continue to improve the availability of accessions, including 23,682 in vitro accessions and accessions. A total of 119,011 accessions are now accessions, including 23,682 in vitro accessions andaccessions. A total of 119,011 accessions are now 29,122 accessions held as plants or trees in the field. immediately available that were not available in 2012, 29,122 accessions held as plants or trees in the field.immediately available that were not available in 2012, Approximately 77% of total accessions are immediately added to which routine multiplication has supported the Approximately 77% of total accessions are immediatelyadded to which routine multiplication has supported the available for international distribution under the distribution of 590,936 samples over the course of the available for international distribution under thedistribution of 590,936 samples over the course of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (Figure 3). past five years. Of the seed accessions, 56% is secured Standard Material Transfer Agreement (Figure 3).past five years. Of the seed accessions, 56% is secured in safety duplication at two levels, and 88% of in safety duplication at two levels, and 88% of accessions of clonal crop collections is safety accessions of clonal crop collections is safety duplicated in the form of in vitro or cryopreserved duplicated in the form of in vitro or cryopreserved samples. Currently, 87% of accessions has passport or samples. Currently, 87% of accessions has passport or characterization data accessible online. characterization data accessible online. Figure 3. Figure 3. 2000 2000 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 All genebanks are actively improving the availability and distributed Numbers of samples 80,000 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 All genebanks are actively improving the availability and distributed Numbers of samples80,000 safety duplication of the collections through seed 0 2013 2012 multiplication, viability testing and disease cleaning (see Annex A to this Appendix 1). These activities have been 2014 2015 2016 safety duplication of the collections through seed 0 2013 2012 multiplication, viability testing and disease cleaning (see Annex A to this Appendix 1). These activities have been201420152016 Within CGIAR Outside CGIAR Within CGIAROutside CGIAR "},{"text":"Status of availability and safety duplication of CGIAR genebanks, 2012 to 2016 funded through Recommendation Action Plans, which funded through Recommendation Action Plans, which were developed by each Center in response to review were developed by each Center in response to review recommendations. Of the total aggregate collection, recommendations. Of the total aggregate collection, 13% (100,223) of accessions were planted out in the 13% (100,223) of accessions were planted out in the field for multiplication or regeneration or subcultured in field for multiplication or regeneration or subcultured in vitro in 2016. vitro in 2016. "},{"text":"Table 2 (below) attempts to (below) attempts to "},{"text":"Table 2 . Examples of gains made in efficiency Center Center Reported conservation management efficiencies Establishment of virus indexing services in University of Liège and reduction of pre-indexing procedure from 6 months to 3 months or less CIAT• Species prioritization enables the stratification of the forages collection and potential archiving of 52% of grass and 58% legume species • 10% increase in acceptance rate of forage accessions and 5% in bean accessions through heath testing after improved seed production in the field • Deployment of hand-held devices for all data collection • 81% of cassava accessions now available after entire collection screened for cassavaGraduate student scholarship in partnership with Bioversity, KULeuven, & RBG Kew NARS partner training on Musa characterization & documentation. Curators from 16 NARS collections from East & Southern Africa attended the workshop in Uganda Training of staff from national genebank partners in Germany, China, & South Korea on tissue culture of vegetatively propagated crops, cryopreservation of banana & other vegetative crops, genebanking & genebank data management Germplasm health testing service with Université de Liège Germplasm characterization with IEB (Institute of Experimental Botany, Czech Republic) & USDA (Puerto Rico) Seed lots of a wide range of wild banana species were received from USDA, Puerto Rico, CIRAD, Guadeloupe, NARI, Papua New Guinea for conservation research Banana collecting mission conducted in Bougainville, PNG by NARI (PNG), Bioversity, Botanic Garden Meise (Belgium) Future Food project (Norwegian Government) with NIBIO, Piql, Bioversity on the development of a secure storage & future proof-access system for data of cryopreserved biological material Phenseedata, Belgian Development Cooperation funded project (July 2016-June 2017) aims to expand the services of the Bioversity International Musa germplasm Transit Centre (ITC) & the use of the global banana collection Germplasm explorations in Costa Rica with the University of Costa Rica Selection of 5,000 landraces from Latin America through the Bean-Adapt Project (Italy, USA, Germany) Cassava clones distributed to 6 NARS of Central America Cassava clones distributed to the IAEA for screening for herbicide tolerance & starch with novel properties CIAT Farmers' field days with local communities on highland maizeStaff exchange with USDA • Increased rate of annual seed multiplication by 50% • Increased rate of annual seed multiplication by 50% • 72% increase in accessions in long-term storage (from 42% of the collection to 67%) • 72% increase in accessions in long-term storage (from 42% of the collection to 67%) since 2012 since 2012 • 67% reduction in seed processing time from harvest to storage from 6 to 2 months • 67% reduction in seed processing time from harvest to storage from 6 to 2 months • Germination tests indicate 97% accessions have maintained adequate viability over • Germination tests indicate 97% accessions have maintained adequate viability over 20-year period in long-term storage 20-year period in long-term storage Bioversity • Safety measures (e.g. oxygen alarm) put in place to manage liquid nitrogen Bioversity• Safety measures (e.g. oxygen alarm) put in place to manage liquid nitrogen • Measures agreed to make available approx. 30% of the collection affected by banana • Measures agreed to make available approx. 30% of the collection affected by banana streak virus streak virus • 66% accessions genotyped using SSR markers • 66% accessions genotyped using SSR markers • frogskin disease • frogskin disease CIMMYT • New stratified curation policy will result in archiving of wheat accessions and reduction CIMMYT• New stratified curation policy will result in archiving of wheat accessions and reduction in monitoring needs in monitoring needs • New drying room for maize collection has improved seed processing • New drying room for maize collection has improved seed processing CIP • 36% reduction in size of field/screenhouse collections since 2012 CIP• 36% reduction in size of field/screenhouse collections since 2012 • Installation of a liquid Nitrogen plant saving USD18K/yr in supply costs • Installation of a liquid Nitrogen plant saving USD18K/yr in supply costs • Barcoding in place for all transactions in seed processing chain from acquisition to • Barcoding in place for all transactions in seed processing chain from acquisition to distribution distribution • First level duplication established at Huancayo significantly increasing security of the • First level duplication established at Huancayo significantly increasing security of the collection and reducing need for in vitro multiplication collection and reducing need for in vitro multiplication • 40% potato collection cryobanked and substantial gains in efficiency of • 40% potato collection cryobanked and substantial gains in efficiency of cryopreservation process described under section B.a.ii cryopreservation process described under section B.a.ii ICARDA • Construction of genebanks and resumption of routine genebank operations in two ICARDA• Construction of genebanks and resumption of routine genebank operations in two Lebanon and Morocco Lebanon and Morocco • 200 isolation cages installed for regeneration of cross-pollinating (mainly wild) species • 200 isolation cages installed for regeneration of cross-pollinating (mainly wild) species ICRAF • Major improvement in storage conditions and seed packing ICRAF• Major improvement in storage conditions and seed packing • Dormancy breaking procedure improved for baobab and other species resulting in • Dormancy breaking procedure improved for baobab and other species resulting in increased levels of viability increased levels of viability • Consolidation of field collections and field sites under way as part of acquisition and • Consolidation of field collections and field sites under way as part of acquisition and retention strategy retention strategy "},{"text":"Table 3 . Partnership building with NARS & national genebanks by Center Center Partnership building activity capacity building events were organized in 2016 and a total of 153 participants from 39 countries have been trained.In 2016, Bioversity, CIP, IITA and ILRI uploaded new accession data into the global portal, Genesys, (www.genesys-pgr.org). The Passport Data Completion Index (PDCI) increased for these Centers as illustrated in Table4. At the end of 2016, Genesys contained AfricaRice 5.62 AfricaRice5.62 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Passport Data Completeness Index in Genesys Center Average PDCI 2015 Average PDCI 2015 records on 3.61 million accessions. The increase is due to significant data contributions also from the Australian Pastures and Grains Genebanks (83,465 and 138,016 accessions respectively), the Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (2,163 accessions) and the World Vegetable Center (61,952 accessions).Annex A to Appendix 1: Status of accession availability and safety duplication "}],"sieverID":"80c0bcfa-5c06-41d5-ad93-a9914d755f4c","abstract":"This report was approved by the CGIAR System Management Board on 31 August 2017."}

data/part_3/01470fd3b3c77c788628b33cc9b97ecb.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"01470fd3b3c77c788628b33cc9b97ecb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2caec49-709a-4066-9e23-ebec88191d07/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Strategies for Combating Climate Change in Drylands Agriculture CCAFS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"About this report","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The aim of this report is to examine the problem of changing climate patterns in dry land areas and its effect on rural populations and offer some practical solutions, as input the Conference of Conference of the Parties (COP18) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) It has been prepared to inform government policy makers and agricultural planners in dryland countries, and development partners, of the issues at stake and present options available to reducing risk and increasing productivity of agriculture in drylands agricultural systems."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The information presented here comes from discussions at the International Conference on Food Security in Dry Lands, held in Doha, Qatar, on Nov 14-15, 2012. It is informed by the body of agricultural research produced by three authors of this report: The Doha conference brought together a large number of dryland government ministers with researchers, policy makers, donors, NGOs, farmers' unions and private agribusiness enterprises to explore the challenge of increasing agricultural production in dry countries, under conditions of severe water scarcity and climate change."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"The ministers' recommendations, resulted in the Doha Declaration (see Annexe), which is taken forward on behalf of the Dry Lands to the 18th session of the Conference on Parties of the UN Conference of Parties of the Convention on Climate Change (COP 18), which opened in Doha in November 2012."}]},{"head":"Risks and opportunities for dry land agriculture. New solutions to tackle climate change","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The added-value that agriculture and agricultural research brings to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change"}]},{"head":"Changes in climate patterns have the most acute effect on people living in the world's dry areas and marginal lands. As these rural communities are largely dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods, it follows that research innovations provided by agricultural research and improved 'integrated agro-ecosystem' farming approaches are probably the primary protection for these people from climate-related shifts. This is also why agricultural innovation and research should be recognized as strategic priorities of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The evidence presented in this report shows that many of the most effective climate change interventions have their roots in agriculture. Targeted agricultural investment in spreading the technologies and practices described here, and backed up by robust policies, can reduce the vulnerability of farming communities to drought and climate change and sustainably improve agricultural productivity."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Against a backdrop of increasing climate change, a primary challenge for decision makers in the world's dry lands will be helping rural communities to earn a living and produce food securely in a situation where land is degraded, water scarce, and rainfall and temperature patterns increasingly unpredictable."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Viable options and interventions exist today. They include using: improved crop varieties and livestock breeds; farming approaches to reduce risk and improve nutrition; making farming for communities living in on marginal lands more resilient; and methods for making the best possible use of the scarce water available. Approaches such as diversification of cropping systems, more efficient water management and conservation agriculture can contribute to securing livelihoods for rural people and increasing food security for the dry land countries."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Likewise, 'climate smart' strategies and technologies will have an important role to play in helping producers to adapt to changing weather patterns and adopt more sustainable farming methods that protect fragile natural resources. Given the importance of agriculture to dryland countries, where farming is still the backbone of the economy, it is crucial that this sector receives the investment and policy support it needs to move forward."}]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"If farmers are given the chance to seize the opportunities available, they can increase food production to keep pace with the growing population and reduce the need for costly food imports. To achieve this goal, they must change some of their practices and embrace new methods, while continuing to preserve some of the most effective systems handed down through generations."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Projections from the recently launched CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems suggest that planned interventions will result in higher and more secure incomes for 87 million people in dryland systems, while improving the productive capacity of natural resources and reducing environmental degradation in nearly 11 billion hectares of dry areas."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Within six years, agriculture productivity and production can be increased by 20 to 30% in high potential areas and 10 to 20% in low potential areas or marginal lands. Out-scaling of proven technologies will cover a far wider area and improve the standard of living of a much larger population."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Strong agricultural adaptation measures are the key to developing food production in dry lands, but these are contingent on policy and financial support. Since agriculture holds so many of the answers to challenges posed by changing weather patterns, it makes sense that this sector takes center-stage in climate change negotiations."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Agriculture holds the key to many dry land problems. Urgent action in favor of agriculture will help build food and water security and mitigate the negative effects of climate change."}]},{"head":"Key problems facing dryland countries:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"• Food production systems in dryland countries are highly fragile • Some 16% of the population of dry lands live in poverty • Food imports are untenably high • Water scarcity is a constant and growing problem • Adverse climate events (extreme heat and cold; drought and flooding) are aggravating vulnerability"}]},{"head":"Proposed solutions:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Securing more resilience and reducing vulnerability of people living in marginal lands • Achieving sustainable intensification of higher-potential agricultural areas • Taking an integrated agro-ecosystem approach to these actions."}]},{"head":"Dryland agriculture -a core issue for climate change","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Risks posed by degraded land and scarce water resources Dry areas cover more than 40% of the world's land surface and are home to 2.5 billion people -one-third of the global population. Poverty, food insecurity, biodiversity loss, frequent drought and environmental degradation are widespread."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In recent decades, food production has fallen significantly in most dry areas, while demand has increased due to high levels of population growth. These areas face several demographic challenges -rapid population growth, high urbanization, large youth populations and among the world's highest unemployment rate."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Climate change is already exacerbating these countries' problems, and experts predict that the situation is going to get worse."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"The global food crisis of 2007/8 and subsequent price hikes have highlighted the danger of policies based on food imports. The dryland areas have a strong reliance on imported food, especially wheat, which is a staple product and which suffers from substantially lower yields than those of many other regions -up to 30% below the global average."}]},{"head":"Scarce water availability limits food production","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Water scarcity is a constant and growing problem for dryland countries. The dry lands have less than eight per cent of the world's renewable water resources and are challenged by extreme temperatures, frequent drought, land degradation and desertification."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Across all dryland areas, scarce water availability is the key limiting factor for food production. All these countries are suffering from severe groundwater depletion and salinity, compounded by rapid natural resource degradation and desertification."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The Middle East and North Africa is the most water scarce region in the world, and the problem is set to deteriorate."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Famines and disasters have hit dry lands with increasing intensity and have, together with spikes in food prices, led to political unrest in many countries. With climate change, such events may become even more frequent."}]},{"head":"Climate change takes a high toll on agriculture","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"There is a strong link between food security, climate change, water security and poverty and agriculture plays a key role in the equation. Agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change. Unreliable precipitation patterns increase the likelihood of crop failure and falls in production of both crops and livestock. In many dryland countries, the effects can already be seen as climate change makes the delicate ecosystem balance even more precarious. Climate change is causing more frequent and intense periods of drought as overall rainfall levels decline. Temperatures are more extreme -both hot and cold -and climatic zones are shifting. This results in shorter growing seasons for farmers and in prevalence of pests and diseases in areas where they were not previously a threat to crops. If temperatures rise by 4 degrees Celsius, as forecast by some climate change models, vast areas of dry lands will have their growing seasons cut by more than 20%."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Access to food is also threatened, and there are fears that this will be further compromised in dryland areas due to lower incomes and the emergence of new pests and diseases caused by a changing climate. In dryland countries that are already geopolitically volatile, such developments could have a serious impact on social and political stability."}]},{"head":"Climate initiatives and climate smart technologies.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Without vigorous adaptation measures, use of new practice and technologies -and policies and financing to support them, there can be little hope of reaching poverty alleviation and food security goals. Farmers and other players in food production value chains can make key contributions to sustainable food and water security, provided they have access to technologies and support to help them adjust their practices to take account of changing weather patterns. Climate initiatives and 'climate smart' technologies can help increase food production for a growing population, while safeguarding precious natural resources."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Adaptation measures not only improve food security. They can also contribute to reducing the impact of climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Agriculture is a major contributor to climate change, through deforestation for land cultivation, methane emissions from livestock production and unsustainable practices in food production systems. The sector is also the biggest user of the world's freshwater resources -up to 90% in some countries. "}]},{"head":"Many","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"UNFCCC and agriculture","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The next round --COP18"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"The COP 18 talks, in Doha, Qatar, from Nov 26 to Dec 7, represent an important opportunity for countries with extensive dry lands to shape the global climate agenda and ensure that food security receives attention in the negotiations."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Climate change adaptation is a costly process, and if dry areas are to maintain -or increase -food production under these conditions, it is essential that they are able to tap into any funding made available. The prospect of agriculture continuing to be bypassed in negotiations carries the risk that the sector will lose out on substantial funding for climate change. The Green Climate Fund has a target of US$100 billion by 2020. The fund will be used to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Current state of play: Agriculture's place in the UN Climate Change Framework As things stand, agriculture has been all but excluded from international negotiations on climate change. However, some progress has been made in achieving more focus for agriculture in the UNFCCC agenda. At COP 17, held in Durban in December 2011, with vigorous support from host country South Africa, agriculture was specifically mentioned in the UNFCCC text for the first time. A small victory perhaps, but a significant step in the right direction."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Specifically, at COP 17, there was:"},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"• High level support for inclusion of agriculture • Wide support, e.g. across Africa and in OECD countries, for agriculture (though perspectives differed on how to deal with it in the negotiations). • Agriculture graduated from \"Long-term Co-operative Actions\" (LCAs) to the \"Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice\" (SBSTA) • A call for submissions on an agriculture work-plan under SBSTA."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"The next stage will be establishing a SBSTA agenda for agriculture -a work program on agriculture. This should provide the evidence and methods to achieve development goals of mitigation, improved food security and more resilient livelihoods and where feasible, mitigation. SBSTA has been mandated to consider issues related to agriculture and to prepare a decision to be adopted at COP18 in Qatar."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"Although there have been divergent views of countries regarding adaptation and mitigation approaches, submissions to date have shown a high degree of consensus on the need for a programme of work to include: • Better information on agriculture and climate change -knowledge on both adaptation and mitigation, including lessons from the developing world • Dissemination and use of knowledge to improve farming practices: so as to:"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"increase outputs adapt to changing conditions and reduce emissions."}]},{"head":"Moving agriculture further up the climate change agenda","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Interview:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Prof. Thomas Rosswall, chairman of the CGIAR Independent Science Panel for the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"How is agriculture linked to climate change? \"Agriculture is part of the problem, but it is also part of the solution. Agricultureand its impact on deforestation -account for one-third of greenhouse gas emissions. So better agricultural practices are very important for mitigating climate change. Agriculture is also one of the sectors that will be hardest hit by climate change. In the dry lands, additional decreases in rainfall and more drought will exacerbate an already very difficult situation.\""},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"So what needs to be done? \"Agriculture can contribute to mitigation, by intensifying current land to avoid deforestation and other land use changes. By increasing storage of carbon in vegetation and soil, and by reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions. These factors also contribute to adaptation and create a win-win situation.\""},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"What about adaptation for dryland farmers? \"Small-scale farmers have so far had very little opportunity to adapt. Climate change adaptation will be very costly for agriculture. It is absolutely essential that the agriculture sectors receives a share of funding available.\""},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"How can funding be channeled to the agriculture sector? \"Climate financing is essential and 10% of national budgets must go to agriculture and food security. Countries driving greenhouse gas emissions must also pay. The Green Climate Fund must reach its US$100bn target by 2020. COP 18 offers a unique opportunity for governments to ensure that food security gets attention in the negotiations.\" "}]},{"head":"Strategies, technologies and best practices","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Land and water, crops and livestock"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The situation is serious, but certainly not hopeless. With more targeted research and investment, there are good prospects for reducing risk and even improving agricultural output, despite climate change. A number of practical approachestested in recent agricultural research initiatives -can improve prospects for farmers and rural communities."}]},{"head":"Sustainable intensification for high potential land, more resilience for marginal lands","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Iproved crop varieties that can resist temperature extremes, drought and disease, different land and water management practices, diverse cropping and mixed crop-livestock systems can all bolster food security and increase incomes for rural communities. The challenge in dry areas is how to produce more with very little. To do that, it is crucial to favor crop varieties and livestock breeds that make efficient use of the natural resources available."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Improving efficiency, without using more land There are two key strategies for the world's dry lands. In high potential rural areas, where there is relatively high rainfall, the target must be sustainable intensification of food production -with the accent on sustainable. Egypt is an example of this type of ecosystem. In high potential areas, 72% of increased food production is expected to come from agricultural intensification. 21% is expected to come from cropping intensity. And only 7% will come from an increase in arable land."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"For the low potential marginal lands, it will be important to make the natural resource base more resilient to climate change, reducing risk and vulnerability for the worst affected rural communities. Food production here is likely to center around the rearing of sheep and goats, though this may be coupled with production of hardy drought resistant fodder crops. A good example is the Awasi sheep, a sturdy native breed that gives resilience to rural communities in the Middle East. Awasi offer considerable potential for use across marginal lands in many dryland countries (Central and West Asia, East and North Africa) bringing nutrition and new income streams to rural communities from milk products, wool or meat."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"A three-pronged approach should target:"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• Sustainable natural resource management, especially water More agricultural modernization, driven by science and technology, is key to increasing food production in dry areas."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"In seven countries across North and sub-Saharan Africa, new approaches tested by national research and extension systems, with ICARDA, have produced a 22% increase in wheat yields for Egypt and a 58% increase in Sudan -based not just on trials, but on actual farmer experiences. Techniques include the use of different planting methods, high yielding varieties, improved water management and integrated pest management."}]},{"head":"Climate change -problem or opportunity?","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"With sustainable intensification, climate change can actually become an opportunity to increase yields. Climate change brings with it higher levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). If water levels are adequate, a plant can convert this CO2 into a form of natural fertilizer. The plant uses the carbon for photosynthesis, and grows bigger and better as a result."}]},{"head":"Genetic improvement -more productive crop varieties and livestock breeds","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Advances in crop science to produce improved and higher-performing crops and livestock hold exciting prospects for making dryland food production systems more efficient, and more resistant to pressure from drought, extremes of cold and heat, unpredictable rainfall and new pests and diseases. For optimal performance, varieties can be targeted to specific farming systems, depending on local conditions and stresses"},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Releases of plant genetic materials from ICARDA's gene banks, which host wild relatives of barley, wheat and legumes, has led to the development of crops with higher yields and greater resistance to a range of biotic stresses. Some varieties also offer large improvements in bread-making quality, nutritional value and other traits. What are some of the main challenges currently facing dry lands? \"Key biophysical constraints include natural resource limitations and degradation, particularly water scarcity and encroaching desertification, in addition to salinity problems in irrigated areas. Livelihoods are also constrained by non-biophysical limitations such as inadequate and unequal access to land, water, markets and inputs and limited access to information about alternative production technologies.\""},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Given these difficulties, what should the approach be? \"The challenges are complex, to the point where there is no silver bullet for solving these problems. But there are practical solutions available today that will increase food security. These practical solutions follow an integrated approach involving sustainable natural resource management and inputs; crop and livestock genetic improvement; socio-economic considerationsand require an enabling policy environment. Partnerships are also critical success factors, considering the complexity of the challenges facing drylands and the need for an integrated approach. Countries now need more precise action plans to follow an integrated approach and develop strategic partnerships to find solutions to increase the productivity agriculture in the dry drylands.\""},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"How much real potential is there, given the serious threat posed by climate change? \"The possibilities for improving food security in dry lands are tremendous. The two major target areas are sustainable intensification -and it is crucial to underline sustainability, without excessive use of water -and increasing resilience for marginal lands. For example, the use of 'raised bed' farming for wheat in parts of Egypt during the past two seasons has resulted in a yield increase of 20%, using 20% less water. In rangeland areas, herders are being encouraged to diversify, and to produce value-added products such as yoghurt and cheese.\""},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"How important is it to invest in scientific research for agriculture? \"Science-based agricultural technologies are a real force for increasing food security in dry areas. Unfortunately, in the developing world, many countries have not invested in science and technology for agriculture. Those countries who have invested -such as China, India and Argentina -have grown very well, but in most parts of the developing world there is the feeling that investment in agriculture does not contribute to the national economy -we need to help change this thinking.\""},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"So what can be done to mobilize more investment in agricultural research and technology? \"I think we as scientists have a very important role to play. It is important that we demonstrate the benefits and impact of agricultural research to decision makers -to ministries of agriculture but also to ministries of planning and finance. A study we have done on investment in a wheat initiative in Upper Egypt demonstrates returns of 37%. This shows what is possible, and what can be spread to others countries and regions, in a real-life farming situation.\""},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"Already, scientists have produced some convincing results: More than 880 new varieties have been released for cultivation, generating annual benefits worth US$850 million."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"• Dryland researchers have developed synthetic wheat varieties that can produce 2.5 tonnes per ha with just 220 mm of water."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"• Between 2005 and 2007, Syria turned from being a wheat importer to a wheat exporting country with the help of new improved plant varieties, and supplemen tal irrigation -which targets the critical period in crop growth -and inputs."},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"• In Sudan south of Khartoum, an irrigated heat-tolerant variety is enabling farmers to grow wheat in an area where temperatures were too high and the season too short for growing traditional varieties."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"• In Bangladesh, new lentil varieties combine high protein levels with micronutri ents such as zinc and iron."},{"index":12,"size":75,"text":"• A drought tolerant variety of chick pea introduced in Turkey had such strong resistance that it was able to withstand the searing temperatures and rainfall scarcity of the 2007 drought. The 'Gokce' variety is now used for about 80% of the country's chickpea production. With a yield advantage of 300 kg/ha over other varieties and world prices of over US$1000/t, this variety brought in an additional US$165 million for Turkish farmers in 2007 alone."}]},{"head":"Diversification --spreading the risk to earn higher revenues","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Diversification of agricultural systems can be an effective means of mitigating risk and increasing income. In both high potential areas and marginal lands, this approach is proving an important strategy."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Herders in rangeland areas are being encouraged to produce value-added products such as yoghurt and cheese from their sheep and goats. Plans to develop crops with low water requirements are another option. In Tunisia, pastoralists are growing spineless cactus as fodder for their ruminants. The Awasi sheep, a hardy native breed brings resilience to rural communities in the Middle East. With good resistance to high temperatures and low rainfall, this is one of several indigenous breeds that have considerable potential for use across marginal lands in many dry land countries, providing meat, milk and wool for farmers."}]},{"head":"Integrated crop-livestock systems Crops or livestock. Why not both?","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Farmers do not always have to choose between crop or livestock systems. New methods are needed to cope with a changing situation and integrating crop-livestock systems can be a highly effective way of cushioning each sector from external pressure and getting maximum effects from a symbiosis of both. Successful technologies that combine crop and livestock systems include:"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• On-farm feed production • Rotation of barley with forage legumes • Growing cactus and fodder shrubs • Making feed blocks from crop residues and agro industrial by-products"}]},{"head":"Conservation agriculture produces more for less","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Conservation agriculture (CA) -also known as zero till and no till --is particularly well suited to dryland farming, especially in rainfed conditions. The technique involves avoiding tilling soil, conserving nutrients and water in the undisturbed soil, and retaining crop stubble. Crop rotation is an important part of the approach, which produces significant benefits through lower production costs, higher yields and better soil health and nutrient recycling. Under conservation agriculture soil carbon is retained and increased, contributing to climate change mitigation."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Field trials on wheat, barley, lentil and chickpea have produced documented evidence. By using conservation agriculture together with good crop management, farmers can increase net revenues by about US$120 per hectare. The extra revenue comes from higher yields (12% increase) and lower production costs (saving of $40 per hectare for each eliminated plowing). In four years, adoption has grown from zero to almost 27,000 hectares in Iraq and Syria. To encourage mechanization, specially designed zero-tillage seeders have been developed. These are manufactured locally by small-scale entrepreneurs. They cost $1,500 to $5,000, compared with $50,000 to $60,000 for imported machines 9 "}]},{"head":"Small-scale animal breeding produces big results","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Community","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"So what are the options?","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Most countries are relying on increasing the efficiency of irrigation systems to save water. My argument is that this will not solve the problem -they will not have enough water to increase productivity sufficiently to achieve food security. Part of the solution should come from increasing water productivitythe return for a cubic meter of water."}]},{"head":"Could you explain this concept?","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Currently, the strategy is to increase the return on cubic production unit of land. But our research shows that increasing yields requires more water. The same goes for expanding land area under cultivation. So this approach is not valid for water scarce areas facing climate change."}]},{"head":"What do you propose in its place?","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Instead of focusing on land and yield we should shift the focus to water productivity. The total return of m3 of water consumed. With less water, you can produce more food."}]},{"head":"Can you give examples of some techniques?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Using deficit irrigation, you irrigate less than the full requirement. You may reduce the yield by 10%, but you will save 50% of water. You can use this water on other land. With supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops in dry lands, you apply a little irrigation selectively, during shortages. That saves the crop and improves quality. This is especially important for climate change."}]},{"head":"What other options are available to farmers?","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Water harvesting can be very effective, concentrating water into, for example, small basins where you can grow crops. Farmers can also space crops in strips, leaving a fallow strip in between. The water flows into the planted area, with help from channelling if necessary. Contour infiltration ditches stop runoff and soil erosion. Interventions such as these will be very important under climate change, when rainfall will become more erratic and intense.\""}]},{"head":"Getting innovations into farmers fields -examples of technology uptake in seven drylands countries.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A massive surge in wheat prices and availability in the wake of the 2007/8 global food price crisis prompted scientists at ICARDA and partner organizations to devise a strategy to help producers and consumers weather the shocks."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Arab countries have been hard hit by the soaring cost of wheat since all, except Syria, are net importers. Wheat yields in these countries are an average 30% lower than global levels, with the exception of Egypt."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Focusing on wheat -a staple in the region -the project, launched in 2010/11, targeted six countries: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, and Tunisia. It was later extended to include Jordan."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The challenge of increasing wheat yields was not exclusively one of producing better technologies. It soon emerged that all countries had national research programmes with improved technologies, but most had yet to pass these on to farmers."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Dissemination of research results has therefore been a key component, using various methods to transfer technology, including mass dissemination, farmer field schools and lead farmers coaching satellite farmers. A total of 7,500 farmers were reached in the first 2 years. The scheme used a tried and tested model that encouraged farmers to explain why they did not adopt certain technologies. This was followed up by measures to address the issues."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"The package varied, but could contain: Strategies for combating climate change in drylands agriculture "}]},{"head":"Better water management","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The key to sustainable food production in dry lands Water is the common denominator for problems affecting farmers in dry land countries. Depletion and mismanagement of groundwater reserves is being exacerbated by the effects of climate change, with less rainfall, and more erratic distribution. Population growth, pollution and increased salinity compound the problem, placing growing pressure on smallholder farmers in their quest for stable food production. The difficulties are becoming even more acute due to competing demands from rapidly increasing urban areas."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Dry areas have witnessed a steady decline in groundwater reserves in recent decades, mainly due to unregulated borehole drilling. Typically, water tables in semi-arid areas have dropped by between 0.5 and 2m per year, with serious impacts for both public supplies and ecosystems."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Farmers are the hardest hit, but they are also the biggest users of water. Globally, agriculture uses 70% of all water extracted from rivers, lakes and aquifers. In some low income countries, fresh water use for food production is has high as 90% or all available water resources."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"However, while water issues are recognized by national leaders as a strategic priority, very few countries have a master plan for managing water in their agricultural sector and for dealing with the uncertainties that lie ahead."}]},{"head":"Morocco's Green Plan links smallholder farmers to lucrative export markets","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"In Morocco, where 71% of farms are under 0.5 ha, agriculture is at a crossroads. In an effort to drive the sector forward the government has drawn up an ambitious programme, which focuses on private and public investment, added value for fruit, vegetables and other sectors, as well as policy support for producer organizations, marketing and finance for farmers."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Dubbed the Green Plan, the initiative aims to have a significant impact on economic growth, as well as on land management, sustainable water development and employment, with a potential for creating a total 4 million new jobs."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The Green Plan is targeting new exports markets in Europe, the US, Russia and Asia, while also servicing the growing domestic market, particularly in rapidly developing urban centers."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"With its fragmented land surface, where the average farm is only 2.1 ha, there is an urgent need to group producers together to increase their presence on markets and improve quality and processing."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"The scheme involves sustainable intensification, diversification and development for marginal lands, cultivating olives, cactus and other suitable crops. The plan also includes measures to overhaul an industry framework that is out of step with principles of deregulation."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"Adopting a market-based value chain approach has already brought success for the tomato sector in the Souss region, and the strawberry sector in the north. This latter has seen spectacular growth, exporting fresh but also frozen fruit for processing into products such as yoghurt, mainly to Europe. The model is now being duplicated using other soft fruit."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"Producers in the dairy, sugar and sheep and goat sectors have all benefited by being grouped together and receiving help with modernizing production practices through transfer of skills and technology. The keystone to all these successes has been an entrepreneurial management approach by farmers, with encouragement and backing from the policy sector. Producers now have access to private investment and the plan is working to facilitate these channels, from national and international sources"},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"Components of the strategy to modernize the industry framework include accelerating land privatization, giving incentives for a water pricing policy, improving access to wholesale markets and abattoirs and providing support for farmers, including access to credit and subsidies."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"With its private, free trade approach and strong government backing, the Green Plan is widely seen as a policy model that could be adapted for other dryland countries."},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"The Green Plan has the potential to achieve greenhouse gas gains of 63.5 million tCO2e over 20 years. These gains are expected largely from the sequestration of soil carbon through improved agronomic practices. "}]},{"head":"Strategies for combating climate change in drylands agriculture","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"How is water used?"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"As far as consumption is concerned, water use is embedded in different products."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Beef has a much higher level of water use than beans on a per unit basis. In most Middle East and North African countries, a large share of water is imported as 'virtual water', in the form of imported grain. There is also an energy component, since virtual water, in the form of imported food, requires transport. Limiting imports, and expanding domestic food production through climate smart technologies, is a far more efficient means of using water and energy."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Challenges of water security must be addressed with sustainability in mind. It is important that even wealthy arid countries, that can afford costly desalinization schemes, pursue water resource management options that do not exact too high a cost either in financial terms, or social or environmental terms."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"For poorer dry countries, what are the options? Some solutions for water scarce dry lands Irrigation efficiency, crop rotation and biotechnology -enhancing efficient water use in crops, are all options for making maximum use of scarce water reserves. Most of these approaches require advanced technology, such as using ground sensors to measure soil moisture."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Adapting crop varieties to use less water is a promising approach that is already producing impressive results in some dry countries. Investments in water technologies, such as drip irrigation, hydroponics, vertical agriculture and water harvesting techniques must go hand-in-hand with improved soil and crop management techniques. Conservation agriculture (zero tillage) retains precious moisture in soil that would otherwise be lost through plowing -also trapping nutrients and maintaining soil fertility."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Harvesting water in a dry lands context is markedly different from the conventional view of rainwater harvesting. In dry lands, new strategies are emerging for locating micro-catchments in areas where, apparently, there is no water. A combination of satellite remote sensing and observation on the ground can identify new water sources. Using this approach, countries can pinpoint where new sources exist and install appropriate structures to capture the water -for home use, animals or irrigation. This strategy has been tested in dry areas such as Jordan and Libya."}]},{"head":"Involving rural communities","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Rural communities may have more opportunities for developing water security than urban dwellers. Strategies open to them include careful conservation and management of renewable groundwater, rainfall harvesting and underground storage (in cisterns or aquifers). But the success of these initiatives will to some extent depend on improved weather forecasting, combined with education and training initiatives. It is important that farmers and other members of rural communities are involved from the outset in any changes in water use that will affect them."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Better tracking by government agencies will help to identify where water is being lost, in the environment and along the food production chain. A policy shift is also key, so that users have better incentives to adopt more sustainable water management practices. In dry land areas in particular, there is an urgent need for more data on groundwater reserves and water quality, and for improved monitoring strategies."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The resilience and adaptability of rural communities should be harnessed and developed. But there is also a need for more scientific know-how on water efficiency, especially for agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Sustainable water management options for the dry countries include:"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Modernizing irrigating systems and improving efficiency • Modifying cropping patterns to enhance water productivity • Supplemental (targeted) irrigation • Macro and micro water catchments • Watershed management • Deficit irrigation."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"12 Using water wisely -supplemental irrigation"},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Research and experience in the field show that supplemental irrigation, which allows farmers to plant and manage crops at the optimal time, regardless of climate vagaries, can significantly increase water productivity."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Here are some results from Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"On-farm water productivity is 2.5 kg/m3 under supplemental irrigation, compared with 0.3 to 1 kg/m3 under rainfed conditions and 0.75 kg/m3 under full irrigation."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"Field trials in several countries showed massive increases in wheat and barley yields with small quantities of supplemental irrigation: yield increased from 1.25 t/ha to 3 t/ha in Syria, from 4.6 to 5.8 t/ha in Morocco, and from 2.2 to 3.4 t/ha in Iran."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"Supplemental irrigation allows farmers to plant their crops early, increasing yields and preventing exposure to terminal heat and drought stress in hot areas and frost in cold areas."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"Addressing Climate Change: Adaptation? Mitigation? Or both? Interview: Dr Bruce Campbell, Director, CCAFS."}]},{"head":"What is the priority for agriculture in the global climate change negotiations: adaptation or mitigation?","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"In the countries where we work, adaptation is the priority. If you look at the prognosis for Africa, you can see that climate change can potentially devastate agricultural production, through rising temperatures, more frequent and severe extremes, and increased aridity. But fortunately, for many of the options that are needed to build adaptive capacity, they also provide what we call a 'mitigation co-benefits'."}]},{"head":"Can you give an example of a mitigation co-benefit?","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A great example comes from Niger, for farmer-assisted tree regeneration."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Farmers have added trees in the landscape over an area of five million hectares. This is essentially rehabilitating degraded farmland. Through this practice, crop yields have increased and there is more fodder for livestock. Some 2.5 million households have benefitted."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"This practice contributes to both climate change adaptation and mitigation."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"The enhanced and more diverse livelihood portfolios that families in this area have -different production and income streams -allow them to cope better with current and future climate-induced risks. These approaches also bring large-scale sequestration of atmospheric carbon created by the 200 million new trees and also reduced carbon loss from soils -reducing loss of topsoil through wind and water erosion."}]},{"head":"Is this achievement the result of agricultural or climate change research or a development project?","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Partly. This grew out of a traditional woodland management approach, pioneered by farmers in Niger over many years, and. It involves selecting, protecting and pruning re-growth from living tree rootstock. It became known as 'Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration' (FMNR). Research has helped better understand this and to identify opportunities for scaling-up in other locations. A new feature furthered by intermediary organizations that assisted the farmers was to incorporate FMNR into agricultural crop lands so that trees are managed as part of a farm enterprise. In the 1980s FMNR became a component of a development project and by 1985, 500,000 trees in 95 villages had been regenerated and protected."}]},{"head":"Climate change interventions","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Changing climate patterns will affect people in all ecosystems. But those living in dry areas will face more acute challenges. Countries already suffering from high poverty levels due to poor land and water availability are being hard hit by climate change, with erratic rainfall, more frequent droughts, extreme temperatures, shifting climatic zones and the arrival of new crop pests and diseases. As well as measures taken at farm level, such as the introduction of climate adapted crops, it will be important to make adjustments at institutional and policy level, promoting systems that can protect livelihoods and the environment. These may include changing the way that agricultural extension is delivered, how weather forecasts are given or through new safety nets, such as insurance for farmers and cash transfers in times of need."}]},{"head":"3.1","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capturing carbon","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Increased carbon sequestration -for example by planting trees --can make an important contribution to mitigating climate change, and dry areas have significant potential here. It has been calculated (Lal 2000) that drylands can sequester 0.9-1.9 Gt C per year. This compares with tropical deforestation releasing 0.6-0.9 Gt C per year. However, to achieve even a fraction of this potential requires a co-ordinated effort at national and international levels. Landscape restoration can have both adaptation and mitigation benefits."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Lesson from Niger's farming communities -farming trees for income and land regeneration 'Farmer-managed natural regeneration' (FMNR) is a simple, low-cost practice pioneered by farmers in Southern Niger and encouraged by development projects to become a component of farming practices."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"It encourages natural tree re-growth by selecting, pruning and protecting naturally regenerating trees, and uses living rootstock it makes tree planting easier. This approach has potential for the regeneration of degraded lands."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• The method is flexible, adapting to farmers' situations and needs."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"• FMNR increases the farmers' supply of a range of products that farming households can either consume or sell -fuel, food, medicine and fodder, and specifically benefits women. • Research has shown that adopting FMNR increases access to market and levels of farmer education. The approach is also associated with increased household income, crop and tree diversity and lower migration rates, but in the survey area did not result in increased crop yields. • Advocacy for a change in policy were important to the spread of the FMNR practice in the region. Uptake was further stimulated after the Nigerien Government eased restrictive national forestry regulations in the 1990s and again in 2004. This allowed the farmers 'rights' to the trees that they protected -that had previously belonged to the Government."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Summarized from paper on Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration in Niger -Sidsel F. Cappiello and Peter Cooper (see reading list)."}]},{"head":"Climate initiatives","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Some of the most effective climate initiatives launched to help rural communities weather shocks caused by climate change include:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"• Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Launched as an alternative approach to food aid, this program reaches some 7 million people. It includes a public works component that involves landscape and watershed rehabilitation, at the same time providing jobs for rural communities and increasing food security."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"• Weather-based insurance schemes can offer valuable protection to farmers faced with erratic climate conditions. Such initiatives encourage producers to continue investing in farming, safe in the knowledge that they will be protected if natural events prevent them from reaping the profits they deserve. In Kenya, a livestock insurance system has started paying out dividends to herders who have lost animals to drought, and is now being rolled out to other dry areas."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"There is also interest in linking micro insurance initiatives such as this to microfinance schemes, providing a one-stop affordable finance package for smallholder farmers. "}]},{"head":"Policy","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"The right environment An enabling national policy environment is essential to support investment in agricultural development, drive sustainable productivity growth and encourage better farming practices, including natural resource management. In many dryland countries, there is a strong need for more capacity development and institutional support. Agriculture, which is the backbone of most dry land economies, needs to be a national priority. This is especially important given the inexorable onset of climate change. Real advances can be made in adapting to its impact, but only if there is the right backing in terms of science, technology and research, so that farmers have real help in adjusting to new conditions. In the UNFCCC the technology transfer mechanisms and the work around capacity building can, if agriculture receives deserved attention, help in getting technologies to farmers and building capacity around climate smart agriculture."}]},{"head":"National and regional","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"While the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will cover the international policy framework for how agriculture is incorporated into future climate agreements, developing regional and national policy is an urgent priority. Farmers need policies that support the introduction of climate smart farming techniques. Policies and strategies should recognize proven technologies for carbon sequestration, such as mulching, intercropping and agroforestry. Experts have also called for more backing for climate risk management, including insurance and productive safety nets and better access to weather information adapted to farmers' needs. Rewarding successful farmers with certificates or small gifts can be an effective way of raising awareness of better practices and generating support in the rural community."}]},{"head":"Extension","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Investment Good returns","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Agriculture continues to be the main engine for economic growth in most dry land countries, and experience has shown investment in research generally produces excellent returns -often better than those of the commercial sector. Yet spending remains low in many dryland countries. In general terms, agricultural research is not a high investment priority for governments of developing countries. Many dryland countries spend between 0.2% and 0.5% of agricultural GDP on research. Decisions to save money by failing to invest in technology to make food production more efficient could cost countries very dearly in the long run."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Countries that have made investments in science and technology and agricultural research have seen impressive national growth as a result. Cases in point include Brazil, China and India, and, more locally, Tunisia and Morocco. The repercussions of investment in agricultural research go way beyond the immediate farm sector, with a ripple effect that takes in transport, agro industries and the social dimension, helping to create jobs, livelihoods and stability, so people can realize their full potential."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"More funds are needed to promote adaptation. Potential sources include national budgets, donors and development agencies and more innovative sources, including the private sector and carbon markets. It will be important to develop a policy framework for public-private partnerships that can attract responsible private investment in the agriculture sector, and dry lands in particular."}]},{"head":"Working together","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Partnerships are an important mechanism for sharing knowledge and solutions."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Options for alliances that can help dryland countries improve agricultural performance and adapt to climate change challenges include those between:"},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"• National agricultural research systems In 2012 CCAFS supported South-South exchange between India and countries in West Africa on climate information services. Thus South-South cooperation is also key. Agreements between countries facing similar problems are needed to capitalize on existing financial and technical experience and expertise, including the development of partnerships at sub-regional, regional and international levels."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Research pays dividends."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"In Ethiopia, where the government has made agricultural research a priority for much of the past decade, lentil production tripled between 2000 and 2010, using the same amount of land and smaller amounts of fertilizer. Over the same period, faba production increased by (broadbean) 40% and chick pea production rose by 30%. In 2010, the country exported more pulses than coffee."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) • ICARDA -The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas • CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems "},{"text":".Africa Historical Development Projections Cereals imports of developing regions Food Insecurity in Dry Areas of the World 1970-2030 1970-2030 chart here chart here 240 ??? 240??? East Asia East Asia million tonnes 90 140 190 South Asia Near East/North Africa Latin America S.S million tonnes90 140 190South Asia Near East/North Africa Latin America S.S 40 40 -10 -10 1970 1980 1990 2000 2015 2030 197019801990200020152030 There is a strong link There is a strong link between food between food security, climate security, climate change, water change, water security and poverty. security and poverty. Agriculture Agriculture plays a key role in plays a key role in this equation. this equation. "},{"text":"Near East and North Africa is the world's highest food deficit region. Taking the example of cereals for current and projected food needs, the region will continue to be the planet's largest cereals importer, following current practices. "},{"text":"Under climate change, dry lands will increase significantly in area, and conditions for agriculture in dry lands will decline considerably, especially in regions already affected by poverty and food insecurity. Major decreases of rainfall are expected in MENA and southern African dry lands, Australian, North America. Increases in rain are expected in the dry lands of East Asia dry lands. This is IPCC scenario A1B average of 21 GCMs 2 Change in mean annual precipitation Change in mean annual precipitation (1980s to 2080s; IPCC A1B) (1980s to 2080s; IPCC A1B) Farmers and other Farmers and other players in food players in food production value production value chains can make key chains can make key contributions to contributions to sustainable food and sustainable food and water security, water security, provided they have provided they have access to access to technologies and technologies and support to help them support to help them adjust their practices adjust their practices to address changing to address changing weather patterns. weather patterns. of the answers to the problems faced by people in drylands regions exist of the answers to the problems faced by people in drylands regions exist today. But technologies and practices need scaling-up -through technology today. But technologies and practices need scaling-up -through technology transfer and training, advocacy to decision makers in countries and development transfer and training, advocacy to decision makers in countries and development agencies. But none of this can happen without an enabling policy environment, agencies. But none of this can happen without an enabling policy environment, that is created by affected countries to ensure that the most effective innovations that is created by affected countries to ensure that the most effective innovations are put into action and that long term funding and investment is available. are put into action and that long term funding and investment is available. "},{"text":"Agriculture and the climate change agenda Experts involved in rural development increasingly agree that any strategies for climate change must include agriculture. All the evidence points to the fact that the impact of climate change on development in rural areas will be severe, especially in dry lands. But though agriculture is a key issue for climate change, it risks being sidelined in upcoming talks on climate change, as it has been in previous Convention on Climate Change (COP) negotiations. In the run up to the 18th session of the UN Conference of Parties for the Convention In the run up to the 18th session of the UN Conference of Parties for the Convention on Climate Change (COP 18), there were calls for more focus on agriculture in the on Climate Change (COP 18), there were calls for more focus on agriculture in the negotiations. A detailed treatment of agriculture has yet to enter any of the agree- negotiations. A detailed treatment of agriculture has yet to enter any of the agree- ments linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ments linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (UNFCCC). "},{"text":"do you see agriculture's position in the current climate change negotiations "},{"text":"21% 7 % 72% Sources of Increase in Food Production & The Trend Towards Intensification of Production Systems Cropping Intesity Increase in Arable Land Agriculture Intensification Source FAO Source FAO "},{"text":"The case for 'sustainable intensification': an increase in the area of arable land may only result in a 7% increase in food production. Yet this might be an optimistic figure, as the combination of unsustainable land use, over-exploitation of resources, and climate change can potentially desertify millions of hectares of arable land. "},{"text":"New varieties released: More than 900 improved cereal and legume varieties have been released by national programs in partnership with ICARDA, and adopted by farmers worldwide. 1977 -2011 Last 2 years 1977 -2011Last 2 years Crop Developing Countries Industrialized Countries All Countries CropDeveloping CountriesIndustrialized CountriesAll Countries Barley 175 31 6 Barley175316 Durum Wheat 102 14 1 Durum Wheat102141 Bread Wheat 224 6 9 Bread Wheat22469 Chickpea 108 31 9 Chickpea108319 Faba Bean 51 6 1 Faba Bean5161 Lentil 96 16 9 Lentil96169 Forages 30 2 2 Forages3022 Peas 9 0 0 Peas900 "},{"text":"Sub-Total 761 120 Total 881 37 Estimated Net Benefit = about US $850 m / year Crop Improvement: varieties released using ICARDA germplasm worldwide, 1977 to 2011 Tapping the potential of drylands agriculture in the face of climate change Interview: Dr. Mahmoud Solh, Director General of the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). "},{"text":"higher yield, lower cost 25,000 1000 -based 25,0001000-based Area of zero-tillage wintr crops (ha) 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 Syria Farmers Iraq Farmers Syria Area Iraq Area 200 400 600 800 Number of farmers Overview of farmer uptake of conservation agriculture practices in Syria and Iraq. Keys to adoption are farmers illustrating results to colleagues and availability of locally made (and locally repairable) seeders breeding programs are proving a valuable approach for small-scale livestock farmers in remote dryland areas. Focusing on indigenous breeds of mainly sheep and goats, this sustainable alternative to Area of zero-tillage wintr crops (ha)5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000Syria Farmers Iraq Farmers Syria Area Iraq Area200 400 600 800Number of farmersOverview of farmer uptake of conservation agriculture practices in Syria and Iraq. Keys to adoption are farmers illustrating results to colleagues and availability of locally made (and locally repairable) seedersbreeding programs are proving a valuable approach for small-scale livestock farmers in remote dryland areas. Focusing on indigenous breeds of mainly sheep and goats, this sustainable alternative to more modern breeding more modern breeding 0 0 programs has already 00programs has already 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 proved highly successful 2006-072007-082008-092009-102010-11proved highly successful in Bolivia, Ethiopia, in Bolivia, Ethiopia, Mexico and Peru. Mexico and Peru. Water productivity Increasing yields at any price? In Ethiopia, more than 500 households in remote communities have used Water productivity Increasing yields at any price?In Ethiopia, more than 500 households in remote communities have used the approach since 2008. the approach since 2008. They have been They have been rewarded with improved rewarded with improved flock genetic quality, flock genetic quality, animal health and animal health and productivity, and income productivity, and income from lamb sales. from lamb sales. "},{"text":"New problems need new solutions. Approaches to help buffer the effects of climate change on farmers range from simple solutions to high-tech options, and from insurance mechanisms to safety nets for vulnerable communities. Climate smart technologies can raise agricultural productivity, reduce rural communities' vulnerability to weather extremes and cushion people from the impacts of food price volatility. This approach holds out special hope for dry lands.When carefully managed, climate smart initiatives can produce tangible benefits to rural communities and the land they depend on, making it more resilient when faced with climate swings. Promising technologies to combat this unpredictable situation include crop varieties adapted to perform well under climate change factors, technology tools, devices for farmers and systems for delivering targeted timing and doses of fertilizer and irrigation. "},{"text":"3.2 Climate smart options Climate smart technologies currently being developed and trialed by CGIAR research centers and other organizations include work on shade agriculture, soil carbon sequestration, early warning systems, livestock insurance schemes, rotational grazing and flexible water storage options. Research shows it is important that techniques are tailored to local conditions and backed up by policy, technical and financial support. "},{"text":" India's Weather-based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) covered over 9 million farmers in the 2010-11 agricultural year. The policies covered more than 40 different crops and 9.5 million hectares. The volume of paid claims in 2011 amounted to US$125 million.• Climate information services can be valuable tools, especially if adapted to local farmers' needs. One example is a 5-day forecast sent via SMS on mobile phones, with advice given to farmers on what they should be doing, based on the weather. Acacia seyal has resulted in the transformation of five million hectares of once infertile land. The initiative has increased crop yields and fodder availability, benefiting 2.5 million farmers. Trees increase the carbon stored in the landscape, mitigating climate change. Each farmer involved in the initiative has benefited by an annual average of US$56 per hectare. There are prospects of higher revenues if carbon credits are introduced. Trees increase the carbon stored in the landscape and more diverse and sustainable livelihoods increase adaptive capacity• Groups of lead farmers in Tunisia are being linked by mobile phone to crop and weather monitoring systems that issue alerts when irrigation is needed. The information can then be relayed to other producers. Public and private funding will be key to the rapid implementation of climate smart agriculture in drylands.More attention must be devoted to quantifying benefits from climate-smart agriculture, providing the evidence for scaling up. Agricultural research offers practical solutions to many of the constraints posed by climate change. A range of practical techniques can be highly effective, especially if supported by an enabling policy environment. In Egypt, for example, sowing wheat on raised beds increased yields by 25% in one season. Planting early varieties of rice, that can be harvested 20-30 days earlier, can make significant savings in water consumption. Experience is showing that an integrated 'agro-ecosystems' approach is required -to apply technical options in a 'holistic' way, to deliver real benefits to people's livelihoods. 4. Agricultural research Carbon and climate change mitigation funds Strengthening agricultural innovation systems through benefit farmers research, education and extension 4. Agricultural research Carbon and climate change mitigation funds Strengthening agricultural innovation systems through benefit farmers research, education and extension Climate funds for Climate funds for reducing greenhouse gas emissions can benefit 4.1 Technical solutions reducing greenhouse gas emissions can benefit 4.1 Technical solutions small farmers and help small farmers and help achieve development achieve development objectives, according to objectives, according to a report from the CGIAR a report from the CGIAR Research Program on Research Program on Climate Change Climate Change Agriculture and Food Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and Security (CCAFS) and partners. partners. In a study of six African In a study of six African agricultural carbon agricultural carbon projects, researchers projects, researchers found that communities found that communities are benefiting from a are benefiting from a range of activities related range of activities related to planting and to planting and managing trees on farms. managing trees on farms. The carbon projects The carbon projects include the Humbo include the Humbo Ethiopia Assisted Natural Ethiopia Assisted Natural Regeneration Project, Regeneration Project, which was the first African which was the first African forestry project to be forestry project to be registered under the registered under the Kyoto Protocol, and the Kyoto Protocol, and the Cocoa Carbon Initiative Cocoa Carbon Initiative in Ghana, which is in Ghana, which is working to improve tree working to improve tree cover while enhancing cover while enhancing sustainability of cocoa sustainability of cocoa production. production. The study found that The study found that while direct carbon while direct carbon payments to farmers payments to farmers were low, projects were low, projects established systems for established systems for financial management, financial management, agricultural extension, agricultural extension, and carbon monitoring and carbon monitoring involving a complex set involving a complex set of partnerships. The study of partnerships. The study demonstrates the demonstrates the different channels different channels through which through which communities could communities could benefit from mitigation benefit from mitigation funds for agricultural funds for agricultural development. development. "},{"text":"Pass it on Often , a major challenge is in getting results of agricultural research off the shelves and out into the fields. Many scientists themselves now recognize the need for closer links between researchers and farmers and the fundamental role played by innovative extension approaches. Effective technology transfer mechanisms are essential, not just between researchers and farmers, but between farmers and other farmers. The best models target farmer feedback, with follow up to find out what works best, what does not work, and why. "},{"text":"North-South, South-South Wealthy arid countries may have important lessons to share with poorer ones. Australia, the driest continent on the planet, is helping dryland areas in the Middle East and North Africa with technology adaptation and transfer. The initiatives, supported by ICARDA, have all produced very high returns on investment. They include: • Conservation agriculture in northern Iraq • Yield gaps in Egyptian irrigated farming systems • Conservation agriculture in Tunisia • International centers • International centers • Global and regional fora • Global and regional fora 4.7 4.7 "}],"sieverID":"cce5271b-709b-4fc4-93a5-89aaaa097f02","abstract":"Changes in climate patterns are having their most acute effect on people living in the world's dry areas and marginal lands. As these rural communities are largely dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods, it follows that improvements in agricultural research and 'integrated agro-ecosystem' approaches are probably the primary protection from climate related problems. This is also why agricultural innovation, research, technology transfer and capacity building should be strategic priorities of the UNFCCC."}

data/part_3/01fd1b89927ff3a1d1c4c305dba39977.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"01fd1b89927ff3a1d1c4c305dba39977","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1b2f3ad7-9e5a-4048-9bcb-c2934ef1df9b/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Integrating Varietal Resistance and Phosphonate Fungicide in Management of Foliar Late Blight in Potato","keywords":["Developing countries","economic benefit","phosphonate","Phytopthora infestans"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"bd9e7f32-c6ef-4492-bf97-c0801ff7b153","abstract":"Conventional potato production is not possible without fungicide and the commonly used fungicides are expensive and are considered as environmental and human hazards. The aim of the experiment was to evaluate the efficacy of Phosphonate fungicides, the potential of combination with potato cultivars and economic impact as late blight control alternative. Two Phosphonates formulations; Agrifos 400 and Fosphite were compared Ridomil alternated with Mancozeb on different potato varieties in Kabete and Koibatek. Agrifos 400 alone was compared with Ridomil alternated with Mancozeb on different varieties in Kisima, Njambini and Limuru. Planting was done in 3 m × 3 m plots with four row and 10 tubers per row. Experimental units were replicated three times in a split-plot design. The results showed an effect of Phosphonates, which represent lower risks to human health and environment than conventional fungicides, on control of foliar late blight. In all the five sites Agrifos 400 was not significantly different with Ridomil alternated with Mancozeb in control of foliar late blight in most the varieties used and they were also comparable in yields with no significant differences in most of the sites. Preliminary economic analyses were also done and the result showed that there is more economic benefit in the use of Phosphonate formulation Agrifos 400 compared to conventional fungicides Ridomil and Mancozeb. The study suggests that the relatively inexpensive Phosphonate fungicides have significant potential to become an effective management tool for control of foliar late blight, and can be used as alternative to the hazardous conventional fungicides."}

data/part_3/02139f4632e097aebf6e481f283941a0.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@


1	+ {"metadata":{"id":"02139f4632e097aebf6e481f283941a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/30b0a13c-925d-4bad-9478-a89b05eb415a/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The 3 rd International Forum on Water and Food","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a0081522-5c75-4101-8893-6f1c18c60659","abstract":""}

data/part_3/021f6587ba52e7881716b4dcd254b920.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"021f6587ba52e7881716b4dcd254b920","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f55f7fcc-0968-4086-8869-e9ee492fe032/retrieve"},"pageCount":52,"title":"A incubação de ovos por galinhas e na incubadora","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introdução","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"A finalidade deste trabalho é a de fornecer informações acerca da incubação dos ovos. Não se trata de uma operação muito difícil, ainda que seja processada artificialmente. Os resultados da incubação artificial dependem directamente de um adequado manuseamento dos ovos e de uma boa utilização da incubadora: uma taxa de fracasso de 50% deve ser considerada demasiado alta ao passo que uma taxa de 30% é tido como excelente. A incubação natural pelas galinhas é sensivelmente mais eficaz (até 80% de sucesso). Dado que apresenta ainda outras vantagens, ser-lheá dedicado todo um capítulo. Vale realmente a pena ler esse capítulo, ainda que se tenha optado pela incubação artificial. Este Agrodok apenas trata dos processos de incubação, pelo que fornece pouca matéria sobre os temas conexos como a criação de pintos, a alimentação e o controlo das doenças. Informe-se junto de um avicultor vizinho experimentado no que diz respeito às vacinações contra as doenças infecciosas correntes na região e às raças (poedeiras, frangos para consumo, raças com os dois objectivos) que comprovaram a sua capacidade de adaptação à região. Poderão ser encontradas outras informações nos livros mencionados no bibliografia. Se desejar criar pintos, o mais simples é comprá-los. Os pintos com um dia de vida são caros, muitas vezes, mas em contrapartida permitem obter uma raça seleccionada capaz de pôr uma quantidade maior de ovos. Regra geral, no entanto, as raças seleccionadas carecem de uma alimentação e de condições sanitárias melhores do que as raças locais mais robustas. Se puder responder a estas exigências, e apenas nestas condições, o investimento suplementar será rentável. Pode, contudo, ter boas razões para preferir incubar os ovos em vez de comprar os pintos. Neste caso, o capítulo 1 ajudá-lo-á na escolha entre incubação natural e incubação artificial."}]},{"head":"Algumas reflexões preliminares","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Este capítulo trata das vantagens e dos inconvenientes dos métodos natural e artificial de incubação dos ovos. Permitirá ao avicultor escolher em função dos seus meios e dos seus objectivos. Comecemos pela selecção e tratamento dos ovos para incubação."}]},{"head":"Galinha ou incubadora?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"A resposta a esta pergunta depende dos factores a seguir apresentados: ? a quantidade de ovos para incubar; ? o tempo e atenção necessários; ? as despesas de construção; ? as despesas de funcionamento; ? os resultados da incubação; ? os riscos; ? o combustível disponível."}]},{"head":"A quantidade de ovos para incubação","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Dado que as galinhas apenas chocam os ovos em condições ditadas pelas suas necessidades fisiológicas, não disporemos forçosamente de galinhas chocas quando assim o desejarmos e, muito menos, ao longo de todo o ano. Põem-se, portanto, as galinhas a chocar apenas em função da necessidade de criar pintos para renovar o número de aves. A vantagem óbvia da incubadora artificial é a de poder ser utilizada durante o ano todo. A incubadora descrita neste documento tem uma capacidade para 50 ovos. Permite, por conseguinte, incubar em pouco tempo 2 ou 3 séries de 50 ovos. Se pretendermos a eclosão de um elevado número de ovos, deveremos ter em consideração as vantagens económicas de uma incubadora com capacidade para 100 ovos."}]},{"head":"Trabalho necessário","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Quando as galinhas chocas não levantam problemas particulares (ocorre por vezes no início uma recusa obstinada para o choco) os cuidados requeridos limitam-se à alimentação. Em contrapartida, a incubação artificial exige muito mais trabalho: construção das instalações, regulação da temperatura durante a operação, volteio dos ovos 7 vezes ao dia durante a segunda semana, adição regular de petróleo no candeeiro e de água no reservatório. A manutenção da temperatura apropriada exige muita atenção. Todas 1estas tarefas podem tomar 1 a 2 horas por dia e devem ser executadas com muito cuidado. Se os ovos forem chocados na incubadora, os pintos poderão ser criados artificialmente. Será, por isso, necessário construir uma criadeira artificial (ver o capítulo 8 à criação artificial dos pintos). A galinha toma conta dos seus pintos e protege-os do frio."}]},{"head":"Despesas de construção","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Tire o máximo proveito dos materiais locais disponíveis: madeira de construção, rede, folha metálica, reservatórios de água, materiais isoladores (feno ou cartão), lâmpada de querosene, pregos, vidro, reservatório de querosene e ferramentas. É igualmente necessário um termómetro. Se precisar de um termóstato, poderá adquiri-lo no estrangeiro ou fabricá-lo você mesmo por meio de algumas folhas metálicas disponíveis na região e de algumas ferramentas especiais. O higrómetro é um aparelho muito simples, embora seja praticamente impossível encontrá-lo no comércio local. Daí a necessidade de o arranjar noutro lado ou de o fazer você mesmo com um termómetro, uma mecha e uma garrafa. No apêndice 1 é fornecida uma lista dos endereços onde podem ser adquiridas essas ferramentas especiais."}]},{"head":"Despesas de funcionamento","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"As incubadoras aquecidas a petróleo que são descritas mais adiante consomem cerca de meio litro de querosene em 24 horas por cada 40 ovos. Se se der a eclosão de 70% dos ovos (ver Resultados da incubação), obter-se-ão 28 pintos (machos e fêmeas) decorridos 21 dias. À média de meio litro de querosene por dia, cada um deles custará o preço de cerca de meio litro de querosene. Esta estimativa depende, claro está, do tipo de incubadora, do tempo necessário ao seu aquecimento antes de colocar os ovos, das precauções tomadas para o seu funcionamento, etc. Se o querosene for caro, a galinha torna-se mais económica pois choca 12 ovos, carecendo apenas de alimentos e de água. A energia eléctrica necessária ao funcionamento de uma incubadora eléctrica é fornecida através de 5 lâmpadas de 40 W acesas 24 horas/24 durante 21 dias, isto é, cerca de 100 kwh. Se de 40 ovos nascerem 28 pintos, a energia necessária para cada um deles será de 4 kwh."}]},{"head":"Resultados da incubação","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"A galinha choca fornece, na medida exacta, a temperatura, a humidade e a ventilação exigidas para o bom desenvolvimento dos ovos. Estas normas são impossíveis de alcançar pela maior parte das incubadoras descritas no capítulo 4. Para conseguir óptimos resultados por meio da incubação artificial, é necessário conhecer perfeitamente o funcionamento do aparelho. Acontece, por vezes, que o azar influa nos resultados. É assim que uma falha de petróleo ou um corte de corrente podem causar a perda de 40 ovos. Uma galinha que deixe de chocar antes do termo apenas causará a perda de 10 ovos. Existem certas diferenças na capacidade de incubação entre galinhas de raça seleccionada e galinhas de raça local. De uma maneira geral, as galinhas de raça seleccionada dão certamente piores resultados no choco do que as galinhas de raça local. Se apenas criar galinhas de raça seleccionada comercialmente, deve equacionar a aquisição de algumas galinhas de raça local ou então o recurso à incubação artificial (ver o capítulo 4)."}]},{"head":"Combustível disponível","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"O aquecimento de uma incubadora requer a utilização de electricidade, de petróleo ou de gás."}]},{"head":"Preparing eggs for incubation","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Selecção dos ovos","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"O peso dos ovos varia entre 30 e 70 gramas, em função da raça. Os melhores resultados são obtidos com os ovos de tamanho normal de boas poedeiras. Dado que a maior parte das características do ovo é hereditária, uma selecção apropriada dos ovos terá como resultado a criação de melhores galinhas."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"É evidente que o ovo a incubar deverá ter sido fecundado. Em virtude de não existir qualquer método seguro que garanta que um ovo fresco foi (ou não) fecundado, importa criar um galo fértil com as galinhas capaz, por si só, de fecundar várias galinhas. Conseguem-se resultados óptimos com um galo por cada dez galinhas. Após o acasalamento, as galinhas põem ovos fecundados durante pelo menos 8 dias. Se se tratar de galinhas de raça pesada, dever-se-á reduzir o número de galinhas por cada galo."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Se não criar um galo entre as galinhas, deverá introduzi-lo no galinheiro 2 semanas antes de começar a colher os ovos para a incubação, para se certificar da produção de ovos fecundados. Vigie igualmente o período de postura das galinhas. Os melhores ovos são aqueles produzidos entre o segundo e oitavo meses da postura. Optimizará os seus resultados de incubação se seguir escrupulosamente as indicações acima mencionadas."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Nunca utilizar ovos malformados! O conteúdo de um ovo malformado (demasiado alongado, demasiado curto ou irregular) enferma, também ele, de malformações. A qualidade da casca é importante. Se a mesma estiver rachada, o ovo desidrata-se durante a incubação, dando assim origem a pintos frágeis ou nados-mortos."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Para limitar os riscos, utilize os ovos de várias galinhas e não de uma só."}]},{"head":"Limpeza dos ovos para incubação","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"A casca de ovo é porosa: deixa passar o ar, a água, as sujidades e as bactérias. Evitam-se riscos de doenças escolhendo ovos limpos. Limpam-se os ovos ligeiramente sujos com um pano seco e limpo. De forma alguma se deve usar ovos muito sujos, bem como lavá-los com água: esta abre os poros da casca e enfraquece os resultados da incubação."}]},{"head":"Conservação dos ovos para incubação","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Utilize de preferência ovos frescos; contudo, em caso de necessidade, os ovos devem ser conservados em lugar fresco. Conservam-se perfeitamente durante 3 dias à temperatura de 20 °C. Os ovos destinados à incubação devem ser apanhados 2 vezes por dia e arrefecidos quanto antes: este facto reveste-se da maior importância durante os períodos de calor. A humidade relativa ideal para a conservação dos ovos para incubação situa-se entre 70 e 85%. A formação de bolores nos ovos indica uma humidade demasiado elevada. Em caso algum deverá utilizar ovos com bolor para a incubação!"}]},{"head":"Resumo do tratamento a aplicar aos ovos para incubação","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"? Apanhar os ovos para incubação 2 vezes por dia; ? Seleccionar os melhores ovos tendo em conta a raça de galinha desejada, o tamanho dos ovos, a sua forma, o seu estado de limpeza e a estrutura da sua casca; ? Não utilizar ovos que não sejam frescos. Se quiser proceder à incubação de muitos ovos em simultâneo, poderá utilizar ovos postos durante os 14 dias anteriores, desde que tenham sido conservados a uma temperatura entre os 10 e 16 °C; ? Limpe os ovos sujos com um pano seco; ? Antes de serem introduzidos na incubadora, os ovos conservados a uma temperatura entre os 10 e 16° °C devem ser colocados durante horas num local onde a 8temperatura se situa entre os 21 e °C."}]},{"head":"A incubação natural: a galinha","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Este capítulo trata da incubação natural e dos melhoramentos que nela podem ser introduzidos. É fácil de entender para qualquer avicultor por menos experiente que seja."}]},{"head":"Selecção da galinha","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Seleccione uma galinha que manifeste a necessidade de chocar. O comportamento desta é característico: ? emite um som específico; ? a crista fica enrugada; ? recolhe-se no ninho e não o deixa; ? tenta juntar os ovos dos ninhos vizinhos a fim de os trazer para junto dela."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Aguarde que este comportamento se prolongue por dois dias para ter a certeza de que a galinha está pronta para o choco. A galinha choca deve gozar de boa saúde e não pode ser demasiado pequena. Os parágrafos que seguem fornecem algumas sugestões para optimizar as condições de incubação."}]},{"head":"Preparativos para a incubação natural (pela galinha)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Polvilhe a galinha seleccionada com um insecticida contra as pulgas e piolhos. Escolha um insecticida eficaz (fluoreto de sódio ou outros desparasitantes). Estes produtos devem ser manipulados com prudência: utilizados em grandes quantidades, tornam-se perigosos para as galinhas e para o homem! (consulte o seu veterinário)."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Se as pulgas e os piolhos levantarem problemas de maior, polvilhe novamente dez dias após o primeiro tratamento. Coloque a galinha numa incubadora limpa (ver o parágrafo seguinte). No início, ela choca de forma irregular até ter de seis a doze ovos no ninho. Quando ela começar a chocar regularmente, retire os ovos e substitua-os por ovos seleccionados para a incubação previamente marcados a lápis. Os ovos que se retiraram do ninho serão utilizados para a alimentação dos animais. Pode-se cozê-los e misturá-los aos alimentos normais das galinhas. O número de ovos a colocar debaixo da galinha depende do tamanho desta e da temperatura nocturna. Uma galinha grande com uma boa plumagem poderá cobrir até 14 ovos; no entanto, uma galinha local mais pequena não será capaz de cobrir mais de 8 ovos."}]},{"head":"Substituição da galinha pela pata","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A pata oferece uma alternativa natural para o choco dos ovos de galinha. Contudo, evidencia menos do que a galinha a sua vontade de chocar e, a partir do momento em que se instala no ninho, a sua relutância em deixá-lo é ainda maior."}]},{"head":"A incubadora","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A incubadora deve medir aproximadamente 35 × 35 cm de fundo e 40 cm de altura. O ninho em si terá um diâmetro de 25 cm. A galinha recolhe-se mais facilmente no seu ninho se a incubadora estiver protegida contra a luz (coberta por um pano, por exemplo). Porém, deve poder deixar o ninho para ir em busca de alimentos."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Limpe cuidadosamente a incubadora e seque-a ao sol. Introduza um pouco de palha, feno ou folhas secas. Aconchegue a cama em forma de ninho para impedir que os ovos resvalem. Um punhado de folhas de tabaco secas e esmagadas servir�� de insecticida para afastar os parasitas (a nicotina é um insecticida!). As incubadoras devem distar umas das outras de um metro para evitar, por exemplo, querelas entre as galinhas. Disponha as incubadoras num local protegido contra os cães, ratos e serpentes."}]},{"head":"Cuidados a dispensar durante a incubação","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A galinha choca deixa o ninho uma vez por dia para beber, comer e desentorpecer. Não é necessária uma alimentação especial. Coloque o comedouro junto da incubadora e, se a galinha não quiser deixar o ninho, tire-a de lá com cuidado e leve-a para junto da comida. A galinha não deve deixar o ninho para além de, aproximadamente, 15 minutos. Ela levanta-se com frequência para mudar de posição e virar os ovos."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Os ovos devem mudar de posição: o melhor sítio e o mais quente é o do meio. Examine os ovos após nove dias de choco ( ver o capítulo 7). Se os pintos têm dificuldade em sair, é provável que a humidade seja demasiado baixa. Neste caso, estenda por baixo da rede da incubadora alguns terrões e humedeça-os regularmente."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"5 Construção da incubadora"}]},{"head":"Funcionamento da incubadora","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"A incubadora artificial imita o processo natural de incubação pelas galinhas graças a uma regulação apropriada da temperatura, da humidade e da ventilação."}]},{"head":"A temperatura:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"A temperatura é obtida por aquecimento e regula-se por meio de um termóstato. A incubadora deve fornecer uma temperatura semelhante à de uma galinha que aquece os ovos com o seu corpo. Serão dados mais pormenores sobre estas temperaturas no capítulo 7."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A manutenção de temperatura adequada exige um bom isolamento. Não deve incubar ovos durante os períodos em que a temperatura ambiente das instalações se situa acima dos 40 °C (°F = (1,8 × °C) + 32). Tal calor mataria os embriões."}]},{"head":"O teor de humidade relativa:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Se este teor não for o adequado, os embriões desidratam-se no ovo ou não conseguem eliminar os gases tóxicos por eles produzidos. Consegue-se um teor de humidade seguro instalando-se na incubadora recipientes com água e medindo-o com a ajuda de um termómetro húmido ou de um higrómetro (ver o capítulo 7)."}]},{"head":"A ventilação:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Os embriões assimilam oxigénio e eliminam gás carbónico (CO 2 )."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"O volteio regular dos ovos (ver o capítulo 7)."}]},{"head":"Construção da estrutura:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Materiais O material ideal é uma madeira dura de boa qualidade: uma madeira de qualidade medíocre deteriora-se rapidamente se o teor de humidade for elevado. A estrutura é constituída por paredes singelas ou duplas em função do isolamento escolhido (ver adiante Isolamento). Os cantos são feitos de pequenas travessas. Ideal seria um pequeno postigo de vidro duplo feito na porta, mas o de um só vidro será suficiente. O seu tamanho deverá permitir o controlo dos ovos."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"A construção do tabuleiro de ovos giratório requer dois tipos de rede: uma muito fina (gaze) e outra de malha grossa que permita receber os ovos (rede de capoeira). Será igualmente necessário um termómetro (0-50 °C) e um higrómetro ou termómetro húmido (ver o parágrafo referente à Humidade relativa)."}]},{"head":"Isolamento","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"O isolamento é muito importante para manter uma temperatura adequada constante. Um bom material isolante deve conter muito ar. Dado que neste tipo de material isolante o ar permanece imóvel, a troca de calor entre o interior e o exterior das paredes é diminuta. Um bom isolamento permite poupar combustível e obter uma temperatura mais constante. Uniformiza a temperatura junto às paredes e a do centro da incubadora. Pode, por exemplo, forrar o interior das paredes singelas com poliestireno ou cartão forrado a borracha e encher as paredes duplas com feno, fibra de noz de coco ou algodão."}]},{"head":"Medidas","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"A incubadora de ensaio construída pela Agromisa tem uma capacidade para 50 ovos. Mede 60 cm de comprimento e 30 cm de largura. A altura depende da escolha do sistema de aquecimento. A incubadora aquecida a petróleo (ver o parágrafo Métodos de aquecimento) requer um espaço suplementar por baixo do fundo destinado ao reservatório de água (figura 5 e figura 8). A incubadora aquecida a electricidade requer um espaço por cima dos ovos para as lâmpadas. A altura mínima total será, portanto, de 40 cm. A incubadora deve ser provida de reci-pientes de água e de um tabuleiro para ovos (com ou sem dispositivo para o volteio) e comportar espaço suficiente para a manipulação dos ovos."}]},{"head":"A porta","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Uma porta vertical corrediça apresenta certas vantagens: pode abrir-se parcialmente para permitir o enchimento dos recipientes de água e completamente para o controlo dos ovos sem deixar escapar muito ar quente. Uma porta de dobradiças aberta deixaria sair muito ar quente, provocando desta feita uma descida considerável da temperatura. Na porta, abre-se um pequeno postigo para facilitar o controlo da temperatura e da humidade sem para tal ter de a abrir. O vidro duplo oferece óptimas qualidades isolantes."}]},{"head":"O dispositivo para o volteio","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Um quadro móvel guarnecido de rede permite virar todos os ovos de uma só vez sem necessidade de abrir a porta. Uma pega na parede da incubadora permite deslocar o quadro (de 5 cm): os ovos rolam na gaze e são voltados para o outro lado."}]},{"head":"Ventilação","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Como já foi referido, o embrião assimila oxigénio e rejeita gás carbónico (CO 2 ). Daí a necessidade de uma ventilação adequada. Na incubadora de ensaio construída pela Agromisa, foram feitos 6 furos de 1 cm de diâmetro nas paredes da mesma: 3 abaixo do nível dos ovos, de um lado, e 3 acima desse nível, do outro (ver a figura 4). Pequenos tubos colocados entre as paredes duplas ao nível dos furos permitem imobilizar o ar no material isolante."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Figura 2: Dispositivo para virar os ovos."}]},{"head":"Métodos de aquecimento","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Este trabalho trata de dois tipos de incubadoras com dois métodos de aquecimento diferentes: 1 lâmpadas eléctricas que aquecem o ar da incubadora (figura 3 /figura 5); 2 um candeeiro de petróleo que aquece um reservatório de água que, por sua vez, aquece o ar da incubadora (figura 6 e figura 8)."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Cada um destes dois métodos tem as suas vantagens e os seus inconvenientes."}]},{"head":"Lâmpadas eléctricas que aquecem o ar da incubadora","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"A incubadora eléctrica é de mais fácil manipulação e avaria-se raramente. De notar, no entanto, que é necessário, com o tempo, substituir as lâmpadas e que se está dependente da corrente eléctrica: se houver um corte de energia, a incubadora arrefece e perdem-se os ovos. Requer igualmente um termóstato. A construção de uma incubadora eléctrica é simples mas torna-se por vezes onerosa devido aos acessórios eléctricos necessários (lâmpadas, tomadas, fio, interruptor e termóstato)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Figura 5: Secção de uma incubadora de lâmpadas eléctricas (com medidas de altura). 1: porta isolada, 2: lâmpadas eléctricas, 3: flanela, 4: tabuleiro de ovos, 5: recipiente de água."}]},{"head":"Um candeeiro de petróleo","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"A incubadora aquecida a petróleo comporta menos riscos de arrefecimento brusco. O petróleo pode ser adquirido com antecedência (20 litros por exemplo). O candeeiro a petróleo aquece a água que por sua vez transmite o calor ao ar da incubadora. Como a água arrefece lentamente, a temperatura da incubadora permanece estável e, caso o candeeiro de petróleo se apague, a temperatura baixa muito lentamente. Se a temperatura do exterior for estável, este tipo de incubadora não requer termóstato. Precisa obviamente de um candeeiro a petróleo."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Com algumas ferramentas e um pouco de habilidade, poderá construir você mesmo esta incubadora. Se não dispuser de um bidão suficientemente largo para servir de reservatório de água, faça um você mesmo, tendo o cuidado de o soldar de forma estanque."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Cada um destes dois métodos de aquecimento requer a utilização de 2 termómetros. Regula-se a temperatura da incubadora através da chama do candeeiro. A água quente do reservatório funciona como uma tampa de calor. Como a temperatura muda muito lentamente, pode-se retirar o candeeiro após o aquecimento. Após algumas tentativas, consegue-se facil-mente manter a temperatura da incubadora por aquecimento a intervalos regulares."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Figura 8: Secção de uma incubadora de áqua quente (com medidas de altura). 1: porta isolada, 2: tabuleiro de ovos, 3: recipiente de água, 4: tecido de flanela, 5: recipiente de água, 6: , 7: candeeiro de aquecimento."}]},{"head":"A humidade relativa","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Os efeitos da humidade do ar ou da humidade relativa (HR) nos resultados de incubação são menos perigosos do que os devidos ao calor. Quanto mais seco for o ar da incubadora, tanto maior será a quantidade de água evaporada do termómetro húmido e tanto mais baixa a temperatura indicada por este termómetro."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"6 Regulação automática da temperatura"}]},{"head":"Na incubadora eléctrica","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"A temperatura de uma incubadora aquecida electricamente é mantida a um nível constante por meio de um termóstato. O termóstato desliga a corrente quando a temperatura atinge o nível desejado e restabelece a corrente quando a temperatura desce para um nível demasiado baixo. Existem vários tipos de termóstatos. Os dois que se podem encontrar no comércio são o termóstato bimetal e o termóstato de cápsula de éter. O termóstato bimetal é, per si, um disjuntor. A cápsula de éter é dotada de uma calha que dispara um interruptor ou disjuntor."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Figura 10: Interruptor bimetal de fabrico artesanal. 1: folha de cobre, 2: folha de metal, 3: parafuso, 4: cabo 1, 5: cabo 2."}]},{"head":"Termóstato bimetal","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"O termóstato bimetal é feito de duas folhas de metais diferentes (bronze e aço ou cobre e zinco) com 1 mm de espessura. Estas duas folhas têm coeficientes de dilatação diferentes, isto é, sob a acção do calor, a folha de bronze (ou de cobre) dilata-se mais do que a folha de aço (ou de zinco). Como as folhas são fixadas juntas, o bimetal derrete quando a temperatura aumenta. Pode, por isso, servir para desligar a corrente de um sistema de aquecimento eléctrico quando a temperatura desejada foi atingida. Ao arrefecer, o bimetal volta à sua forma original e restabelece a corrente. O bimetal está provido de um botão que permite a sua regulação à temperatura desejada. Desligue a corrente antes da regulação para evitar quaisquer choques eléctricos. Coloque o bimetal numa pequena caixa de rede para evitar qualquer contacto aquando da manipulação dos ovos."}]},{"head":"Termóstato de cápsula de éter","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"A figura 11 mostra a cápsula de éter quando fria (a baixa temperatura) e quando quente. O gás (éter) dilata-se quando a temperatura aumenta. Dilata sob o efeito da pressão na cápsula."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"A cápsula está ligada a um suporte por meio de um parafuso regulável."},{"index":3,"size":219,"text":"No topo da cápsula, encontra-se uma calha que sobe e desce dentro de um pequeno tubo que liga o suporte da cápsula à tampa da incubadora. Ao dilatar-se, a cápsula empurra a calha para cima. A calha, por sua vez, acciona o botão do interruptor que desliga a corrente eléctrica: as lâmpadas apagam-se. Pouco tempo depois, a temperatura baixa, a cápsula volta à sua forma original e a corrente é restabelecida. A regulação final faz-se por experiência e erro. Aqueça a incubadora à temperatura de incubação antes de regular a cápsula. Na incubadora aquecida a petróleo Na incubadora aquecida a petróleo a temperatura é regulada manualmente. O reservatório de água funciona como uma tampa e a sua temperatura não varia senão muito lentamente. Pode-se regular a temperatura rodando a mecha do candeeiro a petróleo para cima ou para baixo e controlando-a a intervalos de 2-3 horas. Pode-se igualmente utilizar um termóstato de cápsula de éter para a regulação automática (ver a figura 12). Quando a temperatura sobe, a cápsula empurra para cima uma calha vertical. A calha empurra por sua vez uma alavanca suspensa que soergue uma válvula e liberta o ar quente. Se a temperatura for demasiado baixa, a válvula mantém-se fechada e o calor permanece na incubadora. Esta válvula pode ser regulada por meio de um parafuso."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Figura 12: Cápsula de éter numa incubadora a petróleo. A frio: a válvula fecha-se. A quente: a válvula soergue-se, o ar quente é libertado. 1: pequenas pedras, 2: cápsula de éter, 3: parafuso, 4: parafuso, 5: válvula."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"7 Utilização da incubadora e processos de incubação"}]},{"head":"Instalação da incubadora","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A incubadora deve ser colocada num lugar perfeitamente isolado, onde a temperatura permaneça a mais constante possível de dia e de noite. É necessário providenciar uma ventilação adequada evitando, contudo, as correntes de ar. Observar-se-á então uma nítida melhoria no funcionamento da incubadora bem como uma redução nas despesas de combustível."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A incubadora pode igualmente ser colocada numa caixa de maiores dimensões que servirá de isolamento suplementar desde que a ventilação seja apropriada. Antes de utilizar a incubadora pela primeira vez, deve ser posta a funcionar vazia durante pelo menos uma semana."}]},{"head":"A incubadora eléctrica","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Acenda as lâmpadas eléctricas e coloque um termómetro no tabuleiro de ovos ao nível da parte superior dos ovos. Se tiver vários termómetros, verifique se o calor está distribuído uniformemente sobre todo o tabuleiro. Abra 2 a 4 entradas de ar e espere que a temperatura estabilize. Regule o termóstato (ver o parágrafo seguinte). A temperatura óptima durante as 2 primeiras semanas é de 38,9 °C com um desvio máximo de 0,5 °C para cima ou para baixo. Acima dos 40,5 ��C, as temperaturas são fatais para os embriões. São necessários alguns ajustamentos antes de se obter uma temperatura correcta e estável. Considera-se que a regulação foi conseguida quando a incubadora mantém uma temperatura estável durante um período de 24 horas sem necessidade de reajustamentos do termóstato. Se a temperatura estabilizar com dificuldade, equacione o isolamento da incubadora. Coloque, então, na incubadora um recipiente de água quente e verifique se a humidade é a adequada (ver mais adiante). Quando tudo está a funcionar correctamente, os ovos podem ser colocados no devido lugar."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"A incubadora aquecida a petróleo Se a incubadora for aquecida a petróleo, ateste o recipiente de água quente (aproximadamente 40 °C). O calor transmite-se melhor se não houver ar no reservatório (ver a figura 7). Regula-se o calor rodando a mecha do candeeiro a petróleo para cima ou para baixo até obtenção da temperatura constante de 38,9 °C. Lembre-se que a chama do candeeiro a petróleo diminui quando o nível de petróleo desce. Encha o candeeiro com regularidade. Para colocar o termómetro, ver o parágrafo Incubadora eléctrica."}]},{"head":"Regulação da temperatura durante a incubação","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"O factor essencial de êxito na incubação é a temperatura, mormente durante a primeira semana. A temperatura óptima é de 38,9 °C. Uma subida de temperatura de 1,6 °C pode ser fatal para os embriões. Uma subida de temperatura e uma descida de humidade conjugadas podem dar resultados desastrosos. Uma temperatura demasiado baixa atrasa a eclosão dos ovos, embora seja menos perigosa do que uma temperatura demasiado elevada. A partir do décimo nono dia de incubação, a temperatura deve baixar para os 36,1 °C pois os pintos produzem eles próprios calor. Os pintos recém-nascidos que mantêm o bico aberto tentam perder calor através de uma respiração ofegante. O facto indicia um sobreaquecimento da incubadora. Deve, portanto, controlar o termómetro."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Na incubadora eléctrica, a fonte de calor difunde de cima para baixo ao passo que na incubadora de petróleo o ar quente vem da parte de baixo. É evidente que a temperatura mais alta situa-se junto à fonte de calor. É por esta razão que o termómetro deve ser colocado exactamente ao nível dos ovos, isto é, 5 cm acima do tabuleiro."}]},{"head":"Regulação da humidade","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Os teores de humidade óptimos são apresentados na figura 9. O termómetro húmido não indicará a temperatura correcta se o tecido que o envolve estiver sujo. Lave-o regularmente com sabão. Se for demasiado difícil medir a humidade, controle os ovos examinando-os. A medida correcta da câmara de ar está indicada na figura 14."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"A humidade é regulada por recipientes cheios de água quente colocados no fundo da incubadora. Não use água fria pois poderia baixar a temperatura; use água quente à temperatura do corpo."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Quanto maior for a superfície de água tanto maior será a quantidade de evaporação e mais acentuada a subida do mercúrio no termómetro húmido. Se retirar um recipiente de água, fará baixar rapidamente a temperatura do termómetro húmido. Se quiser aumentar a humidade ou se os recipientes não chegarem, junte-lhes uma esponja ou um pano húmido. Pode usar, igualmente, um vaporizador cheio de água quente. Limpe cuidadosamente o vaporizador e vaporize pelos furos de ventilação. Pode-se igualmente medir a humidade por meio de um higrómetrorelógio ou higrómetro de cabelo, embora o higrómetro seja uma aparelho bastante caro. O teor de humidade depende igualmente da ventilação e da humidade do ar ventilado."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Figura 14: Tamanho correcto da câmara de ar nos diversos estádios de incubação. 1: início, 2: 7 dias, 3: 14 dias, 4: 19 dias."}]},{"head":"Ventilação","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"É imprescindível uma ventilação adequada pois os embriões carecem de oxigénio e expelem gás carbónico. Uma ventilação deficiente pode provocar a sufocação dos pintos dentro do ovo. A incubadora apresentada neste trabalho comporta furos de ventilação especiais. O diâmetro dos furos é de cerca de 1 cm. Os furos podem ser tapados por rolhas. É difícil prever quantos furos deverão estar abertos, porquanto depende do número de vezes que a porta for aberta para o volteio dos ovos. Como a porta deixa entrar um pouco de ar fresco, é necessário abrir alguns buracos suplementares quando, após 19 dias de incubação, termina o volteio dos ovos. Devem, no mínimo, permanecer constantemente abertos dois furos. O sistema automático de volteio dos ovos (ver o capítulo 5) exige a abertura de um maior número de furos."}]},{"head":"Volteio dos ovos","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Os ovos devem ser virados com regularidade; a não ser assim, os resultados da incubação serão muito fracos. A quantidade de vezes que os ovos são virados é directamente proporcional à quantidade de ovos que eclodem. Cuide de virar os ovos três vezes por dia durante os dezanove primeiros dias. A partir daí, o volteio deixa de ser necessário. O volteio dos ovos por meio de um dispositivo mecânico é uma operação muito fácil. Também pode ser feito manualmente. Aja com suavidade mas com uma certa rapidez. Convém retirar completamente o tabuleiro de incubação, virar os ovos a 180° e colocar de novo o tabuleiro na posição inversa. Feche a porta durante o volteio dos ovos. Se tiver dúvidas quanto à difusão uniforme do calor a todos os ovos, troque os ovos do centro pelos das beiras. Marque os ovos escrevendo um número a lápis num ponto da casca. A marca (número) mudará de posição sempre que proceder ao volteio dos ovos."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Certifique-se que tem as mãos limpas. Os contactos com o candeeiro de querosene podem deixar as mãos gordurosas. O óleo tapa os poros da casca e impede a passagem do ar. Durante o volteio, abra a porta da incubadora o mínimo possível a fim de evitar o seu arrefecimento."}]},{"head":"O exame dos ovos","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"O exame dos ovos permite detectar os ovos estéreis e os embriões mortos. O exame dos ovos é uma operação utilíssima durante a incubação pois permite verificar se o desenvolvimento do pinto está a processar-se a contento."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"No caso de desenvolvimento anormal, retire o ovo antes que liberte gases prejudiciais. Procure a causa de tal desenvolvimento (ver o capítulo 10). Um primeiro exame deve ser efectuado no nono dia da incubação. Só poderá fazê-lo uns dias antes se tiver prática suficiente e confiança em si (ver a figura 17).Retire os ovos estéreis ou contendo embriões mortos. Um segundo exame deve ser efectuado após 14 a 18 dias de incubação. Desta vez, retire todos os ovos contendo embriões mortos e controle a regulação da humidade."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"A partir do décimo oitavo dia, deixe de examinar os ovos para não perturbar os pintos no ovo. Como a saída da casca é uma experiência muito cansativa, os pintos devem gozar de tranquilidade nos últimos dias."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Figura 17: Ovos após 9 dias de incubação. 1: ovo estéril: não fecundado, 2: ovo fecundado: embrião vivo, 3: embrião morto."}]},{"head":"Registo escrito","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"É muito importante registar a data em que os ovos foram colocados na incubadora. Meça a temperatura e a humidade duas vezes por dia (ver a figura 18). Se a percentagem de eclosão for muito baixa no final do período de incubação, verifique se os dados estavam correctos. nascimentos Percentagem de eclosao 100 ovos colocados = ×"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Em condições normais, a percentagem de eclosão varia de 50 a 70%. Raramente atinge ou ultrapassa os 80%. Veja o exemplo de registo escrito apresentado na página seguinte."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Figura 18: Exemplo de registo escrito."}]},{"head":"A criação artificial dos pintos","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Para sobreviver, os pintos recém-nascidos carecem de uma fonte de calor que os aqueça quando a temperatura do seu corpo diminui. Eles podem passear e suportar temperaturas baixas mas se tiverem frio precisam de se aquecer. Em condições normais, é a mãe galinha que lhes fornece o calor indispensável. É capaz de tratar do dobro de pintos que ela própria chocou; mas isto só na condição de lhe terem sido entregues muito pequenos e nunca mais de um dia após o nascimento dos seus. Se o tempo não estiver muito frio, uma galinha pode cuidar de cerca de quinze pintos. Os pintos que passam frio não morrem imediatamente mas desenvolvem antes disso perturbações digestivas (diarreias) durante uma semana."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Quadro 2: Temperaturas recomendadas."}]},{"head":"Idade em semana","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Temperaturas em °C (rente ao chão) 0-1 32-30 1-2 30-28 2-3 28-25 3-4 25-22 4-5 22-20 5-6 20-18"},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"Os pintos com um dia começam a andar rapidamente em busca de alimentos. Necessitam de alimentos de boa qualidade, melhores ainda do que os da galinha. Se fizer bom tempo e se o local estiver protegido contra os inimigos (ratos, pássaros grandes, cães), dê-lhes acesso a um pouco de verdura em complemento da sua ração normal de concentrado. No caso de incubação artificial, o calor é-lhes fornecido por uma lâmpada de infravermelhos (ou pintada de vermelho), por um candeeiro de petróleo, de gás ou por um queimador de farelo de arroz. A criadeira de cartão da figura 19 é feita com uma lâmpada de infravermelhos e uma parede que reduz as perdas de calor. As paredes são feitas de cartão simples. A lâmpada é coberta por um chapéu cónico que dirige o calor para cima dos pintos. Durante a primeira semana, a lâm-pada é colocada 10 cm acima do solo. A temperatura ao nível dos pintos deve rondar os 32 °C (controlo necessário). Suba a lâmpada 5 cm por semana pois, ao crescer, os pintos vão precisando cada vez menos de calor."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Figura 19: Uma criadeira de cartão. 1: lâmpada de infravermelhos, 2: garrafa de água, 3: parede da criadeira, 4: rede para pintos."},{"index":4,"size":226,"text":"O fundo é constituído por uma rede para pintos colocada a cerca de 5 cm acima do solo. Os excrementos atravessam a rede mantendo assim o fundo limpo. Porém, durante as 2 ou 3 primeiras semanas, cubra a rede com jornal para cortar as correntes de ar e o frio que vem de baixo. Mude o jornal todos os dias. Para 30 pintos, o fundo da criadeira deverá medir, pelo menos, 60 × 60 cm. A lâmpada (ou candeeiro) deve estar suspensa no centro da incubadora para aquecer toda a área. Durante as 2 primeiras semanas, os cantos permanecem com frequência frios. Coloque aí alguns tijolos que retirará após 2 semanas. Uma outra solução é a construção de um anel de criação para pintos. Nos primeiros dias, a temperatura ideal para os pintos é de 32 °C (medida à altura dos pintos, isto é, 5 cm acima do solo). Ao crescerem, os pintos ficam mais bem protegidos pelas penas e a temperatura pode então baixar. Ver mais adiante as temperaturas recomendadas. Após duas semanas, os pintos devem dispor de uma saída. Após quatro semanas, desligue o aquecimento artificial se a temperatura exterior ultrapassar os 20 °C durante o dia. No entanto, convém deixar a lâmpada acesa durante as noites frias. O bem-estar dos pintos vê-se no seu comportamento: aproximam-se da fonte de calor ou afastam-se dela."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"As normas gerais que proporcionam o bom desenvolvimento inicial dos pintos são as seguintes:"},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"? limpe cuidadosamente a criadeira com um desinfectante eficaz antes de colocar os pintos; ? conserve a criadeira em lugar seco e evite as correntes de ar durante a criação; ? durante a primeira semana, forre o fundo da criadeira com um jornal e mude-o todos os dias; ? depois disso, faça uma cama limpa e seca (serradura, areia seca) de 2 cm de espessura no início. Todos os dias, vá acrescentando material seco e fresco até atingir 7 cm de espessura. É igualmente possível utilizar rede para pintos; ? durante os primeiros dias, alimente os pintos com grão espalhado no jornal."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Figura 20: Vista de cima da criadeira. A: temperatura correcta, B:temperatura demasiado elevada, C: temperatura demasiado baixa. 1: parede da criadeira, 2: limite imaginário da temperatura, 3: lâmpada, 4: pintos."},{"index":8,"size":172,"text":"? A partir do terceiro dia, dê-lhes verdura segada finamente. ? A partir do terceiro dia, comece a dar-lhes alimentos para pintos (pasta). ? Dê-lhes a pasta em pequenas quantidades, 3 a 4 vezes por dia. Este processo estimula a alimentação, proporciona um crescimento mais uniforme e desperdiça menos comida. No final do dia, convém deixar um pouco de alimentos no comedouro. ? Tenha sempre o cuidado de lhes fornecer constantemente água fresca. Quando as doenças ocorrem (coccidiose, vermes, etc.), junte-lhe o medicamento adequado (consulte o seu veterinário). ? Instale uma quantidade suficiente de comedouros e de bebedouros para que todos os pintos possam comer em simultâneo. ? Limpe cuidadosamente a criadeira e o espaço circundante. Lave diariamente os comedouros e os bebedouros. ? Quando existirem muitos piolhos, ácaros e pulgas, vaporize o espaço que circunda a criadeira com um desinfectante eficaz (consulte o seu veterinário). ? Vire a cama uma vez por semana. Verifique o estado da cama sobretudo à volta dos bebedouros. Vire-a frequentemente para evitar que se forme crosta."}]},{"head":"Incubação dos ovos de outras aves","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A incubação dos ovos de outras aves de capoeira não é exactamente idêntica à dos ovos de galinha."}]},{"head":"A pata","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Para a maior parte dos ovos de pata, o nascimento dá-se após 28 dias e, para algumas espécies, mais tarde ainda. Estando estes mais sujos do que os de galinha, devem ser limpos quanto antes, de preferência a seco. As condições de conservação são as mesmas que para os ovos de galinha. Uma galinha choca pode chocar praticamente tantos ovos de pata quanto os de galinha. Se a galinha não tiver acesso directo à água, borrife os ovos de pata com água tépida (temperatura da mão) diariamente do décimo quinto ao vigésimo quarto dia bem como no último dia da incubação A temperatura ideal para a incubação artificial é de 38 °C. Durante os primeiros 24 dias, a humidade relativa deve ser de 70% (termómetro húmido 31 °C). Durante a incubação, a humidade deve chegar a 80%. O volteio diário dos ovos deve ter lugar até ao vigésimo sexto dia. "}]},{"head":"A perua","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A eclosão dos ovos de perua dá-se igualmente após 28 dias. Os ovos de tamanho médio dão melhores resultados de incubação do que os grandes."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Os ovos de perua desenvolvem-se mais depressa durante a sua conservação do que os ovos de galinha. Não os conserve durante muito tempo e recolha-os mais amiúde, por exemplo de três em três horas. Nem todas as peruas são boas para o choco. Examine a perua choca, sobretudo durante a última das 4 semanas de incubação. A perua choca entre 15 a 18 ovos ao passo que a galinha não choca mais que 8 a 10 ovos de perua. "}]},{"head":"A codorniz","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Os ovos de codorniz para incubação não devem ter mais de 5 dias. É necessário virá-los 7 vezes por dia. O período de incubação dura 18 dias. A temperatura ideal é de 37,7 °C. Após o décimo sétimo dia, a humidade relativa pode atingir o teor altíssimo de 90% (termómetro húmido 34 °C). Até este dia, o teor de humidade apropriado é de 60%."}]},{"head":"A pintada ou \"galinha-de-Angola\"","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"O período de incubação dos ovos de pintada dura 28 dias. Os métodos de incubação são os mesmos que os utilizados para os ovos de pata. Perturbação 4: Pintos bem desenvolvidos mas não se dá a eclosão porque são incapazes de partir a casca. 1 ar demasiado seco: câmara de ar demasiado grande. 2 ar demasiado húmido: câmara de ar demasiado pequena."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"b Utilize um bom termómetro húmido. 1 Acrescente alguns recipientes de água ou vaporize com mais frequência. 2 Retire alguns recipientes de água."}]},{"head":"Perturbação 5:","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Os pintos partem a casca mas não conseguem sair do ovo."}]},{"head":"Causa provável","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Prevenção: a Ar demasiado seco."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"a Controle as temperaturas do termómetro húmido; introduza um recipiente de água ou um pano húmido. b Desenvolvimento tardio dos pintos (ver capítulo 6)."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"b Ver o capítulo 6."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"c Subida da temperatura demasiado acentuada embora de curta duração."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"c Controle o termóstato e a lâmpada de aquecimento."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Perturbação 6: Pintos pegajosos; a casca está colada ao pinto recémnascido. Perturbação 9: Pintos fracos com mau cheiro. Morte frequente."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Causa provável Prevenção a Onfalite ou infecção do umbigo."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"a Limpe e desinfecte cuidadosamente a incubadora bem como todo o material utilizado."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"Perturbação 10: Eclosão irregular."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Causa provável Prevenção a Ovos conservados em períodos diferentes."},{"index":11,"size":93,"text":"a Não utilize ovos com mais de 1 semana. ? Gather knowledge on all aspects of poultry science and the poultry industry and to bring this knowledge to the poultry industry, poultry scientists and other people with interests in poultry. ? Bring together worldwide those concerned with all aspects of poultry science, poultry production and the many diverse ancillary enterprises that are associated with the industry. ? Dedicate itself to the spread of knowledge so that education and training are ranked high amongst the interests of WPSA members. ? Promote good poultry husbandry."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 1 : Figura 1: Incubadora para galinha choca. 1: Buracos de ventilação. "},{"text":"Figura 3 : Figura 3: Montagem dos cabos do sistema de aquecimento eléctrico. 1: bimetal, 2: , 3: lâmpadas. "},{"text":"Figura 6 : Figura 6: Incubadora aquecida por um candeeiro a petróleo. 1: tampa, 2: furos de ventilação, 3: tabuleiro de ovos, 4: abertura, 5: reservatório de água quente, 6: abertura, 7: mesa suporte do reservatório, 8: candeeiro de aquecimento. "},{"text":"Figura 7 : Figura 7: Reservatório incorrectamente cheio e reservatório correctamente cheio. A: incorrectamente, B: correctamente. "},{"text":" Evite a desidratação dos ovos através do controlo da humidade na incubadora. O ovo perde muita humidade pelos poros da casca. A dada altura, identificam-se facilmente os ovos desidratados (ver o capítulo 7). Durante o nascimento, o teor seguro de humidade deve ser mantido. Se o ar estiver seco, os pintos desidratam muito depressa e morrem. Uma humidade excessiva influi sobre a troca de gases que se efectua através dos poros da casca. O embrião pode ficar intoxicado pelo gás carbónico que ele próprio produz. Os sintomas são descritos no capítulo 10. Mede-se a humidade na incubadora por meio de um termómetro especial: o termómetro húmido; um termómetro normal envolto num pano de algodão húmido. Este termómetro indica uma temperatura mais baixa do que o termómetro normal. A diferença entre a temperatura do termómetro húmido e a do termómetro usado normalmente representa a medição directa da humidade relativa. "},{"text":"Figura 9 : Figura 9: Termómetro húmido. 1: termómetro vulgar, 2: invólucro, 3: pequeno reservatório de água. "},{"text":"Figura 11 : Figura 11: Cápsula de éter. A: a frio: corrente desligada, lâmpadas apagadas, B: a quente: corrente desligada, lâmpadas apagadas. 1: em direcção às lâmpadas, 2: em direcção à tomada. "},{"text":"Figura 13 : Figura 13: Medição da temperatura dos ovos. "},{"text":"Figura 15 : Figura 15: Volteio dos ovos. "},{"text":"Figura 16 : Figura 16: Aparlho de fabrico artesanal par examinar ovos (colocar o ovo no buraco). "},{"text":" "},{"text":"10 Possíveis perturbações e sua prevenção Muitos ovos contendo pintos mortos. Perturbação 3: Perturbação 3: Causa provável Perturbação 1: a Como 2.a.; temperatura não apropriada. a Como 2.a. Prevenção Causa provável Perturbação 1: a Como 2.a.; temperatura não apropriada. a Como 2.a. Prevenção Demasiados ovos não fecundados ou estéreis. No ovo partido: nem b Volteio incorrecto dos ovos. b Vire os ovos suavemente e com a perio- Demasiados ovos não fecundados ou estéreis. No ovo partido: nem b Volteio incorrecto dos ovos. b Vire os ovos suavemente e com a perio- dicidade indicada no capítulo 4. c Dê-lhes uma alimentação adequada; desenvolvimento nem anéis sanguíneos. c Morte dos pintos em finais da segunda dicidade indicada no capítulo 4. c Dê-lhes uma alimentação adequada; desenvolvimento nem anéis sanguíneos. c Morte dos pintos em finais da segunda semana provavelmente devida a uma cuide do suplemento em vitamina A, B2 semana provavelmente devida a umacuide do suplemento em vitamina A, B2 Causa provável má alimentação dos progenitores. Prevenção e B12. Causa provável má alimentação dos progenitores.Prevenção e B12. a Demasiadas galinhas para cada galo. d Ventilação insuficiente. a Utilize 1 galo para 10 galinhas. d Abra mais alguns furos. a Demasiadas galinhas para cada galo. d Ventilação insuficiente.a Utilize 1 galo para 10 galinhas. d Abra mais alguns furos. b Subalimentação dos machos. b Alimente os galos à parte. b Subalimentação dos machos.b Alimente os galos à parte. c Ingerência ou querelas de machos du- c Não forme grandes bandos necessitan- c Ingerência ou querelas de machos du-c Não forme grandes bandos necessitan- rante o acasalamento. do muitos machos; crie juntos os galos rante o acasalamento.do muitos machos; crie juntos os galos destinados à reprodução. destinados à reprodução. d Esterilidade, doença ou problemas nas d Troque de macho. d Esterilidade, doença ou problemas nasd Troque de macho. patas do macho; o macho só quer aca- patas do macho; o macho só quer aca- salar com determinadas galinhas. salar com determinadas galinhas. e Machos demasiado velhos. e Troque de macho. e Machos demasiado velhos.e Troque de macho. f Ovos demasiado velhos; conservados f Não utilize ovos com mais de uma se- f Ovos demasiado velhos; conservadosf Não utilize ovos com mais de uma se- ou transportados em más condições. mana e veja o capítulo ou transportados em más condições.mana e veja o capítulo Perturbação 2: Perturbação 2: Ovos não fecundados com desenvolvimento precoce apresentando, Ovos não fecundados com desenvolvimento precoce apresentando, quando aberto, um anel sanguíneo ou um pequeno embrião morto. quando aberto, um anel sanguíneo ou um pequeno embrião morto. Causa provável Prevenção Causa provávelPrevenção a Temperatura de incubadora demasiado a Controle o termómetro e o termóstato; a Temperatura de incubadora demasiadoa Controle o termómetro e o termóstato; alta ou demasiado baixa. siga os conselhos do capítulo 4. alta ou demasiado baixa.siga os conselhos do capítulo 4. b Ovos conservados muito frios. b Não conserve os ovos em lugar demasi- b Ovos conservados muito frios.b Não conserve os ovos em lugar demasi- ado frio ou sujeito a correntes de ar. ado frio ou sujeito a correntes de ar. c Como 1.f. c Como 1.f. c Como 1.f.c Como 1.f. d Animais criados em condições não ade- d Não faça a incubação de ovos proveni- d Animais criados em condições não ade-d Não faça a incubação de ovos proveni- quadas. entes de galinhas doentes. quadas.entes de galinhas doentes. "},{"text":"World's Poultry Science Association (WPSA).Working together to feed the World Objectives of the World's Poultry Science Association (WPSA). Universidade Federal de Lavras Cx. Postal 37, Campus Universitário, CEP 37200-000, Lavras, Telephone: 35 3829 1122 -; Fax: Fax: 35 3829 1100 Web-site: www.ufla.br USP, Universidade de Sao Paulo Web-site: www.usp.br Anexo 1: Endereços de fabricantes UFLA, Anexo 1: Endereços de fabricantes UFLA, de incubadoras e de peças de incubadoras e de peças sobressalientes sobressalientes b Ovos de tamanhos muito diversos. ALEMANHA b Coloque os ovos grandes mais cedo um b Ovos de tamanhos muito diversos. ALEMANHAb Coloque os ovos grandes mais cedo um Grumbach Gmbh & Co. K.G. dia e meio. Grumbach Gmbh & Co. K.G.dia e meio. c Mudanças de temperatura durante a Am Breittel incubação. d Temperatura mais elevada no centro do D-6330 Wetzlar 13 c Como 5.c. d Melhore o isolamento da incubadora. c Mudanças de temperatura durante a Am Breittel incubação. d Temperatura mais elevada no centro do D-6330 Wetzlar 13c Como 5.c. d Melhore o isolamento da incubadora. que nas beiras. BÉLGICA que nas beiras. BÉLGICA The detroit incubator Perturbação 11: Zandstraat 15 Pintos titubeantes. 8200 St-Andries-Brugge 2 The detroit incubator Perturbação 11: Zandstraat 15 Pintos titubeantes. 8200 St-Andries-Brugge 2 Causa provável a O fundo dos tabuleiros de incubação é demasiado macio. \"De Vogel\" (morada na Bélgica) Maroy Zoo Prevenção a Cubra o solo com um material mais duro. Causa provável a O fundo dos tabuleiros de incubação é demasiado macio. \"De Vogel\" (morada na Bélgica) Maroy ZooPrevenção a Cubra o solo com um material mais duro. Bieststraat 156 Bieststraat 156 8790 Waregem 8790 Waregem FRANÇA FRANÇA Favor Favor 57-59, Rue Barbu 57-59, Rue Barbu 54510 Tomblaine 54510 Tomblaine HOLANDA HOLANDA Pas reform B. V. Pas reform B. V. Boîte Postale 2 Boîte Postale 2 7038 ZG Zeddam 7038 ZG Zeddam Succes Succes M. v.d. Markvan Helvoortlaan 31 M. v.d. Markvan Helvoortlaan 31 Woerden Woerden \"De Vogel\" \"De Vogel\" Leeghwaterstraat 97 Leeghwaterstraat 97 2132 SR Hoofddorp 2132 SR Hoofddorp "}],"sieverID":"c5c27b1d-cd0e-4211-a177-029bccb9e3da","abstract":"A presente brochura foi revisada graças aos esforços de vários especialistas.Em primeiro lugar, queremos expressar os nossos agradecimentos a Nico van Wageningen, Johan Meinderts, Puck Bonnier e Henk Kasper pelos seus comentários e sugestðes constructivos.Agradecemos igualmente à Mario Pereira, Jan de Koning e Kees van Veluw pelos seus contribuição para o melhormento das ilustraçðes.O editor Wageningen, 1995 "}

data/part_3/024a17e041bd4dae61a02de5592c90ae.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"024a17e041bd4dae61a02de5592c90ae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8486f059-fcfc-41b6-8d7e-defa443fde2d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Abordagem","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Embora os agricultores estivessem familiarizados com espécies de árvores forrageiras, nomeadamente a Calliandra e Sesbania, e com o capim elefante, tinham um conhecimento limitado sobre o uso e a gestão de forragens herbáceas."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Os agricultores e os investigadores concordaram com as espécies e variedades de forragens a testar (Tabela 1) e com uma concepção comum para cada parcela de viveiro. Os critérios dos agricultores relacionados com o rendimento eram: o crescimento e vigor, a altura da planta, o rendimento da forragem e a resistência à seca. Eles mencionaram também a germinação, altura da floração, produção de semente, resistência a pragas e doenças e palatabilidade para o gado. Concordouse que os membros dos grupos de agricultores iriam recolher a maioria dos dados (excepto dados de biomassa da forragem) e que depois de cada época de cultivo os dados seriam analisados e os métodos de recolha dos dados seriam revistos em conjunto com os facilitadores de investigação. Os investigadores geriram a recolha dos dados da produção de biomassa da forragem, já que necessitavam de dados rigorosos para compararem a produção da forragem entre as espécies e acessões."}]},{"head":"Reflexão e ajustamentos","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Durante o primeiro ciclo experimental os agricultores adquiriram conhecimentos sobre a aparência das novas plantas forrageiras, padrões de germinação e crescimento inicial. A recolha dos dados quantitativos pelos membros dos grupos usando os seus próprios critérios provou ser um desafio, especialmente porque um dos grupos teve problemas de liderança. Para facilitar o processo de investigação, os membros reduziram o número de parâmetros a serem medidos. Com entusiasmo renovado, os membros realizaram testes de paladar. A Brachiaria híbrida Mulato, Brachiaria var. Toledo, Panicum maximum e P.coloratum ocuparam as posições mais altas em termos de preferência para o gado local, enquanto que o gado leiteiro melhorado comeu todos os tipos sem preferência aparente. Durante a época seca seguinte as duas variedades de Stylosanthes guinesse; Brachiaria híbrida Mulato; Brachiaria var. Toledo e Chamaecrista rotundifolia demonstraram a sua superior capacidade de permanecerem verdes durante a seca."}]},{"head":"Expansão e difusão","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"A expansão das forragens dos viveiros para outros lugares nos campos de produção dos membros dos grupos teve lugar lentamente e em pequena escala. Por exemplo, os agricultores usaram a divisão de raízes das ervas a fim de expandir o cultivo de forragem. As grandes variações em termos de compromisso dos produtores com o processo de experimentação foram consideradas relacionadas com o programa de distribuição do gado leiteiro, em que os que receberam uma vaca estavam mais comprometidos com o processo. É claro que a selecção das áreas para experimentação das forragens deveria depender do nível de desenvolvimento dos serviços associados ao sector de lacticínios nessas áreas. Na ausência de bons serviços de lacticínios, a melhoria da produtividade podia ser alcançada com gado local ou de raça cruzada, cabras ou ovelhas. O projecto ampliou-se agora a outros 11 grupos de cabras e gado leiteiro em Tororo, onde a variedade e o híbrido de Brachiaria são cultivadas em filas e parcelas nos campos de cultivo."}]},{"head":"Lições aprendidas","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Os grupos de agricultores estavam envolvidos em ensaios agrícolas simultâneos para os quais desenvolveram planos de monitorização e avaliação participativa. A integração dos ensaios de forragens nestes planos facilitou o processo de investigação."}]},{"head":"• • • • •","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Os processos internos dos grupos foram um factor importante para a continuidade e empenhamento na experimentação com forragens. Na ausência de coesão de grupo a gestão das parcelas funciona melhor numa base individual."}]},{"head":"• • • • •","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"A Brachiaria híbrida Mulato, Brachiaria var. Toledo e Stylosanthes tiveram melhor desempenho do que as outras forragens e atingem rendimentos comparáveis aos do bem conhecido capim elefante. Sob condições similares, sem o uso de fertilizantes, o capim elefante pode produzir até 40 toneladas de forragem fresca (10 toneladas de matéria seca). As brachiarias são resistentes a doenças tais como a ferrugem e o atrofiamento, que constituem uma grave ameaça para os sistemas de produção de lacticínios baseados no capim elefante na África Oriental. A Brachiaria é originária da África Oriental, mas a variedade e o híbrido de qualidade superior usados neste ensaio foram examinados e melhorados pelo CIAT e pelos seus parceiros na América Latina. A Stylosanthes, uma leguminosa exótica, proporciona proteínas baratas para suplementar as dietas pobres dos animais durante a época seca."}]},{"head":"Direcção futura","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Embora a investigação aqui descrita esteja ainda num estágio inicial, foi possível identificar as forragens que se adaptam bem e que podem ser expandidas para outras áreas similares. Quando as forragens estiverem integradas nos sistemas de produção, haverá vantagens claras em termos de geração de receitas, gestão de recursos naturais (GRN) e outros benefícios socioeconómicos. Por exemplo, nos sistemas de produção de pequenos agricultores do sudeste da Ásia as tecnologias das forragens aumentaram a receita dos agregados familiares proveniente do gado em 30 por cento, resultando também no aumento da produção de estrume e na poupança de tempo e de mão-de-obra que de outra forma seria usada para tomar conta do gado ou na procura de forragem para cortar e carregar."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Porém, o uso das forragens pode, de muitas formas, ser mais complexo que o de outras culturas. A forma mais provável de adoptar as forragens é através de integração com outras culturas, em vez de cultivadas isoladamente. Há uma grande diversidade de espécies e variedades de forragens, cada uma delas com os seus requisitos de adaptação ambiental e gestão específicos. Estas características inerentes das tecnologias de forragens prestam-se, e na verdade exigem, a experimentação por pequenos agricultores, para experimentarem as \"melhores opções\" de espécies e variedades e inventarem estratégias locais que tornem as forragens lucrativas, sustentáveis e compatíveis com as outras culturas."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" como objectivo identificar as espécies e as variedades de forragem mais adequadas que proporcionassem grandes quantidades de alimentos de alta qualidade durante a época seca. "}],"sieverID":"43cfd771-9854-4980-a1c4-dc212ed5d95a","abstract":"O distrito de Tororo é uma das áreas mais pobres do Uganda, com mais de 60 por cento de agregados familiares vivendo abaixo do limiar de pobreza absoluta. Um diagnóstico participativo realizado em 2003 pela ONG Africa 2000 Network (A2N) e pelo CIAT, revelou a importância da disponibilidade de alimentos para o gado caprino e bovino leiteiro de raça cruzada e melhorada, especialmente durante a segunda época seca que vai de Dezembro a Março. Em 1997 criou-se um consórcio de organizações de investigação e desenvolvimento (I&D) distritais denominado Iniciativa Integrada de Produtividade do Solo através de Pesquisa e Educação (INSPIRE), com o fim de superar a insegurança alimentar e a pobreza através da melhoria da fertilidade do solo. Os agricultores avaliaram inicialmente o desempenho de várias culturas leguminosas de cobertura como a Mucuna e a Canavalia usando principalmente critérios agronómicos, mas mais tarde incluíram o uso de leguminosas para a alimentação dos animais como um critério adicional. Em 2003 o CIAT e a A2N seleccionaram dois grupos de agricultores interessados, Kamata e Umoja, para avaliarem as forragens melhoradas para o seu gado leiteiro. Os membros destes grupos já estavam a receber gado leiteiro de empréstimo através de um esquema de distribuição da A2N. O primeiro objectivo deste estudo foi identificar as espécies e as variedades de forragem mais adequadas que proporcionassem grandes quantidades de alimentos de alta qualidade durante a época seca usando uma combinação de critérios dos agricultores e cientistas. O segundo objectivo foi desenvolver uma abordagem para a avaliação participativa de forragens em África."}

data/part_3/02736242c8e81bb547f86e5e343c14a1.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/029011a5019e77b93d9d42a78ffe2e4d.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"029011a5019e77b93d9d42a78ffe2e4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d56533c4-e81a-4846-a404-0176ff9761d4/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Atteindre les usagers finaux avec des informations sur les prévisions saisonnières : les médias locaux à bord","keywords":["Mainassara","A.A.B.","Akue","A.","Ahonon","M.","Balde","B.M.","Gadedjisso-Tossou","A. 2023. Atteindre les usagers finaux avec des informations sur les prévisions saisonnières : les médias locaux à bord"],"chapters":[{"head":"Contexte","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"La communication des prévisions saisonnières est un maillon qui mérite d'être significativement renforcé, afin que l'information parvienne à l'usager final. L'objectif visé par cet atelier de renforcement de capacité organisé à Niamey du 27 au 29 avril 2023, qui porte sur l'interprétation et la communication des prévisions saisonnières est de répondre à cette problématique majeure. En effet, malgré la diffusion annuelle des prévisions saisonnières agro-hydroclimatiques via divers canaux, il a été relevé que le niveau des communications des prévisions reste insuffisant. Pour combler cette lacune, AGRHYMET CCR-AOS, dans le cadre du projet AICCRA, a décidé de s'investir dans le renforcement des compétences des communicateurs, des médias et des organisations des producteurs pour une meilleure interprétation et diffusion des prévisions saisonnières. "}]},{"head":"Renforcement des capacités des communicateurs et medias locaux","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Du rôle des radios communautaires dans la communication saisonnière","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Les points saillants des discussions avec les participants","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Les échanges entre les communicateurs et les experts régionaux des prévisions saisonnières ont permi de dégager quelques points de refléxion sur l'amélioration de la communication des prévisions saisonnières. On peut citer:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Le renforcement de la collaboration avec les experts et techniciens ;"}]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"La mise à contribution des experts et techniciens pour la formulation des messages clés à l'endroit des producteurs ;"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• L'insuffisance de communication autour de la mise à jour des prévisions ;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Le renforcer de la dynamique de formation des communicateurs ; "}]},{"head":"Gouvernance et coordination de la plateforme","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Il s'agira de définir le mode de fonctionnement et la stratégie de pérennisation de la plateforme pour un fonctionnement efficace, le lead sera assuré par AGRHYMET en vue de faciliter la coordination. Des points focaux pays seront formés et serviront de relais dans leur pays respectif. En outre, la stratégie de pérennisation devra s'appuyer sur les ponts focaux formés dans le cadre de la mise en place de cette plateforme. • La définition de la mission, des objectifs et des valeurs de la plateforme;"}]},{"head":"Conclusions et perspectives","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• L'élaboration d'un plan d'actions ;"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• L'engagement des membres essentiel pour la pérennité de la plateforme ;"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• La formalisation de la plateforme ;"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• L'élaboration d'une charte de fonctionnement ;"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• L'identification d'un canal de communication pour la pérennisation de la plateforme (site Web, bulletin, etc.) ;"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Le traitement et la production de reportage mensuels selon des thèmes proposés. Le produit fini sera exploité par AGRHYMET ;"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• S'appuyer sur des communicateurs formés à faciliter la compréhension des prévisions saisonnières au niveau national lors des PRESASS et PRESAGG."}]},{"head":"Photo de famille des participants","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Au total, 25 journalistes et communicateurs ont participé à cet atelier. Le tableau cidessous résume les pays d'où les participants proviennent et leur nombre.Liste des pays participant et le nombre de On note la participation d'une seule femme journaliste. "},{"text":" En retour, ils doivent mettre en place dans leur pays respectif une équipe ou un groupe de travail sur la communication des prévisions saisonnières. La mission des groupes de travail pays, est de servir de relai aux initiatives régionales et nationales pour la mise à disposition d'informations de qualité sur les prévisions saisonnières. Pour avoir une certaine légitimité de la plateforme, AGRHYMET devra envoyer une 5 correspondance aux services de météo des pays pour leur préciser l'existence de la plateforme et d'un point focal communication d'une part, et d'autre part faciliter la mise en relation avec un interlocuteur du service météo pays. Ce qui permet de renforcer la collaboration au niveau national. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Participation et considérations liées au genre Messages clés • Au total, 25 journalistes et • Au total, 25 journalistes et communicateurs venus du Bénin, communicateurs venus du Bénin, Burkina Faso, du Mali, du Niger, du Burkina Faso, du Mali, du Niger, du Sénégal et du Togo ont été formés Sénégal et du Togo ont été formés sur l'interprétation et la surl'interprétationetla communication des résultats des communication des résultats des prévisions saisonnières. prévisions saisonnières. • Les communicateurs formés ont maintenant une bonne Le premier module de la formation est intitulé • Les communicateurs formés ont maintenant une bonneLe premier module de la formation est intitulé compréhension sur les \"Définition des termes et concepts des compréhensionsurles\"Définition des termes et concepts des informations des prévisions prévisions agro-hydrométéorologiques\". informationsdesprévisionsprévisionsagro-hydrométéorologiques\". saisonnières producteurs. à diffuser aux L'objectif visé est de permettre aux participants de comprendre de manière saisonnières producteurs.àdiffuserauxL'objectif visé est de permettre aux participants de comprendre de manière • Les participants sont engagés à globale la météo et tous ses aspects tels que le • Les participants sont engagés àglobale la météo et tous ses aspects tels que le partager les compétences acquises temps, le climat, la météorologie, la partager les compétences acquisestemps, le climat, la météorologie, la lors de cette formation régionale climatologie, l'hydrologie, l'agro-météorologie, lors de cette formation régionaleclimatologie, l'hydrologie, l'agro-météorologie, aux autres confrères. le changement climatique, les variations aux autres confrères.le changement climatique, les variations • Les résultats des prévisions climatiques, etc. • Lesrésultatsdesprévisionsclimatiques, etc. saisonnières sont interprétés en Le deuxième module est axés sur les bases des saisonnières sont interprétés enLe deuxième module est axés sur les bases des langue locale par les journalistes des radios communautaires. prévisions saisonnières. Son objectif est de permettre aux participants d'avoir une bonne langue locale par les journalistes des radios communautaires.prévisions saisonnières. Son objectif est de permettre aux participants d'avoir une bonne • Cette concerner formation uniquement régionale à les comprehension sur les paramètres abordés dans les prévisions saisonnières tels que les • Cette concerner formation uniquement régionaleà lescomprehension sur les paramètres abordés dans les prévisions saisonnières tels que les communicateurs et journalistes quantités globales de pluies durant la saison communicateurs et journalistesquantités globales de pluies durant la saison francophones. La même formation des pluies ; Les dates de démarrage de la francophones. La même formationdes pluies ; Les dates de démarrage de la est Anglophones. recommandée aux saison des pluies; Les dates de fin de la saison des pluies; Les pauses pluviométriques est Anglophones. recommandéeauxsaison des pluies; Les dates de fin de la saison des pluies; Les pauses pluviométriques (séquences sèches) durant la saison des (séquences sèches) durant la saison des pluies; Le niveau des écoulements dans les pluies; Le niveau des écoulements dans les différents cours d'eau de la région. différents cours d'eau de la région. Toujours dans le cadre du renforcement des Toujours dans le cadre du renforcement des capacités, les participants se sont repartis en capacités, les participants se sont repartis en groupe de travail pour interpréper les groupe de travail pour interpréper les différentes cartes des prévisions saisonnières différentes cartes des prévisions saisonnières 2023 afin de produire des messages plus 2023 afin de produire des messages plus digestes et facilement comprehensibles aux digestes et facilement comprehensibles aux producteurs. Cet exercice a permis aux producteurs. Cet exercice a permis aux techniciens de voir si le message diffusé aux techniciens de voir si le message diffusé aux producteurs reflète le sens des prévisions producteurs reflète le sens des prévisions saisonnières et les avis et conseils. saisonnières et les avis et conseils. "},{"text":"Mise en place d'une plateforme régionale des communicateurs et acteurs des medias pour une meilleure diffusion des informations sur les prévisions saisonnières agro-hydro climatiques les organisations paysannes pour seulement un rôle d'information mais aussi de les organisations paysannes pourseulement un rôle d'information mais aussi de la diffusion des prévisions ; sensibilisation pour un changement social et la diffusion des prévisions ;sensibilisation pour un changement social et • Initier des rencontres d'échanges de comportement. Pour jouer efficacement ce •Initier des rencontres d'échangesde comportement. Pour jouer efficacement ce au niveau national pour la rôle, les médias doivent être intégrées dans la au niveau national pour larôle, les médias doivent être intégrées dans la dissémination des prévisions chaîne afin d'avoir une bonne compréhension disséminationdesprévisionschaîne afin d'avoir une bonne compréhension saisonnières ; des concepts et mots clés utilisés par les saisonnières ;des concepts et mots clés utilisés par les • La conception et la mise à techniciens. •La conception et la mise àtechniciens. disposition des médias d'un guide disposition des médias d'un guide ou lexique des terminologies Pour y arriver, il est plus qu'urgent de procéder ou lexique des terminologiesPour y arriver, il est plus qu'urgent de procéder pouvant faciliter l'utilisation des à la mise en place d'un groupe de pouvant faciliter l'utilisation desà la mise en place d'un groupe de mots clés lors de la diffusion des communicateurs bien outillés, qui mots clés lors de la diffusion descommunicateursbienoutillés,qui informations ; comprennent parfaitement les codes et informations ;comprennent parfaitement les codes et • La mise en place d'une plateforme langages des techniciens pour in fine •La mise en place d'une plateformelangages des techniciens pour in fine • • de communicateurs pour le renforcement de capacités des professionnels des médias ; L'élaboration d'une feuille de route pour le renforcement de la collaboration entre le réseau et AGRHYMET. Le renforcement de partenariat améliorer le contenu des informations à diffuser sur les prévisions saisonnières et contribuer à une prise de décision adequate. Dans un premier temps, cette plateforme va regrouper les communicateurs et professionnels des médias ayant pris part à la session de renforcement de capacité de Niamey. • •de communicateurs pour le renforcement de capacités des professionnels des médias ; L'élaboration d'une feuille de route pour le renforcement de la collaboration entre le réseau et AGRHYMET. Le renforcement de partenariataméliorer le contenu des informations à diffuser sur les prévisions saisonnières et contribuer à une prise de décision adequate. Dans un premier temps, cette plateforme va regrouper les communicateurs et professionnels des médias ayant pris part à la session de renforcement de capacité de Niamey. entre les médias avec les autorités entre les médias avec les autorités locales et administratives ; locales et administratives ; • L'organisation des formations des •L'organisation des formations des communicateurs dans les pays communicateurs dans les pays avec un focus sur les langues avec un focus sur les langues nationales pour toucher le nationalespourtoucherle maximum des usagers finaux. maximum des usagers finaux. Depuis cinquante ans, AGRHYMET et ses Depuis cinquante ans, AGRHYMET et ses partenaires mettent à la disposition des • Les conditions difficiles de travail partenaires mettent à la disposition des•Les conditions difficiles de travail populations des informations agro-hydro- (techniques et financières) des populations des informations agro-hydro-(techniques et financières) des climatiques pour renforcer leur résilience. radios communautaires ; climatiques pour renforcer leur résilience.radios communautaires ; Dans ce processus de diffusion de • Le renforcement de la Dans ce processus de diffusion de•Lerenforcementdela l'information, les médias constituent un collaboration entre AGRHYMET et l'information, les médias constituent uncollaboration entre AGRHYMET et maillon essentiel de la chaine. Ils jouent non maillon essentiel de la chaine. Ils jouent non 4 4 "},{"text":" Le développement d'un lexique spécifique aux prévisions saisonnières et son utilisation par les médias et les usagers sont préconisés pour une communication plus claire et rationnelle. De plus, il est recommandé d'assurer une meilleure appropriation des concepts contenus dans les déclarations du Forum ou d'AGRHYMET.Au titre de la feuille de route, des propositions sont faites. Il s'agit de : En résumé, l'atelier a mis en lumière les En résumé, l'atelier a mis en lumière les lacunes en communication liées aux lacunes en communication liées aux prévisions saisonnières, soulignant la prévisionssaisonnières,soulignantla nécessité de solutions concrètes. Les nécessité de solutions concrètes. Les recommandations formulées s'articulent recommandationsformuléess'articulent autour de la création d'un réseau englobant autour de la création d'un réseau englobant journalistes et communicateurs, visant à les journalistes et communicateurs, visant à les fidéliser aux initiatives PRESASS et PRESAG. fidéliser aux initiatives PRESASS et PRESAG. Parallèlement, le renforcement des Parallèlement,lerenforcementdes compétences des communicateurs est crucial compétences des communicateurs est crucial pour une diffusion améliorée des pourunediffusionamélioréedes informations, facilitant ainsi les processus informations, facilitant ainsi les processus décisionnels. décisionnels. "}],"sieverID":"29ae5d86-9684-447e-9be0-46affe5e0dfe","abstract":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Explore our work at aiccra.cgiar.org aiccra.cgiar.org"}

data/part_3/02e35c8ad26ed85171f0864518337b0c.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"02e35c8ad26ed85171f0864518337b0c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/808794a7-3df2-4d52-aa3d-2b9ed64f450e/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"L a cuenca amazónica, hogar de aproximadamente la mitad de los bosques tropicales del mundo y de un cuarto de la biodiversidad global, ha experimentado tazas alarmantes de deforestación, degradación del suelo y pérdida de servicios de los ecosistemas desde 1960. Este proceso ha sido conducido, en gran parte, por la agricultura insostenible y de baja productividad, la cual ha dejado un legado de pobreza rural persistente y más de 30 millones de hectáreas de suelo abandonado o degradado. Las regiones ampliamente deforestadas o degradadas del Amazonas necesitan ser reforestadas con alternativas \"eco-eficientes\" de uso de suelo, las cuales utilizan muy bien los recursos para producir beneficios sustentables para las personas que viven de la agricultura y, al mismo tiempo, suministrar servicios medioambientales."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Ejemplos prometedores de agricultura eco-eficiente, la cual tiene el potencial para restaurar los paisajes del Amazonas, incluyen sistemas de producción como barbechos mejorados, sistemas agroforestales de varios niveles, sistemas silvopastoriles y pastos mejorados. Aunque el conocimiento de estas estrategias en el Amazonas permanece bajo, las oportunidades para promover estos usos mucho más sostenibles están surgiendo rápidamente. Asimismo, se está incrementando la preocupación por los asuntos ambientales, lo que da lugar al surgimiento de nuevos mercados de servicios medioambientales. Todo esto incrementa el interés del consumidor por productos novedosos y especializados, dando paso a que el acceso a este mercado sea cada vez mejor. El CIAT está trabajando para mejorar las condiciones socioeconómicas y ambientales en el Amazonas mediante el desarrollo de opciones ecoeficientes para restaurar los paisajes degradados, y el apoyo a largo plazo a los logros de estas alternativas de uso de suelo."}]},{"head":"Desarrollo de opciones para restauración del Amazonas","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Midiendo la eco-eficiencia y entendiendo su manejo Conocer los vacíos con respecto a las condiciones que lidera la eco-eficiencia y los métodos sistemáticos para medirla, son los mayores obstáculos para diseñar y desarrollar paisajes sustentables y productivos en el Amazonas. Recientemente, el CIAT estuvo trabajando para resolver la necesidad de investigar este tema, al analizar cómo un amplio rango de variables socioeconómicas, de paisaje y de biodiversidad influye en el secuestro del carbono, en el funcionamiento hidrológico, en la fertilidad del suelo y en la producción agrícola en esa vasta zona tropical. Este trabajo ha contribuido al desarrollo de métodos prácticos para medir la eco-eficiencia y guiar la restauración del paisaje en la cuenca."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Examinando conexiones entre uso de la tierra, funcionalidad del suelo y eco-eficiencia Los suelos del Amazonas juegan un papel clave a la hora de influir en la productividad agrícola y en el suministro de servicios medioambientales, tales como el secuestro del carbono y el funcionamiento hidrológico. Puede ser que uno de los desafíos más grandes para hacer uso del suelo de manera eco-eficiente en esa región sea la facilidad con la que los suelos son degradados, debido a un mal manejo de la tierra. La amplia experiencia que tiene el CIAT investigando la relación entre el uso de la tierra y el funcionamiento del suelo en el Amazonas es un valioso aspecto para desarrollar opciones alternativas de uso de suelo que conduzcan a su recuperación."}]},{"head":"Apoyo a logros de sistemas de producción alternativos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Optimización de los sistemas de producción para hoy y mañana Los sistemas de agricultura eco-eficiente en el Amazonas, por lo general, enfrentan limitaciones biofísicas en la producción que restringen su viabilidad económica y, por lo tanto, su adopción. Con el fin de aliviar estas limitaciones, la investigación debe promover el desarrollo de germoplasma de alta calidad y métodos para controlar plagas y enfermedades. Estos campos de investigación han sido la piedra angular de las actividades del CIAT desde su fundación en 1967. En la actualidad, el enfoque del trabajo en esta área apunta al número de los cultivos más importantes del Amazonas [por ejemplo, yuca (mandioca), arroz, forrajes y frutas tropicales]."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Mientras exista claridad en lo importante que es direccionar las limitaciones de producción que en este momento enfrentan los sistemas agrícolas eco-eficientes en el Amazonas, cada vez es más evidente que la productividad sostenible de estos sistemas depende de su buena adaptación a los retos del progresivo cambio climático. El CIAT es líder global en anticipar los impactos que el cambio climático podría tener en la agricultura tropical, y desarrolla estrategias de adaptación para enfrentar estos desafíos. Este trabajo es determinante para asegurar que las alternativas eco-eficientes de uso de suelo que se promueven hoy continuarán siendo desarrolladas en el contexto del cambio climático. Como centro de investigación líder del Programa sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) del CGIAR, el CIAT está bien posicionado para expandir el alcance de estos estudios al Amazonas."}]},{"head":"Cadenas de valor más equitativas y eficientes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Otra gran limitación para la adopción de sistemas agrícolas eco-eficientes en el Amazonas es la ineficiencia de las cadenas de valor, lo cual impide más beneficios económicos para los productores. Por más de una década, el CIAT ha utilizado métodos participativos para promover el desarrollo de tecnologías, modelos de negocio y políticas que incrementan la eficiencia de la cadena de valor y los beneficios de los pequeños agricultores. Aunque este trabajo se ha enfocado en regiones de América Latina fuera de la cuenca amazónica, el CIAT planea extender y aplicar su trabajo en una cadena de valor eficiente para el Amazonas."}]},{"head":"Conclusión","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"La atención al Amazonas siempre se concentra en las grandes áreas de bosques que se mantienen intactos, pero es importante no olvidar el panorama al otro lado de la frontera del bosque, en donde la deforestación está dejando su rastro. En la actualidad, aproximadamente el 40% de esta tierra persiste en estado de improductividad y degradación, que contribuye poco al desarrollo económico o a la sostenibilidad ambiental. Por fortuna, este panorama puede cambiar. Económica, social y tecnológicamente existen posibles alternativas de uso de suelo que pueden incrementar, en gran medida, las contribuciones que estas tierras brindan a las personas que viven de la agricultura local, y generar más servicios al ecosistema. El CIAT considera muy valiosa la continuación y expansión del apoyo de estas opciones para la restauración de los degradados paisajes de la Amazonia."}]},{"head":"Contactos:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Patrick Lavelle, [email protected] Andy Jarvis, [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Restauración de la Amazonia: Fomento de Alternativas Eco-Eficientes para Uso del Suelo Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Agricultura Eco-Eficiente para Reducir la Pobreza www.ciat.cgiar.org Junio 2011 Sistema agroforestal eco-eficiente en el Amazonas colombiano. "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"ff49e371-24ad-4206-aa1d-dc27ac77031b","abstract":""}

data/part_3/032677b06744989687a495bc92702085.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"032677b06744989687a495bc92702085","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77a0c584-eda8-4848-a059-b9d48abf2e09/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"INDIGENOUS MARKETS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS IN AFRICA: TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN FOOD SAFETY AND ECONOMICS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction and Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"In the absence of information on which to base policies in emerging dairy markets in developing countries, public officials have tended to rely on models for dairy product marketing and health assurance derived from industrialised countries where large-scale production systems, coldchain pathways and milk pasteurization and packaging are key features. These models have invariably failed in many African market situations where small-scale dairy systems without coldchain market pathways currently dominate and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future. The main reason is simple: many resource-poor consumers simply refuse to pay the extra costs that pasteurized, packaged milk incurs, and prefer to buy raw milk and boil it themselves. But the role of traditional preferences should not be discounted: in Kenya, high-income consumers express the same preference for raw milk as do those with lower income, and often end up buying more of it. As a result, informal or raw milk and traditional product markets generally dominate in developing countries, comprising over 90% of the market in Tanzania and Uganda, for example, and some 83% of the market of the world's largest milk producer, India. In Kenya, the informal market has some 85% market share."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"The issue, of course, is public health concerns linked to raw milk. Current dairy market policies throughout the developing world have largely been adopted from the West, and reflect international standards of food safety, etc. However, as the percentages above show, they are being systematically ignored, and as a result, most consumers buy milk and dairy products that are completely outside any regulatory environment. It is possible that to better address the public health issues, policies may need to take a more pro-active approach to informal milk trading, and which better address the realities of consumer willingness to pay for higher standards. The policy question which needs to be answered is thus: is it preferable to maintain strict milk standards which result in higher costs and thereby free most marketed milk into informal channels, or is the public better off by standards that are relaxed but capture more of the informal market? If standards were relaxed to allow raw milk marketing, yet maintain some regulations regarding handling and if some incentives were given to milk traders to comply (e.g., training and certification), then a much larger proportion of the milk market may fall under regulatory control, improving the average standards of milk in the market."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"An important step to addressing this issue is to collect quantitative and qualitative information about milk-borne health risks under different production and marketing situations. This paper describes specific dairy marketing studies in Kenya, Ghana and Tanzania aimed at assessing public health risks from informally marketed milk and examines the economic trade-offs that policy makers should consider. Preliminary results from Kenya are presented and recommendations on costeffective and practical interventions to improve milk safety made."}]},{"head":"Studies of Indigenous Dairy Markets in Kenya, Ghana and Tanzania","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Kenya, Ghana and Tanzania were selected by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) for milk market studies on which alternative policies can be assessed. Informal milk market agents targeted in the studies to quantify milk-borne health risks and assess economic trade-offs included farmer dairy co-operatives, small traders using bicycles and public or private transport and small retail outlets, such as dairy kiosks and shops. Sites in each country were chosen to represent contrasting levels of market access and types of dairy production systems. Data were collected through participatory research with stakeholders and questionnaire methods. Between 1999 and 2001 respondents were randomly selected within strata that differentiated production system (extensive and intensive) and human population density (urban and rural). Data on milk handling practises by consumers and market agents; dairy product consumption and preferences were collected along each milk market channel. Raw milk samples were collected at retail points for laboratory assessments. At the same time economic data including revenues, costs, capital equipment, labour and taxes were collected, and market points were geo-referenced."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"Milk-borne health hazards were assessed using various tests to quantify occurrence of brucellosis (MRT and ELISA), E. Coli 0157:H7 (culture), adulteration (specific gravity), butterfat (Gerber method), antibiotic and antibacterial residues (Charm AIM test kit), bacterial counts (standard plate counts). The influence of handling practices was collected by questionnaire and the data analysed to estimate health risks to consumers from the hazards. In addition, risks of zoonotic tuberculosis were investigated through speciation of Mycobacteriaceae isolated from patients suspected to be suffering from tuberculosis. The principals of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) process were considered and applied for each major hazard. Economic and GIS analyses focused on market structure, conduct and performance including variation in risk due to seasonality and access to capital; effects of price and non-price factors of government policies; market margins; and spatial factors influencing marketing behaviour and performance. Regression, principal component and clustering procedures involving milk quality and profit margin parameters were used to identify homogenous groups of market agents, pathways and trade-offs in quality and profit. Preliminary results from Kenya are presented."}]},{"head":"Preliminary results from Kenya Consumption patterns","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Most consumers expressed a preference for raw over pasteurised milk, mainly due to the relative lower cost of the former (the cost of raw milk was half that of pasteurised milk in many areas). Consumption is mainly of liquid milk. Raw fresh milk was purchased by 29% of households (hh) in Nairobi (avg = 5.5 litres/hh/month) in comparison to 93% of households in both Nakuru urban (avg = 22.5 litres/hh/month) and rural (avg = 24.3 litres/hh/month). The total liquid milk equivalent of pasteurised milk and processed dairy products consumed in Nairobi, Nakuru urban and Nakuru rural were 15.6, 3.8 and 0.2 litres/hh/month, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Pasteurised milk was purchased in Nairobi, Nakuru urban and Nakuru rural by 78%, 34% and 5% of sample households, respectively. Both raw and pasteurised milk were purchased in larger quantities as income class increased. All households in urban areas and 96% in Nakuru rural reported boiling milk prior to consumption, mainly as an ingredient in other foods, mostly tea. The key findings here were that raw milk is bought by wealthy as well as poor households, and that significant pastuerized milk markets are limited to major urban areas, where the informal market has difficulty meeting all demand."}]},{"head":"Health hazards in milk","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":295,"text":"Preliminary results showed that overall, 4.7% and 10.4% of samples taken from consumer hh and market agents, respectively, had specific gravity below 1.026kg/litre and therefore suspected of adulteration by added water. The overall mean for total solids (TS) in milk was 12.3%, not significantly different from the 12.7% given by O'Conner (1995) as the average TS for bovine milk. These rates indicated that previous reports of widespread adulteration of milk by small traders are exaggerated. The overall average total bacterial plate counts (TPC)/ml in milk from farmer groups were high at 39.8x10 6 (lowest for milk from farmer groups using short market chain, highest for mobile traders, milk-bars and shops/kiosks using long market chains. Similarly, the overall average coliform bacteria plate counts (CPC)/ml was lowest in milk from farmer groups (16x10 3 cfu/ml) and highest among mobile traders, milk-bars and shops/kiosks (50x10 3 cfu/ml). Raw milk samples from consumer hh and retail outlets also reflected the same picture where samples from Nakuru rural (short market chain) had markedly lower bacterial counts than milk collected from consumers in urban areas (long market chain). Classification of milk samples with unacceptably high counts according to national standards and proportion of households boiling milk before consumption is presented in Table 1. Overall prevalence of brucellosis antigens in consumer-level samples as determined by both ELISA and MRT were 4.9% and 3.9%, respectively. At the informal market level, ELISA and MRT classified 2.4% and 3.4%, respectively, as positive. Informally traded bulked raw milk from dairy cooperatives and milk bars had the highest proportion of positive brucellosis samples. Nearly all these samples were from Narok District where extensively grazed pastoralist zebu herds predominate. Of 264 milk samples tested for faecal coliforms, 22% and 1% contained E. coli and E. coli 0157:H7, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Anti-microbial residues exceeding EU maximum residue limits were detected in 9.4% and 5.7% of consumer-and market-level samples, respectively. The proportion of consumer-level samples from rural areas with antibiotic residues was three times those from urban areas. Among informal market level samples, the proportion testing positive for residues decreased with increasing levels of bulking with milk bars and small mobile traders having a much higher proportion of samples with anti-microbials compared to samples from dairy co-operatives. Given the finding that all milk consumed in urban households was boiled before consumption, antibiotic and antibacterial residues can therefore be considered the major health risk since boiling does not eliminate the residues."}]},{"head":"Milk handling practices by market agents","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"Methods of milk handling were markedly different between types and scales of business. The use of plastic containers used was recorded because most are not food-grade quality, and were found to be associated with higher coliform bacterial counts than metal containers. Smaller market agents used more plastic containers (up to 89% for mobile agents) than larger scale market agents such as dairy cooperatives that used plastic containers in only 10% of cases, the rest being mainly aluminium metal churns. Smaller agents reported that they used cheap plastic containers, because their equipment was often confiscated by health officials. On average, 28% of milk from all traders was not treated for preservation in any way, 47% was refrigerated/chilled and 19% was boiled. Notably, hardly any chemical preservatives were recorded as being used by small-scale market agents to lengthen shelf-life. Only 2% of traders indicated that they used hydrogen peroxide, though 3% said they use other unspecified preservation methods. Efforts are needed to reverse this practice by introducing the recommended lacto-peroxidase system (LPS) for milk preservation (see FAO Home Page) in circumstances where cooling by refrigeration is not. Overall, only 12% of milk handlers had received any form of training in milk handling and quality control but this had a wide range from only 4% of mobile traders to 43% of dairy cooperative staff. Small traders had been in business for a short period of only 2.5 yrs (SD=2.9), many times less than farmer groups (mean=24yrs). This may indicate a high turnover in the milk market business, or an expanding market with several recent entrants. These factors need to be considered in any milk hygiene improvement efforts."}]},{"head":"Homogenous groups of market agents","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Cluster analysis combined with principal component analysis was conducted on variables for quality, scale, margins, etc. The clusters of market agents identified are mainly separated on the basis of scale of business, milk quality and profit margins (Table 2). Small traders were found to be statistically grouped together irrespective of licensing, and milk quality is not a major problem of small traders compared to other groups. A critical control point was identified among a few medium scale market agents who enjoyed the highest profits and were distinguished by the highest mean total bacterial counts and adulteration. The low milk quality and high margins by these medium scale traders is an indicator of some trade-off between quality and margin. Given that large-scale traders supplied through short market chains were excluded from this cluster, this implies that the trade-off only applies to bulked milk travelling through long market chains. Currently, milk traders in Kenya must have fixed premises before they can qualify for trade licenses. However, the fact that smaller, mobile, unlicensed traders show no significant difference in milk quality from licenced fixed vendors suggests that there is no justification for this requirement. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The key findings in Kenya include:"},{"index":2,"size":282,"text":"-consumers generally prefer whole raw milk, even those who can afford pasteurized milk -more than half of samples exceed bacterial count and coliform count standards, but nearly all consumers boil milk before consumption, eliminating any bacterial threat to health -anti-microbial residues were found in many samples, and since they are not destroyed by pasteurisation, they may pose the major long-term public health threat in milk -small mobile vendors use poor quality containers, mainly due to policies that exclude them from applying for licensing -regardless, the quality of milk they deliver does not differ significantly from those with fixed premises and licenses Findings from Ghana and Tanzania, still being completed, indicate similar results. The Kenyan policy to attempt to implement strict international milk quality standards is clearly not working, and further, attempts to police small mobile traders may actually reduce milk quality, by forcing them to use cheap containers due to frequent confiscation. A fundamental factor in determining trade-offs between milk safety and economics in traditional and emerging dairy markets is how to ensure that consumers are being supplied by milk that is \"safe\" by the standards considered appropriate by them. Public contribution here should be through education to allow informed choices. This would allow consumers to make informed choices to allow the battle between formal and informal milk markets to be fought on the basis of quality and price and not on perceived health risks which are in any case significantly reduced or eliminated by the common practice of boiling milk before consumption. A policy of training and certification of small traders, allowing them to operate legally, is likely to result in both higher milk quality and better service to consumer preferences."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Milk samples with unacceptably high bacterial counts according to Kenya Bureau of Standards and proportion of households boiling milk District Samples with total counts Samples with coliform Proportion of hhs boiling DistrictSamples with total countsSamples with coliformProportion of hhs boiling exceeding standard 1 counts exceeding standard 2 milk before consumption exceeding standard 1counts exceeding standard 2milk before consumption n % n % % n%n%% Dry season Dry season Nairobi 41 84 22 48 100 Nairobi41842248100 Nakuru urban 47 82 22 39 100 Nakuru urban47822239100 Nakuru rural 36 35 11 11 96 Nakuru rural3635111196 Wet season Wet season Nairobi 44 83 36 69 Nairobi44833669 Nakuru urban 34 61 29 52 Nakuru urban34612952 Nakuru rural 31 27 17 15 Nakuru rural31271715 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Associations among principal components and clusters: Summary of means of new variables and major clusters with significant frequencies New variable New variable Cluster Large-scale/ Low quality High margin Relative scale Milk sold per ClusterLarge-scale/Low qualityHigh marginRelative scaleMilk sold per frequency Experience of business day (litres) frequencyExperienceof businessday (litres) 214 -0.31 -0.07 0.13 Small 99 214-0.31-0.070.13Small99 81 -0.08 0.09 -0.70 Small 109 81-0.080.09-0.70Small109 24 0.15 0.41 0.88 Medium 842 240.150.410.88Medium842 27 2.47 -0.39 0.14 Large 4447 272.47-0.390.14Large4447 "}],"sieverID":"cbfa8b95-7df4-4550-b6d9-251615ea1f4d","abstract":""}

data/part_3/032fdb66e745383a4d3218ff91b734b2.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"032fdb66e745383a4d3218ff91b734b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd5ac854-f860-4f58-8592-475fea396cc8/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Mémoire de recherche: La chaine de valeur et le potentiel de marché du fonio « Fini » pour renforcer la résilience climatique, la sécurité alimentaire et les revenus des femmes au Mali","keywords":["Via dei Tre Denari","472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino)","Italie"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":470,"text":"Bien qu'il y ait une prise de conscience croissante de la valeur de cette culture, le niveau de commercialisation du fonio au Mali, ainsi que les contraintes et les opportunités pour développer la chaîne de valeur ne sont pas bien documentées. Le fonio pourrait offrir une opportunité aux femmes rurales d'améliorer leurs revenus, mais jusqu'à aujourd'hui l'implication des femmes dans la chaîne de valeur du fonio a été sous-étudiée au Mali. Une investigation a été faite en 2017 par Bioversity International et l'Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER) pour contribuer à combler cette lacune dans les connaissances, et identifier les opportunités et les contraintes pour le développement du marché du fonio au Mali d'une manière sensible au genre. L'étude a Les contraintes majeures dans la commercialisation du fonio paddy sont le faible rythme dans l'écoulement du produit (60%), le faible capital des commerçants (20%) et l'ajout du sable dans le fonio par les producteurs (20%). Pour le fonio blanchi, les contraintes se situent au niveau du manque d'acheteurs (62%), le faible capital des commerçants (31%) et la mauvaise balance (mauvais poids) des vendeurs (9%). Au niveau des produits transformés du fonio, les commerçants de fonio lavé-séché ont des difficultés au niveau du manque de matériel de transformation (60%) et le séchage (40%). Le manque de matériel de transformation (71%), le séchage (14%) ainsi que la présence du sable (14%) sont les contraintes notées pour le fonio précuit. Pour ce qui est du fonio djouka, les contraintes sont également au niveau du manque de matériel de transformation (44%) et de la présence du sable (22%) ainsi que la petite quantité d'arachide dans le produit (11%). L'autre moitié des consommateurs n'est pas intéressé d'acheté plus de fonio parce que la quantité consommée est déjà suffisante ou parce qu'ils n'aiment pas suffisamment l'aliment. Des résultats de notre étude, 75% de commerçants de fonio paddy et 91% de commerçants de fonio blanchi ont confirmé qu'ils ne vendraient pas beaucoup plus s'ils augmentent la quantité à cause du manque de clients. Par contre pour les produits transformés du fonio, presque la totalité de commerçants affirment que les consommateurs achèteraient beaucoup plus s'ils augmentent la quantité. producteurs plantent les haies vives ou cultivent sur les parcelles en élévation, ou ils utilisent les variétés tardives et précoces. Cependant, l'accès difficile à la semence de qualité est un frein pour le bon rendement. Il est important de former des producteurs de semences de qualité dans les villages et de partager les bonnes techniques de production qui peuvent leurs aider de faire face au variabilité des pluies. Il y a beaucoup de pertes dans la production du fonio dues au retard de récolte et à cause des autres travaux. Il est conseillé aux producteurs de faire les récoltes à temps, faire des visites généralement pour bien identifier à quel moment récolter."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"Au niveau des villages le volume du fonio produit est très faible et est cultivé sur de petites parcelles. Par le passé, le système de warrantage a fait des succès et peut être repris. Avec ce système, on peut avoir une quantité maximale du produit disponible au niveau des villages tout en permettant au producteur de résoudre ses problèmes personnels parallèlement quelque soit la période de vente. Pour qu'il soit fonctionnel, les groupes auront besoins d'un appui financier de leurs partenaires. Toujours dans le même ordre d'idée, le fonio a un marché très instable (mauvais prix) au niveau des villages. Les ventes groupées sont une alternative pour contourner cette lacune. Il y a lieu pour les producteurs de s'organiser en groupes et associations, fixer le prix d'achat avant la production et être d'accord sur ce prix de vente entre producteurs. En tant de culture négligée et sous utilisée à côté du coton et du maïs, une bonne organisation des producteurs peut leur apporter un meilleur prix d'achat un peu compétitif au maïs par exemple, qui leur permet de choisir le fonio en priorité. Le manque/ absence de minoteries pour décortiquer le fonio dans les villages diminue le gain au niveau des producteurs."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Le fonio offre de grandes opportunités en matière de sécurité alimentaire, de durabilité, de diversification des revenus, de diversification alimentaire et de développement de produits. Si l'adoption et l'amélioration de la culture sont largement réalisées, cela peut contribuer grandement à l'amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle et à la réduction de la pauvreté au Mali et ailleurs en Afrique. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"L 'étude de marché a montré une diversité de proportions des commerçants de fonio dans les trois régions. Dans les marchés ou l'enquête a eu lieu, les détaillants, semi-grossistes et grossistes vendaient le fonio paddy et le fonio blanchi. Les détaillants, semigrossistes et grossistes vendaient le fonio lavé-séché, djouka, et le fonio précuit dans les comptoirs de boutiques des marchés ou sur des plateaux. Les commerçants de fonio blanchi et fonio lavé-séché ont été trouvé plus souvent dans les régions de Koulikoro -Bamako et Ségou qu'à Sikasso. "},{"text":" Pour la production du fonio, les couts variables (main d'oeuvre, achat fertilisants etc.) sont plus élevés à Sikasso qu'à Ségou (110 675 Fcfa Vs 78 875 Fcfa) et les couts fixes plus élevés à Ségou qu'à Sikasso (185 085 Fcfa Vs 62 045 Fcfa). Au niveau des commerçants, pendant la période de pénurie, le volume vendu par mois est estimé à 1 535 kg (paddy) et à 81 kg (blanchi). Pendant cette même période, ce volume mensuel pour les produits transformés est estimé à 71 kg (lavéséché), 118 kg (précuit) et à 163 kg (djouka). Les marges brutes mensuelles s'élèvent à 164 245 Fcfa, 6 480 Fcfa, 11 573 Fcfa, 31,506 Fcfa et 46 944 Fcfa respectivement pour le fonio paddy, blanchi, lavé-séché, précuit et djouka. En déhors du fonio blanchi, les autres types de fonio sont rentables pour les commerçants pendant les périodes de pénurie. Consommation Tous les producteurs enquêtés apprécient le gout du fonio et disent que leurs enfants aussi aiment le gout. Ils sont bien conscients de sa valeur nutritionnelle et de son importance dans leur alimentation quotidienne. Le djouka est la recette la plus populaire parmi les producteurs enquêtés, en plus le foyo et le tô sont aussi préféré par quelque uns. De même entre les consommateurs enquêtés dans les marches, le djouka est la recette plus appréciée, mais autres recettes préférées sont le fonio avec les coucous et avec les sauces d'arachide, d'oignon, et du poulet ou poisson. Les consommateurs cherchent un produit bien préparé, sans sable, sans herbe, décortiqué, propre, et avec beaucoup d'arachide (pour le djouka). La plupart des consommateurs n'ont pas une préférence de variété mais quelque uns indiquent une préférence pour les variétés avec de gros grains, plus souvent d'une variété blanche mais parfois d'une variété noire. Le fonio est consommé toute l'année mais plus souvent durant la période Equipment pour décortiquer le fonio á Tominian. Credit: Bioversity International/G. Meldrum Fonio tranformé prepare par les femmes á Somo. Credit: Bioversity International/G. "},{"text":"Bioversity International est membre du Consortium CGIAR, un partenariat mondial de recherche pour un futur sans faim. Bioversity International fournit des preuves scientifiques et proposons des solutions pratiques et politiques pour utiliser et sauvegarder la biodiversité agricole afin d'atteindre une sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle durable à l'échelle mondiale. "},{"text":"Pechine et Eden fini) et six pour leur couleur blanche (Finidje, Peazo, Niatia, Peyibe, Eden fini et Beuike). Certaines variétés intéressent les transformatrices en raison de leur facilité à être décortiqué (Peazo et Niatia), leur bon gout (Kassambara et Pechine) et la cuisson rapide (Finidje). Les variétés améliorées disponibles dans la zone d'étude sont Kassambara, Bacokoutre, Peazo et Niatia. Le rendement moyen du fonio au Mali est 494 kg/ha mais les rendements estimé par les agriculteurs enquêté est de 725 kg/ha) avec un maximum de 1000 kg/ ha avec les variétés Kassambara, Niatia, Peribou et Beuike. sont responsables de 40% de la production nationale, tandis que la région de Sikasso produit 8%. Les enregistrements de la production de fonio au Mali depuis 1961 révèlent une très grande variabilité de la production entre 20 000 et 60 000 tonnes par an, avec des fluctuations importantes et une tendance légèrement à la baisse (FAOSTAT). Le fonio est produit dans les parcelles familiales et dans les parcelles personnelles, surtout par les hommes. La superficie moyenne des parcelles de fonio des producteurs enquêté est de 0,82 ha (Ségou = 0,98 ha et Sikasso = 0,40 ha). En tous, 17 variétés de fonio ont été identifiées dans les villages enquêtés. Celles les plus communes sont Kassambara, Finidje, Peazo et Niatia. Les raisons principales évoquées par les producteurs pour le choix de variété sont: la taille de graines (grandes), le bon rendement, la précocité et la couleur des graines (blanche). Dix variétés ont été identifié comme ayant de gros grains (Kassambara, Finidje, Niatia, Bacokoutre, Peribou, Petrine, Wable, Peyibe, Finifin et Beuike), huit variétés un bon rendement (Kassambara, Niatia, Bacokoutre, Finiba, Petrime, Pechine, Wable et Peyibe), six pour leur précocité (Kassambara, Finidje, Peazo, approvisionnent les commerçants (détaillants, semi-grossistes et grossistes) avant que ces derniers atteignent les consommateurs et les exportateurs. La troisième chaine (produits transformés) est constituée des unités de transformation qui approvisionnent les commerçants (détaillants, semi-grossistes) avant que ces derniers atteignent les Bacokoutre, producteurs perdent une grande partie de leurs récoltes pendant le semis, la récolte, le séchage (avant le battage) et le décorticage. Les facteurs essentiels qui permettent et promeuvent la production du fonio sont la disponibilité des terres et du matériel de travail (tracteur multifonctionnel pour la préparation du sol). Marketing Les agriculteurs ont estimé que 50% du fonio cultivé est utilisé pour la consommation domestique tandis que 30% est utilisé pour la vente, 10 % pour la semence et 10 % pour les cadeaux. Les agriculteurs vendent leur fonio sur place au village. La chaine de valeur comprend les producteurs, les fournisseurs des intrants, les minoteries, La deuxième chaine est constituée des collecteurs qui à leur tour consommateurs et les exportateurs. sont responsables de 40% de la production nationale, tandis que la région de Sikasso produit 8%. Les enregistrements de la production de fonio au Mali depuis 1961 révèlent une très grande variabilité de la production entre 20 000 et 60 000 tonnes par an, avec des fluctuations importantes et une tendance légèrement à la baisse (FAOSTAT). Le fonio est produit dans les parcelles familiales et dans les parcelles personnelles, surtout par les hommes. La superficie moyenne des parcelles de fonio des producteurs enquêté est de 0,82 ha (Ségou = 0,98 ha et Sikasso = 0,40 ha). En tous, 17 variétés de fonio ont été identifiées dans les villages enquêtés. Celles les plus communes sont Kassambara, Finidje, Peazo et Niatia. Les raisons principales évoquées par les producteurs pour le choix de variété sont: la taille de graines (grandes), le bon rendement, la précocité et la couleur des graines (blanche). Dix variétés ont été identifié comme ayant de gros grains (Kassambara, Finidje, Niatia, Bacokoutre, Peribou, Petrine, Wable, Peyibe, Finifin et Beuike), huit variétés un bon rendement (Kassambara, Niatia, Bacokoutre, Finiba, Petrime, Pechine, Wable et Peyibe), six pour leur précocité (Kassambara, Finidje, Peazo, approvisionnent les commerçants (détaillants, semi-grossistes et grossistes) avant que ces derniers atteignent les consommateurs et les exportateurs. La troisième chaine (produits transformés) est constituée des unités de transformation qui approvisionnent les commerçants (détaillants, semi-grossistes) avant que ces derniers atteignent les Bacokoutre, producteurs perdent une grande partie de leurs récoltes pendant le semis, la récolte, le séchage (avant le battage) et le décorticage. Les facteurs essentiels qui permettent et promeuvent la production du fonio sont la disponibilité des terres et du matériel de travail (tracteur multifonctionnel pour la préparation du sol). Marketing Les agriculteurs ont estimé que 50% du fonio cultivé est utilisé pour la consommation domestique tandis que 30% est utilisé pour la vente, 10 % pour la semence et 10 % pour les cadeaux. Les agriculteurs vendent leur fonio sur place au village. La chaine de valeur comprend les producteurs, les fournisseurs des intrants, les minoteries, La deuxième chaine est constituée des collecteurs qui à leur tour consommateurs et les exportateurs. "},{"text":"Meldrum Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. www.cgiar.org Bioversity International is registered as a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization in the US. Bioversity International (UK) is a Registered UK Charity No. 1131854. 'abondance, après la récolte, quand il coute moins cher et est plus disponible en générale. Il est aussi particulièrement consommé pendant les périodes de fête (Ramadan, Tabaski, Noel, Pâques). La moitié des consommateurs enquêtés sont intéressée d'acheter plus de fonio. Mais le prix du fonio djouka n'est pas très abordable pour les consommateurs (989 Fcfa / kg), raison pour laquelle c'est plus consommé pendant les fêtes. La pauvre disponibilité du fonio sur le marché est une autre contrainte pour promouvoir une consommation plus haute. Contacts: Contacts: Bioversity International Bioversity International Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy Tel. (+39) 06 61181 Tel. (+39) 06 61181 Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 [email protected] [email protected] www.bioversityinternational.org www.bioversityinternational.org "}],"sieverID":"4b5153f9-c54b-4433-b31b-52bd6d39ba01","abstract":"Le fonio (Digitaria sp.) est cultivé en Afrique de l'Ouest sahélienne depuis des milliers d'années. Il est considéré comme l'une des c��réales africaines les plus savoureuses et il contient des acides aminés essentiels, la méthionine et la cystéine, qui sont déficients en riz, blé, maïs et sorgho. Avec le changement climatique, les cultures ayant des cycles de croissance plus courts, comme le fonio, seront de plus en plus importantes pour assurer la production et la sécurité alimentaires. La promotion de la consommation de fonio dans les zones urbaines pourrait contribuer à améliorer la sécurité alimentaire des ménages non seulement en tant que source de revenu, mais aussi comme aliment de transition qui pourrait contribuer à l'apport énergétique des membres du ménage pendant la saison de pénurie alimentaire."}

data/part_3/034012a87597e1b4aadb48d494de2560.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/035c511bfff07b971cfb89b43b68f04d.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"035c511bfff07b971cfb89b43b68f04d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a30dbd0-b3c1-44be-96a8-fa8cf42d4e8e/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The small seed packet approach","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The sale of small seed packets by formal institutions (research programs, development projects, NGOs etc.) is a highly effective, shortterm strategy for introducing a new crop variety and stimulating demand for seed. Action research in Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and Malawi shows that small-scale farmers of all wealth categories are willing to buy certified seed of little know or even unknown bred varieties if the varieties have acceptable observable characteristics (color, size, shape etc.) and certain marketing principles are observed. These principles include small packaging quantities (50g to several kilos), labelling in local languages, distribution through multiple market and non-market channels (e.g. clinics, women's groups), and a pricing system that recognized that farmers are only willing to pay a small premium for clean seed. Initially small seed packet programs have to be subsidized, but there is evidence from some countries that farmers are willing to pay unsubsidized prices."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Using this system, a mere 50 tons of seed can reach up to one million farmers! N o .5 February 2003 O ne of the most pressing concerns related to seed supply of modern varieties is how to establish sustainable seed provision systems for commodities that cannot be economically supplied through a centralized, formal seed industry. The seed supply bottleneck primarily affects self pollinating crops (e.g. the common bean, groundnuts, rice), vegetatively propagated crops (e.g. sweet potatoes, cassava) and crops with limited seed demand (e.g. indigenous vegetables, forages, open pollinated maize). Crops in these three categories bring little profit to seed companies for several reasons: uncertain and fluctuating demand caused by competition from farm-sav ed seed (grain legumes), low multiplication rates (grain legumes), transportation and storage difficulties (soybean, root and tuber crops) and strong regionally specific preferences (grain legumes, indigenous vegetables). "}]},{"head":"Varietal promotion","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"It is important to target a wide range of users when promoting new varieties. These include farmers, the government extension system, NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs), traders and the formal seed sector. Information should be specifically targeted to a particular user or set of users, and formatted accordingly."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Information on new varieties can be presented as technical bulletins and brochures, radio announcements, radio"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Ugandan farmers buying bean seed packets in a market"}]},{"head":"F U T U R E HAR EST","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"For further information contact:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Understanding local seed systems and seed demand"},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"In the 1980s many researchers, extension services and NGOs assumed that farmers do not buy seed but rely mainly on their own stocks or obtain seed from other farmers. Research on bean seed systems in Rwanda, Burundi, DR. Congo, Uganda and Malawi shows that while most farmers obtain much of their seed from their own stocks, commercial sources (markets and shops selling grain) are next in importance. An estimated 10-15% of Ugandan farmers buy bean seed every season; in Rwanda, Burundi and DR Congo, this proportion reaches 20-40%. Moreover, in all countries studied, poorer farmers are the most dependent on grain markets because of low production, poor storage conditions and their tendency to consume or sell their entire harvest."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Better-off households tend to purchase bean seed for different reasons: to restock after periodic crises, improve their genetic stock or expand crop area."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Local seed systems research offers important insights and information on seed demand, farmers' seed sourcing behavior, seed management practices and varietal diversity needed to design appropriate seed delivery approaches and strategies."}]},{"head":"Commercial, local level seed production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"In areas of high seed demand, once a new variety has been introduced into local seed systems, there may be need for a regular supply of reasonably clean seed. Individual farmers, groups, business people or local institutions with the necessary resources can be trained as specialized, commercial seed producers. They require training in seed production techniques, plant protection, post-harvest handling and business skills and initially need regular monitoring and follow-up."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Local level seed production is appropriate for supporting a multiple varietal release strategy aimed at the needs of small farmer production. For crops that have irregular and fluctuating demand, a multi-commodity seed enterprise is recommended. The development of decentralized systems of seed production calls for forging strong collaborative linkages between seed producers, entrepreneurs, researchers, extension agents, NGOs, credit institutions and the formal seed sector as depicted in Figure 1."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Notably, a commercial approach may not be appropriate in all situations and is only sustainable in situations of high seed demand. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 : Fig. 1: Conceptual model of a decentralized commercial seed production system "}],"sieverID":"5da14749-0593-4612-86a3-98188bad7ab2","abstract":"Developing sustainable seed supply systems jingles, posters, comics and cartoons. Drama is an excellent way to promote new varieties especially when seed is sold during performances. Basic information that should be provided in any promotional material include: the name of the variety (use a local name if possible), yield, cooking time, positive and negative characteristics, growth habit, days to maturity and, very importantly, where seed can be obtained."}

data/part_3/037ac51c21619a503c1839dd55d6fa30.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"037ac51c21619a503c1839dd55d6fa30","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e160f138-6333-4787-8558-0f4e586cf525/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"M O D U L E 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"OVERALL PERFORMANCE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Generally, more than 75% of the action plan was performed"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• The action plan is from its beginning was based on the practical duties of the center"}]},{"head":"CHANGED OR IMPROVED","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"AS A RESULT OF IMPLEMENTING ACTION PL AN"}]},{"head":"Changes Evidence of change Most of the projects are gender sensitive","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"All new research projects were evaluated against gender mainstreaming"}]},{"head":"Awareness of the research staff","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Know how of staff improved","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Implementation of gender analysis tools","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activity profile implemented","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Considering female in research activities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"More than 24% females participated in research activities "}]},{"head":"ACTION REQUIRED T O E N A B L E T H E O R G A N I Z AT I O N","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Actions by the organization Actions by others","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Encourage all research unit to incorporate the gender mainstreaming","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Need fund support and collaboration (Linkage)"}]},{"head":"Development of gender sensitive project","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Need collaborative fund and monitoring","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender sensitive M & E","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Technical support and fund "}]},{"head":"SUCCESS HISTORY","index":15,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"• This is to certify that Siraj Kelil has attended on Gender analysis and Strategic Planning training on May 10, 2017 organized by Yabello Pastoral and Dryland Agriculture Research Center, Yabello, Ethiopia. "},{"text":"--- Gender capacity development -Enforcement of gender sensitive project development -Implementation gender analysis tools -Encouraging female participation in research activities More than 65% research participated on gender capacity development training -More than 24% female participated on PRG activities -Female were participated on data collection -Gender analysis tools were implemented -Delegating female in leadership position -Number of staff participated on training number of female participated on data collection -% of female participated in PRG -Number of female in committees at center level -Number of female on management position -Number of female recruite Replicability (How can the change be expanded and sustained by your organization or other organizations?) -Continues capacity development -Gender sensitive M &E -Gender sensitive project evaluation -Creating stakeholder platform Field mem ory • Thank you for Listening "},{"text":"sensitive technology demonstration and participation of female during data collection IMPLEMENTATION & ENABLING FACTORS IMPLEMENTATION & ENABLING FACTORS GENDER SENSITIVE TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION AND Activities performed Enabling factors GENDER SENSITIVE TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION AND Activities performed Enabling factors PARTICIPATION OF FEMALE DURING DATA COLLECTION Gender capacity development for -Government strategy PARTICIPATION OF FEMALE DURING DATA COLLECTION Gender capacity development for -Government strategy • This activity was implemented in collaboration with Yabello Pastoral development office research staff -Institutional policy (30% female • This activity was implemented in collaboration with Yabello Pastoral development office research staff -Institutional policy (30% female Activity title participant) PRG Member Activity titleparticipant)PRG Member M 19 -Demand for gender disaggregated F Total (%) Participatory control of tick and Acaricides resistance management approaches in cattle Borana zone, southern Ethiopia. Implementation of gender 6 25 24% Analysis (Harvard Framework) in data M 19 -Demand for gender disaggregated F Total (%) Participatory control of tick and Acaricides resistance management approaches in cattle Borana zone, southern Ethiopia. Implementation of gender 6 25 24% Analysis (Harvard Framework) in data Participatory Growth Improvement of Local Sheep through Crossing with Exotic Dorper research activities (Partial) -Government strategy to consider 18 7 25 28% gender in research system Participatory Growth Improvement of Local Sheep through Crossing with Exotic Dorper research activities (Partial) -Government strategy to consider 18 7 25 28% gender in research system Participatory Demonstration and Evaluation of Bush Encroachment Control Techniques in Borana Zone, Southern Ethiopia Gender -Customary practices of the 18 7 25 28% Participatory Demonstration and Evaluation of Bush Encroachment Control Techniques in Borana Zone, Southern Ethiopia Gender -Customary practices of the 18 7 2528% • Participatory evaluation of released open pollinated and hybrid maize • __________________ varieties for moisture stress areas of Dugda Dawa, Southern Oromia community -Institutional policy to mainstream 18 7 25 28% • Participatory evaluation of released open pollinated and hybrid maize • __________________ varieties for moisture stress areas of Dugda Dawa, Southern Oromia community -Institutional policy to mainstream 18 7 25 28% • Ahmed Mohammed • Yabello Pastoral and Dryland Agriculture Research Center Center Director Evaluation of Improved Sorghum Varieties at Teltale District of Borana • gender Zone, Southern Oromia Value chain analysis of dairy product in Borana zone (Trader respondents) -Demand for gender disaggregated 18 7 25 28% 14 40 54 74% data • Ahmed Mohammed • Yabello Pastoral and Dryland Agriculture Research Center Center Director Evaluation of Improved Sorghum Varieties at Teltale District of Borana • gender Zone, Southern Oromia Value chain analysis of dairy product in Borana zone (Trader respondents) -Demand for gender disaggregated 18 7 25 28% 14 40 54 74% data "}],"sieverID":"a189fd83-ceb4-40c2-b4c9-d5a87d86c63e","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0415cfbbad95b02ff07c7aebce50acbd.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/048e805f477b2b2042eff59657f51dd1.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/049fcf7f4878aec11d375a8295581fa5.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"049fcf7f4878aec11d375a8295581fa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/830385b8-35b5-4793-9d87-34d05019c7d4/retrieve"},"pageCount":81,"title":"","keywords":["AMBC","Antimicrobial sensitivity","Colony counts","Critical control point","Milk"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"First and foremost, I would like to provide thanks to the Almighty God and his mother Virgin Mary for the blessing and supplying strength, believes, hope, patience and protection to me and my families throughout my life. Had not been the willing of them, nothing would have been possible to me."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Next I am very much indebted to my advisors Drs. Bedaso Mammo and Yoseph Mekasha for their unreserved advice, encouragement, useful comments, suggestions and constructive criticisms."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"I would like to thank the Bureau of Agriculture of Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples Region (SNNPR) for granting the study leave and securing my salary throughout the study period. I am also indebted to Livestock and Irrigation Value Chain for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) project for providing the opportunity and financial and technical support to successfully accomplish this MSc study."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"I would like to acknowledge the Addis Ababa Regional Laboratory for their cooperation."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"My special thanks also goes to Dr. Ashenafi Feysia for his devotion in editing and commenting the manuscript."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"I would like to thank the community in the study area for their cooperation during the interview and sample collection."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"Last, but most significantly, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my Family for their unfailing encouragement throughout my life. "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Milk is an important source of nutrients to human and animals and it is meant to be the first and the only food for the offspring of mammals as is almost complete food (Pandey and Voskuil, 2011;Pal, 2012). Milk meant for human consumption must be free from any pathogenic organisms. Microbial contamination in milk may cause milk-borne diseases to humans while others are known to cause milk spoilage (Pal, 2012). Many milk-borne epidemics of human diseases are spread through milk contamination (Bertu et al., 2010). Sources of microbial contamination in milk include primary microbial contamination from the infected or sick lactating animal. The secondary causes of microbial contamination occurs along the milk value chain which may include contamination during milking by milkers, milk handlers, unsanitary utensils and/or milking equipments and water supplies used in sanitary activities (Pal and Jadhav, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The quality of milk is determined by its composition and overall hygiene. However, consumption of contaminated food like milk may lead to food-borne diseases (FBDs)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Specifically, human may be infected with milk-borne pathogens through consumption of infected raw or unpasteurized milk and milk products (Bertu et al., 2010;Pal and Jadhav, 2013). Sometimes consumption of contaminated or spoiled milk and other dairy products may cause milk-borne diseases in humans (Pal, 2012). Indeed, food-borne diseases (FBDs) are a serious threat to people in Africa, responsible for 33-90% cases of deaths in children (Flint et al., 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"In many countries of the world, the dairy industry is one of the most important food sectors and it has, by and large, been very successful in providing safe products."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Nevertheless, the concern for the safety of these products remains high on the agenda of public health authorities. There are several reasons for this; milk is particularly rich in nutrients and provides an ideal environment for growth of many microorganisms, contamination of these products can occur at different points in the food chain through often complex pathways, and these products have been the source of food-borne outbreaks caused by a broad range of microbial and chemical hazards."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"Ethiopia possesses the largest livestock population in Africa. Estimates for farmer holding in rural areas indicate that the country has about 53.99 million heads of cattle, 24.6 million goats, 25.5 million sheep and 0.92 million camels (CSA, 2013). In Ethiopia dairy production depends mainly on indigenous livestock genetic resources; more specifically on cattle, goats, camels and sheep. Cattle has the largest contribution (81.2%) of the total national annual milk output, followed by goats (7.9%), camels (6.3%) and sheep (4.6%) (CSA, 2013). While the industry is growing at a rapid rate, no milk quality standards currently exist. Therefore, it is important to establish milk quality standards that focus on food safety measures in order to improve public health."},{"index":7,"size":108,"text":"The consumption of raw milk and milk products is common in Ethiopia (Yilma, 2003), which is not safe from consumer health point of view as it is good media for the growth of microorganisms. Provision of milk and milk products of good hygienic quality is desirable for consumers. This is one reason why milk testing and quality control include hygiene as well as microbial qualities in addition to testing for fat content and heat stability (Giangiacomo, 2000). Prior to the discovery and widespread adoption of pasteurization for instance, raw milk and its products were responsible for serious bacterial infections such as diphtheria, scarlet fever and tuberculosis (Spreer, 1998)."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Consumers all over the world are increasingly concerned about the safety of their food in general and milk and milk products in particular. Therefore, quality should not be ignored at all stages of the dairy value chain from stable to table."},{"index":9,"size":182,"text":"There is limited data on hygienic practices throughout the dairy production system in Ethiopia and standard milking procedures do not exist. A recent study in Ethiopia showed many farmers do not properly clean teats prior to milking. The study also showed a trend of farmers either not using a towel at all for disinfection or using a collective towel for two or more cows (Yilma, 2010). This practice can clearly lead to the spread of contagious pathogens. Raw milk is an important vehicle for the transmission of milkborne pathogens to humans, as can be easily contaminated during milking and handling (Addo et al., 2011;Pal, 2012). Poor or improper handling of milk can exert both a public health and economic constraints thus requiring hygienic vigilance throughout the milk value chain (Swai and Schoonman, 2011). In some parts of the world including developing countries like Ethiopia, milk is still a significant source of these infections and other FBDs (Shirima et al., 2003). Therefore, microbiological assessment of milk is essential to establish the degree of contamination and recommend some corrective measures (Parekh and Subhash, 2008)."},{"index":10,"size":104,"text":"In Sidama zone, where \"kocho\" (source of carbohydrate and stable diet made from Enset [Ensete ventricosum]) is highly consumed, there is also high consumption of raw cow milk along with this local food. However, although there is risk associated with the consumption of raw cow milk, there is lack of information on the extent of raw milk contamination by bacteria in this area. In addition, there has been no established milk quality control system. Therefore, the present study was initiated to generate base-line information on the quality of raw cow milk consumed and potential public health risks associated with the consumption of raw milk."}]},{"head":"General objective:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This study was aimed at assessing bacteriological quality of raw cow's milk and to estimate the public health risks associated with consumption of raw cow milk in Arbegona, Bensa and Bona districts in Sidama highlands of southern Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":" To assess the hygiene and handling practices of cow milk along the value chain in the study area,  To evaluate bacteriological quality of raw cow milk across dairy value chain in the study area,  To isolate major bacteria species contaminating raw cow milk, and  To determine antimicrobial susceptibility of the common milk-borne bacteria isolated from raw cow milk."}]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The use of milk and milk products as human food has got a very long history. The milk as it is meant to be the first and sole food for offspring of mammals is an almost complete food. Almost 87% of milk is composed of water and the remaining part comprises total solids (carbohydrates, fat, proteins and minerals) contained in a balanced form and digestible elements for building and maintaining the human and animal body. Other milk ingredients include immuno-globulins, which protect the newly born against a number of diseases (Pandey and Voskuil, 2011). Milk has a complex biochemical composition and its high water activity and nutritional value serves as an excellent medium for growth and multiplication of many kinds of microorganisms when suitable conditions exists (Parekh and Subhash, 2008;Pal and Jadhav, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Definition and Composition of Milk","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Milk is a yellowish-white non-transparent liquid secreted by the mammary glands of all mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition and sole food for offspring of mammals before they are able to eat and digest other types of food. It contains in a balanced form of all the necessary and digestible elements for building and maintaining the human and animal body (Pandey and Voskuil, 2011). The main composition of milk is water (87 -88%); the remaining part is total milk solids. This composition is not constant; the average percentages of milk components vary with species and breeds of animal, season, feeds, stage of lactation and health and physiological status of a particular animal."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Sometimes the composition might even change from day to day, depending on feeding and climate, but also during milking the first milk differs from the last milk drops (Pandey and Voskuil, 2011). Moreover, milk is an excellent source of high quality protein, vitamins, minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Fresh milk has a pleasant soft and sweet taste and carries hardly any smell. "}]},{"head":"Importance of Milk in Human Health","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The use of milk and milk products as human food has got a very long history. It contains in a balanced form all the necessary and digestible elements for building and maintaining the human and animal body. Research has shown that milk and milk products have an immune enhancing property as well, particularly for the benefit of HIV/AIDS affected people. In addition, milk contains various properties, which make it easy to convert into different milk products or to use it as an ingredient for other food items. Various human cultures have their own traditional ways of using milk and preparing different milk products (WHO, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Characteristics and Flavor of Milk","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Consumer acceptance of milk is greatly affected by its flavor. There are several factors which may produce off-flavors and/or odors in milk (Clare et al., 2005). Some of the more common causes of flavor and odor problems are: "}]},{"head":"Hygienic Quality of Milk and Microbial Contamination","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The unhygienic and undesirable practices that decrease the quality of raw milk can be classified into three categories:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Practices related to the animal:"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":" Animals are not healthy or suffer from mastitis;"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":" Animals are dirty, in particular the udder, the teats, the hind quarter and the tail."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Practices related to the milker:"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":" Hands and clothes of the milker are not clean and he/she practices unhygienic personal habits."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"Practices related to the milking process:"},{"index":8,"size":159,"text":" Wrong milking procedures (like stripping) are used; the utensils and the milkcan are not cleaned properly. Milk when it emerges from a healthy udder contains only a very few bacteria. However, milk is a perishable product. It is an ideal medium for microorganisms and as it is a liquid, it is very easily contaminated and invaded by bacteria. Almost all bacteria in milk originate from the air, dirt, dung, hairs and other extraneous substances. In other words, milk is mainly contaminated with bacteria during milking. It is possible to milk animals in such a clean way that the raw milk contains only 500 to 1,000 bacteria per ml. Usually the total bacteria count after milking is up to 50,000 per ml, however, counts may reach several millions bacteria per ml (Rodrigues et al., 2005). That indicates a very poor hygienic standard during milking and the handling of the milk or milk of a diseased animal with i.e. mastitis."},{"index":9,"size":197,"text":"Raw milk is one of the most suitable media for the growth of a wide variety of bacteria, especially immediately after milking when it is almost at body temperature. However, milk contains a natural inhibitory system which prevents a significant rise in the bacteria count during the first 2 -3 hours. If milk is cooled within this period to 4 ˚C, it maintains nearly its original quality (van Schaik et al., 2005). Timely cooling ensures that the quality of the milk remains good for processing and consumption. The bacterial load in fresh raw milk should be less than 50,000 per ml when it reaches the collection point or processing plant. To prevent a too high multiplication of bacteria, the milk has to be produced as hygienic as possible and should be cooled or heated at the earliest. Hygienic milk only originates from mastitis free and healthy animals. Cows suffering from a disease may secrete the pathogenic bacteria, which cause their disease, in the milk they produce. Consumption of raw milk therefore might be dangerous to the consumer. Some of these diseases, like tuberculosis, brucellosis and anthrax, can be transmitted to the consumer (O'Reilly et al., 2006;Pal, 2007)."},{"index":10,"size":71,"text":"Milk contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and minerals and its primary role is to provide nourishment to the neonates of the mammalian species from which it was derived. However, milk from a variety of animals has become an important and valuable part of the human diet; these same components that make it nutritious for humans also provide an ideal growth medium for many microorganisms, including potential pathogens (O'Reilly et al., 2006)."},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"Although milk production practices differ greatly throughout the world, in most developed countries milk is collected by machine milking and transferred to refrigerated bulk storage tanks where it is held prior to transportation. These handling methods have resulted in a dramatic change in the microflora of raw milk brought about by selection and adaptation. The microorganisms present in milk can be introduced by a variety of routes (Frisvad et al., 2005;Pal and Jahdav, 2013). "}]},{"head":"Contamination from udder infection","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"In healthy cows free from infection, milk emerging from the udder is essentially sterile, but it may contain commensal bacteria associated with the udder. A commensal organism derives food or other benefits from another organism without affecting it. These are usually members of the genera Micrococcus and Streptococcus as well as Coryneform bacteria (members of a particular family of bacteria named Corynebacteriaceae) and occasionally coliforms (a group of bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of animals that ferment the sugar lactose) (White et al., 2003). Significant numbers of organisms are found in milk taken in a manner that prevents microbial contamination (i.e."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"aseptically) from the udders of apparently healthy cows."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Mastitis is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland or udder; it can be subclinical in which there are no visible signs of infection, clinical in which there are signs of infection, or chronic when the symptoms persist over a long period of time. (Bramley and Mckinnon, 2004). The results from one study have suggested subclinical mastitis is a greater problem in organic than in conventional production systems, but the differences were not marked (Roesch et al., 2007). Whereas the organisms that cause mastitis do not generally grow in refrigerated milk, they are able to survive under these conditions and may be a concern from a public health aspect. For example, it has been demonstrated that staphylococcal enterotoxins and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 can be preformed in the udder and secreted into milk in cows suffering from Staph. aureus mastitis (Valle et al., 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Ingestion of the toxin in the milk may result in illness."},{"index":5,"size":143,"text":"Apart from mastitis-causing organisms, other bacteria that are pathogenic to humans may infect the udder; these include Mycobacterium bovis, which can cause tuberculosis in humans (Griffths, 2007), Brucella abortus (the causative agent of brucellosis or undulant fever), Listeria monocytogenes, Coxiella burnetii and Salmonella spp. (Pal, 2007). For example, C. burnetii does not cause clinical disease in cattle, but it gives rise to Q fever in humans. It has been detected, using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay, in 94% of pooled milk collected on farms in the US (Kim et al., 2005). Recent attention has focused on Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, the causal agent of Johne's disease, a chronic, progressive gastroenteritis of ruminants, which has also been linked to Crohn's disease in humans. It has been estimated that at least 68% of all US dairy herds are infected with this organism (Kim et al., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Contamination from the external surface of the udder","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The external surface of the udder is also a prime source of microbial contamination of milk. Bedding materials, mud, feces, soil and other matter all readily stick to skin and are a rich source of microorganisms. Even after washing with water, the microbial count on teat surfaces can be high and the count in milk from washed udders may only be about 1 log cycle lower than from those that were unwashed (Thomas and Druce, 2001). Similar low-level reductions in total microbial count and coliform counts on both the udder surface and in milk were observed even after the use of disinfectants to treat teats (Gibson et al., 2008). However, the importance of proper washing and drying of the udder before milking for the elimination of Listeria spp. has been demonstrated. In a study on the risk factors associated with contamination of raw milk by Listeria monocytogenes on dairy farms, showed that poor cleanliness of cows, inadequate lighting of milking parlors and barns (which may be an indication of neglect of milking hygiene)"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"and incorrect disinfection of towels used to dry the udder significantly increased the likelihood of contamination (Sanaa et al., 2003). Silage is also an important source of contamination by Listeria spp., including L. monocytogenes, and other potential human pathogens such as Yersinia enterocolitica and Aeromonas hydrophila (Sanaa et al., 2003)."}]},{"head":"Environmental sources of contamination","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The environment is also a major source of microorganisms on the dairy farm (Pangloli et al., 2008). It was found that milking parlor air (62% positive samples) and bird droppings (63%) were major contamination sources during winter, while feeds (50-58%), water (53-67%), calf bedding (63%), soils (60-63%), milking parlor air (60%) and bird droppings (50%) were the main culprits in the spring. All animal and environmental samples (40-92%) except milking parlor air (25%) and bulk tank milk (29%) were found to contribute significantly to the presence of bacteria in the summer; whereas the major sources of contamination were feeds (60-71%), cow bedding (59%), cow soils (50%), air (46-71%)"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"and insects (63%) during the fall (Pangloli et al., 2008). Again this illustrates that there are several potential sources of contamination by this pathogen that are difficult to control."}]},{"head":"Personnel","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"It is unlikely that personnel contribute significantly as a source of microbial contamination of milk during machine milking, although workers suffering from certain zoonoses, such as Q fever, may pose a potential risk (Bramley and Mckinnon, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Aerial contamination","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Air is thought to be an insignificant contributor to microbial contamination of raw milk."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"It has been calculated that airborne bacteria account for <5 cfu/ml of the bacterial load of milk; of these Bacillus spores would constitute <1 cfu/ml. However, a recent study by (Pangloli et al., 2008) suggests that milking parlor air is a major source of Salmonella on the dairy farm."}]},{"head":"Water","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Water used in the production of milk should be of potable quality. Storage tanks should be protected to prevent access by insects, rodents, birds and other sources of contamination and equipment used to deliver water should be properly cleaned. Problems may arise when untreated water supplies are used to rinse and wash equipment. Such water may contain a diverse array of microorganisms including Pseudomonas spp., coliforms, Bacillus spp. and numerous other types of bacteria (Bramley and Mckinnon, 2004). Indeed, Perkins et al. (2007) have demonstrated the potential for contamination of milk with E. coli through wash water. The number of cells contaminating the milk may be small but there is the potential for growth in any residual water remaining on the equipment. Chlorination of the water used in the production of milk is recommended."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Concerns about the use of untreated water, and even of mains supplies, have been heightened in recent years by the increased incidence of Cryptosporidium parvum. This is a parasite that causes cryptosporidiosis, a disease of the mammalian intestinal tract, which results in acute, watery and non-bloody diarrhea. Cryptosporidiosis is of particular concern in immunocompromised patients (such as AIDS patients), in whom diarrhea can result in the loss of 10-15 liters of water per day. It is known that oocysts of this parasite can resist chlorination and have been detected in raw milk, albeit at low incidence rates (<1%), but their source is undetermined."}]},{"head":"Contamination from milking and storage equipment","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Significant contamination of milk can arise from inadequately sanitized surfaces of milking and milk storage equipment. Organisms can proliferate in milk residues present in crevices, joints, rubber gaskets and dead-end of badly cleaned milking plant. A diversity of bacterial types can be introduced into milk from milk mineral deposits present in milking equipment and arguably the most important of these are the Gramnegative psychrotrophs, which predominate among the microflora that adhere to stainless-steel pipelines used for milk transfer (Griffiths, 2004). Differences in cleaning regimes and, hence, the level of contamination from farm to farm ensure that considerable variation occurs in the microflora of milking equipment. The only real protection against the introduction of bacteria into the milk supply from equipment during milking is adequate sanitation. Variations in temperature and cleaning procedures affect the attachment of bacteria to stainless steel surfaces and the effectiveness of sanitation depends to a large extent on the design of the plant and on other factors such as the hardness of the water supply, which itself can give rise to deposits on milking equipment (Palmer, 2001)."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The opportunities for contamination of milking equipment at 31 dairy farms were studied. They found that milk quality was affected by the temperature of the rinsing water, with temperatures of less than 42 o C increasing the likelihood of contamination with Pseudomonas spp. and coliforms. In addition, milking clusters kept out of the cluster pick-up between milking had a higher risk of microbial contamination. Contamination of the milking machine and the bulk tank milk with environmental bacterial contaminants was not reduced by various methods of teat cleaning before milking or by post-milking teat disinfection. The type of bedding material influenced bacterial contamination of milking clusters and bulk tank milk. They concluded that microbial contamination of the milking machine was influenced not only by the sanitation procedure but by many other factors, such as milking procedures and the environment of the milking parlor (Feldmann et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Public Health Impact","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The economic and nutritional value of milk and dairy products in developing countries is evident. However, as the industry grows and becomes more market oriented, focus needs to be placed on the potential risks associated with dairy production and consumption. In developed countries, up to 30% of the population is affected by a food-borne illness per year causing great strain on public health and the economy. The American food supply system is among the safest in the world, but there are still an estimated 76 million cases of food-borne illness a year causing 5,000 deaths and 325,000 hospitalizations (WHO, 2007). The major pathogens alone are responsible for $35 billion a year in medical costs and loss of productivity. Information on the impact of food-borne illness in developing countries is limited due to lack of reporting systems and poor health care infrastructure."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"Even so, the burden of food-borne illness in developing regions is estimated to be great based on the high number of diarrheal diseases. In 2005, 1.8 million deaths of children under 5 worldwide were attributed to diarrheal disease, and a large portion was due to contaminated food and drinking water. Of the 1.8 million deaths, 78% (1.46 million) occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia (Boschi-Pinto et al., 2008). Diarrheal diseases in developing countries are a great public health concern due not only to their direct cause in illness and morbidity, but also their role in malnutrition in infants and young children (WHO, 2007). If a child is sick with a diarrheal disease, the inability to absorb nutrients undermines the nutritional benefits of a diet sufficient in quantity and quality and can States, 40 outbreaks were traced back to raw milk compared to only 4 from pasteurized milk (Oliver et al., 2009). Throughout the developing world, over 80% of the milk consumed is unregulated, and in Ethiopia less than 1% of the milk consumed is pasteurized (FAO, 2009). Again, there is limited information on the impact of milk-borne disease in these regions, but based on the large amount of unregulated milk consumed and the risks of consuming unpasteurized dairy products, the impact is likely to be great."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Milk can be contaminated with bacteria of both human and animal origin at any stage in the production to consumption process. Pathogenic organisms can be excreted in the milk from an infected animal (preharvest), or the contamination can occur at the time of collection, processing, distribution, and storage (postharvest) (LeJeune and Rajala-Schultz, 2009). As the dairy industry in developing countries moves towards a more market-oriented system, food safety becomes exceedingly important. When there is contamination with mass distribution, outbreaks affect more people and cause a greater economic impact. Focus needs to be placed on food safety standards and procedures for both preharvest and postharvest activities (LeJeune and Rajala-Schultz, 2009)."}]},{"head":"Antimicrobial Agents and Bacterial Resistance","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Antimicrobial agents particularly antibiotics are veterinary drugs used in dairy cattle for treatment and prevention of various diseases. Also they are used to improve feed efficiency, increase milk production or as growth promoters (Syit, 2008;Sharma et al., 2011). Antibiotic use sometimes occur in response to several challenges that face the livestock industry that include high level of stress, diseases, poor animal genetic potential, poor management, poor nutrition and drought (Mellau et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Furthermore, misuse and incorrect applications of antimicrobials and antibiotics deposit noticeable residue in tissues of animals, particularly when the milk is harvested and marketed within the withdrawal period of the drug. The rampant and indiscriminate uses of antibiotics among the small-scale livestock keepers increase possibility of antibiotic resistant bacteria that may be transferred from animals to humans and leads to various chronic diseases to the users of milk and milk products."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Because of limited extension services and poor animal health delivery systems, the farmers buy veterinary drugs from veterinary shops and treat by themselves. Katakweba et al. (2012) reported that a lot of drugs such as oxytetracycline are used abusively to treat and protect cattle against various diseases. When such drugs are administered by non-professionals, correct dosages are unlikely to be observed that may lead to drug resistance."}]},{"head":"The milk chain","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The efficient production of milk under good hygienic conditions is the key to successful dairying. The principal constraint in particularly smallholder systems is a high level of bacterial contamination in the milk. This might lead to its spoilage before it reaches the market. The first step for a farmer is to produce good quality milk from healthy (nonmastitis) cows. This is the basis which enables successful collection and marketing of the milk. In the first place attention should be paid to the equipment used. This has to be suitable for effective cleaning and sanitization. In the second place emphasis should be given to good hygienic practices during milking. Finally, attention has to be paid to the transport and collection of the surplus milk to the point of sale or processing. Collection and transport of the milk should not take very long to minimize post harvest spoilage (Ruegg, 2003)."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the Study Area","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The The farming system practiced in the study area is mixed crop-livestock farming system."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"According to the information from districts Agricultural office, the livestock keeping and production systems are of small-holder dairying and mainly keep indigenous cattle and some of them have exotic (Holstein-Friesian and Jersey). Other animals kept by these livestock keepers are goats, sheep and poultry. They both practice a free grazing system and share water points but in most cases cattle and small ruminants are grazed separately."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"These animals are kept as source of income, meat, milk, draught power for farmers."}]},{"head":"Study Design","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2014 to May 2015 to assess the hygienic practices, magnitude of bacterial contaminants in raw cow milk and public health importance of cow milk produced and supplied along the dairy value chain (producers to consumers) in the study area. Farmers involved in the study were smallholder dairy. The study unit was small-holder farmer with lactating cows where questionnaires were administered and raw cow milk was collected."}]},{"head":"Study Animals and Population","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The study animals were lactating cross breed cows (Holstein Frisian X indigenous Zebu and Jersey X indigenous Zebu) from small-holder dairy farmers in the Arbegona, Bensa and Bona districts."}]},{"head":"Selection of Study Districts, Peasant Association's and Households","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The three districts (Arbegona, Bona zuria and Bensa) were selected purposely based on the potential of livestock resources by, the Livestock and Irrigation Value Chain for Ethiopian Small-holders (LIVES) project. LIVES is a project aims at supporting governmental organizations' efforts to transform the small-holder subsistence agricultural sector to a more market-oriented small-holder sector to contribute to the new growth and transformation plan. The project uses the current value chain framework and the problem faced along the chain to improve targeted commodities, including milk."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Accordingly, from each district, 5 PA's were purposely selected based on the number of livestock keepers, milk production and accessibility. With the help of livestock extension officers, households with crossbred cattle were identified for the study. A total of 120 households, 8 from each PA and 40 from each district were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria stated in section 3.5."}]},{"head":"Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The study inclusion criteria for the household were the following: the household must be a small-holder farmer (both men and women) with at least 3 cross breed lactating cows during the study time, willing to participate in the study, ready to give the required information through questionnaires and availability of milk during the survey. The exclusion criteria were: those households who were not around during the study, unwilling to participate in the study, unable to give the required information and absence of milk during the survey. Also those who had no time for questionnaires interviews were excluded."}]},{"head":"Sample Size Determination","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"A formula by Kothari (2004), for unknown population (i.e. n = Z 2 SD 2 /e 2 ) was used to calculate the sample size for this study. Where Z, is the estimated standard variation at 95% confidence interval (CI) which was considered the point of the normal distribution corresponding to the level of significance (Z=1.96). Standard deviation (SD) was estimated at 0.15 or 15% and e, is the estimated error and was considered at 0.05 or 5%."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Therefore, the sample size 'n' was calculated as: n = (1.96) 2 x (0.15) 2 = 34.6 approximately n = 35 samples per each district."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"(0.05) 2 Based on the above formula 105 milk samples were supposed to be collected, but to increase precision, 166 milk samples were collected."}]},{"head":"Data Collection","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"This study had two parts: Questionnaire-based survey and bacteriological quality analysis."}]},{"head":"Questionnaire survey","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Structured questionnaire (Appendix 1) was used to collect information from small-dairy holders with lactating cows. The questionnaire was made with pre-coded response choices (closed-ended questions) with a few open-ended questions. Also, the questionnaire was used to collect information on possible risk factors for bacterial contaminations in milk. Risk factors considered in the current study were sanitary conditions of the barn/milking environment, hygiene of milking cows' udder and milk handlers, hygiene of milking equipment with special emphasis to hygiene of milking procedures and milk handling practices, utensils used for milking, milk storage and uses of milk (for selling or domestic purposes). Furthermore, milk consumption behaviors and their awareness on the risk of zoonotic diseases that are associated with the consumption of raw milk was also assessed."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The questionnaire was administered through face to face interview. While administering questionnaires, direct observation on general cleanliness and hygienic conditions and practices with regard to milk were also done and noted."}]},{"head":"Milk sample collection","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk sampling technique","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Raw milk samples were collected from critical control points along the value chain in the three districts of 15 PA's that are considered to be associated with the hazard, when a measurement can be conducted and when control measures can be taken in order to reduce the hazard to an acceptable level."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The presence of bacteriological agents was assessed and aerobic mesophilic bacterial count and coliform count was performed on pooled milk samples collected at the following critical control points along the milk value chain; directly from the cows' udder at farm level, from the milking bucket at farm level, and from marketed milk containers up on arrival (from café, restaurants and home consumers)."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Among those households previously considered for questionnaire survey study, 95 pooled milk samples from the udder and 55 milk samples from milking bucket were collected. Additionally, 16 milk samples were collected from marketed milk containers using the information from the producers. Thus a total of 166 samples of raw milk were used for the bacteriological analysis (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Milk sample handling","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"During sampling of raw milk from the udder, the surface of the teat end was cleaned by wiping it with clean cotton dipped in 70 % alcohol. Before sampling from milking bucket and marketed milk container upon arrival, the milk was thoroughly mixed after, which 25 ml of milk was transferred into sterile sampling bottles (Richardson, 1985). At all levels of sampling, the sampling bottles were capped, labeled with a permanent marker and stored in an ice packed cool box and transported to Addis Ababa regional laboratory and kept in refrigerator until the time of analysis. The bacterial count and isolation of species was performed within 24 hours after sampling (Alganesh et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Laboratory Analysis of Milk Samples","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Analyses were carried out in the microbiology laboratory in the Addis Ababa regional laboratory. Two kinds of laboratory analyses of milk samples were performed. The first was analysis for bacterial quantity of raw milk which involved establishing the aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (AMBC) and coliform count (CC) and isolation of major milkborne bacteria. The second was determination of antimicrobial susceptibility of major isolate."}]},{"head":"Quantitative analysis of raw milk for bacteria","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (AMBC)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Milk samples were serially diluted by adding 1mL of the test portion into 9 mL of 0.1% sterile peptone water. Dilutions were made so that plate counts range between 30 and 300 colonies (Richardson, 1985). Appropriate dilutions were placed on Petri dishes and pour plated with 10 to 15 mL molten plate count agar (about 45°C) (Oxoid, UK) and allowed to solidify for 15 minutes and incubated for 48 hours at 37°C. Finally, counts were made using a colony counter. The plate counts were calculated by multiplying the count on the dish by 10 n , in which n stands for the number of consecutive dilutions of the original sample (Van den Berg, 1988)."}]},{"head":"Coliform count (CC)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"After mixing the sample portion, appropriate decimal dilutions were made by transferring 1 mL of the sample into 9 mL of 0.1% peptone water for initial dilution and by transferring 1 mL of the previous dilution into 9 mL of peptone water. After surface plating the appropriate dilution in duplicates on VRBA, Petri dishes were incubated at 32°C for 48 hours and counts made on typical dark red colonies normally measuring at least 0.5 mm in diameter on uncrowned plates (Richardson, 1985). While transferring raw milk samples from one test tube to another, separate sterile pipettes were used for the different dilutions for both counts."}]},{"head":"Reading and interpretation results","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (AMBC): After incubation at 37 o C for 48 hours, all colonies including those of pin point size is counted on selected plates using colony counter. Results from plates, which contained 30 to 300 colonies per plate were recorded."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Plates with more than 300 colonies could not be counted and were designate as TMTC."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Plates with fewer than 30 colonies were designate as TFTC. After counting and recording bacterial colonies in each petridish the number of bacteria in milliliter was calculated by the following formula given by APHA (1992). Coliform count (CC): after incubation of the plates for 48 hours, typical purplish red colonies with bile precipitations around them were counted as coliforms. Results from only those plates, which contained between 15 and 150 colonies were recorded."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Interpretations were similar with that of AMBC."}]},{"head":"Qualitative analysis of raw milk for bacteria","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Cultural examinations were used to isolate and identify the pathogenic and spoiling bacterial species found in the raw milk. Isolation and identification of bacterial species was carried out based on conventional culture technique and biochemical assays. After thorough mixing of each milk samples, a loopful of the milk sample was streaked on the blood agar base enriched with 7% sheep blood agar and MacConkey agar. The plates were incubated at 37 0 C and examined for bacterial growth after 48 hours. From culture positive plates, typical colonies were subjected to Gram's stain to study the staining properties and cellular morphology. Pure cultures of a single colony type from the blood agar were transferred in to nutrient agar plate. From this, a series of biochemical tests that could aid in the final identification of various bacteria was conducted following standard methods (Quinn et al., 1999). Identification of bacteria to the species level was carried out based on their colony characteristics, Gram's staining and morphological characteristics, growth on MacCkonky agar, catalase, urease, coagulase and oxidase tests, hydrogen sulfide production, indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer reaction, citrate utilization, oxidation-fermentation test, lysine and different carbohydrate tests."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Staphylococcus species were identified based on hemolysis pattern, catalase production and coagulase test, pigment production, O-F test and fermentation of manitol, and maltose (Appendix 3)."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Streptococcus species were identified based on Gram's stain reaction, catalase production, hemolysis pattern, CAMP test, fermentation pattern of manitol, sorbitol, raffinose and salicine and aesculin hydrolysis (Appendix 4)."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Corynebacterium species were identified based on staining morphology, hemolysis pattern, catalase production and acid production from glucose, lactose and maltose (Appendix 5)."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Bacillus species were identified based on hemolytic pattern, staining morphology, fermentation pattern of arabinose and manitol, and citrate and VP tests (Appendix 6)."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Coliform organisms were identified based on Gram's stain reaction, growth characteristics on MacConkey agar, oxidase test, reaction patterns on IMViC test, H 2 S production, fermentation patterns from lactose and urease and lysine production (Appendix 7)."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"Other Gram-negative organisms were identified based on staining morphology, growth characteristics on MacConkey agar, oxidase test, urease production, indole production, and acid production from sucrose and glucose (Appendix 7)."}]},{"head":"Antimicrobial sensitivity testing","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The common isolates were subjected to the commonly used antimicrobials using Kirby-Bauer method (Quinn et al., 2002). About eight antimicrobials such as Chloroamphenicol, Gentamycine, Penicillin, Sulphamethizole, Streptomycin, Kanamycine, Tetracycline and Vancomycine (Oxiod) were selected from main class of antimicrobials and that were commonly used by the veterinary clinician found in those districts, and investigated for sensitivity testing. The antibiotic discs were placed on the surface of MullerHinton agar plate previously seeded with appropriate amount of the organism to be tested. Each disk was pressed down to ensure complete contact with the agar surface. The plates were incubated at 37 o C for 18-24 hours. Subsequently, the plates were examined for the development of zone of inhibition around the discs. After measuring the zone of inhibition, it was classified as sensitive, intermediate and resistant according to National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standard (NCCLS) break point to interpret the inhibition zone (Quinn et al., 2002)."}]},{"head":"Data Management and Analysis","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The data generated from the survey and laboratory were entered into MS excel spread sheets and analyzed using SPSS version 20. The survey data was described using descriptive and inferential statistics such as means, frequency distribution and percentage."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Microbiological counts were transformed into logarithmic scale (log 10 cfu/ mL) and analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SPSS. Means were compared and declared significant at α=0.05."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dairy Cattle Housing and Cleaning Practices","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"According to the current study low proportion of farm owners (16.7%) constructed their farm with concrete materials (cement) in which it facilitates easy cleaning, while the floor of about (83.3%) was earthen and covered with manure since they do not remove the manure completely during cleaning and found in poor hygienic state. As observed in the present study (26.7%) of the respondents used grass and cereal straw as bedding material"},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"for their animals and have good conditioned barn (Table 4). The remaining households (73.3%) did not use any bedding material at all and milking cows lies on muddy bedding (Table 8). Teats and udders of cows inevitably become soiled while they are lying in such stalls. In the study about (21.7%) of the respondents clean the barn three times a week while (78.3%) reported that they clean daily. Cleaning of the barn with water was done on average every two weeks. The study also shown that (56.7%) of the respondents did not keep calves in a good hygiene, while about (43%) did very well. Further, most of the interviewed producers (94.2%) allow their calves to suckle dams. "}]},{"head":"Feeding and Watering Practices","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Almost all respondents reported that they allow their cattle freely graze the natural grazing lands (Table 5). However, about 25% of the interviewed producers supplement their cows with locally available feed resources such as enset. There were different source of water used for cattle in the study area. The majority of the respondents (94.2%) had access to river water followed by dug well water (5.8%) while none of them used pipe water. "}]},{"head":"Milking and Hygienic Practices","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Milking is done manually (stripping) mostly by women's. Cows were usually milked twice a day except with few farmers (about 8.3%) who milk three times a day (Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Plastic containers (buckets) and pots are used during milking. Among the interviewed households (82.5%) use plastic jars while (17.5%) use clay pot as milking utensil. The majority of the respondents (85%) practiced washing of their milk utensils daily, while (15%) clean three times a week before milking. However, the cleaning is not efficient and utensils are not properly dried. It was observed that milkers dip their fingers in the milking vessel to moisten teats of the cows with the intention of facilitating milking. The respondents in the urban market in which they collect the milk from producers were interviewed in order to assess the potential risk factors for milk contamination along the final value chain which comprises the duration from the final collection up to consumption. Accordingly, 100% of them replied that only plastic type of container is used to transport milk from producers."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"In the present study, majority (64.2%) of the respondents across the 3 districts did not wash their hands before milking, while the remaining (35.8%) did wash their hands with water. However, none of the interviewees wash their hands between milkings of different cows. Among interviewed, about (65%) do not wash udder before milking while the remaining (35%) did wash. Similarly, (54.8)% of all the interviewees do not use towel to dry udder after washing rather they massage the udder with bare hands while, about (45.2%) reported that they use local material, kacha (Agave sisalena) for teat and hand drying purposes. Generally, it was observed that the person involved in milking was not clean, and the milking environments and utensils were also unhygienic indicating the possibilities for microbial contaminations of milk. "}]},{"head":"Public Health Aspect","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"In the study area, about 49.2% of the interviewed producers consume raw milk while the remaining 50.8% boil raw milk before consumption. Although about half of the respondents (56.7%) were aware about the risk of public health hazards associated with consumption of raw cow milk, some of them did not boil milk for consumption and most of the respondents reported they were suffered from food borne infections of unknown origin. All dairy cow owners milk their cows by hand and did not cool the milk after milking. It is common that fresh milk is mixed with milk left over from previous milking, and milk of different cows of the same farm is mixed together before consumption. "}]},{"head":"Aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (AMBC)","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"The mean for aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (expressed in log 10 cfu/ml) of raw milk sampled at three critical points are shown in Table 8. The overall mean AMBC was 5.86, 8.23 and 9.31 log 10 cfu/ml for milk samples collected directly from the udder, milking bucket and marketed milk containers upon arrival, respectively. There was an increasing trend of aerobic mesophilic bacterial count as the milk passed through udder, milking bucket and marketed milk containers upon arrival. Accordingly, the count increased by 2.37 log 10 cfu/ ml from point of production (milk sampled directly from the udder) to milk samples taken from milking bucket at the farm. Likewise, AMBC increased by 1.08 log 10 cfu/ ml from milking bucket at the farm level to marketed milk container up on arrival. The increase from point of production to marketed milk containers upon arrival was 3.45 log 10 cfu/ ml. Results of analysis of variance indicated that there were very significant differences in aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (P= 0.000) between the critical points and there was no significant variation between districts (P = 0.976). "}]},{"head":"Coliform count (CC)","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"The mean coliform counts (expressed in log 10 cfu/ml) of raw milk sampled at three critical points are shown in Table 9. The overall mean CC was 3.61, 5.48 and 7.47 log 10 cfu/ml for milk samples collected directly from the udder, milking bucket and marketed milk containers upon arrival, respectively. There was an increasing trend of coliform counts as the milk passed through udder, milking bucket and marketed milk containers upon arrival. Accordingly, the count increased by 1.87 log 10 cfu/ ml from point of production (milk sampled directly from the udder) to milking bucket at the farm level. In a similar manner, it increased by 1.99 log 10 cfu/ ml between sampling from milking bucket at the farm level to marketed milk containers at market. The overall increment from point of production to arrival at market was 3.86 log 10 cfu/ ml. Results of analysis of variance indicated that there were very significant differences in coliform counts (P= 0.000) among the critical points but no difference between districts (P = 0.795). 10)."}]},{"head":"Bacterial isolates of milk samples from the milking bucket","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Out of the total (n=55) milk samples taken, none proved to be negative. In addition to those bacteria isolated from the cow's udder, the following were detected; these are S."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"saprophyticus, S. simulans, Ent. aerogenes, Ent.aglomerans and Serratia spp. (Table 10)."}]},{"head":"Bacterial isolates of milk samples from the marketed milk containers","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Out of the total 16 milk samples taken, none proved to be negative. In all of the positive samples, the types of isolated bacteria were similar to bacteria isolate in the udder and bucket except the increment of isolation rates of each bacterium (Table 10). "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The overall purpose of this study was to assess the hygienic condition, bacterial quality of raw cow milk and to determine antimicrobial susceptibility of the major bacterial isolate in Arbegona, Bensa and Bona districts in Sidama zone. This was due to the fact that milk produced in Ethiopia by the informal sector is not regulated by any agency and such milk may pose a health hazard due to contamination with pathogens. Generally, the present findings showed that, there are several practices undertaken at farm level such as type of animal house floor, not washing hands and udder/teats before milking, water used for cleanliness (hands and milk equipments), type of storage containers used and milk storage duration under room temperature predispose raw milk to microbial contaminations. Apart from that, it was observed that there are traditional ways practiced by small-holder dairy farmers which includes consumption of raw milk and milk products."}]},{"head":"Questionnaire Survey","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Result of questionnaire survey and observation in the study site showed that milk was generally produced by dairy producers under unhygienic environmental condition. This study further revealed that most smallholder dairy farmers managed their cattle in poor cattle houses that are not cleaned regularly and may have implications on sources of pathogens for mastitis and other diseases to animals. Meanwhile, such dirty environments are also likely to be sources of milk contaminations. Similar observations have been reported in Tanga (Shija, 2013) and in Arusha, Tanzania (Bukuku, 2013). Under traditional livestock keeping system, it becomes a challenge to have clean animal houses."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The present study showed that most of the persons involved in milking activities were also not clean with unhygienic milking environments and milking utensils. All these possibilities predisposed milk to microbial contaminations at household level."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"It was further found that factors that were likely sources of microbial contamination in milk include hand milking in a dirty animal house, not washing udder and/or teats before milking, reckless milking personnel, not washing hands before milking, use of poor quality water for cleanliness (hands and milk equipments), not covering milk after milking and prolonged milk storage under room temperature. It was observed that majority of farmers do not comply with good milking practices and general sanitation."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"However, except for a few urban cattle keepers, the barns were not constructed following recommended structure. Yoseph et al. (2003) and Yitaye et al. (2009), reported similar results in the northwestern Ethiopian highlands dairy production. As observed during the field visit, the barns were not constructed to facilitate drainage of the farm wastes, which leads to soiling of dairy cows and contamination of milk. Most of the respondents clean the barn on daily basis only by removing the feces, while few of them clean three times a week. This is in agreement with Zelalem (2010), reported that about 87% of the respondents cleaned their barn on daily basis, while few (9%) of them cleaned only three times a week in the Ethiopian highlands. Teats and udders of cows inevitably become soiled while they are laying in stalls or when they are allowed to stay in muddy barnyard."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Used bedding has been shown to harbor large numbers of microorganisms (Murphy and Boor, 2000). Milking was also performed in the same place after cleaning. Although, the high proportion of dairy cow owners earthen their barn floors, clean, dry and comfortable bedding condition is important to minimize the growth of pathogenic microorganisms."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Practices that expose the teat end to these organic bedding sources, wet and muddy pens increase the risk of occurrence of mastitis and milk contamination (Ruegg, 2006)."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"In general, providing proper shelter for animals has not been given the required attention."},{"index":8,"size":84,"text":"Housing conditions in many of households were dirty and unclean. This may have a negative impact on the quality of milk and milk products produced and processed. Proper and clean housing environment is a prerequisite to produce milk and milk products of acceptable quality (Asaminew, 2007). The general hygiene at milking time is known to affect the numbers of microorganisms in the milk. It is recommended that before milking, the animal house should be cleaned; the udder and/or teats should be washed and dried."},{"index":9,"size":151,"text":"In the study area all of the interviewed households practiced hand milking. Indeed, the hand milking practiced by animal attendants could result in microbial contamination of the milk. These practices could have contributed to the observed high microbial load in the milk. Previous studies had similar observations (Swai and Schoonman, 2011;Shija, 2013). The cows in the study area are usually milked twice a day except few households in the urban area who reported milking three times a day. The practices of milking found in this study were similar with other reports (Asrat, 2009). However, milking operation is only limited to once or twice per day during the last stage of lactation around Wolayta zone (Ayantu, 2006;Rahel, 2008). Milkers dip their fingers in the milking vessel to moisten teats of the cows with the intention of facilitating milking. However, such practice may cause microbial contamination of the milk from the milker's hand."},{"index":10,"size":208,"text":"Most dairy farm owners in the present study do not clean their cow's udder and teat with water. But also, the owner's who washed the udder and teat did not perform the cleaning sufficiently and do not dry it properly. It was reported by Depiazzi and Bell (2002), that pre-milking udder preparation and teat sanitation play important part in the microbial load of milk, infection with mastitis, and environmental contamination of raw milk during milking. Cleaning the udder of cows before milking is important since it could have direct contact with the ground, urine, dung and feed refusals while resting. Lack of washing udder before milking can impart possible contaminants into the milk. The current study is in agreement with other reports (Derese, 2008). Contrary to this study, Haile et al. (2012) reported that 82.5% of the small size farms owning households in Hawassa city are practicing pre milking udder washing. Cleaning of the udder before milking is important to remove both visible dirt and bacteria from the outer surface of the udder. Unless properly handled, milk can be contaminated by microorganisms at any point from production to consumption. Producers should therefore make udder washing a regular practice in order to minimize contamination and produce good quality milk."},{"index":11,"size":30,"text":"Most of the respondents who practiced udder and teat drying use either bare hands or local material \"Kacha\" in the current study and it results in insufficient drying of udder."},{"index":12,"size":41,"text":"Wet teats allow skin and environmental bacteria to have easy access into mammary gland (Ruegg, 2006). Since drying was not practiced sufficiently by the dairy cow owners in the study area, contamination level of the milk is expected to be high."},{"index":13,"size":185,"text":"Production of milk of good hygienic quality for consumers requires good hygienic practices (clean milking utensils, washing milker's hands, washing the udder and use of individual towels) during milking and handling, before delivery to consumers or processors (Getachew, 2003). In the study area, the majority of the respondents practiced washing of their milk utensils. However, the cleaning is not efficient and utensils are not properly dried. Surfaces such as milking equipments and hands coming in contact with milk if not clean enough may cause milk contaminations. During the current study, pots and plastic containers were the major utensils for collection and storage of milk. Narrow necked plastic containers which were commonly used are not easily washed especially in the bottom and inner corners thus may lead to sticking of milk residues. In such a situation, microorganisms can rapidly build up in potentially nutritious milk residues of storage containers consequently contaminating the milk on subsequent uses. Similar observations were also reported by Bukuku (2013), andShija (2013), who observed high microbial load in milk which was correlated with narrow necked plastic containers used in handling of milk."},{"index":14,"size":76,"text":"The source of water available to farmers used for different purposes (to clean milking equipment and hands) is restricted to river and dug well water. However, the quality of both river and hand dug well waters used for cleaning may not be of the required standard thus can contribute to the poor quality of milk in the area. It is, therefore, important to heat treat water from river and hand dug wells intended for cleaning purpose."},{"index":15,"size":302,"text":"It was further realized that a number of practices related to animal managements and consumption habits could predispose the livestock keepers to zoonotic infections. These practices included consumption of raw milk and milk products made from raw milk. The reasons could be lack of knowledge about the health risk posed by consumption of raw cow. In the current study, questionnaire survey results indicate that most of the dairy cow owners in the study area consumed milk in its raw state. The practices of milking found in this study were similar with other reports (Fanta, 2010). Thus, consumption of raw milk with no treatment may pose a public health hazard as a result of poor safety and quality. This habit therefore poses a lot of dangers to consumers in relation to milk-borne diseases (Lues et al., 2003). Elsewhere despite of livestock keepers being aware of the risk of contracting zoonotic infections and milk-borne diseases, the general public still consume raw milk (Shirima et al., 2003;Mosalagae et al., 2011). A study by Shirima et al. (2003) highlighted several zoonotic diseases that are common in small-holder dairy include, tuberculosis, brucellosis, anthrax and foot and mouth disease. Therefore, more public health education is needed at different levels along the food production chains (farmers, transporters and consumers) to safeguard the public from health problems emanating from animals. Furthermore, poor safety and quality of the milk as a result of poor hygiene may greatly discourage consumers demand. This in agreement with scientifically justified reports up on raw milk. Raw milk easily gets colonized by bacteria and thus can be spoiled and pathogenic microorganisms, which may have come from the teat canal, an infected udder or as environmental contaminants from unhygienic milking, handling and storage can affect the milk quality and safety (Farah et al., 2007;Matofari et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Bacteriological Count","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The increment of bacterial load could be attributed to contamination of the milk throughout the value chain from production to market by different environmental factors through different exposures of contamination like pooling of milk from different sources together with unhygienic handling, and leaving the milk without cooling. This result was in agreement with the report of Farah et al. (2007) that there was an increase in bacterial counts through milk value chain showing the highest count from bulk milk of cow stored for 24 hrs without cooling in Somalia."},{"index":2,"size":326,"text":"There was no significant difference in the mean AMBC among the districts. This may be due to the reason that the same practice which under goes in the three districts. In case of udder milk samples higher AMBC mean value (5.86 log 10 cfu/ml) was obtained as compared to the one reported by Alehegne (2004), for milk samples collected from udder (5.11 log 10 cfu/ml) in small-holder dairy farmers in Debre zeit, Ethiopia. Higher count was also obtained for samples collected from udder as compared to the reported value by Mogessie and Fekadu (1993), for udder milk samples (3 to 4 log 10 cfu/ml) of Awassa College of Agriculture dairy farm, Ethiopia. The mean value of aerobic mesophilic bacterial counts for milk samples taken from the milking bucket at farm level (8.25 log 10 cfu/ml) found in this study is higher than that of previous reports for the same sample source, 6.0 log 10 cfu/ml for milk samples from selected dairy farms in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Bekele and Bayleyegn, 2000), 6.0 log 10 cfu/ml for samples taken from milk collection utensils of Awassa College of Agriculture dairy farm, Ethiopia (Mogessie and Fekadu, 1993), 5.84 log 10 cfu/ml for cow milk samples collected from different locations in India (Lingathurai et al.,2009), Alganesh et al.(2007) for milk samples (7.6 log 10 cfu/ml) collected from East Wollega, Ethiopia and 6.57 log 10 cfu/ml for raw milk samples at the production point from India (Nanu et al.,2007). The present AMBC value for milk samples collected from the marketed milk container (9.31 log 10 cfu/ml) was higher than the value reported by Yilma and Faye (2006), for milk samples (8.38 log 10 cfu/ml) collected from containers in central highlands of Ethiopia. The AMBC of the present study for milk samples collected from containers upon arrival was also higher than the count value reported by Abd Elrahman et al.( 2009) for raw milk samples (6.63 log 10 cfu/ml) used for consumption, Sudan."},{"index":3,"size":216,"text":"Such differences might be attributed to the differences in the hygienic conditions such as the quality of cleaning water, milk containers, personal hygiene followed by the various producers. The overall mean AMBC observed in the current study was higher than the maximum recommended level of 2.0 x 10 6 cfu/ml (EAS, 2007). As observed during sampling, higher AMBC obtained in the current study might be related to the overall sanitary conditions followed. Most of the farms in the present study housed and milked their animals under substandard hygiene, coupled with this they do not cool the milk. Murphy and Boor (2000), noted that ineffective use of cleaning water without heat treatment and the absence of sanitizers tend to fasten growth of less heat resistant organisms. A higher count also suggests that the milk has been contaminated by bacteria from different possible sources. This may be due the contribution of insufficient premilking udder preparation, the use of poor quality water for cleaning without heat treatment and the storage container and time. As reported by Van Kessel et al. (2004), the use of insufficient and poor quality water for cleaning of milk handling equipments can result in milk residues on equipment surfaces that provide nutrients for the growth and multiplication of bacteria that can then contaminate the milk."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"The overall coliform count observed in the current study (5.52 log 10 cfu/ml) is higher than the value (4.03 log 10 cfu/ml) reported for milk samples collected from cows kept under traditional condition in the Wolayta zone (Rahel, 2008). But lower values of 4.84 log 10 cfu/ml in milk samples collected in the Bahir Dar milkshed (Derese, 2008) and 4.49 log 10 cfu/ml in milk samples in the West Shewa zone of Oromia region (Asaminew, 2007) were reported. Coliform count of samples collected from udder milk samples (3.61 log10 cfu/ml) was higher than the reported by Mogessie and Fekadu (1993), for the udder milk samples (1.0 log 10 cfu/ml) collected from Dairy Farm in Awassa, Ethiopia, also the present result is higher than the reported by Alehegne (2004), for milk samples collected in smallholder dairy farmers in Debre zeit, Ethiopia. The present CC value for samples collected from milking bucket samples (5.47 log 10 cfu/ml) was higher than the result obtained by Bekele and Bayleyegn (2000), (4.11 Nanu et al.(2007) for raw milk samples (3.2 log 10 cfu/ml) at the production point."},{"index":5,"size":164,"text":"However, higher result was observed for raw milk samples collected from storage containers at farm level the reported by Rai and Dawvedi (1990), from India (5.87 log 10 cfu/ml) and Zelalem et al. (2004) The overall values of coliform counts observed in the current study were much higher when compared with the recommended values given by the American Public Health Service: < 100 cfu/ml for Grade A milk and 101-200 cfu/ml for Grade B milk (WHO, 1997). Generally, the presence of high numbers of coliforms in milk indicates that the milk has been contaminated with fecal materials and it is an index of hygienic standard used in the production of milk, as unclean udder and teats can contribute to the presence of coliforms from a variety of sources such as poor farm hygiene, use of improperly washed milking equipment, unsanitary milking practices, contaminated water and cows with subclinical coliform mastitis can all lead to elevated coliform count in raw milk (Jayarao et al., 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":139,"text":"These high counts in both aerobic mesophilic bacterial and coliform counts showed that the milk produced by dairy cow owners for consumption in the study area was of poor bacteriological quality. This extended difference in bacterial loads (both AMBC and CC) from the acceptability level for consumption level implies that milk is produced and handled under poor hygienic conditions in the study area. This indicates that there could possibility of contracting of infection or intoxication from milk-borne pathogens on consumption of the milk in the study area. The risk of infection and contaminations gets worse by consumption of the milk in its raw state which was observed to be common habit of most of the consumers in this study. This may be true with report by WHO (2006), in that zoonoses selectively affect families which live in rural areas."},{"index":7,"size":168,"text":"From the results of this study, it was found that the majority of the milk samples had higher bacterial count than the maximum recommended level, suggesting unfitness for human consumption especially for those with habit of consuming raw milk and milk products made from raw milk. Presence of high total bacterial load in raw milk indicates contamination possibly from lactating cows, milking equipments, storage containers, unsatisfactory hygiene/sanitation practiced at farm level, unsuitable storage condition, unclean udder and/or teats, poor quality of water used for cleanliness and dirty hands of milkers. Generally, it further indicates the degree level of hygiene practices in the whole milk production process and reflects the time elapsed since milking at ambient temperature (Bukuku, 2013;Shija, 2013). From the observed practices involved in the chain of milk production, handling, storage and consumption, during this study, the observed high bacterial count was expected. Therefore, based on these results and for the health safety of consumers, more food safety education should be given to producers, handlers and consumers."},{"index":8,"size":99,"text":"It is not only the bacterial counts, which affect the hygienic quality of milk but also the type of bacteria. All samples collected from udder, bucket and marketed milk containers up on arrival contained bacterial agents, which were consistently in larger numbers and the isolates types, were more than those from the original (udder). In the course of this (1.6%) and Serratia spp (0.8%). Among the different types of bacterial spp. identified in cow milk, Staphylococcus spp. followed by Streptococcus spp. were the most frequently isolated. This result shows that cow milk still represents a significant source of infection."},{"index":9,"size":71,"text":"The higher incidence rate of Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. also has been reported in other studies (Haile, 2004). This is also evidenced from different reports in that cow milk contaminated with several pathogenic and spoilage bacterial spp. resulting in higher counts (Abera et al., 2008). This is similar with report by Abeer et al. (2012) who isolated bacteria spp. including E.coli spp. with higher prevalence from cow milk in Egypt."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Milk intended for human consumption must be free from pathogens and must, if conditions permit, contain no or few bacteria. Clean milk could only be obtained if effective sanitary measures are taken starting from the point of milk withdrawn from the cow until it reaches the consumers."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"From the findings of this study, it is concluded that:"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"1. Milk produced by small-holder dairy cow owners in Arbegona, Bensa and Bona districts of Sidama zone were of poor quality, risky for human consumption and can be a potential source of milk-borne infections."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"2. Poor milking procedures, milk handling practices including the surrounding environment and treatment practices has greater influence on the bacterial contamination of raw milk and contributes to zoonotic pathogens."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"3. This results showed that raw milk available to consumers has a high bacterial level of contamination. Measurable increased in AMBC and coliform counts throughout all sampling points was indicated. Based on the high level of counts found in the milk ready for consumption, one may suppose that this milk may pose a public health risk, and this suggests the need for more strict preventive measures."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"4. Majority of raw milk samples from the udder, bucket and from marketed milk containers had higher AMBC and coliform counts, which was higher than the international acceptable limits. Hence, its keeping quality would be lower and some of the pathogens present in the milk have public health significance."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"5. The study further concludes that there is a clear evidence of antimicrobial resistance to the most commonly used drugs by some of the isolates in the study area."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Based on the findings of the present study, the following recommendations are made:"},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":" Awareness should be created among dairy cow producers on the importance of adequate udder preparation, hygienic milking technique, use of clean dairy equipment, washing of utensils and milkers hands using properly treated water in improve the milk hygienic quality and shelf life."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":" If possible, potable water should be available for effective cleaning and sanitizing of milk equipment and udder preparations, otherwise boiled water should be used for such purposes."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":" Routine assessment of milk quality produced by small-scale livestock keepers and consumed by the general public has to be mandatory in order to safeguard the public from milk-borne zoonotic infections, which may radiate through consumption of unsafe milk and milk products."},{"index":12,"size":38,"text":" The behavior of consuming raw milk and milk products made from raw milk should be discouraged. Milk stakeholders have to play their roles in educating the general public on likely public health consequences associated with such behavior."},{"index":13,"size":32,"text":" Veterinary and/or extension officers and associated stakeholders have to make periodic surveillance visit to small-scale livestock keepers, and create awareness, advice or conduct training on good animal health and management systems."},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":" Veterinarians should avoid indiscriminate use of antimicrobials and drugs"},{"index":15,"size":8,"text":"showing resistance to pathogens in the study area."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Feed and weed flavors  Strong smelling plants, like wild onion or garlic  Strong flavored feedstuffs such as poor quality silage dirty or poorly ventilated environment or from improperly cleaned milking equipment. Rancid flavors. These are caused by excessive agitation of milk during collection and/or transport. Damage of the fat globules in the milk results in the presence of free fatty acids.  High acidity flavors  Oxidized flavors, from contact with copper or exposure to sunlight  Flavors from the use of chlorine, fly sprays, medications, etc. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Major sources of contamination of milk "},{"text":" products are a potential source of transmission for many food-borne pathogens due to a neutral pH and rich nutrient composition(LeJeune and Rajala- Schultz, 2009;Pal and Jahdav, 2013). Milk-borne outbreaks in the U.S. and other industrialized countries have been drastically reduced over the years due to the great amount of focus that is placed on quality control, to include the widespread use of pasteurization, the guidelines set forth in HAACP procedures. In 1938, milk-borne outbreaks accounted for 25% of all outbreaks in the U.S. due to contaminated food and water. Currently, milk-borne outbreaks account for less than 1% of all food-borne outbreaks in the United States. The majority of documented milk-borne outbreaks have been the result of unpasteurized dairy products. Between 2000 and 2006 in the United "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Geographical map of Sidama zone and the study area Source: (LIVES, 2012) "},{"text":" number of colonies per milliliter of milk, ΣC = sum of colonies on plates counted, V= volume of inoculum on each dish/plate, in ml n1= number of plates on lower dilution counted, n2 = number of plates in next higher dilution counted and d = dilution from which the first counts are obtained. "},{"text":"Keys: CNS = Coagulase negative Staphylococcus N = Number of observation, S = Susceptible, I = Intermediate, R = Resistance, C = Chloramphenicol, G = Gentamycin, T = Tetracycline, P = Penicillin, VA = Vancomycin, S = Streptomycin, "},{"text":" study, bacteria belonging to 10 genera from raw milk were isolated. The most predominant genera in raw milk were: Staphylococcus spp. (40.5%), Streptococcus spp. (23.2%), Corynebacterium spp. (13.2%), Bacillus spp. (7.3 %), Escherchia coli (5.8%), Pseudomonas spp. (3%), Klebsiella spp. (3%),Citrobacter spp. (1.6%), Enterobactr spp. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Composition of cow's milk................................................................................... v v "},{"text":"Table 2 . Overview of pathogens most commonly associated with outbreaks in milk and dairy products...................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Table 3 . Sampling of raw milk from udder, milking bucket and marketed milk container in the study area ................................................................................................................ "},{"text":"Table 4 . Types of housing, cleaning practice and calf management in three districts of Sidama zone ...................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Table 5 . Feeding and watering practices of dairy cattle in three selected districts of "},{"text":"Table 1 . Composition of cow's milk. No. Composition of cow's milk Composition in percent No. Composition of cow's milkComposition in percent 1 Water 87.2 % 1Water87.2 % 2 Fat 4.0 % 2Fat4.0 % 3 Protein 3.4 % 3Protein3.4 % 4 Lactose 4.5 % 4Lactose4.5 % 5 Ash (minerals) 0.9 % 5Ash (minerals)0.9 % Source: (Atkins, 2005) Source: (Atkins, 2005) "},{"text":"Table 2 . Overview of pathogens most commonly associated with outbreaks in milk and dairy products dairy products Microorganisms Products Incidences MicroorganismsProductsIncidences Escherichia coli Milk 95.5 Escherichia coliMilk95.5 Campylobacter Dairy products, Milk 15.3 CampylobacterDairy products, Milk15.3 Clostridium Dairy products 4.8 ClostridiumDairy products4.8 Cryptosporidium Dairy products 1 .4 CryptosporidiumDairy products1 .4 Salmonella Dairy products, Milk 40.6 SalmonellaDairy products, Milk40.6 Staphylococcus aureus Dairy products 0.4 Staphylococcus aureusDairy products0.4 Shigella Dairy products, milk, sour cream 60.4 ShigellaDairy products, milk, sour cream60.4 Corynebacterium Raw cows'milk 0.1 CorynebacteriumRaw cows'milk0.1 Streptococcus Cheese, raw cows' milk 0.1 StreptococcusCheese, raw cows' milk0.1 Campylobacter Raw milk 66.9 CampylobacterRaw milk66.9 Cryptosporidium Raw milk 0.5 CryptosporidiumRaw milk0.5 Escherichia coli Raw milk, raw milk cheese 15.0 Escherichia coliRaw milk, raw milk cheese15.0 Listeria Monocytogenes Raw milk, raw milk cheese 2.6 Listeria MonocytogenesRaw milk, raw milk cheese2.6 Yersinia Raw milk 0.2 YersiniaRaw milk0.2 Asia 2007-2010 (Safe Food International, 2011) Asia 2007-2010 (Safe Food International, 2011) "},{"text":" study was carried out in the highland of Sidama zone, in Southern Nations and Nationalities People Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia. The specific districts of the study site were Arbegona, Bona zuria and Bensa, which have been clustered for implementation of the Livestock and Irrigation Value Chain for Ethiopian Small-holders (LIVES) project. Sidama zone is located at 6 0 40' 60\" North and 38 0 43' 0\" East of the equator. The altitude Sidama zone is located at 6 0 40' 60\" North and 38 0 43' 0\" East of the equator. The altitude "},{"text":"Table 3 . Sampling of raw milk from udder, milking bucket and marketed milk container in the study area Districts PA's Udder Bucket Container Total DistrictsPA'sUdderBucketContainerTotal n=95 n=55 n=16 n=95n=55n=16 Daye 7 4 4 15 Daye74415 Bensa She/golba 7 4 1 12 BensaShe/golba74112 She/wene 6 4 1 11 She/wene64111 Huro tibiro 6 4 0 10 Huro tibiro64010 Sedeware 6 3 0 9 Sedeware6309 Sub total 32 19 6 57 Sub total3219657 Yaye 7 4 6 19 Yaye74619 Hafursa 7 4 0 11 Hafursa74011 Arbegona Chucho 6 4 0 10 ArbegonaChucho64010 Toga 6 3 0 9 Toga6309 Roko 6 3 0 9 Roko6309 Sub total 32 18 6 56 Sub total3218656 Bona 01 7 4 4 15 Bona 0174415 Becha 6 4 0 10 Becha64010 Bona Merede 6 4 0 10 BonaMerede64010 Bona kike 6 3 0 9 Bona kike6309 Beshero da 6 3 0 9 Beshero da6309 Sub total 31 18 4 53 Sub total3118453 Total 95 55 16 166 Total955516166 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Types of housing, cleaning practice and calf management in three districts of Sidama zone Sidama zone Variable Variable "},{"text":"Table 5 . Feeding and watering practices of dairy cattle in three selected districts of Sidama zone Sidama zone Variable Variable "},{"text":"Table 6 . Hygienic practices followed by producers in three selected districts of Sidama zone zone Hygienic practices followed by Districts Hygienic practices followed byDistricts producers Bensa Bonazuria Arbegona producersBensaBonazuriaArbegona Milking frequency (n=40) (n=40) (n=40) Milking frequency(n=40)(n=40)(n=40) Twice a day 85% 95% 95% Twice a day85%95%95% Three times a day 15% 5% 5% Three times a day15%5%5% Milking utensils used for milking Milking utensils used for milking Plastic 97.5% 77.5% 72.5% Plastic97.5%77.5%72.5% Pot 2.5% 22.5% 27.5% Pot2.5%22.5%27.5% Cleaning frequency of milking Cleaning frequency of milking utensils used for milking utensils used for milking Daily 97.5% 77.5% 80% Daily97.5%77.5%80% Three times a week 2.5% 22.5% 20% Three times a week2.5%22.5%20% Milking utensils used for transport Milking utensils used for transport Plastic 100% 100% 100% Plastic100%100%100% Wash hands before milking? Wash hands before milking?  Yes 42.5% 32.5% 32.5%  Yes42.5%32.5%32.5%  No 57.5% 67.5% 67.5%  No57.5%67.5%67.5% Wash udder and teats before milking? Wash udder and teats before milking?  Yes 40% 30% 35%  Yes40%30%35%  No 60% 70% 65%  No60%70%65% Milking after drying teats? Milking after drying teats?  Yes 37.5% 31.3% 57%  Yes37.5%31.3%57%  No 62.5% 68.7% 43%  No62.5%68.7%43% "},{"text":"Table 7 . Public health aspects associated with consumption of raw milk Variable Variable "},{"text":"Table 8 . Mean "},{"text":"area Districts Critical control points of sampling Udder Bucket Containers up on UdderBucketContainers up on arrival arrival Bensa 5.82±0.09 8.20±0.02 9.36±0.05 Bensa5.82±0.098.20±0.029.36±0.05 Arbegona 5.86±0.08 8.22±0.06 9.34±0.03 Arbegona5.86±0.088.22±0.069.34±0.03 Bona 5.92±0.08 8.26±0.03 9.18±0.04 Bona5.92±0.088.26±0.039.18±0.04 "},{"text":"Table 9 . Mean (± s.e.) coliform counts of pooled milk samples (log 10 cfu/ml) Districts Critical control points of sampling DistrictsCritical control points of sampling Udder Bucket Containers up on UdderBucketContainers up on arrival arrival Bensa 3.54±0.05 5.44±0.06 7.43±0.15 Bensa3.54±0.055.44±0.067.43±0.15 Arbegona 3.67±0.04 5.54±0.07 7.50±0.04 Arbegona3.67±0.045.54±0.077.50±0.04 Bona 3.62±0.03 5.46±0.04 7.35±0.07 Bona3.62±0.035.46±0.047.35±0.07 "},{"text":"Bacteriological Quality of Raw Cow Milk 4 .6.1. Bacterial isolates of milk samples from the cows' udderThe present result revealed that all of the samples (n=95) considered for the study showed bacteria growth on the inoculated media. The major bacteria isolated out of 95 positive samples were S. aureus, S. intermidus, S. hyicus, S. epidermidus, S. chromogenes,Strep. agalactae, Strep. dysgalactae, Strep. uberis, Strep. bovis, Strep. zooepidermicus, Enterococcus fecalis, Corynebacterium spp, Bacillus spp and coliform (Table "},{"text":"Table 10 . Bacterial isolates from raw milk samples of different sources. Species isolated Number of isolate by source Species isolatedNumber of isolate by source Udder Milking bucket Milk containers up on Total UdderMilking bucketMilk containers up onTotal arrival arrival S.aureus 8 13 4 25 S.aureus813425 S.intermidus 12 15 6 33 S.intermidus1215633 S.epidermidus 9 7 3 19 S.epidermidus97319 S.chromogenes 6 9 3 18 S.chromogenes69318 S.hyicus 1 2 1 4 S.hyicus1214 S.simulans 0 2 1 3 S.simulans0213 S.saprophyticus 0 2 1 3 S.saprophyticus0213 Strep.agalactae 5 7 2 14 Strep.agalactae57214 Strep.dysgalactae 2 2 1 5 Strep.dysgalactae2215 Strep.uberis 8 12 4 24 Strep.uberis812424 Strep.bovis 3 5 2 10 Strep.bovis35210 Strep.zooepidermicus 1 1 1 3 Strep.zooepidermicus1113 Enter.fecalis 0 2 2 4 Enter.fecalis0224 C.ulcerans 5 7 2 14 C.ulcerans57214 C.bovis 5 8 2 15 C.bovis58215 C.haemolyticum 1 3 1 5 C.haemolyticum1315 Bac.steaohemophil. 3 5 1 9 Bac.steaohemophil.3519 Bac.cerus 1 2 1 4 Bac.cerus1214 Bac.brevis 2 3 1 6 Bac.brevis2316 E.coli 3 8 4 15 E.coli38415 Pseud.aeroginossa 5 3 0 8 Pseud.aeroginossa5308 Kleb.pneumonae 4 2 2 8 Kleb.pneumonae4228 Citrobacter freundi 0 3 1 4 Citrobacter freundi0314 Ent.aglomerans 0 1 1 2 Ent.aglomerans0112 Ent.aerogenes 0 1 1 2 Ent.aerogenes0112 Seratia 0 1 1 2 Seratia0112 Total 84 126 49 259 Total8412649259 "},{"text":"Table 11 . Drug sensitivity test "},{"text":" this study isolation of S. aureus, S. hyicus, S. intermidus, S. chromogenes, S. epidermidus, S. saprophyticus, S. simulans , Strep. agalactae, Strep. dysgalactae, Strep. uberis, Strep. bovis, Strep. zooepidemicus, Enterococcus fecalis, E. coli, Corynebacterium spp, Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, and Enterobacter aerogenes are incriminated as causes of subclinical and clinical mastitis in the cow(Harding, 1999). Microorganisms such asStrep. agalactae, Strep. dysgalactae, "}],"sieverID":"981ecd42-6db0-4f92-bd85-a67973b1ec61","abstract":""}

data/part_3/04dc96571ae05c3bfe39c587b1a8fc25.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"04dc96571ae05c3bfe39c587b1a8fc25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1e7cb95-b21b-42ff-93e6-4d62dad1691f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"What is Striga?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Striga stunts the growth of maize, leaves turn yellow prematurely. In extreme cases, Striga damage causes 100% yield loss Striga is a parasitic plant that requires a host to complete its life cycle. Striga attacks maize, sorghum, millet and rice."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"One Striga plant can produce up to 50,000 seeds. "}]},{"head":"Effects of Striga","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Spread of Striga","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4e60fe1e-ec10-4a68-9c51-813aefec77d8","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05101b72d6dc4b1e1e80b84b8e24e6f0.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"05101b72d6dc4b1e1e80b84b8e24e6f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f45d8e1-a68b-4399-a1b1-dd91a7478fc8/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Project partner institutions and collaborating staff","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Two individual field consultants -Balentine Oingo, Rachel Gitundu and Lutomia Cosmas for the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT editing the report Marya Hillesland from Oxford University"}]},{"head":"Report author(s)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Eileen Bogweh Nchanji, Nadia Guettou Djurfeldt and Haley Carter Zaremba "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Access to clean, safe, and sufficient water is essential to human development and wellbeing. The importance of this imperative is recognized by the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) number 6, 'Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all,' aiming to secure universal safely managed drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene services by 2030. However, achieving these targets will require a \"fourfold increase in the pace of progress,\" as billions around the world still lack these essential services (UN, 2022:38). Insecure or inadequate access to water and hygiene services has been exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic and climate change, and will continue to be challenged by climate change going forward."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"In Kenya, access to drinking water and sanitation is currently under extreme threat from the country's worst drought in 40 years, which has been greatly exacerbated in recent years due to four failed rainy seasons in a row ( UN News, 2022). In Kenya, 62% of the total population, and just 55% of the rural population, has access to improved drinking water sources (FAO 2015). What is more, only 34 percent of Kenyans have piped drinking water, according to the most recent census (KNBS, 2020). In addition to relying on rainfall for agriculture and raising livestock, many rural households must rely on unimproved water sources for household use, particularly during the dry season. In times of water scarcity, water access requires more effort and time, thereby reducing the time available for other activities. Issues of water access impact different social groups differently, particularly with respect to disability, age and gender. According to census data (ibid.), 385,417 Kenyans have disabilities related to mobility, and 333,520 have visual disabilities, which can make fetching water a much more challenging, if not impossible, task. This affects more woen as notably, more Kenyan women than men are disabled (523,883 versus 394,330, respectively)."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"Gender differences within the household in terms of water access, water roles and responsibilities, and livelihoods means that men and women are impacted in different ways and to different degrees by water scarcity. In Kenya, as in other water-insecure contexts, women and girls tend to disproportionately carry the burden of fetching and managing water at the household level as part of the unpaid domestic work that they are socially assigned (Bukachi et al., 2021;FAO 2015;IFAD, 2022). Men only get involved in water fetching when they can sell it for income, or in rare cases for household use (FAO, 2015:14). Despite increased labor burdens and time deficits, women and girls have shown resilience in such circumstances, often leveraging social capital as a key coping strategy to secure water for their households (Bukachi et al., 2021). Considering the increasing pressures and uneven impact, there is an increasing need to understand how different social groups access and make decisions around water use and provisioning at both the household and community levels."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"R34819/CN159 Intrahousehold rights and decision-making"}]},{"head":"Background","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aim of the study","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":349,"text":"The primary aim of this study is to explore what the local water sources are, how they are prioritized, how communities are coping with water scarcity, how water is locally governed and controlled, and how decision-making dynamics at the household as well as community levels impact the choice and use of improved and unimproved water sources, as well as the differentiated impacts these choices have on women and men. Rural households in Kenya must make a complex set of decisions around water source choices as they lack secure water access, particularly during the dry season. The study communities of Bomani and Kidzini North rely on multiple sources of water to choose from that are of different quality and reliability, with a large share of households relying on unimproved water sources, such as unprotected dams and water pans. Even these unimproved water sources become scarce in the dry season and in periods of prolonged drought. As such, this study seeks to understand what coping mechanisms are being used by community members when water and money run out. Qualitative analysis is used to examine what benefits and trade-offs are associated with these strategies, and how these benefits and trade-offs impact men and women differently due to socially prescribed gender roles. Wagner et al. (2019) argue that in order to develop and maintain adequate water supply infrastructure in rural Kenya, planners and policymakers must first understand the preferences of the households that will be using those water supplies. While data pertaining to water preferences in rural areas remains sparse, a number of studies have sought to shed light on such preferences and priorities at the household level (Basani, Isham, & Reilly, 2008;Cheesman, Bennett, & Son, 2008;Gross & Elshiewy, 2019;Madanat & Humplick, 1993;Mu, Whittington, & Briscoe, 1990;Nauges & Strand, 2007;Nauges & Van Den Berg, 2009;Wagner et al., 2019). There is still a missing gap on how household members negotiate access, use and control over water and this study fills this critical gap we will draw from qualitative data to explore how intrahousehold decision-making dynamics impact the choice of water sources across different scenarios."}]},{"head":"Research Questions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The analysis presented below is guided by four overarching questions:"},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"1. What are the different water sources and how are they prioritized and negotiated (e.g., what are the inclusion/exclusion criteria according to users)? 2. What are the coping mechanisms used by villagers when water and/or money runs out? 3. How is water governed? Who controls the water sources? 4. What are the intra-household dynamics pertaining to water, particularly with respect to bargaining power and gender norms? More specifically, who fetches the water? Who manages the water? Who owns the water assets and what are the negotiation and conflict dynamics between genders?"}]},{"head":"Country context","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Kenya is one the strongest economies in Sub-Saharan Africa according to statistics provided by the World Bank. Kenya's economy registered a 7.52% growth in 2021, up from 4.97% in 2015 and 5.11% in 2019 (World Bank, 2022). In 2020, the economy receded by -0.25% following the protracted effects of the coronavirus pandemic. It is projected to grow to 5. 7% and 5.3% in 20227% and 5.3% in and 20237% and 5.3% in , respectively (IMF, 2022)). However, the protracted war between Russia and Ukraine may dim Kenya's growth prospects. In particular, the effect of the conflict on fertilizer prices is expected to shrink Kenya's GDP growth in 2022 by 0.8% (Breisinger et al., 2022). The direct impact of high input prices is expected to result in 50% losses in agricultural GDP through disruptions in food production. This occurrence will push more people into poverty and food insecurity, as already, 8.9 million Kenyans live below $1.90 per day (Kamer, 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Approximately 72% of Kenya's 55 million people live in rural areas (World Bank, 2022a), and primarily depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agriculture, which is the mainstay activity of the rural population, accounts for about 22% of the national GDP and employs 54% of the people in the country. Smallholder farming (0.2-3 hectares) accounts for 75% of the total agricultural output and has the potential to lift millions of rural households out of poverty (Olwande et al., 2015). Agriculture employs 59% of the female population and 50% of males, suggesting the critical role played by the agricultural sector in the country (World Bank, 2022a)."},{"index":3,"size":236,"text":"However, agricultural livelihoods are currently under threat from multiple reinforcing factors including climate change, conflict, a growing population, and insecure land tenure. At its current rate, Kenya's population is on track to double in the next 27 years. This growth is already putting pressure on natural resources, especially in areas with high agricultural potential (FAO, n.d.). A growing population also means that land is an increasingly scarce resource. Culturally and historically, land is owned by men and not women or youths; this customary norm is still prevalent despite policy measures forbidding discrimination in land ownership and access (Mwathane & Kapanya, 2018). In Kilifi County, where this study takes place, the land tenure system is complex, with more than 60 percent of residents lacking individual land titles. High levels of landlessness have contributed to high poverty levels in the county (KCIDP, 2013). The County Integrated Development Plan invested roughly USD $3 million towards creating structures, sensitization and platforms to provide residents with individual land titles between 2013 and 2017, but many residents -and women in particular -still lack secure land tenure. While women have a predominant role in subsistence agriculture, thanks in large part to the out-migration of men to urban areas, only 5 percent of the registered land in Kenya is registered to women (NEMA, 2010). With increased urbanization and land sales, land parcels are becoming smaller, and farmers are increasingly pushed onto more marginal lands."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"Agricultural systems in Kenya remain predominantly rain-fed, which further intensifies the vulnerability of rural livelihoods as the effects of climate change become more pronounced. Kenya is in the midst of its worst drought in 40 years ( UN News, 2022). Four successive failed rainy seasons have created extreme water stress in many communities in Kenya's arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), which make up over 90% of the country's area, and are home to approximately 38 percent of the national population (IFAD, 2022). Long rains in central Kenya have been steadily declining since the 1970s, and are projected to continue their decline (FEWS NET, 2010). As a result, areas of agricultural production in Kenya are shrinking. Conflicts over natural resources have intensified in some areas, especially between farmers and pastoralists (FAO, n.d.), which are exacerbated by climatic changes such as drought."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"The impacts of land and water scarcity, as well as economic downturns, have unequal impacts on different social groups, with women, girls, and other marginalized communities experiencing greater and differentiated vulnerabilities. The Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) gender equality rating for Kenya is 3.50 out of 6, meaning that the country has moderately performed in terms of installing institutions and programs that promote equal access to economic, educational, and health opportunities for men and women. Traditional and cultural beliefs in Kenya still impede achievement of gender parity in human development indicators. A report by the World Economic Forum indicates that while Kenya has made some progress in achieving gender parity, its performance between 2006 and 2021 is showing worrying trends (Amadala, 2019;Kivuva & Kinuthia, 2021). While the country's enrolment and completion rates of primary and secondary schools for boys and girls are almost similar, there are gender gaps in transition to higher education (Amadala, 2019;Akala, 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"In addition, the rate of women's literacy in Kenya is significantly lower than that of men."},{"index":7,"size":121,"text":"Women are also underrepresented in high-paying jobs and women entrepreneurs struggle to access microcredit facilities (Kivuva & Kinuthia, 2021). The disparities exist despite gender mainstreaming legislation, policies and programs instituted in the last three decades, including the two-third gender role in the Constitution of Kenya and establishment of National Gender and Equality Commission (NGEC). As a heterogeneous group, different Kenyan women have differential lived experiences, opportunities, and challenges according to their other intersecting identity factors (e.g., age, marital status, economic status, ethnic group, disability, etc.). Young women and adolescent girls, in particular, face acute and specific vulnerabilities, and are \"particularly vulnerable to poverty especially at the household and community level exacerbated by gender-based violence, harmful cultural attitudes, and beliefs\" (USAID, 2022)."}]},{"head":"Study setting","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"This work was carried out in Margarini and Kaloleni subcounties in Kilifi, specifically in Bomani and North Kidzini villages. These communities were selected based on the water scarcity and drought conditions in the county. Additionally, they were selected due to their mixed land tenure system, which opens up opportunities to access and use different private and communal water sources. Kilifi County is one of the ASAL counties of Kenya which face high levels of exposure and vulnerability to drought. The high levels of vulnerability in the country are in large part a product of historical under-development, particularly of public goods and services. Kilifi county has a bimodal rainfall pattern with average annual precipitation ranging from 300mm to 1,300mm. The coastal belt receives more rainfall than the hinterlands, with long rains used for agriculture and short rains to refill water spaces. The annual temperatures range between 21 to 30 degrees Celsius in the coastal belt, and 30 to 40 degrees in the hinterlands where most of the communities are located. The County of Government of Kilifi (2018) projected a three fold increase in water deficit from 2018 to 2030. This reality is felt strongly in most villages. Bomani is generally drier than Kidzini North, due to increased droughts over the past four years. In the past, most land used to be clan and family land, but at present individual land tilting is being promoted."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data collection","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"For the qualitative study, data was collected using key informant interviews, focus group discussions and life histories. Multiple tools were used for triangulation and thick description to strengthen the credibility of the data and enable different interpretations and meanings to be included in data analysis. Using various qualitative tools also provided us with multiple realities and voices from the field that complement results from the quantitative data."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"We strived for equal gender representation when selecting participants in all the interviews. Socioeconomic and intersectional aspects were also considered during the selection of participants. We carried out a community profile in each village -Bomani and Kidzini North in Magarini and Kaloleni sub-county respectively with 2 men and 2 women. The FGDs were disaggregated by sex and age. A total of eight FGDs were conducted -1 young 1 woman, 1 young man, 1 woman, and 1 man, in each village. A total of 16 in-depth life history interviews were conducted with men and women from monogamous and single-headed households across the two villages. We strived to include extended and polygamous households, especially mothers-in-law, but none were available for the interviews due to varied reasons beyond our control."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Community profiles were developed from key informant discussions with community leaders."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"The community profiles investigated the social, economic, agricultural, and political background information, available water sources, access, benefits, management and control by the community, government, and households. In addition, we were also interested in community-level factors that may contribute to changes in gender norms and capacities for exercising agency and innovating in water."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Focus group discussions with men, women, young men and young women were carried out separately to map out different water sources in the community and to understand who is included/excluded from accessing, using, managing and controlling different sources within the community. We were also interested in how the above elements interact with the land on which the water is situated."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Through life histories which are in-depth interviews, intrahousehold decision-making on water use, access, and benefits for men, women or youths were tackled. Life histories were also carried out to triangulate the key informant interviews and focus group discussions. It generally focused on intra-household decision-making and norms in relation to water within individual households."}]},{"head":"Sampling","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"We selected two of the three sub-counties for the qualitative evaluation -Margarini and Kaloleni from a list containing roughly 17 villages from each sub-county, and we had to pick a village per sub-county. Our selection criteria were based on the availability of the community elder, accessibility and availability for the interviews. We targeted 4 elders (2 men and 2 women) across the villages for community profiling. For the FGDs, we had groups of 6 to 8 people in all categories. The participants for the community profile, life histories and FGDs were different to gain multiple discourses and realities from the villages. Table 1 below outlines the sample size for each module across the sub-counties. Total woman 4 4"}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The findings presented are based on systematic content analysis of all data. In addition, the analysis benefitted from inductive hand-coding of the data on the key study topics of water sources and governance, intra-household decision-making and management, coping mechanisms, and gender roles to detect patterns. Figures were created with Lucidchart."}]},{"head":"Limitations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Imprecise language due to the relaxed and conversational format of KIIs, FGDs, and life histories leave many data points somewhat subjective and open to interpretation. This was particularly true for discussions of different water sources, in which different sources were often conflated (e.g., water pans and dams) or non-specific (e.g., using the word 'taps' to refer to a number of sources under different management). Some information, and especially more nuanced meanings and subtexts, may have been lost in translation. Data was collected in Swahili, which may not be the first or preferred language for many of those interviewed; these transcripts were then translated into English."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Each life history interview followed a similar flow, but each conversation played out differently and some questions were altered or omitted to fit the context, sometimes leading to incomparable results or missing details that would aid in the analysis. The benefit as well as the drawback of qualitative data collection and analysis is that it captures the perceptions and attitudes of participants, which are often contradictory, complex, and multiple. Such contradictions in the collected data are not a limitation, however, but an accurate reflection of the differential experiences, competing interests and disagreements at play in the study communities. As such, differences in perspectives are presented below as a meaningful finding rather than a methodological flaw."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Finally, the authors recognize that issues of intersectionality are central to the differential lived experiences of women and men as heterogeneous groups. This study includes age and gender as important intersecting axes of identity which shape water access and differential experiences of water scarcity. However, other key factors including socioeconomic status and disability, among others, fell outside the scope of this study. These intersecting identities and their relation to issues of water access merit their own close examination in other empirical studies."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"What are the different water sources, and how are they prioritized and negotiated?","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":284,"text":"Both localities involved in the study rely on a diverse array of water sources throughout the year (Table 2). Bomani and Kidzini North both rely on dams (a dug-out receptacle which fills seasonally), taps (which connect to municipal water sources), and water tanks owned by private individuals (either filled by rainwater harvesting or by a water tanker truck locally known as a water bowser), and the water bowsers themselves. Kidzini North has a number of additional water resources that Bomani does not have: water pans (a shallow dugout which is smaller than a dam), shallow wells (dug by villagers in dried river beds), and seasonal streams. In Bomani, unlike in Kidzini North, there is a well sunk at a private school which sells water, and there are boreholes available in neighboring villages, although the distance to these boreholes presents a challenge to villagers. The use and prioritization of these differing water sources depends on a variety of criteria, principally: availability, accessibility (in terms of affordability as well as distance), distance, and water quality (Table 3). Villagers in both Bomani and Kidzini North have to weigh these different criteria each time they decide where to source their waterThese decisions are often taken on a daily basis and are based on a complex combination of factors, exemplified by the decision tree in Figure 1. An additional element missing in the diagram is if you do not have a motorbike you can also rek to fetch water. This section presents the various benefits, tradeoffs, and challenges of each water source, the gendered implications of these benefits and trade-offs, and how these factors impact intra-household decision-making and the overall water stress and water resilience of the two communities. "}]},{"head":"Dams and water pans","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"The dam tends to be the primary water resource for communities in both Bomani and Kidzini North, as it is a free and a public resource. Most of the community dams described in this study were dug in a previous generation and inherited by the community. For example, Bomani's Agina dam was dug in the late 1970s and early 1980s, according to a community profile interview with a Bomani community leader. This dam possesses its own title deed, which the chief carries. As community-owned and -maintained water sources, dams are usually the closest and most essential water source that a village has. However, in the dry season the dams are frequently dried out, causing villagers to look for other, often less desirable options. \"The dams are our resilience,\" explained a young Kidzini North man in FGDs. \"For example, now that the dams are dry, it's a time of suffering.\" Sometimes these dry periods can last more than a single season; in a Bomani FGD, men reported that their dam has been dry for four years due to drought, causing high levels of water stress in the community."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"In both Bomani and Kidzini North, dams are governed by elders, and overseen by committees which are selected by the community itself, often on a volunteer basis. In both localities, these committees are made up of both men and women in approximately equal numbers. Committee members can include a wide range of ages, from youth to the elderly. These committees are tasked with enforcing rules for dam use, which include: no stepping in the dam water by humans or livestock, collecting water using a scoop to avoid stepping in the water, and no small children allowed in or near the dam for fear of contamination as well as risk of drowning. These rules are enforced by committee members or elders taking shifts watching over the dam, with fines enforced for those who violate the rules. Terms generally last one year, at which point these committee members can be reelected. If the committee members are perceived not to be doing their job properly they can be replaced at any time. Also, community activities are often organized around cleaning the dam, and any family that does not participate can be fined."},{"index":3,"size":239,"text":"While the dam is a vital lifeline for the community, as it is a free and public resource, it also presents certain tradeoffs. Even in the rainy season, the dams can face problems with reliability and maintenance. In Kidzini North, for example, young men expressed in FGDs that the local dam is poorly constructed, frequently bursting and filling with sand. In time periods when the water levels are particularly low in the dams, these young men also described instances where the village elders overseeing the dam may charge money for dam water to encourage rationing, or require those who fetch water from the dam to exchange labor for water, by helping to dig out sand for dam maintenance. In some cases, outside entities have tried to get involved with building new dams to bolster local water resilience, but according to community profile interviews, these interventions have been largely unsuccessful. One community leader from Kidzini North described an instance in which a global evangelical Christian humanitarian aid organization, dug a dam in the community but did not choose a suitable location, so the dam never filled with water. Another community leader from Bomani described another dam built by another aid organization which only benefits the 20% of the community that was included in the project, and still another dam dug by the government, which community members are not allowed to do maintenance on themselves, leaving the dam in poor condition."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"In addition to these challenges, sanitation of dam water can be a major issue. While communities in both Bomani and Kidzini North have rules about how dam water can be used and accessed for the purpose of keeping the water clean, enforcement is uneven, and the water can become extremely dirty or unsafe to drink or cook with. Many villagers, especially the poorest, or those who can't make longer journeys due to age or disability, use this water regardless. As one Kidzini North woman explained in her life history, sometimes she's too tired to go fetch clean water, so she opts for the dirty water which is nearer; \"you weigh your options.\" Furthermore, although almost all interviewees were aware of water sanitation methods, many men and women expressed in life histories and focus group discussions that there are many instances in which people will drink and otherwise use untreated water. Reasons for this can include: they can't afford purification tablets, they can't afford the time to boil the water and wait for it to cool back down, or they are simply too tired after the exertion of getting the water itself, and therefore choose to drink it as it is."},{"index":5,"size":146,"text":"Presenting another trade-off, sourcing water from the dam can disproportionately increase labor burdens on women. Since most dams are relatively close to the communities, women are expected to fetch water from the dam as a part of their day-to-day unpaid domestic work. Typically this is done on foot, with women carrying a 20-liter jerrycan of water back to their home. As such, women can only carry limited amounts of water at a time, and may need to make several trips per day. As one man in a Bomani FGD explained, \"When there is water at the dam we [men] get to rest, because it is mostly fetched by the women.\" Young women in Bomani agreed that the responsibility of water almost always falls to women, and especially when dam water is available, expressing that men are only involved in fetching water when money is a factor."},{"index":6,"size":148,"text":"Water pans, found in Kidzini North, function much like smaller dams and are usually used as a backup when communal dams are dry or otherwise compromised. While they are dug in individuals' land upon agreement with the landowner, they are treated as shared resources to varying degrees. Depending on the management of the water pan, these resources can either be free to the community or sold to individuals, while those community members who helped to dig out the water pan are allowed to fetch water there for free. Water pans, too, can be particularly dirty, especially when they reach low water levels. Young women in a Kidzini North FGD expressed that the water pan in their area is so dirty that the water can't even be used to wash clothing. Water pans are also used as an important water source for farming, especially when the rains are scarce."}]},{"head":"Taps","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"There are two kinds of taps available in both Bomani and Kidzini North: public utility-run taps which sell water relatively inexpensively at roadside kiosks (approximately 5-10 shillings per 20-liter jerrycan), and private taps. These private taps are set up by individuals with the means to have water piped into their homes, or by groups who collectively set up a water kiosk as a small business venture. The water for privately owned taps (by individuals or groups) is metered by a local water utility, and owners collect money from sales to then pay the utility. Interviewees reported that this water generally costs around 30 shillings per 20-liter jerrycan. In the region around Bomani and Kidzini North, this water is sourced from boreholes.In villages surrounding Bomani, pipes from the boreholes leading to public roadside kiosks were laid by the Australian government, and are now overseen by the county government. The pipes do not reach Bomani, but efforts have been made to extend them. Community leaders expressed that an international NGO set up kiosks in the area several years ago, but the project is not yet complete."},{"index":2,"size":235,"text":"Water from the taps tends to be some of the cleanest water available, but distance, time, and cost are a major determining factor for whether this is a good option for households. As a woman from Kidzini North explained in her life history, taps in her area can run out of water early in the day, requiring her to leave the house at 6am to get a place in the queue. Because of the distance and the time constraints, most households that live far from functioning taps send a young man (either within the family or a hired rider) by motorbike to fetch water. Those who can reach the taps by motorbike (i.e., young men) usually fare better in terms of time and effort expended, but still face major time deficits and opportunity costs when the queues are long. According to FDGs, young men have to prioritize their own household's water needs before they are able to collect water for others for profit, or go out in pursuit of other income-earning opportunities. As one young man from Bomani expressed, \"I prioritized getting water but I lost a job and so I sleep hungry and wait to try tomorrow. That is how it affects us.\" On the other hand, taps can provide income-earning opportunities to women; according to men in the Kidzini North FGD, most of the groups running collective for-profit water kiosks are women's groups."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Water sources that are farther away, such as taps, also carry major safety and security risks for those fetching water, and especially for women. Walking long distances to fetch water usually entails crossing through long uninhabited stretches where walkers (i.e., women and girls) are especially vulnerable. Women and girls have been attacked and sexually assaulted along the road to fetch water, even during daylight hours, and some men have been killed. As such, community members, and especially women and girls, are discouraged from fetching water in the evening."}]},{"head":"Boreholes and deep wells","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The villages on either side of Bomani have access to water piped from nearby boreholes. However, Bomani itself has no directly piped water. After years of regional drought, which has caused the dams to dry out year-round, most villagers in Bomani have to go to surrounding villages to access any kind of water. \"We are on an island here in Bomani,\" expressed one young man in an FGD. According to data from community profiles, villagers in Bomani primarily rely on a borehole in Kazandani, which is 2 to 4 hours walk, constructed by the Magharibi settlement scheme around 1978. The borehole is a public amenity overseen by a committee elected by the community in Kazandani, and possesses its own title deed declaring the land it occupies to belong to the borehole itself."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The boreholes around Bomani function as an important source of clean water, especially during the dry season, but can also be unreliable. The motorized pumps that draw the water out of the ground can break down, causing interruptions to water supply for hours, days, or weeks. Moreover, the taps closest to Bomani (which are far nearer and more accessible than the boreholes themselves) draw their water from the boreholes. Not only does this mean that the taps fail when the borehole fails, it also means that the taps slow to a trickle or stop working altogether when the water levels at the borehole are low. In these instances, villagers must sacrifice much more time queuing to fill their cans with slow, low-flow taps, or travel much further to fetch water from the borehole directly."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"In addition to boreholes, Bomani also has one well, which serves as the only year-round water source located within the village according to FGDs. This well is the property of a private school. Bomani villagers are able to buy water from the school, but it is particularly expensive, costing double what the private taps charge and quadruple what the borehole charges directly according to the young women in Bomani FGDs."}]},{"head":"Tanks and bowsers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Tanks and bowsers provide essential backup services to communities where core water sources (e.g., dams, water pans, and taps) have run dry or are prohibitively far away. Tanks are privately owned, typically by fellow villagers with the means to purchase such a vessel as well as the funds to pay water bowsers to fill it periodically (an expense of approximately 8,000 shillings). Some tank owners also fill their tanks with collected rainwater when possible, but eventually have to refill them with bowser water when harvested water runs out in the dry season. While harvested water itself is free, not all villagers are able to harvest water in sufficient quantities to support resilience in the dry months. Harvesting rainwater in meaningful quantities not only requires adequate storage assets, it also requires metal roofs and gutters. These assets are out of reach for many villagers, who frequently live in mud huts with thatched roofs."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Once tanks are filled, either by rainwater harvesting or from the water bowser, usage differs between households. Some individuals keep this tank-stored water for themselves, especially if they have water-intensive livelihoods such as raising livestock at a larger scale. Others sell this water for profit, or to help the community when other water resources are lacking. While privately owned tanks are often the closest options for villagers, as they are located in neighbors' houses or compounds, they tend to be among the most expensive water sources, even when water-selling is carried out altruistically rather than for profit. One villager from Kidzini North with one such private tank explained in his life history that he breaks even selling his water for 25 shillings per 20-liter jerrycan, a higher price than other local options (i.e., dams and taps). As water scarcity has put an increasing economic squeeze on the village, he explained, his neighbors have stopped buying from him and have had to resort to collecting dirty dam water instead."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"In both Bomani and Kidzini North, villagers in FGDs reported that in rare circumstances, when local water availability is particularly dire, water bowsers can be sent to the communities to sell water directly from the truck to villagers with jerrycans. Young men in Bomani report that this can be sent by individuals with means to create such an arrangement for resale. Men in Kidzini North report that they make such an arrangement themselves, by visiting the local water treatment plant and pleading their case."}]},{"head":"Shallow wells and seasonal streams","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Shallow wells and seasonal streams are used in Kidzini North exclusively as a supplemental source of water, as they are not reliably potable or consistently available. These shallow wells are dug in the middle of an empty riverbed or in typically wet or marshy areas before these natural water sources dry out completely. However, these wells often turn out to be salty. As such, many villagers express that they may decline to help their neighbors dig such a well, as it is a gamble that is often not worth the effort. Others contend that even if the water is salty, it still has uses in applications where it is not consumed, such as for washing clothes."}]},{"head":"Local understandings of water governance and control","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Insufficient regional water infrastructure in the two study communities, along with prolonged and intensifying periods of drought, have resulted in a complex system of overlapping official and unofficial water governance in both Bomani and Kidzini North (Figure 2). In most cases, for villagers without significant assets, public or \"god-given\" water that is available to be harvested or fetched for free by the end user (i.e., dams, rainwater) is the first choice for water provisioning. For those villagers who do have adequate wealth or assets to weigh water safety and convenience over cost, government-or utility-provisioned water is often the first choice. It is when these sources fail, are too far away, or are impacted by issues around water quality or sanitation, that users seek out other, secondary water sources. The demand for these secondary sources has created a cottage industry for villagers with consistent access to water and/or water-fetching means such as motorbikes. These systems of secondary water provisioning involve (sometimes multiple) middlemen, which can serve as both a failsafe against snags in the supply chain and as an obfuscation of where and who water is really coming from."}]},{"head":"Figure 2. Water governance and management, as understood and explained by stakeholders","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"There are many examples of such confusion over the specifics of water governance and provenance; discussion of water governance in FGDs was frequently characterized by disagreement or contradiction as to which water sources were owned and governed by whom. This leaves villagers with few options for recourse when public water sources such as boreholes fail, as they may not know who to bring their grievances to."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"Understandably, villagers showed the greatest comprehension concerning the governance of locally controlled water resources, such as dams and water pans. In FGDs, villagers of all ages and genders were able to explain the process of dam oversight, committee elections, and even name committee members with clarity and specificity. The greatest degree of confusion surrounding water governance and management was related to the management of boreholes, and kiosks reselling borehole water in Bomani. The involvement of many different actors has created confusion as well as tensions concerning water use and management. These actors include the county government as well as foreign governments, NGOs, a water utility called the Malindi Water and Sanitation Company (MAWASCO) -an agency contracted by the government to supply potable water, and local village committees and elders. Furthermore, different boreholes are reportedly owned by separate entities and governed distinctly. Older men seemed to have the most knowledge of water management and governance in Bomani when questions moved beyond dam governance, which all community members were familiar with. While women and youth were vague or silent in response to specific questions about who controls and manages boreholes and associated water kiosks in FGDs, men provided more complete, if conflicting answers."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"In FGDs, Bomani men said MAWASCO has taken control of a local water tank provided by an international NGO to store pumped borehole water, and is reselling the water to locals. While water prices are supposed to be set by the Water Act, in FGDs it was said that \"MAWASCO increased the prices of water from 2 shillings to 5 shillings for every twenty litres of water. Before MAWASCO, the water community committee used to collect the money and give it to the treasurer and then when there was a maintenance issue at the borehole, we were the ones to repair it [by calling the mechanic]. But since MAWASCO took over they are in charge of all the decision-making and repairing whatever needs to be repaired. The money collected goes to MAWASCO, because there is a meter that shows the amount of water used and they will know the money that is collected. The money is for doing the repair, maintenance and paying for the mechanic.\" (Bomani men FGD) Some men were grateful to MAWASCO for connecting the tank to the water source, while others were resentful of the arrangement, as exemplified by the following statement:"},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"\"MAWASCO has started mistreating us, they collect money from us and they don't pay for the fuel so that the water can be pumped on time. The water might not come for two to three weeks, when we ask, we are told the fuel has not been paid for. We cannot chase them away because they have said they are the owners of the water but we do suffer. If there is another way, we would like to chase them away.\" (Bomani men FGD)"}]},{"head":"What are the coping mechanisms when water and/or money runs out?","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"In times of extreme water scarcity, community members in Bomani and Kidzini North are forced to venture further and further away to find (increasingly expensive) water, which incurs both financial costs and opportunity costs due to large and sometimes unpredictable time commitments. As one young Kidzini North man explained, \"When there is no water, it forces you to wake up at 3am to start looking for water, yet you don't even know where you will find it.\" (Kidzini North young men FGD)"},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"As such, many villagers described having to forgo entire work days in order to search for water. In times of water scarcity, water fetching directly conflicts with working hours as it is an almost exclusively daytime activity; some men describe fetching water by moonlight, but for women this is not an option due to safety issues. What is more, many forms of earning income (such as construction work in the case of men and cooking foods to sell in the case of women) also rely on water availability, forcing people to change their livelihood activities or travel farther away to earn income. In Kidzini North, men report going to town to find work such as breaking rocks to sell so they can buy water, while women report pivoting away from income-earning tasks that require water to those that don't, such as processing and selling omeni (dried fish). Others have resorted to illegal charcoal production, which has been banned in the area due to its contribution to deforestation, or to hazardous or suboptimal occupations, such as working at the salt mines in Bomani."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"In spite of these strategies, there are also times when both water and money run out completely. Communities in Bomani and Kidzini North both identified a number of coping strategies when faced with such a situation. These strategies fall into the following categories: rationing, borrowing, bargaining, begging, and sacrificing (Table 4). Organized by category, these coping mechanisms, as well as their gender dimensions, are detailed in the following subsections. "}]},{"head":"Rationing","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The first and primary response to acute water shortage is to ration the amount of water that is used, and the things it is used for. Generally speaking, families try to stretch their water to go farther in all applications, trying to use one jerrycan of water where two were used before."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Rationing was expressed to be particularly important and severe in relation to waterintensive agricultural activities. Participants described giving their livestock half the water they normally give them, letting their livestock go two days without any water, and reducing the number of livestock they have to feed and water by selling them, or in some cases through the death of the livestock. This can bear particularly negative consequences for pastoralists as well people relying on dairy production for their livelihoods. In addition, watering home gardens seemed to be of particularly low priority, with many participants laughing at the suggestion of using hard-won water on plants."}]},{"head":"\"Water fetched in plastics to come and irrigate seems absurd [...] I don't see how I can carry water on my back to go pour out [on the ground] [...] I would rather use it on livestock, during the drought the ground is very dry, [...] you would need too much. We can only plant when it rains.\" (Bomani woman life history)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"As a result, growing food is one of the first activities to be abandoned when water runs low."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"However, this creates a problem when money, too, runs low, often as a result of water-related expenditures. \"If you don't have money you go hungry,\" explained a young Bomani woman in FGDs."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Bathing less and washing clothes less frequently was also mentioned by all genders in both regions. One man in Kidzini North expressed in FGDs that when there is no water to fully bathe, they limit bathing to washing just the face, hands, and feet. While this is a common response to water shortage, participants of all genders expressed that there are major drawbacks and trade-offs associated with rationing bathing water for themselves and for their children. FGD participants suggested that children might be kept home from school if they are unable to bathe or have clean clothes. Similarly, young men in Kidzini North explained that limiting bathing to once a week lowers self-esteem as well as income-earning opportunities:"},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"\"It's just about cleanliness because it reaches a point where you lack water to an extent that you feel ashamed of yourself. For example, as a motorbike rider, if you notice that you are smelling, you even wonder how you will carry people on a motorbike. So you will find that you don't have that morale. You isolate [yourself] instead of being active and doing work.\""},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Young women also expressed that lack of bathing weighs heavily on their morale, as well as on their identity as women:"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"\"Cleanliness is important for women, everyone needs water but as women being clean is important for us, for our children, our houses.\" (Kidzini North young women FGD)"},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Rationing water for bathing can also have serious health consequences, resulting in skin infections (particularly for children). Some FDGs also attributed Covid-19 deaths and the spread of cholera to lack of water for bathing, handwashing, and personal sanitation and hygiene in general."}]},{"head":"Borrowing, bargaining, and begging","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"In times of water stress, it is common for villagers to borrow water from their neighbors to be repaid at a later date (usually one 20-liter jerrycan at a time). Most interviewees in life histories and FGDs described this practice as part of being neighborly, and helping one another out in times of hardship. As one young man from Kidzini North explained, \"I go to my friend because I know he has water, so I ask for help because I know next time, I will be the one offering help.\" There are times, however, when water trading practices can lead to conflict if the borrower is slow or unable to return the favor. Young women from Bomani described instances in which neighbors stopped talking to each other over such an issue, or had to bring the disagreement to the village chief for resolution. While water trading practices are widespread, they differ between gender groups and age groups. Young men, young women, and older women all reported regular borrowing and loaning of water as common practice, while older men seemed to be removed from this type of interchange. When asked about water borrowing, older men in a Kidzini North group responded: \"We don't know, maybe it is a secret between the women.\" This feminized characterization of water trading is in line with Bukachi et al.'s (2021) study in Rural Kenya which found that women, lacking other forms of capital, are able to leverage their social capital for household water access and resilience."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Borrowed water is almost always repaid in water (and reportedly never in cash) but there are also other forms of water exchange, while uncommon. Young men in Bomani described trading goods and services in exchange for water or water provisioning. For example, one young man said that he will offer to fetch water on his motorbike for a neighbor if they collect firewood for him, or give him chicken. Some groups also described giving water to other, less fortunate community members out of charity, particularly with respect to elderly and disabled villagers:"},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"\"If a person cannot access water at all, as a youth or let me say personally, I will take two of my jerry cans and assist this person, without hoping for a return. I will know I have helped this person because I know his condition is not good.\" (Bomani young men FGD)"},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"In cases where water can't be borrowed from other community members, villagers have to resort to trying to buy water on credit. This is not always successful, however, particularly for individuals who have had trouble repaying credits in the past. According to the women's FGD in Kidzini North, access to water on credit is gendered. They say that only women can persuade owners of tanks to give them water on credit, as men are perceived as less likely to pay it back. These women also express that it is difficult to get money from their husbands to pay back the loans that the women have secured, saying they have to sneak around to repay the credit or lie about what the money is being used for. Conversely, only men reported going directly to the water treatment plant to plead for a water bowser to be sent to the community in times of extreme water scarcity. While this is reportedly a very rare occurrence, it has happened in the past. According to a woman community leader in Kidzini North, a water bowser was donated to the community last year in one such instance."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"In Bomani, the community has held meetings in which they agreed to reach out to different aid organizations and projects to ask for their help to relieve the water stress in their community. In a community profile interview, a Bomani village elder and community officer expressed that while the community has reached out to a number of such organizations, they"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"have not yet received any response."},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"These coping mechanisms show that both study communities rely in large part on collective action and cooperation for communal resilience in the face of water scarcity. As one Bomani community leader said in his community profile interview, \"People facing hardship must always co-exist so that it is easier for them to find solutions.\" The different ways in which men, women, young men, and young women report using borrowing, bargaining, and begging practices to ensure household water security suggest that while both men and women rely on collectivity for water resilience, the form this collective action takes is highly gendered."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"Women tend to exchange water for water in a one-to-one trade, while young men are more likely to barter or trade motorbikes, which affords them income-earning opportunities in addition to water provisioning for their own household."}]},{"head":"Sacrificing and suffering","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"\"When there is no water, we can eat one meal in a day. You wake in the morning to go find some water and when you come back it is late [...]. You can't do laundry. A lot of things come to a halt. You can't even bathe. Just problems. Even the livestock die."}]},{"head":"Many of the animals have died.\" (Kidzini North women FGD)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"Lack of money and lack of water feed into each other in a vicious cycle. As free sources of water (i.e., dams) dry up, villagers are forced to spend more and more money and time finding enough water for basic needs. This, in turn, means there is less money to be spent on other essentials and less time to earn income, ultimately diminishing savings and income, and leaving people in dire situations. Bomani women explained in FGDs that they have had to halt their table banking scheme during the current period of water scarcity, as no one has cash to contribute, thereby eliminating an important source of financial stability for local women. As water is the most fundamentally important resource a household can have, households are forced to sacrifice other financial priorities, such as paying children's school fees or even buying and/or preparing food. Instead, they must expend everything they can on water provisioning. Without money to buy clean water, many villagers also resort to using and consuming dirty, unsafe, or salty water. In the words of one young Bomani man, \"they just depend on God to protect them.\""},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"On top of significant financial sacrifices, villagers must sacrifice time in periods of extreme water stress, resulting in significant opportunity costs. Young men report sacrificing time they could be spending at work or in school in order to instead spend the day looking for water, potentially in vain. Children, too, have less time and energy for their studies, as they are expected to help fetch water, and may suffer dehydration. For those that still go to school or work, dehydration and preoccupation over lack of water limits their ability to fully engage in these activities. As one college student in the Kidzini North young men FGD describes: \"[if] I lack water, I will be mentally unstable.\" Another Bomani man expressed that performing manual labor is impossible without any water."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Others have moved away from their communities entirely due to lack of water, emigrating to other regions of Kenya with better water availability and economic opportunities, or even migrating to other countries. While this is true for both men and women, it is not uncommon for men to emigrate and leave their wives behind to live in their mother-in-law's compound while their husbands work in urban centers."}]},{"head":"Gender norms in intrahousehold water management and decision-making","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Norms surrounding water use and management are extremely gendered at the household level in both Bomani and Kidzini North. Water provisioning, monitoring, and management is treated as part of day-to-day domestic work, which makes it women's responsibility according to local gender roles. In addition to being the primary water fetchers, women are also the chief users of water in the home, as they are responsible for cooking, cleaning, washing clothes, bathing children, etc. This means that they are also the primary knowledgeholders in terms of how much water is used, needed, and kept at home. Men, meanwhile, are primarily responsible for providing money to buy water when suitable water is not freely available, although women also contribute money to water provisioning."},{"index":2,"size":255,"text":"While FGDs gave insight into pervading social norms and prescribed gender roles pertaining to water, life histories gave a more nuanced view into the diverse ways that water is managed in practice in different homes and different household structures (Table 5). Notably, there was a major difference between households in Bomani versus households in Kidzini North concerning which household member decides where water is sourced. With the exception of those from single-headed households, all life history participants in Kidzini North reported that men (husbands or sons) have the final say in where water is sourced from. In Bomani, responses were mixed, with about half of respondents reporting that the wife has the final say. This may reflect differences in social norms between the two regions, with more patriarchal approaches to intra-household decision-making appearing to preside in Kidzini North. Alternatively, the forced flexibility of gender roles under extreme water stress (detailed below) could also account for women's higher influence decision-making in Bomani, where water is more scarce than in Kidzini North. Similarly, Bomani residents were more likely to report that women own the jerrycans, whereas in Kidzini North husbands are viewed as the owners of such assets, even though it is their wives who use them on a daily basis. When it comes to decision-making concerning how household water is used, all participants were in agreement that the wife is in charge. Similarly, almost all life histories suggested that women were solely responsible for fetching water and making sure that there is water in the household."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"In the rainy season or when water is otherwise abundant, data suggests that these gender roles are clear-cut and stable. In times of water scarcity, however, gender norms concerning water management and provisioning become more fluid as family members of all genders and ages become increasingly involved in water provisioning."},{"index":4,"size":229,"text":"\"Sometimes [water scarcity] forces us to distribute roles because as men, we mostly let our wives go for water. So it reaches a point where the water that we depend on that is nearer has dried up so it forces you to take responsibilities as a man so that the wife remains at home to do other household chores as you go look for water and bring it to the house.\" (Kidzini North young men FGD) Men's increased involvement in water provisioning does not take the same form as women's however. , Men tend to get involved in water provisioning only once money or transport is involved. Cultural norms in both areas dictate that women do not ride motorbikes or bicycles, and rarely -if ever -ride donkeys, meaning that when households are forced to travel long distances to find water, men must necessarily get involved either by providing money to send for water, or by using one of these modes of transport to gather water themselves. Furthermore, this shifts the burden of water fetching increasingly onto young men, as opposed to older men, as younger men have more access to motorbikes, as well as knowledge of how to use them. While this may increase young men's labor burdens, it also provides them with income-earning opportunities, as water-fetching by motorcycle has become a cottage industry, especially during the dry season."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"While young men report high levels of involvement and feelings of responsibility concerning making sure there is water in the household, young women say that they themselves still bear the majority of time and labor burdens for water provisioning, and are therefore the most impacted by water shortage. As one young Kidzini woman expressed: \"We do everything.\" As women are solely responsible for domestic work, they explain that they are the only household members with knowledge of how much water is needed and when, whereas young men \"do not care\" and \"have to be asked\" to go fetch water."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Importantly, while gender norms are adapted or stretched during times of water scarcity, this does not necessarily mean that there is gender transformation occurring or long-term gains in gender equality being made. While men are increasingly getting involved in water provisioning, these tasks are still viewed as women's work, and men report being teased, feeling demeaned, or being told that they are being controlled or \"bewitched\" by their wives when they are seen fetching water. Due to these cultural norms and social taboos, women are still the de facto water fetchers. As one Bomani woman explained: \"It's easier for the woman to fetch water because men find it difficult. They feel demeaned, especially in front of their children, so it's just easier for the woman to go.\" (Bomani women FGD)"},{"index":7,"size":110,"text":"Furthermore, men's involvement is limited to more convenient forms of provisioning, while women must continue to fetch water by foot, meaning their drudgery is not necessarily decreased. Rather, regardless of young men's increased involvement, women's drudgery is often only increased in times of water stress as women are forced to walk further and further to find water, and often multiple times a day as they can only carry one jerrycan at a time. Not only is it considered 'demeaning' for men to be seen fetching water on foot, they are also quick to dismiss this option for its inefficiency and difficulty, as shown in these quotes from mens' discussion groups:"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"\"Truthfully speaking you can cry when going to fetch water on foot.\" (Bomani men FGD)"},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"\"If someone goes on foot, you will take a longer time because you will be coming while resting on the way. Am not lying, you can come back with a half-full container because you were coming while drinking. If you go on foot, you might take like four hours.\" (Kidzini North young men FGD)"},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"Women, however, have no option but to go on foot, expending valuable time and energy for an amount of water that is not sufficient for their needs. In most cases, this requires leaving for water at or before dawn so women can be home in time to get their children ready for school."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Severe water stress in Bomani and Kidzini North has led to the ad hoc development of a complex system of water provisioning, management, and governance featuring a diversity of water sources and actors. On the one hand, this complex system of providers, sources, and resellers produces some confusion locally about water provisioning, control, and oversight which limits villagers agency and avenues for recourse; on the other hand, the system's redundancies have created pockets of resilience in the face of insecure and often unpredictable water availability. The decreased availability of free and easily accessible water has led to the development of a cottage industry around water selling provisioning. However, the benefits from these increased income-earning opportunities are skewed toward young men with access to motorbikes, and wealthier community members who own tanks which afford them the luxury of having excess water to sell."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Women have proven to be key actors in terms of household and community-level water security and resilience, but this resilience comes at a cost. Villagers have developed many overlapping coping mechanisms to survive dry periods, but these strategies present serious trade-offs which carry gendered implications, with women often losing out in terms of increased labor burdens and decreased economic opportunities. These time and labor burdens will likely be exacerbated by continued and intensifying water stress related to climate change, as well as the continued migration of men away from rural areas to urban areas. In periods of extreme water stress, gender roles related to intra-household water provisioning become flexible, but this malleability has not led to increased levels of gender equality. However, this seasonal flexibility in otherwise rigid social rules could serve as an entry point for future interventions to foment gender transformation in water use and management, as well as in the community at large."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Decision tree showing how water sources are often prioritized and negotiated "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Different data collection method for each module across the sub-counties Life histories Kidzini North Bomani Monogamous 3 3 Monogamous33 Polygamous 0 0 Polygamous00 SHH woman 1 1 SHH woman11 SHH man 1 1 SHH man11 Total Men 4 4 Total Men44 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Water sources Source type Common or private? Free or paid? Which localities? Dam Communal Free Bomani and Kidzini North DamCommunalFreeBomani and Kidzini North State-owned Taps Communal Paid ($) Bomani and Kidzini North State-owned TapsCommunalPaid ($)Bomani and Kidzini North Individual or group- Private Paid ($$) Bomani and Kidzini North Individual or group-PrivatePaid ($$)Bomani and Kidzini North owned taps owned taps Water tanks Private Paid or rainfed Bomani and Kidzini North Water tanksPrivatePaid or rainfedBomani and Kidzini North ($$) ($$) Water bowser Private Paid ($$$) Bomani and Kidzini North Water bowserPrivatePaid ($$$)Bomani and Kidzini North Boreholes Communal Paid ($) Bomani only BoreholesCommunalPaid ($)Bomani only Wells Private Paid ($$) Bomani only WellsPrivatePaid ($$)Bomani only Water pans Communal Free Kidzini North only Water pansCommunalFreeKidzini North only Shallow wells Depends on Depends on Kidzini North only Shallow wellsDependsonDepends onKidzini North only management management managementmanagement Seasonal streams Communal Free Kidzini North only Seasonal streamsCommunalFreeKidzini North only "},{"text":"Table 3 . Criteria for selecting different water sources Money/assets Distance/time Availability Water quality Money/assetsDistance/timeAvailabilityWater quality • Money is needed • Some water sources • Some sources • Dams, a public • Money is needed• Some water sources• Some sources• Dams, a public to buy water at are extremely far (e.g., dams, resource, are to buy water atare extremely far(e.g., dams,resource,are most sources away, requiring users streams, wells, frequently most sourcesaway, requiring usersstreams, wells,frequently • Money is needed to travel long and water misused and • Money is neededto travel longand watermisusedand to send someone distances or search pans) are dirtied by people to send someonedistances or searchpans) aredirtied by people to fetch water for money to send seasonal or and livestock to fetch waterfor money to sendseasonal orandlivestock • Money is needed someone to fetch for prone to drying stepping in the • Money is neededsomeone to fetch forprone to dryingstepping in the to buy chlorine them up water to buy chlorinethemupwater tablets for water • Some users (primarily • Other sources • Water pans, too, tablets for water• Some users (primarily• Other sources• Water pans, too, purification women) walk for up (e.g., taps and can be easily purificationwomen) walk for up(e.g., taps andcan be easily • Water fetching to six hours round tanks) are contaminated • Water fetchingto six hours roundtanks) arecontaminated and storage trip to fetch water unreliable; • Cleaner water and storagetrip to fetch waterunreliable;• Cleanerwater requires jerrycans • Time trade-offs must users may sources tend to be requires jerrycans• Time trade-offs mustusers maysources tend to be at a minimum (or be made to travel far more expensive at a minimum (orbe made totravel farmore expensive cooking pots in accommodate travel distances only • Water users must cooking pots inaccommodate traveldistances only• Water users must cases of extreme to distant water to discover weigh which water cases of extremeto distant waterto discoverweigh which water poverty); water sources that there is no sources should be poverty); watersourcesthat there is nosources should be tanks, scoops for • Some water sources, water available used for different tanks, scoops for• Some water sources,water availableused for different fetching from the particularly the taps, due to e.g., purposes: e.g., fetching from theparticularly the taps,due to e.g.,purposes:e.g., dam require waiting in mechanical more expensive damrequire waiting inmechanicalmore expensive • For many sources, long queues which failure, low clean water from • For many sources,long queues whichfailure, lowclean water from a motorbike, could have been water levels, the taps is for a motorbike,could have beenwater levels,the taps is for bicycle, or donkey forming since the day etc. drinking and bicycle, or donkeyforming since the dayetc.drinkingand is necessary to before; some FGD • Sources that cooking only, while is necessary tobefore; some FGD• Sources thatcooking only, while make the journey participants are always dirtier but free make the journeyparticipantsare alwaysdirtier but free -however, in most expressed that travel available (i.e., water pan water is -however, in mostexpressed that travelavailable (i.e.,water pan water is instances, only plus queuing can take water bowsers, used for bathing, instances, onlyplus queuing can takewater bowsers,used for bathing, men (and the whole day boreholes, washing dishes, men (andthe whole dayboreholes,washingdishes, especially young • Sources that are private wells) watering livestock, especially young• Sources that areprivate wells)watering livestock, men) are socially farther away present tend to be etc. men) are sociallyfarther away presenttend to beetc. permitted to use more risks of more permitted to usemore risks ofmore such modes of insecurity, especially expensive such modes ofinsecurity, especiallyexpensive transportation for women; some transportationfor women; some • Metal roofs and villagers have been • Metal roofs andvillagers have been gutters are attacked, sexually gutters areattacked, sexually needed for water assaulted, and even needed for waterassaulted, and even harvesting killed en route to harvestingkilled en route to distant water sources distant water sources "},{"text":"Table 4 . Coping strategies identified by study participants Rationing Borrowing / Begging Sacrificing RationingBorrowing /BeggingSacrificing Bargaining Bargaining • Give livestock less • Borrow a • Plead with water • Use unsuitable, • Give livestock less• Borrowa• Plead with water• Useunsuitable, water, more jerrycan of vendors to sell dirty, or unsafe water,morejerrycanofvendors to selldirty, or unsafe infrequently water from a water on credit water infrequentlywater from awater on creditwater • Stop watering crops neighbor, with • Plead with other • Spend the day • Stop watering cropsneighbor, with• Plead with other• Spend the day and gardens, allowing the community searching for and gardens, allowingthecommunitysearchingfor the plants to die understanding members to give water instead of the plants to dieunderstandingmembers to givewater instead of • Drink coconut water that you will you some of their working or going • Drink coconut waterthat you willyou some of theirworking or going instead of drinking give them a full water (without to school instead of drinkinggive them a fullwater(withoutto school water jerrycan in repayment) • Sell off livestock waterjerrycaninrepayment)• Sell off livestock • Bathe less, or bathe exchange • Beg the sewage • Redistribution of • Bathe less, or batheexchange• Beg the sewage• Redistribution of only certain body • Trade with a plant to send a household labor only certain body• Trade with aplant to send ahousehold labor parts neighbor, giving water bowser and a partsneighbor, givingwater bowseranda • Bathe only when chicken or renegotiation of • Bathe only whenchickenorrenegotiation of going to school (e.g., firewood in gender roles going to school (e.g.,firewoodingender roles children only) or exchange for • Move away from children only) orexchange for• Move away from when going to work water the village when going to workwaterthe village (e.g., typically men) • Exchange water • Choose to pay for (e.g., typically men)• Exchange water• Choose to pay for • Eat only one meal a for firewood water instead of • Eat only one meal aforfirewoodwater instead of day with those paying for school daywiththosepaying for school • Wash clothes more suffering from a fees • Wash clothes moresuffering from afees infrequently, stop disability infrequently,stopdisability washing clothes, or • Help a neighbor washing clothes, or• Help a neighbor wash only certain dig a well or wash only certaindig a well or clothes water pan to clotheswater pan to gain access to gain access to the water the water "},{"text":"Table 5 . Gender roles related to water at the household level, taken from life histories Life history subject ↓ Who decides where the Who manages Who has the Who owns Life history subject ↓Who decides where theWho managesWho has theWho owns water is sourced? how the water responsibility to essential water- water is sourced?how the waterresponsibility toessential water- is used? fetch water and related assets is used?fetch water andrelated assets make sure there is (i.e., jerrycans)? make sure there is(i.e., jerrycans)? water in the water in the household? household? KN man husband wife wife husband KN manhusbandwifewifehusband KN woman sons - wife and kids husband KN womansons-wife and kidshusband KN man husband (wife can make wife wife husband KN manhusband (wife can makewifewifehusband suggestions) suggestions) KN woman joint discussion but wife wife husband KN womanjoint discussion butwifewifehusband husband has final say husband has final say KN man joint - husband joint KN manjoint-husbandjoint KN woman husband wife wife husband KN womanhusbandwifewifehusband KN single man Joint and/or separate Himself for his sister no one; they KN single manJoint and/or separateHimself for hissisterno one; they decision-making between needs; his sister belong to the decision-making betweenneeds; his sisterbelong to the him and his sister in the main household him and his sisterin the mainhousehold house house KN single woman herself herself herself herself KN single womanherselfherselfherselfherself BO man joint; wife wife and kids wife BO manjoint;wifewife and kidswife wife often has final say wife often has final say BO woman joint; wife; daughters wife joint BO womanjoint;wife; daughterswifejoint wife often has final say if she is away wife often has final sayif she is away BO man joint; wife joint husband BO manjoint;wifejointhusband but husband has authority but husband has authority BO woman depends on type of decision wife wife wife BO womandepends on type of decision wifewifewife BO man son wife/ wife/ daughter-in- - BO mansonwife/wife/ daughter-in-- daughter-in-law law daughter-in-lawlaw BO woman wife wife wife joint BO womanwifewifewifejoint BO single woman herself herself herself herself BO single womanherselfherselfherselfherself BO single man himself himself himself himself BO single manhimselfhimselfhimselfhimself Total joint or split 3 1 1 4 Total joint or split3114 (including final say) (including final say) Total men (final say) 8 1 2 7 Total men (final say)8127 Total women (final say) 5 12 13 3 Total women (final say) 512133 KN = Kidzini North, BO = Bomani KN = Kidzini North, BO = Bomani "}],"sieverID":"b9e0ceae-12a5-4c0a-a6ca-b1fc8b8441ca","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0541c122fd4bdfad534bf56766264321.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0541c122fd4bdfad534bf56766264321","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5567d269-6836-413e-acd3-800009c723f5/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"Implementing/Support team Primary Resource Person on native pig raising Research / Compilation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Native pig raising programs support the economic empowerment of women, especially from poor households. This is because native pig raising involves low capital requirements, low capital investment, and low emission development approaches (less reliance on commercial feeds).","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In the municipality of Guinayangan, livestock production is one of the more reliable sources of income and food for households, especially for women."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterprise Pigs are being raised easily in the farmers' backyards, helping diversify and reduce total reliance on crop farming. The tolerance of native pigs to withstand climate variability is known to be considerably higher than that of commercial or imported breeds. "}]},{"head":"Feeds for sow and boars Feeds for weaners and growers","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Dr. Rene Santiago. ( 2018). Native pig production. Bureau of Animal industry For commercial production, this feeding guide may be used. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" m) per sow or boar. The pen should have a roof which can be made of local materials such as nipa, cogon, or anahaw (foodstool palm). The walls can be made of bamboo and coconut trunk or bark. 18 Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterprise Grower should have 5-6 pairs of teats, produce 8 or more piglets per farrowing, and exhibit maternal behavior (caring for the young) 5. Boar should have testicles of equal size, be the largest in its litter, exhibit a fast growth rate, and have other appealing characteristics such as a black body color. "},{"text":" for the sow during parity: If the sow is showing signals of impending parturition (10 days before due date of parturition or giving birth) such as swelling of the mammary glands and reddening of the vulva, the sow can be brought to a farrowing pen. Do not feed the sow on the day of parturition, provide drinking water.  Ensure that the cage floor is dry and clean.  Place a protective underlayer (leaves, haystack, etc.) on the floor and never disturb the sow at the time of giving birth.  Avoid causing discomfort to the piglets by separating them from the mother or removing their teeth on the day of parturition. pigs were introduced to seven farmers in Barangay Arbismen, and five each for barangays Capuluan Tulon, Ermita, and Magsaysay in Guinayangan, Quezon. Decentralized and farmer-managed multiplication and dispersal centers have been established to further improve access to better breeds of native animals. Total number of household growing native pigs are 142. (QLC data 2020) "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Reproduction and growth in native breeds is consistent even when experiencing adverse conditions. Compared to the other breeds, native pigs are more resistant to common parasites, pests and diseases, making them an asset of high value and reliability. Native pigs are easier and cheaper to raise because they are well- adapted to local conditions and do not require expensive housing and care. They are fed with organic materials available in the household or farm like food wastes, vegetable scraps and plant leaves. Through utilising low cost and easily accessible materials such as coconut husks, soils, rice hull, dried leaves, and saw dust, a deep bed flooring system can be developed. These considerably reduce the smell and consequently the flies, promote the health of the pigs, provide farms with a source of natural compost whilst providing the pigs with a comfortable and stimulating environment. The native pig is favored for the popular Filipino roasted pig 'Lechon', with the meat being considerably tastier, crispier and leaner than imported and commercialised breeds. More nutritional value is held, with higher protein content but lower fat and cholesterol. "},{"text":"enterprise Native pig raising projects are not recommending the use of hormones and antibiotics. Food safety for human consumers is an important consideration in promoting native pig production. Farmer Learning Groups (FLGs) were organized to provide the beneficiaries with a platform for knowledge exchange about the breakthroughs in the action research being conducted in the community. "},{"text":"enterprise Farmers meet regularly (once a month) to share experiences among each other. Discussions are open, and support and engage women. Learning and knowledge emanate from those shared experiences. Meetings and processes are documented. Presently, native pigs can be seen tied under shady trees or roaming freely around backyards in coconut-based farms in Quezon. It is also recommended that a fenced grazing area, made of coconut trunk or bark, wooden planks, or bamboo slats, be provided. "},{"text":"3-1 kg mixed feeds per head per day Ingredients Quantity Ingredients Quantity IngredientsQuantityIngredients Quantity Rice Bran 50 Rice Bran 37 Rice Bran50Rice Bran37 Corn 14.2 Corn 30 Corn14.2Corn30 Copra Meal 30 Copra Meal 27 Copra Meal30Copra Meal27 Molasses 3.5 Molasses 3.00 Molasses3.5Molasses3.00 Limestone 2.0 Limestone 2.0 Limestone2.0Limestone2.0 Salt Other forag-es Total 0.3 Ad-libitum 100 Salt Other for-ages Total 0.30 Ad-libitum 100 Salt Other forag-es Total0.3 Ad-libitum 100Salt Other for-ages Total0.30 Ad-libitum 100 Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterprise Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterprise "},{"text":"This approach includes 'pay back' mechanisms to benefit more farmers over time. Social inclusivity goals are fostered reducing the incidence of elite capture. Community Innovations Funds are used to build such support facilities. Farmers are expected to help disseminate the idea within the community by using pass on scheme. All of the original beneficiaries have shared their livestock assets with at least two other farmers, many of whom have then gone on to also share to at least one additional farmer. Climate-smart and low carbon footprint approaches to livestock production, even on small household level scale, can contribute significantly to reducing emissions. Such approaches also help bring economic empowering CSA options to women in poor households as well. "}],"sieverID":"1bddf34b-e73d-4b2e-8fd3-e44edb29c820","abstract":"Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterprise Native pigs: a climate resilient business enterpriseThe International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) introduced the low external input project on small-livestock system to communities in Guinayangan. This was part of the Developing Scalable Approaches for Community Based Adaption project of IIRR. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) approaches, including those in livestock production, were introduced to help build farm resilience in anticipation of the impacts of climate change. This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. The experiences shared in this was generated over 6 years. Replication are now seen in nearly all of the Philippine Department of Agriculture Climate-Smart Villages. For details please visit https:// ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organisations."}

data/part_3/05483e1e47dda95bd9e54a366f8d114d.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"05483e1e47dda95bd9e54a366f8d114d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a8d8c66a-5f6e-465b-946c-d548edd6630f/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Nutritive values of some commonly used feeds in sub-Saharan Africa: SSA Feeds-an online database","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The sub-Saharan Africa feeds composition database (SSA Feeds) was created by the CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Program (SLP) and data were first put online in 2004. In 2011, SLP released an enhanced version, both on the web and as a CD, containing information on the nutritive values of 20,913 samples of 566 of the major feeds used in 15 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. An extensive refresh of the data took place in 2020, including the addition of a substantial block of new results. The aim of SSA Feeds is to enable the extension, development and research community to design scientifically based and best-cost rations for meat, dairy and draught animals of small-scale African farmers. As their livestock assets become healthier and better nourished, these farmers become more food-secure and able to increase their income from animal products."}]},{"head":"Data sources","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The nutritional data on livestock feeds made available through SSA Feeds were generated at the Animal Nutrition/Analytical Services Laboratories of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), later the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The laboratory analyses were performed as described by Osuji et al. (1993) and Ogubai and Sereke (1997). The initial dataset in the database was the same as that published by Anindo et al. (1994). However, this was modified extensively to exclude duplicate entries and extreme cases of outliers. Therefore, the nutritive values obtained here may differ substantially from that publication."}]},{"head":"Included variables","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"SSA Feeds (https://feedsdatabase.ilri.org/) provides data on the following nutritional values (where available). The data are classified into nine broad categories: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" The database now includes 44,203 samples of 738 types of feed from 19 countries. Creation of this useful information tool was supported by Creation of this useful information tool was supported by the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards and Livestock the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards and Livestock and Meat Marketing Program of the Texas Agricultural and Meat Marketing Program of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station in Ethiopia, with funding from USAID Experiment Station in Ethiopia, with funding from USAID to the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and ILRI. to the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and ILRI. "},{"text":" Results can be exported as a csvtable. ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. February 2021ILRI thanks all donors that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. Contact Photos ContactPhotos ILRI/Diep Pham • Herbaceous forages: 17,995 records Alan Duncan Principal Scientist ILRI/Apollo Habtamu ILRI/Diep Pham • Herbaceous forages: 17,995 records Alan Duncan Principal Scientist ILRI/Apollo Habtamu • Fodder trees and shrubs: 3,849 ILRI, Nairobi • Food crops (cereals and legumes, green): 3,064 AVCD/FIPS/R. Jumah Feed and Forage Development [email protected] ILRI/Paul Karaimu • Fodder trees and shrubs: 3,849 ILRI, Nairobi • Food crops (cereals and legumes, green): 3,064 AVCD/FIPS/R. Jumah Feed and Forage Development [email protected] ILRI/Paul Karaimu • Food crops (cereals and legumes, residues): 13,719 • Food crops (cereals and legumes, residues): 13,719 • Food crops (roots and tubers): 1,348 • Food crops (roots and tubers): 1,348 • Food crops (others): 148 • Food crops (others): 148 • Concentrate feeds and agro-industrial by-products: 3,981 • Concentrate feeds and agro-industrial by-products: 3,981 • Mineral supplements: 15 • Mineral supplements: 15 • Other less common feeds: 84 • Other less common feeds: 84 Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] "}],"sieverID":"64a0bb70-886d-4d1b-aa31-838ea8ef6566","abstract":"Livestock often represent a major asset for smallholder farmers across the developing world. With an increasing demand for animal products led by growing populations, urbanization and dietary changes, feed has become a constraint for farmers to improve livestock production. However, while feed quality often remains low, demand and prices of feed keep rising. This reinforces the need for more efficient feed production and use."}

data/part_3/0560e082731bbbe095d309343e14efb7.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0560e082731bbbe095d309343e14efb7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/408fcec6-9e8e-46d1-b1bb-cd6742be6e81/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Contribution to gender and social inclusion strategy for the fruit value chain in Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Project Title: P699 -3.2.3 Linking Smallholders to Dynamic Markets Description: This strategy was developed by Swisscontact with support from the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT to improve women's empowerment in the production and processing nodes of the fruit chain."}]},{"head":"Is new?: Yes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Policy/Investment Type:"}]},{"head":"Policy or Strategy","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stage of Maturity of the Process: Stage 2","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Amount: <Not Applicable> Geographic Scope: Sub-national"}]},{"head":"Country(ies): • Honduras","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• 4623 -Swisscontact uses the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index to develop and implement gender and social inclusion strategies in agricultural value chains in southern Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/y6gd27sm)"}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• I381 -Project level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for Market Inclusion used to inform gender strategies for three value chains in Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2kezmj5c)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• I1189 -Methodological guide for participatory collection of gender indicators in agriculture used by SwissContact in the Rural Opportunities Project in Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2o7af52f)"}]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable>","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Value chain innovations are tested in 12 countries Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• 7 -Increased value capture by producers • 38 -Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:50 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"636a0403-c1cd-47a1-94bc-6d209a8fca84","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05bd48ad888f2649f6dc46fbe1aebe7e.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"05bd48ad888f2649f6dc46fbe1aebe7e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8123a716-9c0d-4015-aaa0-ac5832ef7295/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"A cell phone app tracks each cow on its periods in gestation, feeding, and milking Farmers in Kenya and Nigeria use a unique SMS service to share information A Zambian tech hub encourages web and mobile app development ICT innovation and the people behind it","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"D evelopment is taking on a new meaning in ACP nations. The combination of affordable cell phones, broadband internet and high levels of demand for devices is boosting the computer software and hardware industries in many countries. There are now more than 35 technology hubs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, training and inspiring a new generation of entrepreneurs. They produce web platforms, cell phone applications and games. They use the internet to 'crowdfund' their projects, and think up new ways to bring information and services to the wider population. Their efforts attract international investment, and lead to improvements in value chain efficiency and agricultural production. To these new innovators, development is no longer solely about combating poverty and poor infrastructure. Rather, it is about a world of new opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Internet penetration is developing remarkably fast on the African continent. As the infrastructure improves and technologies continue to spread there, more people will use them to develop solutions for local problems. The West is no longer the sole source of technological breakthroughs. Africans seem to be enjoying new technologies and are using them in their everyday businesses."}]},{"head":"Lack of business skills","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Personally I think ICT tech start-up companies will flourish only in favourable environments. By favourable I mean environments where companies can be nurtured, funded, mentored and given a chance to implement their ideas. However, most developers find it hard to make their ideas marketable."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"Generally there is a huge gap between competent technical developers and good sellers or business people. For example, in my country, Rwanda, there is an initiative called The iHills Network. It is an association of Rwandan tech start-up companies that aims to inspire tech entrepreneurship among young Rwandans, to develop their business and interpersonal skills, and thus facilitate the creation of jobs in Rwanda's technology sector. ICT entrepreneurs generally have technical skills but lack the business skills needed to achieve success. iHills' aim is to help young ICT entrepreneurs to commercialize their products or find people willing to invest in their ideas. In its first 10 months, iHills became a network of 15 small tech companies looking for ways to market their ideas. Its focus is not restricted to e-commerce in urban areas. Rwanda, like most parts of Africa, is an agricultural economy, with 80% of its population living in rural areas. So it is crucial to focus on creative and innovative ICT solutions for common problems in local rural areas. The network of young ICT tech entrepreneurs in Kigali now organises monthly meetings with rural communities and speaks with them about the problems they face. Then, together, they try to find creative solutions and develop new technologies."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"African innovators usually turn to software when looking for innovate solutions, but it is equally important that they consider practical hardware solutions as well. However, there are two major challenges holding back the further expansion of hardware development: cost and electricity. A lot still need to be done in terms of expanding the electricity network on the continent. High-quality hardware is still expensive for local small and medium enterprises, and using cheap hardware is neither sustainable nor cost effective as it costs too much to maintain and does not last long."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"ICT is a tool for development, but will only flourish if small tech start-up companies grow and generate new jobs. Technology is not the only issue. My message is: don't fear the market. ◀ T oday, 'Africa', 'technology' and 'innovation' are terms often found in the same sentence. Technology, and particularly mobile telephony, has radically changed the face of the continent and the lives of its people."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Africa is the fastest-growing mobile market in the world and is the second largest, after Asia. According to the GSM Association, mobile subscriptions have grown almost 20% each year for the past five years. The GSMA, according to its November 2011 Africa Mobile Observatory report, predicts that there will be over 700 million subscribers by the end of 2012. There were already close to 650 million subscribers in the fourth quarter of 2011, about 65% of the total potential market."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Mobile has also been a key asset to increasing the penetration of the internet in Africa. In Kenya, for example, the mobile phone is the primary means by which people access the internet. According to the latest statistics from the Communications Commission of Kenya, out of a total of 6.15 million internet subscriptions, mobile data and internet subscriptions account for 6.07 million of those."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"There are at least 35 tech hubs now in 13 countries across Africa."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"These innovation hubs are instrumental at strengthening 'bottom of the pyramid' companies -often scrappy start-ups that are in the pre-seed funding stage, with just a couple of people with an idea probably trying to come up with a prototype. The hub provides a place for these start-ups to work from so they do not have to worry about basics such as office space or internet connectivity and costs while at the same time exposes them to like-minded individuals."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"Hubs also create environments that support the exchange of ideas as developers meet and mingle with designers and business people. Amazing innovations result from interacting in these environments."}]},{"head":"Africa online","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The future is bright. Today, Africa is connected to the world via numerous undersea cables. As a result, wholesale prices for internet bandwidth have dropped by as much as 90% from previous levels based on satellite access, and the cost savings are slowly trickling down to the retail level."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Delivering broadband to the 'last mile' connection is still a challenge, but fortunately, the mobile phone network has been a significant factor in bringing access to even the remotest of users. The introduction of what could be termed low-end, low-cost smart phones stands to further increase internet penetration on the continent. In Kenya, Huawei, a Chinese telecommunications company, introduced its low-cost Androidpowered IDEOS smartphone in partnership with Safaricom in 2011. The phone rapidly became the country's top selling smartphone."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Growing internet penetration has levelled the playing field and increased access to knowledge. Africa has joined the knowledge economy, and there are far fewer barriers to competing on this platform, as opposed to other sectors of the economy. Africa is a continent to watch. Its innovative engines are running nicely, and it is becoming harder to ignore as a player in the world economy. ◀ Will Mutua ([email protected]) is a software, mobile and web consultant, founder of Afrinnovator and African Pixel."}]},{"head":"Mobile innovation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Access to the internet and mobile technologies has spurred innovation across the continent in various sectors such as finance, health and agriculture. Mobile money, and specifically the success story of M-Pesa (M=mobile, and Pesa is Swahili for money), is the poster child of mobile innovation in the African financial services sector. Ubiquitous mobile technology such as SMS has led to the financial inclusion of millions of Africans who would otherwise be termed as 'unbanked' ."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Two examples of innovative services stand out in the agricultural sector. Esoko is a fast-growing software company headquartered in Accra, Ghana. It focuses on improving agricultural processes through creating software for collecting, analysing and sharing data related to agriculture. A company in Kenya founded by three women, M-Farm, is using SMS technology to enable farmers to get current price information, aggregate their needs and connect them with farm input suppliers, enabling them to sell their produce collectively."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Many mHealth initiatives are being undertaken across the African continent. For example, students at Uganda's Makerere University came up with a mobile app for taking pregnancy scans. The app, called WinSenga, records the sounds from the mother's belly and contains an analysis program that produces reports detailing the unborn baby's position, age, weight, breathing pattern and heart rate."}]},{"head":"Innovation hubs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The numerous innovation hubs that have sprung up across the continent are nerve centres of innovation. These spaces pioneered by Nairobi's Innovation Hub (iHub) are pooling together talented, innovative young people and creating a supportive environment for innovation."}]},{"head":"Perspectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Africa´s innovative engines ICT innovation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"CeSAr HArAdA/AKirACHix @ *iHub_ NAirobi Access to the internet and mobile technologies has spurred innovation across the continent in various sectors such as finance, health and agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Innovation hubs are instrumental at strengthening 'bottom of the pyramid' companies -often scrappy start-ups that are in the pre-seed funding stage I n December 2010, ICT Update reported on the official launch of two new regional technology hubs dedicated to training, supporting and inspiring new developers: iHub in Nairobi, covering East Africa, and mLab Southern Africa, based in Tshwane, South Africa. Since then, dozens of similar spaces providing guidance and facilities for enthusiastic innovators have flourished around the continent."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"There had been similar groups of likeminded people meeting in cities of many ACP countries before, in computer societies, or working on open-source projects or developing internet service provider (ISP) facilities. Several of these initiatives even attracted donor funding, but few of them lasted more than a couple of years, and many did not invest the time or money in developing new talent."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Those involved in the new 'hubs', as they are widely known, are eager to avoid those mistakes. There is a far greater emphasis on sharing skills, equipment, space and time, and not just among the individual groups but between the various hubs around the continent. The ability to exchange ideas with people in other countries has, of course, been accelerated by the expansion of broadband internet across Africa, and the increased availability of ICT equipment. But the technology is only one part of a complex equation."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"'The driving force behind the development of tech hubs in Africa has not come about because we are suddenly all reading about Facebook and other internet successes, ' says Lukonga Lindunda co-founder of BongoHive, a technology hub based in the Zambian capital, Lusaka. 'Instead, there has been a major change in the younger generation's mindset. We no longer want to wait for donors to come with money, or superpowers to tell us what we have to do. We want to change the world we see around us, our local environment, and solve our own problems. '"},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"In the spring of 2011, Lindunda cofounded BongoHive. 'When I finished my studies in South Africa, ' he says, 'one of the challenges when I came back to Zambia was that there was nowhere I could get together with other people interested in technology. There was no place where we could meet to brainstorm ideas or share experiences, no open space with internet access or where we could work together. ' Lindunda found a job as an ICT advisor with the Belgian development organisation, Flemish Association for Development Co-Operation and Technical Assistance (VVOB) in Zambia, which focuses on educational programmes in the country. Together with his colleague Bart Cornille, Lindunda was looking for ways to develop sustainable, locally-driven solutions to some of the challenges they encountered in their work. They had heard about the hubs in Kenya and South Africa and realised that a similar initiative could be useful in Zambia."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"'We managed to convince VVOB that it was a good idea too, ' says Lindunda, 'and we negotiated the use of a room at the Ministry of Education, which we used to start BongoHive. Part of the deal was that some of the ideas that would be developed from the hub would be applied for use in VVOB's educational programmes. '"}]},{"head":"Hands-on","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"While the hub does not focus exclusively on developing applications for education, Lindunda is convinced that it is an area worthy of new developers' attention. 'From my experience, students do not learn the necessary practical skills in universities. That's the nature of most universities, but in Zambia it's even worse because the university here does not have access to a stable internet connection or enough computers even for the people who are studying computer science. '"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The number of Zambians using the internet is rising, with many accessing slower connections on their cell phones. But these are early days and there is still a long way to go before people learn how to make the best use of it, and to develop applications to suit their specific needs."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The lack of facilities and advancedlevel training in technology subjects presents a significant challenge for BongoHive and for other tech hubs in ACP countries. 'It's not enough to offer people a space or an opportunity for them to innovate, ' says Lindunda, 'it is also about developing skills and getting people to think innovatively, and have the right tools to turn their ideas into actual, practical solutions. '"},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"BongoHive, therefore, aims to support interested individuals regardless of their previous experience. The types of people using the facilities range from high school and university students to professionals already working in the ICT industry. The atmosphere is informal, brainstorming ideas is encouraged, and everyone shares their experience and learns from each other."}]},{"head":"Guidance","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"When VVOB expanded one of its projects with 350 extra computers, Lindunda saw the opportunity to get in touch with other people interested in technology. Eight people responded, mostly graduates from the nearby Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce. Around the"}]},{"head":"Cooperation for development","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The spirit of sharing is at the heart of the many new technology hubs that have opened in ACP countries in recent years. in Zambia, bongoHive encourages industry professionals to work with enthusiastic beginners to develop applications for the local mobile market."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Lukonga Lindunda ([email protected]) is ICT advisor with VVOB Zambia and co-founder of BongoHive (www.bongohive.com)."}]},{"head":"ICT innovation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"same time, Lindunda had the opportunity to visit iHub in Kenya and mLab in South Africa. When he returned to Lusaka and met with the eight graduates and some other friends with more computer experience, they decided to start the hub, initially as an informal gettogether."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"'The advice I got from Juliana Rotich and Erik Hersman of Ushahidi when I visited the other hubs was to just start, not to wait for funding or approval from donor agencies or government ministries. So we did, ' says Lindunda, 'we just started. We were passionate about growing a community. For us, it was about the people, about sharing knowledge. We didn't try to plan where we would be in a year or two, we simply decided to start meeting consistently. ' One of their first tasks was to identify the skills that people in the team had, and to match them with the people who wanted to learn those skills. The group worked together to exchange expertise, and also organised training courses on a variety of topics. These courses covered the use of programming and web applications including Ruby on Rails, Java, C Sharp and FrontlineSMS. And, in December 2011, BongoHive hosted its first training course on the development of mobile applications."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"'Twenty-five people attended the two-week-long apps development course, ' says Lindunda. 'Most of them already had some experience in programming, and were at least familiar with working with Java. We could offer the course to them for free because we'd managed to secure sufficient funding. '"},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Technical training, however, was only part of the course. It was equally important, says Lindunda, that the participants learned the basic processes involved in solving problems. 'That thought process is essential, where you see a problem in the world around you and work through the necessary steps to find the best solution. That solution might not necessarily involve technology. As long as the outcome solves the problem, that's the most important thing, and I think that it was this concept that had a real, lasting effect on those who attended the course. '"},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"BongoHive progressed rapidly in the first 12 months, attracting support and funding from established organisations and industry specialists. But that backing only came about through the hard work of those involved. The first six months were especially difficult, admits Lindunda, as they struggled in their attempts to raise the profile of the initiative and make people aware of the fact that BongoHive existed."}]},{"head":"Competition","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The space has a broadband internet connection, a few computers and desks where people with their laptops can work. 'It's very basic, ' says Lindunda,"}]},{"head":"boNgoHive.CoM","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The increased availability of broadband internet has made it easier to develop applications for the web and for cell phones, and to communicate with other technology hubs around the world."}]},{"head":"It is not enough to offer a space for them to innovate, it is also about developing skills and getting people to think innovatively","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"'but for us, the first priority was to get people together and to build a community. One year after we started, we are now in a position to show other local organisations and potential funders that we are serious, that we have a core group of motivated individuals. '"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The group is talking with other likely funders to develop their facilities further. The next problem, says Lindunda, is to expand beyond the limitations of the current premises at the Ministry of Education, and to develop a sustainable business model for BongoHive."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Lindunda and Cornille work fulltime for VVOB, and offer the services to the hub as volunteers. That arrangement works well at the moment while the numbers of people attending are still low, but when more people get involved the responsibilities will increase and require the attention of dedicated full-time staff. The plan is to attract more local funding and to develop partnerships with telecommunications companies and similar businesses in the country."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"One potential source of income, of course, could come from selling the applications and other products that are developed in the hub. The problem there, however, is that the systems are not yet in place to sell mobile apps on the mass market in Zambia. Most of the BongoHive developers are not yet at the level to be producing sufficiently innovative apps that could compete with larger, corporate developers. It will take time before enough of the hub's developers are designing apps that can bring in enough revenue to sustain the initiative in the long term."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Rather than try to compete with international app developers, BongoHive's team are looking at ways iHub/www.iHub.Co.Ke to use the technology to tackle local problems, and to design products that will interest people in Zambia. For example, one developer is working on an Android app that makes it easier for people to access and search the country's new constitution."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Another team is working on a webbased school management system using the latest HTML 5 techniques, while one developer has already seen more than 6,000 downloads of his game. These are all attractive propositions for businesses who might be interested in funding these projects further, as it shows the skills of the developers and the range of products they can handle."}]},{"head":"Recognition","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"There are more than five million cell phone subscribers in Zambia, but that is a relatively small number of potential mobile app customers. Even fewer have the smartphones necessary to make the best use of the technology. These devices are getting cheaper, however, and Samsung, one of the world's biggest smartphone manufacturers, has recently opened an office in Zambia to promote their products."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"'The market in this country will change drastically in the next two to three years, ' acknowledges Lindunda, 'but the developers here can't wait until then. They have to start now so they are ready when all those people are looking for apps for their new phones. ' A major challenge, however, is to work out how people are going to be able to buy the apps once they are available. Most of the current business models to sell apps rely on their customers having credit cards, but relatively few people in Zambia have credit cards. Consequently, the local telecoms are currently developing their own apps market places where people can buy the products using mobile banking systems."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In the meantime, the BongoHive team is promoting the development of mobile technologies, such as SMS, rather than only mobile apps for smartphones. The team hopes that the developers will work on solutions that can be used on the simpler cell phones that most people in the country have."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"As BongoHive continues to grow, and facilities and equipment improve, the team hopes to offer the same opportunities to people around the country, eventually expanding to rural areas. Already, a number of local NGOs have asked the team for technical advice, and BongoHive is becoming increasingly involved in projects to promote access to information and communication technology."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"'We are gaining far greater recognition, ' says Lindunda, 'as organisations and businesses see the strength of using local expertise. He started farming vegetables, and first encountered ICTs when a strange disease attacked his potatoes. Not even the agricultural officer could diagnose the cause. Zack's farm is in Segereya village, near Eldoret, a long way from Kenya's capital, Nairobi. He had learned a little about computers and the internet at college, so Zack cycled 10 km from his home to the nearest internet café. He opened the Google search engine and typed 'potato diseases. ' He found that ants had attacked his potatoes, and also found a cheap and environmentally friendly cure: spraying wood ash. Amazed by the results, Zack returned to the internet café and, after a few clicks, he was able to find a buyer for his potatoes."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"Zack invested in a 3G-enabled phone that he could use to look for information online from the comfort of his home. Zack is lucky, he is internet literate, but thousands of farmers in his area do not even know how to use cell phones. Zack has therefore become the bridge between these farmers and the internet. Zack pays 50 Kenyan shillings (0.50 euro) everyday to access the internet from his phone, an amount that is beyond the reach of his fellow farmers."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"Zack has tried to bring these farmers the information that they so desperately need. The initial challenge was to identify the most effective and inexpensive platform to reach and interact with a community of 10,000 people within a radius of 50 km. He came up with the idea for the network of notice boards, an initiative he calls Leo Pamoja, Swahili for 'together today' ."}]},{"head":"Specific details","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Zack gets agricultural-related information, including details on how to make crops flourish, farming methods or market opportunities, and translates the message into the local language. He puts the message on paper, then hangs it up in public places, such as churches or the chief's camp, frequented by many of the farmers. For example, Zack read on the internet that a cartel of potato buyers were buying potatoes from farmers using 130 kg bags instead of the usual 110 kg sacks but were not paying the farmers the correct price."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Zack has also used the camera on his phone to take pictures of people encroaching a nearby forest, which is one of the biggest water catchment areas in Kenya. Such encroachment could affect the water supply in the area. He posted pictures of the encroachers on Facebook, which has more than 1.5 million users in Kenya. Zack also talked to officials from the NGO, Forest Action Network, and presented them with the photographic evidence, prompting the organisation to build a fence round the water catchment area."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Elated by the impact that the use of ICTs had on the farmers and in conservation of the environment, Zack has now started a pilot fish-farming project, which has received funding from the Kenyan government as part of an economic stimulus programme to A bridge between farmers and the web dig 100 fish ponds in each constituency. In Likuyani District, where Zack comes from, however, the new fish farmers have been grappling with problems such as algae feeding on the fingerlings in the pond."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Using a computer donated by an NGO, and linked to the internet via GPRS, farmers working on the project monitor satellite images of the constituency's fishponds. The centre also doubles as a resource centre where farmers come to seek information on various aspects of fish farming."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Although agriculture makes up 30% of Kenya's GDP, and employs 80% of Kenyans, mass media still only caters to a general audience. Farming issues are only aired when they are a matter of national interest when, for example, there is a sugar shortage or a new horticultural law has been introduced. Even if more time was allocated, not all the thousands of questions the farmers have can be addressed. This is where the internet is useful, where farmers can make enquiries into specific problems."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"ICTs could revolutionise agriculture in Kenya if technological literacy is encouraged. Currently, around four million Kenyans know how to use internet. This number could increase rapidly since the government recently introduced the ambitious 'digital villages' plan to bring more internet cafes to rural areas. Embracing ICTs promises good returns for farmers, especially through increased market opportunities and more efficient business operations. ◀ Kenyan farmer, Zack Matere, searches the web for useful agricultural information, then posts it on notice boards around his community helping other producers to improve their crops."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Bob Koigi ([email protected]) is a journalist from Nairobi, Kenya. This is an edited version of the essay submitted to the 2011 NEPAD-CTA essay competition: Zack Matere, the Kenyan bridge between farmers and the internet."},{"index":8,"size":90,"text":"Other farmers can take advantage of the vast amount of information available online when relevant messages are posted on community notice boards. N ext2 was co-founded by internet and mobile entrepreneurs, Emeka Okoye and Brian Puckett. The idea for an easy-to-use SMS service came to Puckett one day when he was looking to buy fresh, organic, local food for his young family in Virginia, USA. There was no convenient way to find or communicate, offline or online, with local farmers to find out what products were currently available for sale."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"During his research, Puckett came to three important conclusions. First, since people that live and work near each other share common experiences, backgrounds and characteristics, it makes sense to first ask those nearby when looking for particular types of information. In other words, location is an effective way to quickly filter large amounts of information, and it is this concept that is at the heart of the Next2 solution."},{"index":10,"size":46,"text":"Second, irrespective of where we live, most people spend a considerable amount of time each day thinking about finding, buying and/or preparing food for themselves and their families. Having to make decisions about food is something we all share. It is fundamental to the human condition."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"Last, the opportunity to work on a problem that affects a wide number of"}]},{"head":"A simple exchange system","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Next2's SMS service in Kenya and Nigeria lets farmers share local knowledge, expertise and experiences with each other, and with agricultural researchers."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"people, incorporating issues like food security, and increasing the income of small-scale farmers in emerging markets, drove Okoye and Puckett to design their SMS service. They specifically developed Next2 for those who do not have access to the internet or smartphones. The system works on any phone that can send and receive text messages, and gives farmers the possibility to share their concerns, experience and expertise, and to find others with similar interests."}]},{"head":"Local search","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The two developers built their solution to accomplish two goals. First, to facilitate the exchange of local agricultural knowledge and expertise between farmers based on common locations and interests. Second, Next2 promotes the rapid dissemination of agricultural research and best practices to farmers by giving them direct access to information from a wide range of sources using only their cell phones and SMS messaging technology. The aim, therefore, was to provide smallscale farmers with the information they would need to improve crop yield, product marketing and income."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Setting up and operating a two-way SMS service can be a complex and costly task, but this system provides a simple and efficient method of distributing timely, customised content without the need for special equipment, or expertise, and is available at a fraction of the cost of other SMS shortcode and keyword services. Next2 designed the service to be as easy to use as possible."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"For example, an organisation that wants to publish information by SMS can login on the Next2 website, set up a unique account name, and add keywords and messages that can be sent when someone sends those keywords to the system. A farmer looking for information starts a text message with the word 'get' followed by the publisher's account name and sends the message to the Next2 country phone number: 5557 in Kenya, or 08093500162 in Nigeria."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Next2 automatically sends back that publisher's keyword(s) to the farmer's mobile. The farmer can then text 'get' followed by the publisher's account name, plus the keyword to receive a message of up to 800 characters (five text messages) on that topic. The farmers only need to know a Next2 account name to discover the information that a particular organisation, or business, makes available. The farmers do not pay for the messages sent to them, only for the messages they send to the system, which cost the same as sending a regular SMS. Businesses and organisations can promote their service by listing their account name with the local Next2 phone number."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"When a farmer sends a 'get' request, the system automatically creates an account name for that individual. The farmer can also register first by texting 'reg' plus an account name and location, e.g. 'reg Robert Nairobi' . The system can then use the location information to create a 'sharing circle' of other users who have logged on within a 10 kilometres radius."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Once registered with the service, the farmer can then use one of eight SMS commands to share content with other farmers and content publishers, either in English or a local language, depending on the country. In Kenya, for example, the system works in both English and Swahili."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"To send a text message to the system, the farmer begins the text with one of eight commands. This tells the Next2 service how to process the text message, allowing the farmer to start, or stop the service, send a direct text to another farmer or content publisher, change location, increase or decrease the size of their sharing circle, or automatically exchange public or private messages with other farmers. They can text the word 'help' at any time to receive a message on how to use Next2."},{"index":8,"size":89,"text":"A farmer can send a text message about a product they have for sale, or would like to buy, or a topic they would like to discuss followed by a subject word, and Next2 automatically exchanges messages between farmers in their area. For example, a farmer looking for maize seeds would text 'want maize seeds, looking for seeds to plant and harvest, good for drought' . Another farmer that has maize seeds can then reply: 'have maize seeds for neighbour that grew well last year with little input' ."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"Each farmer gets the other's message on their cell phone and can use the reply feature to continue the conversation. The requesting farmer receives the first from the person closest to them. If no match is found the message is included the next time the system processes messages for that location."},{"index":10,"size":40,"text":"Next2 is careful to protect the farmer's privacy. The cell phone number is never revealed to other farmers or to content publishers. An SMS publisher only knows a farmer's Next2 account name and can use that to communicate with them."}]},{"head":"Common goal","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"As with any service relying on networks, its value grows exponentially as the number of participants increase. Therefore, Next2 is reaching out to major agricultural organisations and working with a number of NGOs to promote the service to small-scale farmers. The company is discussing a pilot project with a Kenyan social enterprise initiative, Kickstart, and the Sril Group of companies in Nigeria to help farmers in those countries. Meanwhile, more than 500 people are testing the new updated system, preparing it for general release."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Next2 is further developing the service with several other companies. It is hosted on Amazon's Cloud infrastructure and is integrated with mobile operators' networks via an API (application program interface -a set of computer programming commands that lets two programs interact). The company works with the mobile network operators and third-party providers to offer the service in a particular country via an SMS shortcode, and is focused on providing its messaging services to countries in Africa, Latin/Central America and Asia."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"The developers hope that their service will create locally concentrated farmer support networks that are in turn connected to the research and support organisations, businesses and the government agencies that farmers rely on for vital agricultural information and assistance."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The current pilot phase in Kenya and Nigeria is expanding and still seeking partnerships with NGOs, government ministries, input suppliers, microfinance companies, extension services and educational organisations. By helping their partners to use SMS more effectively as part of their marketing strategy, Next2 is achieving its own goals: to help small-scale farmers access the information they need to increase their income and improve food security in their communities. ◀ Noor KHAMiS / reuTerS Farmers can use the Next2 SMS service to communicate with other producers in their area, and with regional and national agricultural information providers."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"The system works on any phone that can send and receive text messages, and gives farmers the possibility to share their concerns and find others with similar interests insemination) providers and provides information on disease control."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"The iCow application is innovative because farmers can easily register themselves and their cows via SMS services. Kenyan dairy farmers are also given tailored, time-sensitive SMS updates on how to look after their cows during gestation, calving and throughout the rest of a cow's life. All they have to do is send an SMS to 5024 -iCow's four-digit code -which works on the network of providers Safaricom, Airtel and Orange. To register, the farmer sends a code message such as reg#farmername#county#. A cow can be registered by insemination date (serve#cowname#inseminationdate#) or by birth date (birth#cowname#date of birth#). Similar code messages enable farmers to find the nearest vets and AI providers. iCow's services cost the farmer five Kenyan shillings (approximately US$0.06) per SMS."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"Su Kahumbu, initiator and director of iCow, wants to bridge the information gap between younger and older farmers. But she is convinced that the way to do this is by working at the pace of the older ones to familiarize them with SMS applications. Hence, farmers may also contact iCow's customer care centre in Nairobi to speak directly to someone for advice. The older farmers appreciate this combination of SMS and direct contact, because they do not trust an absolutely virtual service."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"iCow already won the Apps4Africa award in 2010 before it was even formally launched, and more recently in April 2012 it won the Kenya Vision 2030 ICT Innovation Award in the agriculture category. iCow was also featured on Forbes.com as the best new African Mobile App. It received a grant from Indigo Trust to help the expansion process to reach more farmers in Kenya and USAID support with strategic business planning and partnerships development."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"The first results from monitoring conducted by the iCow team show that farmers' cows have increased their milk"}]},{"head":"Track your cow's development","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"A mobile phone application tracks each cow to inform the farmer about periods in gestation, feeding, milking and disease control."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"A Kenyan farmer posted a message on the Farming Kenya Facebook website in April about disease-free seeds that were available from the Kenya Agri Research Institute during a period of severe damage to young maize crops in the country. Some days later, Kenyan farmers responded overwhelmingly. This was not generated by the Facebook message, however, but by an SMS sent by iCow to 9,000 farmers announcing the news and how to contact the research institute."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"iCow was developed by Green Dream TECH Ltd and is the world's first cell phone cow calendar. It enables smallscale farmers, mostly dairy farmers, to access agricultural information and services over the cell phone. Small-scale farmers in Kenya who are registered with iCow receive livestock management and other agricultural information by using text messages on their mobile phones and on the web. The application, which started in 2011, informs 11,000 farmers and other members of the platform in Kenya about important days during the gestation period, and feeding and milking practices. It also helps farmers to find the nearest vets and AI (artificial Su Kahumbu ([email protected] ) is an organic farmer and the founder of iCow. She is the Creative Director of Green Dream TECH Ltd and is a TED Fellow."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"yields. Forty-two per cent of farmers using iCow have reported increased incomes. Half of these farmers attribute the rise to an increased milk yield ranging from 1.5 to 3 litres per cow due to better care for the cows. But iCow is not only a service geared towards providing better care and health to cows. Another of its features is a digital farmers' market. Farmers can buy and sell livestock through the iCow Soko platform by posting notices of animals they have for sale. iCow also enables farmers who only produce a small amount of milk to find each other and aggregate their product so that it can be taken to market."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Farmers are not the only members of iCow. Green Dream TECH's mobile service is also useful for many organizations, government ministries and other stakeholders in the agricultural sector. iCow draws pertinent data from the field, data that the wider agricultural sector can use to create efficiencies across the agricultural value chain. In a way, iCow is using the platform to crowdsource and collect data that is important to improve value chain development."},{"index":6,"size":186,"text":"The platform allows farmers to alert the system immediately when there are disease outbreaks, allowing everyone to react to it quickly. The local authorities can then broadcast this news to all farmers on the platform in the affected region, telling them where and when to find vaccination services. Other stakeholders are using it to advertise agricultural field days or exhibitions in certain locations, or to offer financial services. ◀ iCow is the world's first cell phone cow calendar. It enables small-scale farmers, mostly dairy farmers, to access agricultural information and services over the cell phone by using text messages on their cell phones. Launch your favourite browser and visit VC4Africa (http://vc4africa.biz/). The website's homepage invites you to open a free account. Remember that the online profile you create is the business card peers and investors alike will look for and read in order to learn more about you and your business ideas. The first registration step, though, does not require you to submit immediately a complete, detailed profile: simply choose a username, fill in your name and email address, and write a brief description of yourself."}]},{"head":"TiNA MANley / AlAMy","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ICT innovation","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Small-scale farmers in Kenya that use iCow receive livestock management and other agricultural information by using text messages","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kick-start your innovation","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"If you feel like learning more about VC4Africa before you register, visit the blogs page at vc4africa.biz/blogs. Maintained by VC4A's founders, it is updated regularly with very informative posts. The blog provides insight into VC4A's day-to-day activities. It contains summaries of the platform's services, interviews with some of the entrepreneurs in the community, meeting wrap-ups and more."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"One excellent feature of VC4africa is its 'meetups' . Meetups are official -though casual -get-togethers organized by VC4Africa across Africa and abroad, where entrepreneurs and investors meet, talk and share experiences. Without having to log into the member area of the website, you can read more about the recent meetups here: http://vc4africa.biz/ meetups/. You will get a better idea of how meetups are conducted, who has attended previous meetups and even read quotes from participants. If you join VC4Africa, you can even organize your own meetup."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"The Q&A page is where you ask questions and get answers from community members. Questions are tagged and can be searched easily by category or using the search box. Everybody is encouraged to give tips, help out new peers or just ask questions. With a community of 4,400 members from 25 different countries, you are sure to get the answer you are looking for. You can post questions anonymously but then you cannot use or benefit from any of the interactive tools the site offers, like voting, earning reputation points and subscribing to questions."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Being a VC4Africa member has many benefits. Not only can you browse through the profiles of fellow entrepreneurs, you can also see who the investors are, and what deals have been made recently. One great feature, adding a touch of fun while encouraging excellence, is the award system. With many virtual awards to be earned, members can gain a reputation in the community when they actively participate by helping their peers, sharing insights, giving advice or contributing in other ways."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"To realize their business ideas, entrepreneurs need to raise start-up capital first. Microfinancing does not always provide sufficient funding, and the big deals are just too few and far between. Start-ups are always on the lookout for potential funding opportunities, contacting and building networks of peers and curious investors to promote their business ideas. First-time entrepreneurs, lacking the necessary connections needed to find the right investor, can use VC4Africa virtual venture PureSToCK / AlAMy space to present their ideas and receive feedback from fellow members."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"All members can browse through the extensive list of individual ventures, each presented in a fact sheet, which you can use to share your own venture idea with others by entering a 'pitch' and complementing it with categories, tags and symbols that will help investors understand and find your venture. You do not have to show all the information about your venture or innovation to members: you can decide what information to make public."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"VC4Africa's user base is dynamic and quick to help or give feedback. You can connect to the website with your Facebook, Twitter or Google accounts and befriend fellow VC4A members."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"VC4Africa is meant to promote business and facilitate interaction between entrepreneurs and investors. The platform is a professional space where deals can be made but where risk exists as well. It is therefore important to read and understand the terms of service and disclaimer."},{"index":9,"size":72,"text":"VC4Africa is the fastest-growing online community of investors, 'angels' and entrepreneurs dedicated to building business in Africa. Investors can find interesting companies, see which businesses are raising capital, follow their progress and gain exclusive access to documents. They can network with fellow investors and see who is investing. Entrepreneurs use the platform to connect their young companies with other start-ups and access secure deal rooms and tools for networking with investors. ◀"}]},{"head":"Related links","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"➜ http://vc4africa.biz/ ➜ www.balancingact-africa.com/ news/en/issue-no-594/top-story/ africa-s-ict-entrepr/en VC4Africa is a professional online platform meant to promote business and facilitate interaction between entrepreneurs and investors."}]},{"head":"ICT innovation","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"VC4Africa is the fastest-growing online community of investors and entrepreneurs dedicated to building business in Africa","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resources Documents","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"World Bank Publications: Agricultural Innovation Systems Agricultural Innovation Systems: An Investment Sourcebook explains how to identify the approaches most likely to strengthen agricultural innovation systems (AIS) and promotes innovation and equitable growth. The Sourcebook provides a menu of tools and operational guidance, as well as good practice lessons. ➜ http://goo.gl/Et6Ri"}]},{"head":"World Economic Forum Technology Pioneers 2012","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"From making the internet more secure for businesses to providing health diagnostics to rural populations with limited internet access, the Technology Pioneers selection committee -comprised of entrepreneurs, investors, academics and technology experts -has chosen a leading group of young companies. Noteworthy among this year's selection is the number of companies with products that cater to poorer, underserved populations, as well as companies which offer innovative financing models for businesses and individuals. ➜ http://goo.gl/gwp2U"}]},{"head":"Agriculture needs better innovation, not technology","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The importance of farmers' capacity to access and use information for innovation has been overshadowed by the conventional view that most change is driven by new technology and technical improvements. Similarly, insufficient attention may have been given to the fact that the capacity for innovation in agriculture is influenced not only by farmers' skills and resources, but also by the wider network of links and relationships that farmers have, which help ideas to diffuse and find new uses. These hypotheses are being tested by a research project in India and Nigeria on the long-standing problem of fodder scarcity 'innovation systems' perspective. ➜ http://goo.gl/Ubd6M"}]},{"head":"ICT innovation","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Web resources","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mobile Applications Laboratories Business Plan","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"The business plan informs mobile application labs in Africa, Asia and around the world to develop sustainable business models and transition from a donor-funded start-up phase to a self-financing, sustainable phase over a three-year period. The plan's six chapters cover topics such as landscape analysis; looking at the success factors and challenges facing the labs; and business model and pricing strategies that define potential revenue streams for the services that the labs offer. The Butterfly Project This project trains rural children to be the future visionaries of their own villages and funds a comprehensive education at a special school by using their own land to grow high-value crops. Currently, Social Enterprise Africa CIC (SEA) is working in conjunction with two other organisations to implement this plan in Uganda. As the programme looked for sustainable funding solutions, it began a trial farming project in 2010, using land owned by the families of the students recruited from northern Uganda. They will now develop 60 sites with 500,000 seeds. ➜ In some parts of Africa, we are already witnessing dynamic trends in ICT-enabled innovations. This is helped a lot by the spread of mobile phone use as well as improved international broadband connectivity. Take the case of mobile money. According to the GSM Association, almost half of all known mobile money deployments are in Africa, and a quarter of those African deployments are found in the East African Community. This is no coincidence as the most successful of these schemes is M-Pesa in Kenya, which has served as an inspiration. I think such examples play a very important role in encouraging further innovation and helping both firms and individuals to search for new ideas and opportunities. Africa is transforming, and I think soon we will see greater interest among the youth to become entrepreneurs and innovators."}]},{"head":"Has social media played a role in spreading the word about opportunities?","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"➜ Technological changes are enabling the development of new software and applications, and also helping to create a demand for such products. As we will highlight in our next Information Economy Report, due to be launched in November 2012, increased reliance on peer-to-peer development models and Free and Open Source Software, as well as opportunities for crowdsourcing and freelancing, all work to increase the participation of developing countries in the global system of software production and development. Various social media support this trend, for example, by offering a platform for collaboration, problem-solving and marketing."}]},{"head":"Is there more to the expansion of tech innovation than just increased access to technology?","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"➜ Successful innovation always depends on market access. We would not have seen such a dramatic increase in mobile applications had there not been a demand for these innovations. For example, not all developers in some developing countries have equal access to electronic payment services, making it more difficult for them to sell (and be paid for) their services. Moreover, with the expansion of mobile phone use in low-income countries, there is suddenly a new market for domestically oriented mobile apps -serving local needs, interests and languages. At the same time, universities and other training institutions can play a key role, by generating the skills needed to seize new opportunities, for example."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"What are the possibilities and opportunities for the island states of the Caribbean and Pacific to develop ICT technology? ➜ For small economies there are obvious limitations -due to a shortage of skills and domestic market constraints -to how much can be done locally in terms of ICT production. At the same time, every economy stands to benefit from having at least basic domestic software development capabilities. Without these skills, it becomes more difficult -or at least more costly -to adopt, adapt to and develop the software applications needed to fully benefit from an emerging information society. Even a small island state can potentially leverage ICTs for economic diversification, for example by expanding into ICT-enabled services (such as call centres and back-office functions) and software development -on condition that it can offer adequate skills and affordable and reliable connectivity What kind of support do aspiring innovators need to ensure they reach their full potential in the coming years? ➜ Most learning, mastery and adaptive activity requires close and continuous interaction with other enterprises, such as suppliers, subcontractors, competitors and consultants, as well as with other actors, such as public R&D institutes, universities, the MSTQ (metrology, standards, testing and quality) system, small and medium enterprise extension services, venture capital funds and export marketing or training institutions. A good supportive institutional infrastructure is therefore important for effective innovation. Incentive structures that foster entrepreneurship, risk-taking and innovation at the company, industry and university level are also important. Innovators in developing countries will also benefit from having access to affordable ICT infrastructure."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"The focus at the moment is very much on producing software. What kinds of hardware developments are also going on in developing countries? ➜ Only very few developing countries have successfully managed to become major players in the hardware production system. East and Southeast Asia -led by Chinaaccounts for some two thirds of all ICT goods exports. Another 30% is taken care of by developed countries, leaving only 4% to the rest of the world -including such giants as Brazil and Mexico. There are huge economies of scale involved in ICT goods manufacturing and strict demands on power and transportation infrastructure as well as logistical systems. Such requirements place limitations on the number of countries that are in a position to succeed. The software field is very different. Even individual software developers can contribute to the development of new applications and successfully export their services through on-line platforms, such as Elance and oDesk. Moreover, there is a growing need for software applications tailored to domestic needs in developing countries. This trend can be further spurred through public procurement organized in such a way to bring domestic software enterprises into the picture while at the same time improving government services. ◀ Orange launched the service late last year, through Egyptian mobile operator Mobinil. In just one month, over 350,000 customers picked up on the service. Orange is targeting Côte d'Ivoire next with its Facebook-via-USSD service, with more countries to come throughout the year."}]},{"head":"Demanding for innovation","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"USSD sends information over 2G networks. The service is text-based, so users who do not have a data plan can still access Facebook. Users can access all of Facebook's major features -search for and invite friends, accept and deny friend requests, update their status and interact with their friends' posts with comments and likes. Users can pay either by timed sessions of 10 to 20 minutes, or they can pay per day, week or month. ➜ Read the original article: http://goo. gl/rqaPh"}]},{"head":"A message with a beat","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"Farmers in the Madang Province of Papua New Guinea are using video to record agricultural messages played on the wooden garamut drum. The farmers are working with a team from the Papua New Guinea University of Technology (PNGUT), and hope that the videos will provide valuable agricultural information as well as preserve traditional methods of communication. In an interview with Radio Australia, Dr Lilly Sar, a lecturer at PNGUT, said that the use of video will encourage younger people in the communities to become interested in, and learn more about, their traditional culture. 'The elders wanted the young people to value the social bonding that is common in PNG, ' said Sar, 'but because young people are generally moving away from the villages they lose that bonding, or it weakens. Now, the elders teach the skills of the garamut while the young people are engaged in making the videos, and we hope that this will reduce that gap. ' The project also actively involves women, and encourages them to talk on camera about food crops, bush foods and meat preservation techniques, and to also take a greater role in decision making in the community. By using the garamut to promote agricultural messages, the community expects that small-scale farmers in the area will become more self-sufficient, and improve food security in the area. Once the various traditional farming practices have been recorded, they can be added to the resources and extension material from the country's agricultural research organisations. ➜ Listen to the interview on Radio Australia: http://goo.gl/KRLuY Dispatches TiM SiKKeMA / FollowiNg THe wAy blog"}]},{"head":"ICTs' effect on sustainability","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"While ICTs have certainly provided many benefits to society in the last 20 years, technological developments have also brought a number of challenges to sustainability, according to a recent discussion published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Entitled 'ICTs, the Internet and Sustainability', the paper looks at the implications of a rapidly developing information society and considers specific areas where problems may arise."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The author, David Souter, notes that ICT-enabled innovation has affected the economies and societies of many developed and developing countries since the Rio Summit in 1992. Citizens with increased access to information have been able to communicate their thoughts and concerns with a wider group of people than previously, and enabled them to challenge traditional economic and social structures. Meanwhile, the expansion of technology has also given rise to new opportunities for crime, terror and defamation, and led to further disparities between rich and poor, young and old. The ICT sector is also the source of considerable environmental harm because it increases the demand for energy and produces electronic waste."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"The paper goes on to raise three significant questions and asks if, since this technology was not so widely available at the last Rio summit and considering all the social, political and environmental effects, we need to redefine the meaning of sustainability. ➜ Read the full paper: http://goo.gl/ CBHCX"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" project ➜ http://youtu.be/OE63BYWdqC4 BBC story on Zack ➜ http://goo.gl/UBC58 Brian Puckett ([email protected]) is co-founder of Next2 (www.next2.us). "},{"text":" ➜ http://goo.gl/OQc3K AfriLabs AfriLabs is a network organisation that promotes the growth and development of the African technology sector. By working together, the labs improve their chances of success, generating more success stories and decent work for young Africans, both as a means of self-employment and as job creation for others. Members have worked to establish the Hive Colab as Kampala's leading open collaboration space and successfully tendered to host the infoDevsponsored mobile apps lab in East Africa. ➜ http://afrilabs.com/ Coders4Africa Coders4Africa provides African programmers and developers a gateway to free highquality training and certification in the main technologies and platforms that currently dominate the software development industry. The main objective is to provide free training for 1,000 African software developers and programmers by the year 2016. Coders4Africa provides training, education and development infrastructure, logistics and intellectual support to IT professionals in Africa. The programme hopes to create a community of African programmers that share and transfer knowledge among themselves and to future generation of programmers. ➜ www.coders4africa.org Projects Promoting Farmer Experimentation and Innovation in the Sahel The action-research programme PROFEIS in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal explores how the embedding of research and extension within farming communities can enable a constructive exchange of experience and knowledge between farmers, extension workers and researchers. Relevant local innovations are identified, supported and jointly improved to contribute to increased food production. PROFEIS is coordinated by the NGO IED Afrique (Innovations, Environnement & Développement en Afrique), based in Senegal. ➜ http://goo.gl/jiaf7 "},{"text":" ➜ www.thebutterflyproject.com The SEED Initiative The SEED Initiative is a global partnership for action on sustainable development and the green economy. Founded by UNEP, UNDP and IUCN at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, SEED supports innovative small-scale and locally driven entrepreneurs around the globe that integrate social and environmental benefits into their business model. The goal of SEED is to support the ability of such entrepreneurs to scale up or replicate their activities. ➜ www.seedinit.org eu HuMANiTAriAN Aid ANd Civil ProTeCTioN boNgoHive.CoM luC gNAgo / reuTerS How do you see Africa's role in the global development of technology in the next 10 years? "},{"text":"Q&A With the expansion of cell phone use in lowincome countries, there is suddenly a new market for domestically oriented mobile appsserving local needs, interests and languages.THoMAS CoCKreM / AlAMyTorbjörn Fredriksson is responsible for UNCTAD's work on ICT for development. As such, he is the lead author of the annual Information Economy Report, which monitors global ICT trends from a development perspective.ICT innovationTorbjörN FredriKSSoN/uNCTAdText-based Facebook accessAccess to Facebook should be easier in Africa following mobile provider Orange's new initiative. Orange is the first on the African continent to use USSD (Unstructured Supplementary Service Data) technology. USSD messages create, unlike SMS messages, a real-time connection during a USSD session. The connection remains open, allowing a twoway exchange of a sequence of data. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Related links ICT Update article on mLab Southern Africa ➜ http://goo.gl/Q42LT ICT Update article on iHub ➜ http://goo.gl/RdnWr BongoHive's crowdsourced map of African tech hubs ➜ https://africahubs.crowdmap.com/ Z ack Matere is not your average farmer. Having studied for a diploma in business administration at Eldoret Polytechnic in Kenya, he ventured into white collar jobs, which he quickly abandoned to concentrate on what many people his age regarded as a poor man's job: farming. "}],"sieverID":"5daf9f2b-ab8d-4499-a521-3c742a4a1a9d","abstract":"This license applies only to the text portion of this publication."}

data/part_3/06b7dd8dc13a96dd8b77644f075000d0.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"06b7dd8dc13a96dd8b77644f075000d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2db57664-622b-4ee3-8473-591d36bb6979/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"ICARDA High Throughput Phenotyping Approach in The Context of the Modernization of Its Breeding Programs","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":309,"text":"During the past 40 years ICARDA has been developing germplasm for the non-tropical dry areas that lead to the release of more than 880 varieties of its mandate crops, that generated benefits worth US$ 850 million every year. Under the umbrella of the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding initiative and partly supported by the Arab Found for Development, ICARDA developed a full plan for the modernization of its breeding programs with a unique high throughput phenotyping (HTP) approach across the CG centres. Its approach comprises a fully automated HTP machine \"PhenoBuggy\" located at Marchouch, ICARDA's main breeding station in Morocco and a precision phenotyping platform located also in Morocco in Settat area, characterized by a harsh climate. Our \"PhenoBuggy\" combines RGB, LiDAR and a multispectral sensor that works simultaneously for determining vegetation index, green fraction, green area index, fraction of intercepted radiation, canopy and leaf chlorophyll content, plant height, biomass, spike density and stem diameter. The system allows to scan around 4000 plots per day therefore it suits the needs of the different breeding programs. The precision phenotyping platform combine the use of proxies for important physiological traits, and a rainout shelter lysimetric facility called PhysioTron equipped with a gantry carrying a semiautomated HTP system. The PhysioTron and its HTP system allows to phenotype up to 750 genotypes for both aboveground and below ground traits such green fraction, greenness, ear number, plant height and biovolume and agro-climatic traits. All these efforts were done by ICARDA with aim of continue developing climate-smart crops taking advantage of the biodiversity available a in our genebank, pre-breeding and breeding program. The aim of this work is introducing our HTP pipeline and data from different crop from the first acquisition campaign, including data related with Roo2Res and BarleyMicroBreed projects that focuses on the identification for aboveground traits related with root architecture and drought stress tolerance."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b998286c-e73b-47f4-96ee-b8b94c92ddda","abstract":""}

data/part_3/06fd993990b5450f6482da28adbde074.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@


1	+ {"metadata":{"id":"06fd993990b5450f6482da28adbde074","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dda2eefd-d0de-4434-8edb-db27c04a7b94/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3315 Contributing Projects: • P2059 -ICARDA Flagship 1 project","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a43823a8-f0bf-405c-8bc7-c5b77991a09f","abstract":""}

data/part_3/07243a03b1c8d922a343a77989aece47.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"07243a03b1c8d922a343a77989aece47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ae9d75a-7bcf-4e0b-8377-2f799e498ba3/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Photo report on Africa RISING R4D and Scaling initiatives field visit in Southern Tigray, Ethiopia, 24","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Africa RISING in the Ethiopian highlands has started the second phase program implementing since October 2017. During the first year, the project managed to conduct action research through Research for Development (R4D) approach and scaling activities with strong development partnership. The R4D activities are mainly on livestock feed resources and improved crop varieties. The scaling work focused mainly on demonstration of crop, livestock and Natural resources Management (NRM) validated innovations/technologies, seed multiplication and facilitating dissemination to reach more areas and farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"8b199651-9289-477f-960f-0243cd0076f0","abstract":""}

data/part_3/074919cfb86f669e7df3509eec10bb45.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"074919cfb86f669e7df3509eec10bb45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1e2e0e18-ceef-4e4c-ac63-8d55de642200/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Trainers/facilitators","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Chhay Ty, deputy director, LDC [email protected] Fred Unger, veterinary epidemiologist, ILRI [email protected] Hung Nguyen, senior scientist, food safety and ecohealth, ILRI [email protected] Rortana Chea, researcher, NAHPRI [email protected] Silvia Alonso, senior scientist, ILRI [email protected] Sinh Dang, consultant, ILRI [email protected] Sothyra Tum, director, NAHPRI [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Course description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The training course was held on 24-25 February 2020 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia under the framework of the Safe Food, Fair Food for Cambodia project, a three-year research project funded by the United States Agency for International Development through the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. The project aims to improve food safety in informal markets in Cambodia through risk-based approaches."}]},{"head":"Course objectives","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"1. Share the findings and intervention plans of the Safe Food, Fair Food for Cambodia project. 2. Get input on the intervention plans from provincial veterinarians, market management board members and traders."}]},{"head":"Summary of training sessions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Twenty-one participants attended the training on both days (15 males and 6 females on the first day; 12 males and 9 females on the second day). Trainees were drawn from NAHPRI, LDC and local veterinary offices from six provinces of Cambodia. They were trained on good hygiene practices to improve the safety of pork in traditional markets in Cambodia. On the first day, food safety experts from the project guided trainees on how to implement the interventions at pork shops. On the second day, the trainees visited Tuol Tompoung market for pilot training of pork retailers on how to improve hygiene conditions."}]},{"head":"Day 1","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Tum Sothyra began by providing an overview of the project. Rortana Chea, a PhD student attached to the project, then introduced the project intervention package which includes improvement of hygiene practices. The first day had three sessions. In the first session, trainees learned the theory of food safety and food hygiene practices. In the second session, trainees were introduced to good hygiene practices and equipment and guided on how to use the equipment at pork shops. The third session dealt with branding and certification to promote retailers who comply good hygiene practices; this includes a set of materials like aprons, posters, a certificate and award. At the end of each session, trainees worked in small groups to review the acquired knowledge. At the end of the day, trainees were divided into three groups to discuss how to roll out the training of trainers for pork retailers in wet markets. Below is a summary of the group discussions."}]},{"head":"Group 1","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• The duration of the training should be 1-2 hours as retailers are busy. Individual hands-on training is preferred. • Equipment should pre-tested with retailers before training and given to them right after the training."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• After the training, retailers should be issued with certificates signed by NAHPRI, LDC and provincial departments of animal health."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Veterinary officers should observe and follow up with retailers after the training to ensure that good hygiene practices are implemented correctly."}]},{"head":"Group 2","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• The training should be divided into two courses: theory of hygiene practices and hands-on application."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• The training should be carried out at district animal health or market offices."}]},{"head":"Group 3","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• A single 30-minute training course is preferred."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• The training should be carried out at the market or district animal health offices."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Trained pork retailers should be issued with certificates."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Feedback should be collected from the pork retailers after the training."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• The training content should include fly control, waste management at the market, washing hands and cutting boards, and using easy-to-clean surfaces for meat."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"At the end of the first day, all participants agreed on the following points:"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• Certificates signed by NAHPRI, LDC and provincial departments of animal health will be issued to the trained retailers. • Training will combine theory and hands-on application."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• A video will be to demonstrate good hygiene practices at pork shops of trained retailers."}]},{"head":"Day 2","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Twenty-one participants visited pork shops at Tuol Tompoung market in Phnom Penh, talked with pork retailers, guided them on good hygiene practices and received their feedback on communication materials including a handbook on good hygiene practices to improve pork safety in wet markets, posters and aprons."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"e2b41dac-5b6b-4869-8ed1-c866cd441c3a","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}

data/part_3/0777f656602d18752298a5e19699bc17.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0777f656602d18752298a5e19699bc17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1761/1_GD.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Valuing the Economic Contributions to Fisheries","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Figures on employment and income in fisheries typically only count direct fishing work that leads to cash payments or fish production for home consumption. this overlooks the unpaid work such as net mending and help with boat-building that women do, often, as in rural philippines, as part of their marital obligations."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"ChanGinG traditions: a summary report on the First Global looK at the Gender dimensions oF Fisheries m.J. Williams irene novaczek and Jean mitchell in their paper entitled \"Constructing realities: documenting women's fisheries in the pacific islands\", noted that we should do away with gender stereotyping. Women's activities in fisheries are often regarded as low-value versus men's activities which are considered high-value. these assumptions are reflective of western, industrial values that are rooted in dichotomous patterns of analysis which leads to gender discrimination."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Chao nai-hsien of the taiwan Fisheries research institute tracked down successful women entrepreneurs for her research on \"Women's involvement in processing and the globalization of processing in fisheries and aquaculture in taiwan\" and found that their businesses largely employed women and showed great creativity in developing new products and markets, including global markets. the businesses were mainly in post-harvest products, ranging from high-end pearl and coral items to convenience foods and surprising new foods such as mooncakes containing tuna bellies. the businesses often combined the basics of post-harvest fisheries food products with new directions in artwork, gourmet, use of byproducts and fashion. many of the businesses are global and nearly all use the internet extensively."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"the symposium also heard how, in european, philippine and pacific studies, women tended not to view their efforts as \"work\" but rather saw them as family obligations. Katia Frangoudes, of the university of brest (France) who presented a paper on \"legal recognition of women's contribution in fisheries and aquaculture in the european union\", noted that \"a few women in our european studies found that learning to understand and value their efforts as work, in the full economic sense, raised their status in the family and raised their own self-confidence\". similar results are shown by the study conducted by marieta banez-sumagaysay of the university of the philippines in the Visayas, on \"Gender stratification in fish production systems: women do have economic power\" where she mentioned that although women's various forms of fisheries labor are strategically indispensable (both a positive and a negative factor for the women and the family), basic training in business and technical skills could increase women's monetary contribution to the family and community incomes."},{"index":5,"size":128,"text":"another economic consequence of excluding or overlooking women, youths and children in fisheries matters comes from the breakdown of local fishing rules, if the knowledge of these groups is left out. irene novaczek of the university of prince edward island in Canada presented the paper \"Gender and generation: crucial aspects of local fisheries management on lelepa island, Vanuatu\" which she co-authored with Jean tarisesei. When the chiefs of the island of lelepa in Vanuatu set up protected areas without consulting women and male youths, this led to breakdowns in the protected areas system. the youths were openly defiant of the fishing bans and the women were led, in desperation, to fish illegally as the location of the protected areas made their inshore fishing nearly impossible to carry out."},{"index":6,"size":402,"text":"Human Dimensions of Fisheries Regulations, Policies and Institutions surprisingly, well-meaning policies and regulations can often ignore the human side of those who work under them. an international labour organization -department for international development study conducted by md. nazmul ahsan and co-workers on the \"alternative livelihood options for female workers in shrimp processing industries in bangladesh\" noted that european union-certified seafood processing plants in bangladesh showed that while the plants met the product quality requirements using hazard analysis and Critical Control point management (haCCp), many were not careful of the conditions under which employees, mainly women, worked on the factory floor. Workers often spent extended periods standing in chilled waters in order to fulfill the requirements for top quality export shrimp. significantly in this context, a study by d.a.m. de silva and mashiro yamao on \"the involvement of female labor in seafood processing in sri lanka: impact of organizational fairness and supervisor evaluation on employee commitment\" showed that women's perceptions of workplace fairness and justice had the greatest impact on whether these educated but low-paid workers were committed to their work. Commitment is an essential requirement to create quality products. trade policies, national fisheries codes and international fisheries instruments often pay little attention to gender. Jovelyn Cleofe in her presentation \"looking for women in philippine fisheries policies: research to determine advocacy points for fisheries\" reported that, in the philippines, action research with women in the fisheries sector had generated the concept of developing a \"magna Carta for Women\" aimed, among several objectives, to get greater formal representation of women in local level fishing management bodies. in langalanga lagoon in malaita, solomon islands, women have traditionally been involved with the preparation and sale of shell money. Fidali-hickle and Whippey-morris described in their presentation \"no shells, no langalanga: hard times in malaita, solomon islands\" how the decreased demand for shell money in their hometown led to the need for women to leave their home to travel to honiara to sell their products. their absence from home often led to quarrels with their husbands and even to divorce. in the Canadian far north, Joanna Kafarowski of the university of north british Columbia, in her study \"Valuing local knowledge in the Canadian arctic: how the involvement of local peoples results in relevant resource management decisions\" found that nunavut women were rarely represented in the local hunters and trappers organizations and on the co-management councils at higher levels."},{"index":7,"size":239,"text":"according to the study \"Women in fish border trade: the case of fish trade between Cambodia and thailand\" by Kyoko Kusakabe of the asian institute of technology (ait) and co-authors, Cambodian women in the cross-border trade of fish from tonle sap into thailand are caught in a squeeze between the merchants handling the fish from Cambodia and the border authorities and business people such as transport operators. the traders, almost all of whom are women, would benefit from more equitable trade arrangements, such as realistic and transparent tariff schedules that are implemented predictably. the women traders also have no links with the management of tonle sap fisheries. the vulnerability of the women makes them targets for pressures from all parties in the border supply chain. this theme, the difficulties of women fish traders, was repeated in other papers. For example, in Kiribati, maere tekanene in her paper \"the women fish traders of tarawa, Kiribati\" reported that women fish traders labor under the most basic of conditions, paying their market fees but receiving few services in return. in bangladesh, sadeka salim and md. Kawser ahmed, a sociologist of the university of dhaka, in their paper \"Women and fisheries in bangladesh: level of involvement and scope for enhancement\" recommended that the emerging group of women fish traders would be assisted in the market place if they were deliberately allocated some space, rather than have to compete with the well-established male traders."}]},{"head":"Mainstreaming Gender Considerations in All Fisheries Activities","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":314,"text":"Globalization, booming seafood markets and declining fisheries resources are driving changes in traditions in the fisheries sector. the symposium recognized the breadth and depth of changes needed to create a gender-sensitive fisheries sector and make real improvements in the lives of those involved. the honorable b.a. dada, minister of agriculture and rural development of nigeria, who attended the symposium, stressed the importance of governments not leaving out a significant percentage of the population from economic activity. Countries need not just policies, but also strategies to implement the policies for sustainable development of fisheries and economic empowerment of women. the regional mekong river Commission's Fisheries program has an official policy to mainstream gender, according to napaporn sriputinibondh of the thailand department of Fisheries. in her presentation \"Gender mainstreaming in mekong fisheries: from policy to practice\" which she co-authored with others, she noted the major shift underpinning this policy-a shift from women as the target of welfare help, to gender equity as the desired outcome. m.C. nandeesha in his paper \"Gender status in indian fisheries education, research and development organizations\" reported on major studies of gender in indian universities, and fisheries research and technical organizations. overall, women's participation is low, for example, only 18% of graduates from university fisheries courses and 14% of researchers in the national fisheries research system are women. yet women have reached some high positions and several have world-class research reputations. Women's participation rates vary by state and are linked to female literacy and social status. Kerala, with the highest literacy rate in india, tops most tables. in the Kerala Fisheries College, women comprised 70% on average of the top 10 fisheries graduates from 1995 to 2003. to achieve greater gender equity will need sensitization of senior leaders, a curriculum that is more gender sensitive and action on the support facilities for women in the education system, including ensuring their physical security."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"to address gender sensitization in university curricula, the m.s. swaminathan research Foundation in Chennai has created a course on this topic for agricultural students and is delivering this in collaboration with the Kerala agriculture university. such curricula are needed in fisheries education also. Within organizations delivering gendered programs, such as Care-bangladesh, a gender-sensitive workplace has been created to support the delivery. other economic sectors appear to be more advanced in mainstreaming gender than is fisheries and the symposium attendees recognized that lessons could be learned from agriculture and forestry."},{"index":3,"size":247,"text":"another form of mainstreaming is bringing the fisheries sector into the health, education and other empowerment programs of the wider community. this is being done with respect to baseline nutrition studies in india under the national agriculture technology program, reported by Vijaya Khader et al. in their paper \"nutritional status and socioeconomic empowerment of fisherwomen in the coastal ecosystem of andhra pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and tamil nadu\". more than 70% of the women were anemic, even though about 60% of earnings were spent on food. discrimination against girls in terms of nutrition and education varied with the educational level of parents. in Kerala, where literacy levels for both women and men are higher than in other parts of the country, such discrimination is gradually being eliminated from the society. stella Williams et al. in their paper \"Fishing: what has hiV/aids got to do with it?\" reported on efforts in southern nigeria to educate rural fishing communities that hiV/aids is not only a disease of the cities; students and nongovernmental organizations have been mobilized to visit and educate the fishing communities. in northeast thailand, leah sullivan of ait, in her study \"the impacts of aquaculture development in relation to gender in northeastern thailand\" found that even when women benefited from the income of new cage culture operations, they still seemed to lack the mobility of men in the same communities. by using a gender lens in her studies on fisheries, she revealed more general questions on women's empowerment."}]},{"head":"Strengthening the Basis of Gender and Fisheries Research","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"the emerging field of \"gender and fisheries research\" still has a long way to go in terms of accepted and rigorous methods. emerging only in the 1990s as a descriptive enterprise, it is only now starting to stimulate original research studies. it is not well connected to the more established fields of gender and development research but is gaining greater acceptance in fisheries research as shown by the focus at the asian Fisheries Forum. the Gender and Fisheries symposium was among one of the more popular topics, capturing sufficient papers for a full two-day event."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"the symposium debated the difficulty of distinguishing research, action research and advocacy in gender and fisheries work. to be academically respectable, distinctions are essential. yet, in separating the different professional engagements, the attendees felt that close links were desirable so that relevant policy and management results were able to be immediately taken up. the field of gender and fisheries research was emerging in response to the perceived need for action. at this early stage, gender and fisheries research was seen to be in need of more rigorous methods to address the research questions. much data were gathered using standard social science methods such as focus group discussions, semi-structured questionnaires and household surveys. Further exploration of the best ways to use such instruments in gender studies was needed. in addition, most quantitative studies suffered from lack of sexdisaggregated background statistics. sex-disaggregated data should be encouraged in national data collections as well as in research."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"if gender and fisheries is to become a respectable field of academic endeavor, it will need to generate undergraduate and postgraduate university programs, recognized research methodologies and academic status as well as recognition for its impacts and utility to the betterment of people's lives. already, among fisheries specialists, gender and fisheries is starting to be seen as a serious topic and the asian Fisheries society and the WorldFish Center have really shown a strong role through the triennial forums, this being the third forum to feature women/gender symposia."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"the symposium challenged researchers to find out what they can do to help the world understand the gender dimensions of fisheries. the target is to help those involved in the fisheries sector-fish workers, their families, fisheries policymakers, nongovernmental agencies and technical experts-to create new opportunities and solve current problems. the symposium provided new views and insights, and the open discussion at the end settled on four principal directions for future action: to investigate in depth the economic contributions of all segments of fishing communities; to put human dimensions into all formal fisheries regulations, policies and plans; to bring gender considerations into the mainstream of all fisheries activities, from fishing to the organization of research; and to support these actions by strengthening the basis of gender and fisheries research."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"the Global Gender and Fisheries symposium made a start by highlighting the economic contributions of all genders and ages to fisheries. much more needs to be done to understand how gender affects the operations of the sector and what actions and policies could bring change for the better in the empowerment of the different groups. the symposium concluded that researchers needed to study, in more detail, the contributions of all segments of communities to different fisheries to create the basis for a better understanding. beyond research, fisheries regulations, policies and plans would be enhanced by embedding gender and other human dimensions. overall, the sector needs to mainstream gender in all activities, starting with the gender sensitization of organizations dealing with fisheries and including all fisheries programs and support. Gender and fisheries research is a nascent field of academic work and one that is grappling with its linkages to policy development and action. its basis needs to be better developed through synergies with other academic fields concerned with gender and development and by greater attention to relevant and rigorous research methods, both qualitative and quantitative, the latter having regard to good sex-disaggregated data. the symposium discussion concluded that women in the fisheries sector are up against advocacyformidable challenges from language difficulties, lack of funds and lack of representation."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"0b22b366-24a0-464d-b629-6de798039e21","abstract":"Changing traditions: a summary report on the first global look at the gender dimensions of fisheries in penang, famous for its seafood and maritime history, and located right in the heart of asia, the asian Fisheries society and the WorldFish Center conducted the first ever Global symposium on Gender and Fisheries on 1-2 december 2004. the symposium, held in conjunction with the seventh asian Fisheries Forum, attracted 30 papers by over 100 authors and strong audience discussions covering countries from Kiribati, through asia pacific, africa, and europe to the arctic. the flavor of the symposium was of changing traditions and awakening to the contributions of different people to fisheries.Fishing and aquaculture are usually pictured as occupations or recreations of men-hauling nets and lines in dangerous seas, piloting fishing boats, constructing fish ponds and cages and negotiating with fish traders and fisheries officials. throughout the world, what these pictures miss are the contributions and roles of women, youths and even children. studies and closer observation of fisheries and communities are starting to put together descriptions, stories and hard statistics on the contributions of these other segments of our societies. the invisible groups, in fact, may contribute more economically than the traditionally recognized fishers. While scientists may still have a long way to go to substantiate such a conclusion, the discussions at the Global symposium pointed the way forward to understanding the full human dimensions of fisheries and how they are starting to change."}

data/part_3/07a823dc06e30f38211025d9892b6b72.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/07e42c42e6f522ee56d5f37148b0e0b5.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/0845f2968a04ae211dd5736a1a41edff.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0845f2968a04ae211dd5736a1a41edff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28526854-a4c6-40c2-be22-97be5b5b7eaa/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Scaling up climate services for agriculture in Mali Initial findings from piloted implementation of PICSA approach in Africa RISING project intervention zone, southern Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":300,"text":"The Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach, designed by the University of Reading (UoR), focuses on improving farmers' livelihood and resilience against the effect of climate change. It provides farmers with accurate, locally specific climate and weather information; coupled with diverse, locally pertinent options for crops, livestock and other livelihood activities; and the use of participatory planning tools to improve and enlighten their decision making based on their individual situations. PICSA is a step by step approach, primarily designed for field extensionists 1 An investigation of the effects of PICSA in Northern Ghana 2 Assessment of the use of PICSA in Mali and Senegal to help them integrate new tools in their activities with farmers and improve the efficiency and impact of those activities on farmer's enterprises. In West Africa, the PICSA approach has been implemented in Ghana 1 , Mali 2 and Senegal 1 , under the CCAFS funded project \"Capacitating African Smallholders with Climate Advisories and Insurance Development (CASCAID-I)\" lead by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF). This yielded a collaboration between the CCAFS and Africa RISING programs to scale out climate information services (CIS) in the Africa RISING sites (Figure 2) in Bougouni, Mali, through the dissemination of the PICSA approach, in order to capacitate farmers and enable them to practice more productive, resilient, profitable and sustainable intensified crop-livestock systems linked to markets. A training 3 on the PICSA approach was organized in early May 2017 in Bougouni district. In total, 19 agricultural intermediaries, from diverse institutions including NGOs, research organizations, and national institutions, were trained on PICSA. Eight of these agents trained 200 farmers (of which 43% were women) in four villages in Bougouni, namely Dieba, Flola, Madina, and Sibirila, by the end of May 2017."}]},{"head":"PICSA implementation in Mali under Africa RISING project by CCAFS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In order to understand the usefulness of the PICSA approach for farmers and their different agricultural activities, two quantitative field data collections were conducted using the computer assisted personal interview and face-to-face methods. In total, 61 randomly selected farmers, across the four villages were interviewed. The first survey was carried out in October 2017. It aimed at evaluating the PICSA components and their usefulness while collecting farmers' agricultural activities and socio-economic information. The second survey was to collect information about crop production and the impact of PICSA training on farmers' livelihoods. The questionnaire was developed and administered using the Open Data Kit (ODK) platform. "}]},{"head":"Respondent reaction to PICSA training","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"The randomly selected farmers who took part in the training were questioned on the different components of the PICSA approach, the information they received and their usefulness. The PICSA approach consists of a range of steps on which farmers are trained in three to five meetings based on their availability. Prior to starting the questionnaire, farmers were first asked if they had been trained on PICSA, and then asked if the information received had been useful in their planning and decision making for the previous crop season. Nearly all the farmers received a training on the different PICSA 3 Empowering farmers with climate information for agricultural decision making in rural Mali components and the majority (over 87%, see Table 1) declared that the information they received on each of the steps was useful in their planning and decision making. There was no dissimilarity in the responses when respondents were split into female and male groups. Table 1: PICSA elements and their perceived usefulness."}]},{"head":"PICSA elements and tool","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Respondents trained (n=61)","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Trained respondent who found the elements useful in their planning and decision making","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Farmers were also queried about which of the PICSA elements they found to be the most important. The analyzed results show that seasonal climate forecast (SCF, 43%) and resource allocation maps (RAM, 21%) were classified as the most important PICSA components. Farmers declared that the SCF had helped them understand how the season would be and helped them to plan activities through improved decision making, while the RAM gave them the opportunity to better understand their household resources and improve their allocation while improving their management. Farmers also stated that the historical climate information helped them understand the concept of climate change and variability and clarify their fallacious belief that the amount of rainfall has been decreasing constantly over the years."}]},{"head":"Farmers' management changes and perceived impact on crops, livestock and other livelihoods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The survey also included questions to investigate the changes made by farmers to their different enterprisesnamely agricultural activities that included crops and livestock, and non-agricultural activities (e.g. commerce) and the impact those changes had on their enterprises. In total 59% of the trained farmers declared having made changes to their crops, livestock and other livelihood activities. This included only 24% of the women interviewed against 84% of the men interviewed (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Figure 3 shows that all the farmers, who declared having made changes to their activities (agricultural and nonagricultural) as a result of the PICSA training, have made changes to their crop management. Approximately one third of these farmers have made changes in their livestock activities, and a smaller portion, one tenth of the respondents, made changes in their other livelihood or non-agricultural activities. Women farmers did not make substantial changes in their activities, which may be because they are not the decision makers."}]},{"head":"Crops","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The quantitative data analysis revealed that 59% of the respondents made changes on their crop management practices, with the main crop management change being sowing date (92%), seconded by the choice of a new variety (75%) and the choice of a new crop (17%) which included groundnut, maize, millet, sorghum and rice."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Among the farmers who made changes on their sowing dates, 70% (women: 12%, men: 58%) sowed early because of the seasonal climate forecast (ii) and secondly, they wanted their crop to take advantage of the first rain and the humidity in the soil. They declared that this had a positive impact on their crop development which successfully germinated and reached maturity by the end of the cropping season. In addition, farmers also reported an improvement in the water stress resilience of their crops during the dry spell periods due to the soil and water conservation techniques. A large proportion of interviewed farmers (91%) wished to have made more changes on their crop management, but were hindered by lack of finances (86%), lack of labor availability (50%) and limited access to input (33%)."}]},{"head":"Livestock","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Amid the respondents who affirmed having made changes to their practices as a result of the PICSA training, 64% (4% being women) were owner of a livestock herd. 83% of the latter famers have made changes on their livestock management (5% being women). The majority of farmers (89%) decided to build a shelter to protect their livestock from the dry spell forecasted to be longer than normal early in the season that year and from the predicted above normal rainfall amount expected in the region which had a positive impact on their livestock health. The second most livestock management change carried by farmers is the vaccination of livestock (53%), followed by livestock feed improvement (37%), and decrease in livestock size (32%). Women focused on vaccinating their livestock and decreasing the size of their heard. These management changes had positive impact on farmers' activities, ranging from increase in milk production, consequently increase in revenues and food security. In addition, farmers stated that this has improved their animal health and increased their weight, while reducing animal's mortality rate."}]},{"head":"Other livelihood","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Nearly a third of the farmers who made changes on their activities management as a result of PICSA stated having other livelihood activities with the majority doing commerce. Sixty percent (60%) of these farmers (33% women) declared having made changes on their nonagricultural activities. The majority of farmers had improved on their non-agricultural activities management (83%), followed by increase and decrease in the size of these latter. Farmers declared that these new managements practices have resulted in revenue increase (83%). Farmers who made changes tp their agricultural and nonagricultural management were questioned on their behavioral change towards farming using Linkert style statements. Eighty-size percent of farmers declared that, thanks to the information received, they have improved their planning and decision making over the past season (Table 2). They also feel more resilient and able to cope with bad years (caused by climatic risks), and they now see farming as a business. Farmers also stated that they would have loved if the training was done earlier in the years to allow them to plan their cropping season activities on time. Actually, the training was conducted in the third week of May coinciding with the beginning of farming activities. This may be the reason why they felt the training took much of their time, particularly women (71%) as they were tied up with both farming and household chores."}]},{"head":"Farmers' attitude changes as a result of PICSA information sharing","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Spillover effect: are farmers sharing the information received and how was it useful to their peers?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Respondents were asked if they had shared the PICSA information with their peers, as the components of the approach have been designed to be shared by farmers."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Results showed that 75% of the respondents (including 64% of the women, and 83% of the men) shared information with other peers in their rural areas."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"On average, six women and eight men received PICSA information from a PICSA female trainee, while 11 women and 14 men received PICSA information from a PICSA male trainee, suggesting that men are more likely to share the information received than women; this difference may be attributed to cultural beliefs and the exposure men have compared to women. Respondents shared PICSA information with 10 women and 12 men on average. Thus, 1012 farmers (460 women and 552 men) received PICSA information from the survey respondents. Consequently, we can deduce that the 200 trained farmers shared the PICSA information they received with a total of 3300 farmers in their area. This demonstrates the interest farmers in Bougouni have in the PICSA approach."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"During the survey, 52 farmers (of which 10% were women) who did not attend the PICSA training were also surveyed. Results show that 54% of these farmers declared having received information from the PICSA trainees. Thirty-two percent of farmers reported having made changes in their agricultural activities as a result of the information they received from PICSA trainees and have found PICSA elements useful."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The implementation of the activity \"Scaling out Climate Information Services use through the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture approach to developing Climate-Smart Villages in the Africa RISING site of Bougouni, Mali\" allowed for the capacity building of 200 farmers in decision making processes in agriculture using climate information services. The majority of farmers who took part in the training found it very useful as the tools and information provided helped them to plan their agricultural activities. Thus, it is worth scaling PICSA out to a larger number of farmers to improve their ability to manage their agricultural and non-agricultural activities."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Further reading "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Photo of the participants who took part in the PICSA training of trainers. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Map of the districts covering the villages where PICSA was implemented in Bougouni, Mali. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"The information received has made me more confident in planning and decision making 86% 86% 97% The information received through the training has influenced my planning and decision making over the past season. Attitudes All (n=38) Females (n=7) Males (n=31) AttitudesAll(n=38)Females(n=7)Males(n=31) 86% 86% 97% 86%86%97% I feel I I feel I "},{"text":"am more resilient and able to cope with bad years (caused by weather) thanks to the training. Figure 3. Farmers who made changes in their different enterprises as the result of the PICSA training. as more of a business than I did as more of a business than I did 59% 24% 83% previously. 100% Following the training and the 24% 83% 20% 40% 60% 80% result of the decisions I made, I feel like my social status has improved. Thinking about the training I felt that it took too much of my time. Percentage (%) I 4% 71% 50% 57% 86% 71% 8% 11% 77% 61% 59% 24% 83% previously. 100% Following the training and the 24% 83% 20% 40% 60% 80% result of the decisions I made, I feel like my social status has improved. Thinking about the training I felt that it took too much of my time. Percentage (%) I4% 71% 50% 57%86% 71%8%11% 77% 61% 0% 0% All Crops Livestock Livelihoods AllCropsLivestockLivelihoods All (n=61) Female (n=25) Males (n=36) All (n=61)Female (n=25)Males (n=36) 86% 86% 97% 86%86%97% The decision that I have taken The decision that I have taken because of the information because of the information received through this training have 86% 86% 97% received through this training have86%86%97% improved my household food improved my household food security. security. The decision that I have taken The decision that I have taken because of the information received have increased my 86% 86% 97% because of the information received have increased my86%86%97% household income household income Thanks to the training, I have been Thanks to the training, I have been able to improve the health care of 83% 86% 94% able to improve the health care of83%86%94% my household members. my household members. Thanks to the training, I have been Thanks to the training, I have been able to pay my children's 74% 71% 84% able to pay my children's74%71%84% education. education. As a result of the training that I have received, I now see farming 86% 86% 97% As a result of the training that I have received, I now see farming86%86%97% "},{"text":"think the training could have been done earlier in the year to allow me to plan my agricultural season early before the start of the cropping season. 86% 86% 97% 86%86%97% "},{"text":"Table 2 : Respondents' attitude towards farming after the information received during the training. "},{"text":" Dayamba DS, Ky-Dembele C, Bayala J, Dorward P, Clarkson G, Sanogo, D, Mamadou LD, Traoré I, Diakité A, Nenkam A, Binam JN, Ouedraogo M, Zougmore R. 2018. Assessment of the use of Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach by farmers to manage climate risk in Mali and Senegal. Climate Services 12-35.This brief summarizes findings of the activity \"Scaling out Climate Information Services (CIS) use through the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach\" as part of the collaboration between CCAFS and Africa RISING.Pierre Sibiry Traore ([email protected]) is a remote sensing and GIS head at ICRISAT, Mali. n Dorward P, Clarkson G, Stern R. 2015. Participatory n Dorward P, Clarkson G, Stern R. 2015. Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA): Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA): Field Manual. Reading: Walker Institute, University of Field Manual. Reading: Walker Institute, University of Reading. Reading. n Andree M. Nenkam ([email protected]) is a n Andree M. Nenkam ([email protected]) is a Scientific Officer at ICRISAT, Mali. Scientific Officer at ICRISAT, Mali. Mathieu Ouedraogo ([email protected]) is a Mathieu Ouedraogo ([email protected]) is a CCAFS Senior Scientist, based at ICRISAT, Mali. CCAFS Senior Scientist, based at ICRISAT, Mali. Bouba Traore ([email protected] ) is a consultant Bouba Traore ([email protected] ) is a consultant on climate change at ICRISAT, Mali. on climate change at ICRISAT, Mali. Dicko M. Moctar ([email protected]) Dicko M. Moctar ([email protected]) Is a social development program manager for Is a social development program manager for Association Malienne d'Éveil au Développement Association Malienne d'Éveil au Développement Durable (AMEDD) Mali. Durable (AMEDD) Mali. Issa Kassogue ([email protected]) is a Issa Kassogue ([email protected]) is a Research Technician at ICRISAT, Mali. Research Technician at ICRISAT, Mali. "}],"sieverID":"97aff9a3-36be-4ca6-bd5f-bd24e7cea5a6","abstract":"n PICSA has improved farmers' ability to manage climate risks in agricultural and non-agricultural activities. Thus, scaling PICSA to a larger population of farmers would improve food security in the region and in the country at large.n 200 rural farmers were trained on the PICSA approach in Bougouni district in May 2017.n Trained farmers found the PICSA approach very useful, viz. information on seasonal forecasts, resource allocation maps, and participatory budgeting.n A majority (59%) of farmers have improved their management practices for crops, livestock, and other livelihood enterprises.n Farmers are sharing information they received during the PICSA training with their peers.n Through historical climate information, farmers were able to understand the concepts of climate change and variability, and adjust their perception that rainfall was steadily decreasing."}

data/part_3/087c8ffaba6661400964cbefee7f712b.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"087c8ffaba6661400964cbefee7f712b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e5572a5-773a-4047-822b-eefe499010b0/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #2965 Contributing Projects: • P12 -ILRI Mitigation in livestock systems and LED pathways • P785 -Stimulating adoption of nutrition sensitive climate smart agriculture by aligning national level agenda with implementation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"• Enabled environment for climate resilience • Increased access to diverse nutrient-rich foods Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: After seven years of implementing the Policy Action for Climate Adaptation (PACCA), the project management team in close collaboration with the flagship ;leadership and CCAFS East Africa, it was found imperative that we look at the entire work that the project embarked on for the past years. The purpose was to collect the achievements in one place but also derive lessons that can be used by other upcoming initiatives. "}]},{"head":"Geographic scope","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:18 (GMT+0) : : • Multi-national • Multi-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • Uganda • Uganda • Ethiopia • Ethiopia Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications: Links to MELIA publications: <Not Defined> <Not Defined> 1 1 "}],"sieverID":"9b2643d2-0bd0-4123-83be-40eaa2934464","abstract":""}

data/part_3/08abed2ebed29368763ca016996c1dc9.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"08abed2ebed29368763ca016996c1dc9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H044064.pdf"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Comparison of irrigation performance based on management and cropping types","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"Irrigation is highly expected to play a major role in the realization of Ethiopian food security and poverty alleviation strategy. Irrigation enhances agricultural production and improves the food supply, income of rural population, opening employment opportunities for the poor, supports national economy by producing industrial crops that are used as raw materials for value adding industries and exportable crops. From this important viewpoint irrigation projects are widely studied, planed and implemented throughout the country. However, little or no attention is given to the monitoring and evaluation of the performance of already established irrigation schemes. Whether traditional or modern, public agency or community managed many of the existing irrigation systems are deteriorating in their physical structures, operation and management. Performance assessment is used to identify the present status of the scheme with respect to the selected indicators and will help to identify 'why the scheme is performing so' which in turn imply means of improvement. Of course performance evaluation needs relevant and reliable data which is rarely measured in Ethiopia. According to Clemmens, A.J. and Molden. D.J. (2007) two major approaches to performance evaluation are to consider, how well service is being delivered and the outcomes of irrigation in terms of efficiency and productivity of recourses use. To measure these performances a number of indicators have been proposed and tested in different parts of the world (Molden, D. et al. 1998;Kloezen W.H., 1998;Burton, M. et al. 2000;Lorite, J. et al. 2004, Bos, M.G. et al. 2005, Vandersypen et al., 2006). IWMI's minimum sets of performance indicators were used by many researchers to compare different irrigation schemes. Comparison helps to identify 'who is doing what right' and what lesson can be learnt or who can be a benchmark for a particular activity. The objective of this study was to assess the performance of 7 irrigation schemes in Ethiopia based on management and cropping types using IWMI's performance indicators."}]},{"head":"Technical background on performance assessment","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Performance can be simply defined as \"the level of achievement of desired objectives\" (Mohtadullah, K., 1993). Indicators are used to measure performance. An indicator is some number that describes the level of actual achievement in respect of one of the objective of irrigation system. Indicators are used to simplify the otherwise complex internal and external factors affecting the performance of irrigated agricultural system. Performance can be measured from process and output points of view. Process measures of performance relate to a system's internal operations and procedures whereas output measures of performance examine the quality and quantity of the system's final output (Small, L. and M. Svendsen, 1990). While quoting the value of certain indicators, at a particular irrigation system and time, it means that all other factors and processes are ignored or neglected. The fact that an indicator services as a guideline for further decision making it should be carefully chosen, measured and interpreted."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Irrigation performance, whether bad or good, is the result of verities of activities such as planning, design, construction, operation of facilities, maintenance and proper application of irrigation water and agronomic activities (Small L. and Svendsen M. 1990). Facilitation and execution of these activities requires proper coordination of six functional processes of irrigation, i.e. personnel management and support, equipment management, financial management and accounting, and resources mobilization."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"Planning, design and construction of irrigation schemes are mainly dealing with creation of physical infrastructure to facilitate the capturing of water from its source and transportation up to the farm level. These physical facilities need to be properly operated to ensure the capturing, allocation and delivery of water at the right time and adequate quantity. Maintenance activities are designed to ensure the capabilities of physical infrastructure to deliver the intended amount of water over the project life time. Application of water to the field is the core activity of irrigation which is designed to disperse the incoming stream from higher level canal over the field thereby storing in the crop root zones. Substantial improvements in the performance of such a complex system is not possible by making big improvements at only one level within the system (Clemmens A.J. & Molden D.J., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"Physical or management improvements may need to be made at all levels before substantial improvements in the performance can result. Gorantiwar S.D. and I.K. Smout (2005) have summarized performance measures proposed by various researches into allocation type and scheduling types. Allocation types performance measures are those which need to be attained primarily during the allocation of the resources at the planning and operation stages. Productivity and equity are performance measures under allocation type category. Scheduling type performance measures consists of irrigation scheduling, i.e. temporal and spatial distribution of irrigation water to the users. This measures adequacy, reliability, flexibility, efficiency and sustainability."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"Scheduling should be such that water deliveries need to be adequate both in planning and operation, reliable, flexible and sustainable. The same authors grouped these two categories of performance measures into: economic (productivity), social (equity), environmental (sustainability) and management (reliability, adequacy, efficiency and flexibility). Conveyance efficiency is used to compare the amount of water delivered at the turnouts of the main irrigation conveyance network to the total amount of water delivered into the irrigation scheme. Its measurement is important in that water allocation plans are developed using estimated efficiencies of water flow at various stages and time. Deterioration of efficiency over the years will reduce the performance of the irrigation scheme over this period. Gorantiwar and I.K. Smout (2005) categorized the importance of efficiency in two ways: Firstly, appropriate optimum allocation plans cannot be developed if proper consideration is not given to efficiency. Inaccurate or simplified estimates also have a major influence on other performance parameters such as productivity, adequacy, equity and reliability. Secondly, the inspection of efficiencies over space and time at different levels enables the irrigation authorities to learn which part of the scheme is inefficient, where it is inefficient and how it is deteriorating."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"Productivity is related to output from the system in response to the input added to the system and there are several indicators of productivity. The primarily output of the scheme is the total crop yield or its economic equivalence per units of land or water used. Hence, most often the productivity is expressed in terms of land or water supplied to produce a certain level of output. Water productivity deals with the amount of production (mass or monetary equivalent) per water supplied to the scheme during the season. Land productivity on the other hand is production per unit of land cultivated."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the schemes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"This study uses six government owned irrigation schemes for detail investigations which are believed to have large contribution to national income and one community managed irrigation schemes. The schemes are geographically located in south, east and central parts of the country. Table 2 gives brief information on the schemes. For details on the characteristics of the schemes, see Girma and Awulachew (2007)."}]},{"head":"Performance indicators","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The performance indicators adopted in this study are:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1. "},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Data used in this study are emanating from different sources. Sugar estates have their own records regarding annual production, water diverted to the schemes and meteorological data. "}]},{"head":"Results and Discussions","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water delivery performance","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Water delivery performances considered are efficiency, annual relative water supply, and annual relative irrigation supply and water delivery ratio. The results of conveyance efficiency measurements given in Fig. 1 show that there is a high water loss especially in community managed Hare irrigation scheme. Through filed measurements it was evidenced that the canal losses more than 50% of water over 5 km canal distance from the diversion point. As the physical conditions of canal in Hare irrigation scheme is bad, the losses are mainly attributed to seepage from the canals. Moreover, even if they are closed, points of unauthorized water turnouts contribute also to low conveyance efficiency because of leakages. Conveyance efficiency underlies spatial variations based on the conditions of the canal and management system. Farm units which are located along the canal segment with low conveyance efficiency tend to suffer from unreliable and untimely supply of water. These problems have been observed in community managed irrigation schemes such as in Hare. To this effect, farmers located at tail-end of the canal (>7km) are limited in their crop diversification and forced to grow relatively water stress resistant crops such as cotton and sweet potato. Not only bad conditions of physical structures but also leakage through unofficial points of water turnouts are observed to be reasons for rapid decline of conveyance efficiency in Hare irrigation schemes Previous studies in Wonji indicated that seepage losses in the tertiary canals account to about 40% and contributed to rising of groundwater level to 0.94m below the surface (Habib, 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The values of water delivery performance, i.e. annual relative water supply (ARWS) and annual relative irrigation supply (ARIS) are given in table 3. These indicators are evaluated as optimal if their values would be equal to one. Less or greater than one would mean under or over supply of water respectively. ARWS relates the total volume of water applied (irrigation plus total rainfall) to the volume of water required by the crops. It can also be both as a measure of adequacy and seasonal timelines (Levine 1982and Meinzen D., 1995, In: Kloezen W.H & G.-R. Carlos, 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":222,"text":"The annual relative irrigation supply (ARIS) on the other hand is the ratio of the volume of irrigation water delivered to the volume of irrigation water demanded (net irrigation water requirement). It indicates also the extent to which the water supplied was adequate to satisfy the water demand. The value of this indicator is nearly unity in Wonji irrigation scheme and range from 1.46 to 2.05 incase of other schemes indicating that the amount of water supplied at scheme level exceeded the estimated crop water requirement. With a standard deviation of 13.7, the productivity variation is higher in Finchaa followed by Metahara and Wonji sugar estates. Huge differences between minimum and maximum productions in table 4 show inconsistencies that exist in the management practices as well as practically attainable level of productivity under the existed condition. Compared to sugar cane producing schemes, large coefficients of variation (Cv) in cases of cotton and tobacco producing schemes have been observed indicating high productivity variation from year to year. The reasons could be inconsistencies in the agricultural practices, management system and input supplies. The difference between schemes in terms of output per irrigable area is less compared to output per harvested area. In the year 2005/06, the proportions of harvested to total cultivated area in Wonji, Metahara and Finchaa are 49, 65 and 73% respectively."},{"index":4,"size":225,"text":"Even if the cane production per harvested area in 2005/06 was higher in Metahara (Fig. 4) than other cane producing schemes output per units of harvested land (US$/ha) was higher in case of Wonji than Metahara (Fig. 2). This is because the end sugar productivity was higher in Wonji than others, i.e. 21.92, 15.98 and 15.77 tons of sugar per hectare of harvested area respectively in Wonji, Metahara and Finchaa. Sugar produced per hectare per month was also greater in Wonji followed by Metahara and Finchaa which may be attributed to the differences in the cutting ages of the cane. Annually harvested area and hence total cane production is greater in Metahara sugar estate followed by Finchaa and lowest in Wonji. The regression coefficients (r 2 ) of the relations given in figure 3 are 0.36, 0.004 and 0.88 for Wonji, Metahara and Finchaa respectively. This shows that both harvested area and cane production was not significantly increased in Metahara and Wonji. In case of these schemes, the points showing the relationships between areas harvested and cane production are concentrated at almost same area. Within the period 1998/99 -2005/06 the total cropped area has increase from 9911.5 ha to 10145.9ha in Metahara. This is an increment of about 2.4%. However, the size of harvested area was variable from year to year without showing linear increase."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Figure 4 and 5 show the deviation of annual production of sugar cane and cotton from the overall average production of the schemes involved in producing the same crop during the last 9 years. While the productivity of Wonji is consistently close to the average line, the productivity of Metahara scheme is greater than the average and that of Finchaa scheme is lower than the mean productivity of the schemes."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"From the two cotton producing schemes, Melka Sedi was found to consistently produce more than average production. On the contrary the productivity of Sille scheme is below average in all 9 years considered except in one year, i.e. 2001/02 (Fig. 5)."},{"index":7,"size":115,"text":"Although both belongs to the state farms, government managed, the management setup and conditions of physical structures under which they are operating is different. The more than 40 years old irrigation infrastructure in Sille farm and less motivated and unskilled staff as well as low input services are contributed to low productivity of the farms. Although adequate or more water than required is supplied to the scheme, the output obtained in Sille and Hare schemes are very low. It may not be the total amount of water diverted to the scheme which is so important to evaluate the influence of irrigation water on production rather adequacy and uniformity of its distribution on the cropped field."}]},{"head":"Output per units of water supply","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":331,"text":"Water productivity has been defined as the amount of output produced per unit of water involved in the production, or the value added to water in a given circumstance (Molden et al. 1998). It was calculated by dividing the value of agricultural production obtained from a unit area of land by volume of irrigation water supplied during the production season. Fig. 6 shows the productivity of water for different irrigation schemes. Output (US$) per units of water supply (m 3 ) varies between 0.01 in Sille, 0.05 in community managed scheme and 0.55 US$ in government managed irrigated sugar cane farm. Water productivity in other areas was found to be 0.04 -0.56 US$ (Merdun, 2004), 0.03 -0.91 US$ (Molden et al. 1998). Differences have also observed not only between different schemes, cropping and management types but also between the same cropping and management type in different schemes. The results indicate that Wonji irrigation scheme was found to be efficient in economical use of irrigation water followed by Finchaa and Metahara. In terms of cane productivity Metahara was found to produce more. However, sugar gained is more in case of Wonji. This may be due to the differences in the cutting ages adopted by the schemes. Results given in Fig. 6 are also influenced by the value of crops grown, irrigation management and weather conditions such as contribution of rainfall. Proper irrigation scheduling that takes into account the contribution of rainfall during growing season will have improving effect on water productivity. The difference in the water productivity between sugar cane producing scheme is attributed to the management practices. Despite adequate water deliveries at the scheme level (Table 3) in Sille and Hare irrigation schemes, both land and water productivity is low compared to Melka Sedi scheme, producing the same crop, i.e. cotton. It is not the total amount of water diverted to the scheme which so important to influence the production, rather its adequacy, uniformity and proper spreading over the cropped field."}]},{"head":"Summary and Conclusion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The assessment of irrigation performance in seven irrigation schemes using output and water supply performance showed that there is a tremendous difference between the schemes in their output performance. This is true even for the same cropping and management types. Government agency managed schemes that grow sugar cane have got higher productivity that ranges 123. This could be due to inconsistencies in the management systems, input services and inability to minimize the influences of climate conditions through adoption of effective irrigation scheduling. Huge variations between outputs of same crop type in different schemes reveal that there is a room for improvement in the productivity of land and water. However, answer to the question, 'which one is doing what better and why?' need the examination of internal process indicators."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Low productivity of irrigated agriculture in schemes such as Hare and Sille is possibly attributed to poor conditions of the irrigation infrastructure, inadequate management capacity and skills, lack of proper operation and on-farm water management practices and procedures, lack of incentives and hence low motivation to improve performance. Investment on improvements of physical structures, management and operation of the system at all levels will bring substantial improvement of performances of these schemes."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Scheme level values of water delivery and supply performance indicators presented in this paper are based on data sets of one year. It doesn't show also how adequately, uniformly, efficiently and timely the water distributed over the field and field units throughout the season. Hence the scheme level performance indicators are of use for strategic thinking and don't serve as such operational purpose, because they don't indicate exactly where the problems responsible for low performance of the system lie. The next study should focus on assessment of performance based on internal processes indicators such as adequacy, uniformity, reliability, efficiency and sustainability."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 : Fig. 1: Variation of conveyance efficiency along the canals of some schemes "},{"text":"Fig. 2 : Fig. 2: Output per units of harvested and irrigable area (2005/06) "},{"text":"FigFig. 3 : Fig.3shows the relationships between the size of area harvested and the corresponding cane production during the last 8 years (1998/99 -2005/06). "},{"text":"Fig. 4 :Fig. 5 : Fig. 4: Deviation of annual sugar cane production from mean, i.e. 149 tons/ha "},{"text":"Fig. 6 : Scheme name "},{"text":"Table 1 : Sources of important data Data Irrigation schemes DataIrrigation schemes Metahara Wonji Finchaa Hare Sille Bilate MetaharaWonjiFinchaaHareSilleBilate Metro Data Estate Estate Estate NMSA NMSA Tessema, Metro DataEstateEstateEstateNMSANMSATessema, 2006 2006 Production Estate Estate Estate Belete, Aklilu, Tessema ProductionEstateEstateEstateBelete,Aklilu,Tessema 2006 2006 20062006 Water supply Estate Estate Estate Belete Aklilu Water supplyEstateEstateEstateBeleteAklilu ARWS calculated calculated calculated Belete Aklilu Tessema ARWScalculatedcalculatedcalculatedBeleteAkliluTessema ARIS calculated calculated calculated Belete Aklilu Tessema ARIScalculatedcalculatedcalculatedBeleteAkliluTessema Efficiency measured measured Belete Aklilu EfficiencymeasuredmeasuredBeleteAklilu "},{"text":"Table 2 : Characterization of selected irrigation schemes Scheme name Hare Sille Bilate Metahara Wonji Finchaa Scheme nameHareSilleBilateMetaharaWonjiFinchaa Latitude 6º 30´ to 6 º 38´ N 5º 49' to 5º 55' N 6 0 48' to 6 0 50'N 8º 21' to 8º 29' N 8º 21' to 8º 29' N 9º 30' to Latitude6º 30´ to 6 º 38´ N5º 49' to 5º 55' N6 0 48' to 6 0 50'N 8º 21' to 8º 29' N8º 21' to 8º 29' N 9º 30' to 9º 60' N 9º 60' N Longitude 37 º 33´ to 37º 37´ E 37º 26' to 37º 29' E 38 0 4' to 38 0 5' 39º 12' to 39º 18' E 39º 12' to 37º 10' to Longitude37 º 33´ to 37º 37´ E37º 26' to 37º 29' E 38 0 4' to 38 0 5'39º 12' to 39º 18' E39º 12' to37º 10' to E 39º 18' E 37º 30' E E39º 18' E37º 30' E Average annual rainfall 830.7 748 734 659.6 832 1300 Average annual rainfall830.7748734659.68321300 (mm) (mm) Average annual ET o (mm) 1651.2 1540 1958 1596.5 Average annual ET o (mm)1651.2154019581596.5 Predominant soil types Sandy loam to clay soil Silty loam and clay Sandy to loam Sand to clay loam Clay, light soil black heavy Predominant soil typesSandy loam to clay soil Silty loam and claySandy to loamSand to clay loamClay, light soilblack heavy loam clay loamclay Water source Hare River Sille River Bilate River Awash River Awash River Finchaa Water sourceHare RiverSille RiverBilate RiverAwash RiverAwash RiverFinchaa River River Water availability Scarce in some periods Scarce in some sufficient abundant abundant abundant Water availabilityScarce in some periods Scarce in somesufficientabundantabundantabundant periods periods Irrigated area (ha) 1962 1082 870 11058 7279.8 8500 Irrigated area (ha)19621082870110587279.88500 Main crops Banana, cotton, maize, Banana, cotton, Tobacco, maize Sugar cane Sugar cane Sugar cane, Main cropsBanana, cotton, maize,Banana,cotton,Tobacco, maize Sugar caneSugar caneSugar cane, fruit trees, sweet potato, maize horticultural fruit trees, sweet potato,maizehorticultural vegetables crops vegetablescrops Year first operational 1996 1957 1962 1966 1954 1991 Year first operational199619571962196619541991 Type of management community government Government/ government government government Type of managementcommunitygovernmentGovernment/governmentgovernmentgovernment private private Land ownership private government Government government government government Land ownershipprivategovernmentGovernmentgovernmentgovernmentgovernment Method of water abstraction Gravity (inundation, Gravity Gravity Gravity (weir) Pump Gravity/ weir Method of water abstraction Gravity(inundation,GravityGravityGravity (weir)PumpGravity/ weir weir) (inundation) (barrage) weir)(inundation)(barrage) Water delivery infrastructure Open channel Open channel Open channel/ Open channel Open channel Open Water delivery infrastructure Open channelOpen channelOpen channel/Open channelOpen channelOpen pipelines channel/pipe pipelineschannel/pipe Predominant on-farm water Furrow, basin Furrow, basin furrow furrow Furrow Sprinkler/ Predominant on-farm waterFurrow, basinFurrow, basinfurrowfurrowFurrowSprinkler/ application method furrow application methodfurrow "},{"text":"Table 3 : Values of water delivery of water delivery performance indicators (2005/06) performance indicators (2005/06) Scheme Values of water supply SchemeValues of water supply name performance nameperformance ARWS ARIS WDR ARWSARISWDR Hare 1.22 2.05 1.07 Hare1.222.051.07 Sille 1.66 1.46 0.95 Sille1.661.460.95 Bilate 1.86 2.00 1.30 Bilate1.862.001.30 Metahara 1.45 1.59 1.03 Metahara1.451.591.03 Wonji 1.11 0.95 0.62 Wonji1.110.950.62 The water delivery ration (WDR) is an The water delivery ration (WDR) is an indicator that relates the amount of water indicator that relates the amount of water delivered to the amount of water needed to delivered to the amount of water needed to be delivered, i.e. total water supplied to the be delivered, i.e. total water supplied to the scheme divided by gross irrigation water scheme divided by gross irrigation water requirement. According to the values of this requirement. According to the values of this indicator, Wonji and Sille irrigation schemes indicator, Wonji and Sille irrigation schemes were found to have delivered less amount of were found to have delivered less amount of "},{"text":"Table 4 : Output per units of harvested land (from 1998/99 -2005/06 except for Hare scheme) Hare scheme) Scheme Crop grown productivity (tons/ha) SchemeCrop grownproductivity (tons/ha) name minimum maximum mean SD (%) nameminimummaximummeanSD(%) Metahara Sugar cane 152.6 173.8 162.3 9.3 5.6 MetaharaSugar cane152.6173.8162.39.35.6 Wonji Sugar cane 137.2 152.8 148.1 5.6 3.4 WonjiSugar cane137.2152.8148.15.63.4 Finchaa Sugar cane 123.5 169.0 138.3 13.4 9.7 FinchaaSugar cane123.5169.0138.313.49.7 Average (sugar cane) 137.2 165.2 148.6 9.52 6.5 Average (sugar cane)137.2165.2148.69.526.5 Hare 1 Cotton 0.70 2.20 1.30 0.65 50 Hare 1Cotton0.702.201.300.6550 Sille Cotton 0.50 2.40 1.09 0.79 72 SilleCotton0.502.401.090.7972 M. Sedi Cotton 1.57 3.56 2.51 0.67 26.7 M. SediCotton1.573.562.510.6726.7 Average (cotton) 0.92 2.72 1.67 0.65 43 Average (cotton)0.922.721.670.6543 Bilate Tobacco 0.47 1.55 0.90 0.33 36.9 BilateTobacco0.471.550.900.3336.9 1. Compared between different villages in the scheme 1. Compared between different villages in the scheme The productivity of cotton presented in this study, when compared to the optimum yield, i.e. 5.4 tons/ha (Aklilu, 2006), it is evident that there is a room for improvement. Melka Sedi was found to perform better than other cotton producing farms. To compare the outputs of schemes and productivity of different crops per units of land and water supplied, monetary equivalents of the production during the season 2005/06 have been considered. This type of calculation was made taking into account the farm gate unit price of sugar, cotton and tobacco in the year 2005/06 as 491.2, 1069.77 and 1962.79 US$ per tons respectively. The results presented in figures 2 and 6 show that outputs per units of land and water are by far large in sugar producing schemes than cotton and tobacco farming schemes. The productivity of cotton presented in this study, when compared to the optimum yield, i.e. 5.4 tons/ha (Aklilu, 2006), it is evident that there is a room for improvement. Melka Sedi was found to perform better than other cotton producing farms. To compare the outputs of schemes and productivity of different crops per units of land and water supplied, monetary equivalents of the production during theseason 2005/06 have been considered. This type of calculation was made taking into account the farm gate unit price of sugar, cotton and tobacco in the year 2005/06 as 491.2, 1069.77 and 1962.79 US$ per tons respectively. The results presented in figures 2 and 6 show that outputs per units of land and water are by far large in sugar producing schemes than cotton and tobacco farming schemes. "},{"text":" Government agency managed schemes that grow sugar cane have got higher productivity that ranges from 123.5 -173.8 tons per hectare of harvested area, 7794 -10834 US$ per harvested area (2005/06) and 0.24 -0.55 US$/m 3 of water supplied (2005/06). On the other hand schemes that grow cotton have relatively low productivity and high variations that ranges from 310 -2077 US$/ha in community managed and state farm. Output per units of water supplied varied from 0.01 -0.29 US$/m 3 of water supplied to the scheme. Cotton growing schemes are characterized by high productivity variations between seasons. 5 - 5 - 173.8 tons/ha, 7794 -10834 US$ per 173.8 tons/ha, 7794 -10834 US$ per harvested area and 0.24 -0.55 US$/m 3 . On harvested area and 0.24 -0.55 US$/m 3 . On the other hand schemes that grow cotton the other hand schemes that grow cotton have relatively low productivity that ranges have relatively low productivity that ranges from 310 US$/ha in community managed from 310 US$/ha in community managed scheme to 385 US$/ha in state farm. The scheme to 385 US$/ha in state farm. The water productivity of these schemes is water productivity of these schemes is respectively 0.05 and 0.01 US$/m 3 . It is respectively 0.05 and 0.01 US$/m 3 . It is evident that as the management setup, evident that as the management setup, staffing, capacity, and availabilities of staffing, capacity, and availabilities of resources are different, not all schemes resources are different, not all schemes under similar management and cropping under similar management and cropping types have similar performance. Then, there types have similar performance. Then, there is a huge difference in the attainment of the is a huge difference in the attainment of the primary objective of irrigation, i.e., primary objective of irrigation, i.e., increased outputs. increased outputs. The scheme level values of water supply The scheme level values of water supply performance indicators (ARWS and ARIS) performance indicators (ARWS and ARIS) revealed that there were no water supply revealed that there were no water supply constraints during the season. That means constraints during the season. That means the water supplied during the season the water supplied during the season (2005/06) could meet the forecasted crop (2005/06) could meet the forecasted crop and irrigation water demand in all schemes and irrigation water demand in all schemes considered. However, it should be noted that considered. However, it should be noted that the scheme level values does not give any the scheme level values does not give any clue how efficiently, adequately, uniformly, clue how efficiently, adequately, uniformly, timely and reliably the water was distributed timely and reliably the water was distributed within the farms. It is evident that measuring within the farms. It is evident that measuring these indicators requires intensive field data these indicators requires intensive field data which need to be generated from field level which need to be generated from field level measurements. measurements. "}],"sieverID":"9a2bc907-aff3-4d75-b3b4-bd8dd03d3978","abstract":"Although performance evaluation of irrigated agriculture has gained momentum since late 1980s worldwide such attempt is rarely carried out in Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to assess the performance of 7 irrigation schemes some of which are expected to contribute much to the national economy. Sugar cane is grown by three of these schemes whereas cotton is grown by three schemes and the remaining single scheme grows tobacco. With regards to management types both government agency and community managed schemes are considered. The scheme level values of water supply performance indicators show that there was no constraint of water availability and supply at scheme level. In general, schemes that grow sugar cane were found to have attained higher outputs per units of land and water used which ranges from 7794 -10834US$/ha and 0.24 -0.55 US$/m 3 respectively. On the other hand, whether state farm or community managed, schemes that grow cotton have shown low output per units of land and water, i.e. 310 -385 US$/ha and 0.01 -0.05 US$/m 3 respectively.Large productivity performance differences have been observed between irrigation schemes with same cropping and management types. From scheme level performance values it is not simple to identify the area where and what is going wrong which is responsible for low performance. Generally, problems casing low productivity derive both in management and deterioration of physical structures. Hence investment on improvements of physical structures, management and operation of the system at all levels will bring substantial improvement in the performances of cotton producing schemes."}

data/part_3/08c4f51e6fe388eb4d03a093bfeb6862.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff

data/part_3/08d4724d679a361ecd32f6353e20e55c.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"08d4724d679a361ecd32f6353e20e55c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/becd4661-2367-4c76-a6d0-18984774f80b/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Key messages","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Some 290 people joined the 7 th Multi-Stakeholder Partnership (MSP) meeting of the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock (GASL) that was held in Addis Ababa from 8-12 May 2017. This document is a summary report of the discussions. Fuller information on specific sessions is available in the event documentation 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"This section highlights some key messages from across the meeting."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Multi-stakeholder actions, of the type that the Global Agenda facilitates, are powerful, they:"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Mobilize multiple perspectives on solutions, improve communication and coordination, lead to multi-perspective solutions: Different stakeholders can work to achieve the SDG's in different ways, with wider impact. • Create shared values and strategies [by enhancing understanding of the values of others]."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Contribute to benefit sharing and equity along the value chain [by engaging the whole chain]. • Ensure no SDG is left behind."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• Help achieve policy and development goals as well as innovation adoption, through broader engagement of actors and higher-quality relationships between multiple stakeholders."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Livestock-based solutions can be sustainable; they are enabled by:"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• Community-based interventions; Farmer-centric approaches; Investments adapted to specific livestock systems. • Sharing of good practices and upscaling; recording lessons learnt and fingers burnt."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"• Appropriate livestock-based policy framework; public policy that contributes to livestock development; country strategies for (public/private) investment for livestock; development of national policies and strategies to manage change in the livestock sector (focusing on sustainability). • Development and strengthening of [local] public-private and multi-stakeholder platforms."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"• Capacity building on innovations and technologies."},{"index":11,"size":7,"text":"• Adopting market and value chain-oriented approaches."},{"index":12,"size":37,"text":"• Promoting integrated 'whole system' approaches, such as connecting the efforts of different stakeholders, addressing the multiple benefits of livestock and their related trade-offs, and joining up policy, technical and commercial approaches to benefit producers and consumers."}]},{"head":"Livestock provide multiple benefits:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":" We have evidence of the multiple benefits, but we need to unlock their potential and implement them at scale through practice and policy change.  We need multi-criteria assessments to properly capture them.  We need to think about the long term impacts of livestock-based solutions -on climate change and on value chains.  Social benefits of livestock keeping are often missed out in discussions on livestock benefitsthe livestock sector provides income and employment as well as less tangible but crucial benefits for cultural and social cohesion.  SDG's are a good mechanism to encourage convergence among stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"1. Integrate approaches to sustainable livestock development. It was argued that the only way to capture the multiple benefits of livestock is to integrate the approaches that are used. This includes integration among different stakeholders, integration of objectives -the multiple benefits of livestock and their related trade-offs, and integration of policy, technical and commercial approaches to benefit producers and consumers. 2. Include a broader range of stakeholders and more diverse voices into solution development, such as: farmers, civil society, other private sector actors and non-believers in the benefits of the livestock sector. 3. Translate benefits from tools, models and research to the ground, across different livestock production contexts, so they can be taken up and used widely."}]},{"head":"Key roles for the Global Agenda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"• The Global Agenda was said to be the most comprehensive forum for livestock stakeholders to share and collaborate. • The Global Agenda should capitalize on, and disseminate, lessons and insights from across its diverse membership. A key challenge is to bring all this knowledge and experience to stakeholders outside the livestock sector, without forgetting the necessary internal connections. • There are many tools and approaches to support sustainable livestock development; thus, a role for the Global Agenda may be to help collate these and make them much more visible and more accessible 'on the ground'. • The Global Agenda as a platform is now mature enough to begin influencing policies. It needs to pay attention to policymakers' demands and what it wants them to get from its discussions."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• The action networks of the Global Agenda are highways for impact."}]},{"head":"Background","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Driven by population and economic growth, particularly in emerging and developing economies, the demand for livestock products is expected to increase by about 70% in the coming 30 years. Responding to this potential demand presents opportunities for the livestock sector to contribute to global development challenges by promoting a sustained economic growth, inclusive social development and the efficient use of natural resources."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The positive contributions of livestock for sustainable development, food security and nutrition on the one hand and the potential negative impacts of livestock on the environment and on human health on the other continue to be researched and debated worldwide. The publication in 2006 of Livestock's Long Shadow created awareness for the impact of livestock on the environment and in particular the role of livestock in greenhouse gas emissions and started a strong and at times emotional debate on merits and demerits of livestock. The State of Food and Agriculture report 2009 on livestock and the publication Livestock in a Changing Landscape 2010 presented more nuanced views of the livestock sector, emphasising the diversity of drivers, responses and opportunities for solutions."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Nevertheless, the role of the livestock sector in sustainable development remained controversial. In 2010, initiated by the Dutch delegation to the FAO, the livestock sector was considered by the Committee on Agriculture which, in an effort to bring this widely dispersed and diverse sector together around key development challenges, mandated FAO to develop the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock (initially called Global Agenda for Action)."}]},{"head":"About the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The Global Agenda (livestockdialogue.org) recognizes that for livestock to be sustainable, the sector worldwide needs to respond to the growing demand for livestock products and enhance its contribution to food and nutritional security; provide secure livelihoods and economic opportunities for hundreds of millions of pastoralists and value chain actors in the livestock sector; use natural resources efficiently, address climate change and mitigate other environmental impacts; and enhance human, animal, and environmental health and welfare."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The Global Agenda's mission is to enhance livestock stakeholders' commitment and investments in support of the UN Agenda 2030 by facilitating dialogue, generating evidence and supporting the adoption of good practices and policies. It functions in an open and consensual way as a multistakeholder partnership that engages all actors in the livestock sector worldwide (governments, civil society, private sector, donors, academia, non-government organizations and multilateral organizations) to foster the sustainable development of the livestock sector."}]},{"head":"The 7 th Multi-Stakeholder Partnership meeting","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The meeting in Addis Ababa was organized to reinforce the unique roles of the Global Agenda in bringing together different types of stakeholders to explore tools and models to measure sustainability in the livestock sector, to consider lessons from diverse examples at global, regional and local level and to learn from on the ground examples of livestock-based solutions. A policy forum engaged ministers and other high-level actors from across the African continent while learning tours and a sharefair provided opportunities for participants to dive deeper into a wide range of different initiatives."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"It is fitting that the government of Ethiopia co-hosted the 7th Multi-Stakeholder Partnership meeting in Addis Ababa as it offered participants occasion to reflect upon the initiatives that have been undertaken, to highlight the lessons that may be applied to successful sustainable livestock development, to clarify the tools that can be used to assess the sectors' multiple benefits and to identify those areas that still require further work."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The five day meeting aimed to:  Share and discuss progress made in the development of tools to monitor sustainable livestock sector development;  Articulate the lessons from successful cases of practise change towards sustainable livestock systems;  Identify opportunities and challenges that must be addressed to ensure multiple benefits accrue from sustainable livestock development."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Five guiding questions were set to further guide and focus the discussions:"},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"1. How best do livestock contribute to the SDGs? 2. What are the contributions -selected results and outcomes -of livestock-based solutions to sustainable development? 3. Where did multi-stakeholder interaction add value in livestock-based sustainable development? 4. Which critical challenges and gaps in livestock-based sustainable development need attention? 5. What are the priority opportunities for the Global Agenda?"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Participants were further urged to focus on lessons learned; opportunities; gaps; and priority roles and priorities for the Global Agenda."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"The meeting was designed to foster engagement and interaction among the participants. Sessions were designed to be:  Interactive, engaging and accessible;  Use the multi-stakeholder dimensions of the Global Agenda;  Build from the previous meeting's SDG focus, connecting science to practice (solutions);  Facilitated, documented and communicated to maximise engagement and a focus on priorities."}]},{"head":"Focus on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The meeting aimed to explicitly examine and synthesize experiences and lessons with livestockbased solutions for sustainable development. The sessions were set up to link these to different sustainable development goals (SDG), working with a subset of the goals that were identified in the Global Agenda's 2016 meeting in Panama."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The 2016 Panama Global Agenda meeting looked at the links between sustainable livestock sector development and achievement of the SDGs. At that meeting, all SDGs were seen as important and relevant to livestock. However, several were prioritized by participants: SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), SDG 13 (climate action), SDG 15 (life on land) and SDG 17 (partnership for the goals). For this meeting, SDG 5 (gender equality) was added to the focus, recognizing livestock's special importance for women."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Opening: Multiple benefits of livestock in focus The minister highlighted the Ethiopian government's ambitious steps to efficiently utilize its vast livestock resources and make the sector a driver of the transformation of the country's agriculturebased economy. These measures include providing good-quality farm inputs at affordable prices, boosting small-scale irrigation schemes, minimizing post-harvest losses and controlling and eradicating major livestock and livestock-transmitted human diseases."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"'Ethiopia is keen to learn from others' knowledge and experiences to enhance the country's capacity to practice sustainable livestock to reduce poverty and increase food security,' he said. It also ensures that ILRI is in a place to listen to the needs of many valuable stakeholders and to ensure that its research agenda is informed by their needs and experiences"},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"For ILRI, as one of fifteen CGIAR research centres leading and participating in CGIAR research programs, the Global Agenda also affords an opportunity, together with other partners in the research programs, to engage with a wide spectrum of stakeholders to ensure that CGIAR research is relevant for sustainable livestock development He defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. He described this as 'cooperating with the future', but emphasized the problem for the future generations is they don't have a voice today."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"His presentation looked at the bio-physical and socio-economic dimensions of livestock production, touching on pressures such as demand growth and climate change as well as resource competition and scarcity."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"He called for integrated analyses and presented five key approaches addressing different livestock systems (extensive, labour-intensive, and capital-intensive):"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"(1) We need to improve resource-use efficiency;"},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"(2) We need to protect and enhance critical resources, such as habitats critical for biodiversity;"},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"(3) We need to balance these concerns with humans needs-to enhance benefits for people; (4) To do the latter, we need to manage risks and build resilience and ( 5) We need to develop new governance and institutional mechanisms. The multiple benefits to be gained from integration at different levels, he said, are:"},{"index":11,"size":81,"text":" Integrating stakeholders, through dialogue, consensus building and joint action.  Integrating objectives, by enhancing multiple benefits and reducing trade-offs.  Integrating technical domains and scientific approaches, through transdisciplinary approaches combining, for example, bio-physical transformations (via life-cycle analysis), value generation and distribution (via value chain analysis), and connecting human, animal and environmental health approaches (via One Health approaches). The purpose here is very much to shift away from maximizing livestock production and productivity to generating and capturing multiple benefits from livestock."},{"index":12,"size":23,"text":"He concluded that the livestock sector is a major driver of environmental change, largely because of its large interface with common property resources."},{"index":13,"size":122,"text":" The livestock sector means more than just GDP: It provides income and employment as well as less tangible but crucial benefits for cultural and social cohesion.  We need to look at the diversity of livestock systems and interactions, keeping in mind that at times there will be clashes between private and public goods.  We need to bear in mind that sustainable livestock systems involve multiple objectives that change over time and are different in different locations.  The only way to capture the multiple benefits of livestock is to integrate the tools we use.  Finally, we need to 'collaborate with the future'-to provide future generations, at a minimum, with the same level of opportunities that we enjoy today."},{"index":14,"size":3,"text":"Blogpost: clippings.ilri.org/2017/05/09/cooperating-with-the-future-towards-multiplying-the-multiple-benefits-ofsustainable-livestock Presentation:"},{"index":15,"size":2,"text":"livestockdialogue.org/fileadmin/templates/res_livestock/docs/2017_Addis/Multiple_Benefits_from_Sustainable_Livestock. pptx"}]},{"head":"Event insights: The power of multi-stakeholder actions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Multi-stakeholder actions:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Mobilize multiple perspectives on solutions, improve communication and coordination, lead to multi-perspective solutions: Different stakeholders can work to achieve the SDG's in different ways, with wider impact; • Create shared values and strategies [by enhancing understanding of the values of others];"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Contribute to benefit sharing and equity along the value chain [by engaging the whole chain]; • Ensure no SDG left behind."}]},{"head":"Derived from posts shared and disussion in the final sessions","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Event insights: The sustainability of livestock-based solutions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Sustainability is enabled by:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Community-based interventions; Farmer-centric approach; Investments adapted to specific livestock systems; • Adopting market and value chain-oriented approaches."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• Promoting integrated 'whole system' approaches, such as connecting the efforts of different stakeholders, addressing the multiple benefits of livestock and their related trade-offs, and joining up policy, technical and commercial approaches to benefit producers and consumers."}]},{"head":"Derived from posts shared and disussion in the final sessions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Models and tools to help achieve sustainable livestockbased solutions"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The session aimed to expose participants to a range of tools and models and what they can offer in terms of measuring progress towards achieving sustainable development through livestock-based solutions."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"An important objective was to bridge gaps between science and practice so practitioners and academics can better understand and help improve the various tools and models. It aimed to address overall objective 1 of the event: to share and discuss progress made in the development of tools and models to monitor sustainable livestock sector development."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"The models and tools shared were: "}]},{"head":"Models and tools -feedback","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Following the interactive session, feedback and insights from selected participant groups zoomed in on what they learned across the various poster presentations. It should be noted that the tools and models shared were a cross-section of different approaches shared by participants rather than any representative sample. Feedback was provided from different SDG perspectives, on livestock-based solutions and on the 'multi-stakeholder' aspects."}]},{"head":"Opportunity for the Global Agenda:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":" Collect models and tools, beyond the ones shared, in one resource and make openly available to members  All tools are promising. When designing tools, people needs to work together and need more cooperation among tools.  Need assessing the impact of the tool for adoption and improvement. Need to be adapt to individual use for farmers. The application of tools will be difficult for different social groups.  The opportunity is that more women get involved and contribute and this needs to be recognized.  Tools should be designed in different production system of livestock (dairy, beef, etc.)  Didn't have any specific models addressing SDG2 or 3  How to do a better job of communicating among SDGs. How to integrating different SDGs."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"How to use these models across SDGs?  Most information is about activities at national and local level, not at farm level. Some models miss social dimensions. We should integrate more social aspects in the models.  The feed assessment tool and intervention analysis is very good.  Some gaps and challenges exist regarding to how to implement tools and how to get farm assessment into action and how we can address different tools.  A lot of focus was put in climate mitigation and market and about the short-term and long term impact.  Some challenges are how to challenge cultures of past and there is lack of base data."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Moreover, there is an overlap between environment monitoring tools.  Opportunities are to decide the seasonal changes in stocking rate. We have opportunities to improve efficiency of livestock production and efficiency of value chain.  Most tools are not really good on resources use efficiency. In fact, they focus much on farm inputs, not focus on environment. Many tools did not have social component.  Not clear how these tools help countries or partners take decisions on kind of livestock development"}]},{"head":"On SDG 17 -partnerships:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":" A key challenge is related to partnership. There is a gap that is data is not available for design phase. We need to involve other sectors in the design so that we might use their data.  Several tools are doing the same things.  Gender equality is an opportunity while social impact is a big question."}]},{"head":"On livestock-based solutions:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":" Appropriate indicators could be used for future support. We need more communications and information between farms about the market, for example, we can use mobile communication.  It is necessary to conceptualize model to anticipate future actions. We should think of solutions for the farm.  Most tools focus on reporting, measuring, but need communications and extension models as well.  There is a lack of social benefits information. It is crucial to associate social benefits with economic and environment services."}]},{"head":"On multi-stakeholder dimensions:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":" Multi stakeholder methods are effective in models and tools but need to distinguish when used as initial discussion and when used to find solutions  Aligned multi-stakeholder view of gender capacity of organizations using gender capacity tool  Multi-stakeholders assessments produce models to describe possible results in the future of actors on the production system  Conceptual models to assess multiple values of grassland systems used to provide communal way to assess the multiple values  Several tools available, however, their applicability and large scale not clear. Only GLEAM and LEAP really had clear multi stakeholder integration.  Use of information technology to improve information at grass root level by the work /interaction of producers and information provided by the market  Achieving policy + development goals needs broader engagement of actors within the private sector  Private sector involvement needs to be included to improve smallholder supply chains  Successes of adoption depend on relationships between farmers, extension, predecessors."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Interaction is important  Need active multi stakeholder involvement to scale up  Each partner needs to know their role in success (responsibility and accountability)  Time it takes to build trust  Lack of co-coordination, SILO's , missed opportunities  Lack indicator of progress [of partnerships]"}]},{"head":"Case studies of livestock-based solutions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Through several examples from GASL Action Networks, this session aimed to examine how multi-stakeholder, multidisciplinary engagement produces outputs, outcomes and impact on one or more SDGs. It aimed to address overall objectives 2 and 3 of the event: to articulate lessons from successful examples of practise change towards sustainable livestock systems; and to identify opportunities and challenges that must be addressed to ensure multiple benefits accrue from sustainable livestock development. "}]},{"head":"On the SDGs:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":" A lot of presentations put a focus on dairy, few on ruminants and vaccination.  On the peste des petit ruminants vaccine case, some gaps are the lack of commitment of providers, partnership of all stakeholders and political instability. It is important to make sure all stakeholders are involved from the beginning through participatory approaches.  For the grassland case, it is important to note that the testing was generally on a small scale."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Millions of hectares have been damaged and still need recovery.  Participatory approaches are prominent which helps address some of the issues farmers are facing and creating a lot of interaction.  The case study of grasslands helped link actors with local authorities. It needs to also include the role of women (gender balance). Moreover, it engaged multiple crops and food production systems and presented outcomes from multiple levels. It is important to increase production while considering the environment. It was only evaluated at a research level, so is it feasible to be up-scaled?  Most of the activities shared are at early stage, so time is needed to really deliver outcomes.  Gender equality was not mentioned much in the case studies while most of them cover market access and market development. It is important that women can be involved in such livestock-based solutions.  There seems to be a big missing impact on gender equity on the farm and in the value chain."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"There are two potential explanations: women are not involved in social and business networks; or women's engagement in value chain is limited.  The case study of African sustainable livestock needs to move dialogue with different stakeholders and involve private sector and civil society more.  We find a lot of good case studies, but they miss the link with private sector. Political recommendations did not come up with business solutions and gender development activities.  Weaknesses were observed in building partnerships among stakeholders. There's a danger to overlook what already exists.  Coordinating at high level network is good. Connecting with smallholders is important.  Case stories demonstrate good quality of livestock activities. Social networks combined with policy with participation of civil society is important.  Need to develop incentive policy framework, financial framework with environment services."}]},{"head":"On livestock-based solutions:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":" 5 out of 7 posters were addressing SDG 2 (Zero hunger). Some projects look at scenarios. What is missing is how to upscale these. Note that increasing production is not enough to eliminate poverty or improve nutrition.  Gender balance should be considered more in involving women's roles in livestock-based solutions.  Action plans should include all stakeholders at early stages to make objectives more realistic and achievable. "}]},{"head":"On women and livestock","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"One central strand in the panel discussion was triggered by a question from the audience: Why is it that in Africa (and Asia as well), where the centrality of both livestock and women in food production-in national as well as household economies, in food and nutritional security, and in the health and wellbeing of hundreds of millions of poor people-why is it that both livestock and women have been so badly neglected by governments? Why didn't African governments, ministries, organizations and services long ago put livestock and women at the forefront of their agendas? Why isn't Africa an acknowledged world leader in valuing family livestock farming and women's work on those farms, and all along the food value chains?"}]},{"head":"Panelist responses","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Emma Naluyima, Uganda Pig Farmer. 'A long time ago, women were not educated as girls in school. I am an example of this. If I hadn't gone to school, I would know few of the things I know now about livestock. But because of my education, I understand many things about livestock. As to why it has taken all these years for governments to even think about livestock? I think it is because a long time ago, the culture valued having something to eat. Now, with the human population growing fast, we food producers are being pushed against the wall. We need to do a lot more with our livestock to feed so many more people. That's why we have to wake up and work on livestock as well as gender issues. Yes, women a long time ago used to own or look after animals but they didn't 'own the money' their animals generated. So we now have to deal with these two things: livestock and women.'"}]},{"head":"Bruce Mukanda, Senior Programs and Projects","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"Officer at the Africa Union-Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources. 'The importance of mainstreaming gender is not unique to livestock. This has to be achieved in many sectors. And for a long time it has not been done. It's only been in the last few years that governments in Africa have realized the importance of women and youth not only in livestock but in all sectors. As to why it has been like that? I think one reason are cultural practices. We come from historical backgrounds. The conditions that existed then and the conditions that exist now have changed greatly. Women are more enlightened now. Women are more involved in leadership. We are not yet at the level that we should be but most countries in Africa are taking steps to get there.' Samuel Chief Ankama, Deputy Minister, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namibia. 'Women are involved in livestock rearing and ownership in Namibia, maybe not in the commercial sector. Culturally, there are communities where women have been part and parcel of livestock rearing and ownership. This is particularly true in specific communities where women inherit animals from older generations. Women can own animals, including those animals passed on from one generation to another. They have developed into communal or commercial farmers. They can rear, produce and sell as much animals and animal products as the men.'"}]},{"head":"Thomas Cherenet, Senior Policy and Research","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Advisor to the Minister for Livestock and Fisheries, Ethiopia. 'In Ethiopia, livestock have been respected for thousands of years. Livestock here is a big source of income for millions of families. In some cases, families will take sick farm animals to veterinary clinics before they take their sick children to medical clinics-because the animals have to be given more priority. Why has the Ethiopian Government not given higher priority to the livestock sector before now? This regime is different-it is placing high priority on livestock, as the Ethiopian people have always done. This government has taken the step to create a Ministry of Livestock separate from the Ministry of Agriculture. The government is now being straightforward: We have both a Ministry of Livestock and a Ministry of Women.' Amadou Diallo, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Representative to Ethiopia. 'About why we don't have ministries of livestock, you will appreciate that the agricultural revolution came before the industrial revolution. And when the industrial revolution came, we began to exploit our mineral resources. Diamonds, gold, oil. Agriculture was neglected, literally. And it has taken us this long to see the need to give food production priority. This is a wake-up call. There will come a time when the oil and diamonds and gold mines will dry up. We need to exploit more renewable resources -agriculture and livestock offer that opportunity."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"Yes, it's true that many countries do not have ministries of livestock. In the post-independence Sahel for instance, the main aim was to achieve food security. And when people spoke about food security, they meant cereals. They focused on how to increase the productivity of cereals. They focused on irrigation for cereal crops. In my country, Niger, there is a division between the pastoral zone and the cropping zone. Those concerned with pastoralists tended to focus on livelihood issues. And the policy makers have better understood (and come from) crop producing areas. Things are changing now. People from pastoral areas are demanding their rights. And there is demand for livestock ministries and a focus on livestock.' Livestock and the SDGs -the living synthesis Throughout the meeting, participants were encouraged to document insight and lessons during and after sessions. This 'living synthesis' was intended to replicate twitter, within the meeting rooms, offline."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Instead of posting 'tweets' online, participants posted 'bleats' on walls organized around SDGs and zooming in on results, lessons and opportunities in terms of 1) what worked well, 2) what failed, and 3) what the gaps are. A similar approach was used to track insights on 'multistakeholder value addition' and 'solutions.' By the end of the week, 453 messages related to SDGs had been posted. These were transcribed to excel and roughly clustered by session, SDG focus and message sentiment: was it highlighting a strength (of a tool, case, or experience), a perceived challenge (weakness or threat), or an opportunity (for livestock, for a project, for the Global Agenda). tweet bleat What do the posts tell us? They were a mix of feedback on specific tools and cases and experiences shared as well as reflections on the general themes of the event -multiple benefits and opportunities of livestock and the SDGs. This section gives a flavour of the posts, structured around some headings that emerged 3 ."}]},{"head":"Overall messages","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Most posts addressed a single SDG -some cut across all or several and serve as general insights."}]},{"head":"Strengths and opportunities identified include:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":" We have the evidence of multiple benefits of livestock -but we need the resources to implement at scale;  This can help to address negative perceptions of animal agriculture that are building."}]},{"head":"Further:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":" We should think of SDGs in terms of clusters because that is how they work; and  Addressing several SDGs at the same time contributes effectively to eradication of poverty.  We need to remember that increasing production is not enough on its own to eliminate hunger or improve nutrition."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"We have work to do:  We have good tools to measure impact but not to measure the benefits;  We still need to address the question on the long-term impact of these solutions; and  There are challenges to translate many of the tools and case experiences into practical results on the ground."}]},{"head":"Indicators, models and data","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"All the feedback around the methodology and tools was focused on challenges, areas that need to be improved and addressed. Issues were raised concerning data collection, choice of indicators, gaps, impacts, and issues around coordination and standards."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Examples are: Very hard to capture data from pastoral systems; some countries will not have enough base data; indicator measuring is a big challenge; appropriate metrics to measure impacts; ensure gender disaggregated input data; integrate social aspects; different though similar methodologies -need closer dialogue between 'developers'; good socio-economic tools disconnected from environment; consumer perspective is under represented; should be integrated with other tools."}]},{"head":"Communications, dissemination and uptake","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Many posts zoomed in on the need for tools, models and experiences to be better communicated and shared and implemented at scale."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Opportunities and strengths observed of existing experiences included: Tapping into farmer to farmer exchange and learning, including use of mobile phones and working through extension; exchanging good practices among countries; and making tools publically accessible."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Challenges identified included: Sharing information with farmers, lack of awareness, how the study can be scaled up, tools need to be shared with other stakeholders and methods for strengthening them developed, upscaling, applicability to developing country, and how can other countries learn from the project experience, lessons learned etc."}]},{"head":"Multi-stakeholder engagement and partnerships","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This element attracted many posts, highlighting a mix of what multi-stakeholder approaches can deliver (opportunities) as well as strengths and challenges observed in the experiences shared."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Strengths observed: Platforms lead to coordination between different stakeholders; collaboration of farmers build resilience; multi-stakeholder approach to achieve results; research, extension and agribusiness work together with farmers to find common outcome; strong partnerships (government / producers / all stakeholders); bringing different partners together allows addressing their different interests and building on their strengths (e.g. knowledge); network allows for bringing knowledge together showing how animal welfare contributes to SDGs -how practice change has been accomplished; tools can be used to engage with the private sector, civil society and development groups to focus their projects; used by policy and industry to intersect; value chain approach that engages farmers."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Challenges observed include: difficulty of working with the various stakeholders; mobilizing engagement; tiring to coordinate partners to realise ownership; needs more dialogue with different stakeholders; coordination is missing (between government and partners); food industry needs to be brought in. But momentum and resources are needed."}]},{"head":"Livestock-based impacts","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The wider benefits of livestock on different development outcomes were the focus of many posts."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Opportunities from livestock included: Enhancing the resilience of farmers; environmental integrity for the future; increase family income; great potential for poverty alleviation and reduction, gender gap reduction; optimizing livestock reduces carbon emissions; high potential for nutrition."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Observed strengths included: Focus on poorest farmers; focus on diseases of the poor; increasing milk production has led to more income and more education; case studies show increase in productivity and profitability; better income of marginal minorities; people have better income and food."}]},{"head":"Livestock-based solutions","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Most of the posts were about the various solutions shared. These covered a wide range of issues."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Opportunities included: Combine forest and pasture to ensure feed availability; decrease PPR and other small ruminant disease will increase productivity; increasing forage value will decrease fertilizers use and decrease irrigation; reducing concentrates allows money to be used elsewhere; silvo-pastoralism to increase sustainability and address climate change; AMR very relevant for intensive large livestock farms; exporting animal products instead of live animals would (also) improve animal welfare; extensive systems less in need of antibiotics; identifying losses in value chains will increase efficiency; animal disease a good entry point for farmers; animal welfare equals animal health, equals sustainable livestock; control of transboundary issues opens export opportunities; extensive systems have great environmental potential; improving smallholder access to markets addresses SDGs 1,2,5,8,12; simple improvements to herd management, feed, manure can increase milk and meat production and decrease GHG emissions;"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Observed strengths included: Better offtake and market supply through multi-stakeholder platforms; grasslands can mitigate GHG through carbon sequestration; institutional partners shifting focus from production alone to include nutrition; education element to raise awareness on animal welfare; whole herd approach to disease management."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Challenges include: Livestock movement in pastoralist areas; linkages between farmers and market still low; SDG 1 (no poverty); providing opportunities beyond productive level; sustainability of restored communal grasslands. How to share the communal resources?; increasing number competitors for the same feed resource; resistance by some groups because for land ownership; determine the best combination tree-forage crops for better soil sequestration?; Need holistic approach for better livelihood improvement; SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth)."}]},{"head":"Implementation approaches","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Moving from models and tools and cases to actual implementation of promising technical and institutional approaches solutions was the focus of another set of posts. These tended to identify better [technical] practices and choices to achieve better results."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Opportunities and strengths identified included: Develop interactions with nutrition communities; understand and quantify economic multipliers as development occurs; employ incentives that match the diversity of specific situations; move towards technical agents becoming more facilitators -help farmers find right management change; engaging multiple crop and food production systems; using methods that are practical and can be easily implemented."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Challenges included: Recognizing that solutions have to fit within the present; how do you get from assessment to action?; how to deal with long term trends versus short term shocks?; how to achieve benefits on ground level?; tools should be tested in different production systems of livestock; how do we make this both inclusive but also fast enough to meet the 2030 target?; practical application towards climate aspects not obvious; a top down approach. Too soon to see the weaknesses and strengths; so far, there is no direct impact on dairy farmers; limited multiplier effect"}]},{"head":"Policy process and decisions","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Sustainable livestock is increasingly a focus for policy development and several posts were on opportunities in this area as well as strengths observed in the experiences shared."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"These included: Forecasting scenarios of alternative livestock, impact on society and recommend policy options; making livestock sector investment friendly: legal, political, economic, logistical) services, value addition, licences/certifications/intellectual property; offering high level advocacy and attracting investments in the livestock sector; helping decision makers for future scenarios in term of actions that can or cannot improve livestock production; using robust evidence/case studies to show how livestock can provide social development; guiding investment choices."}]},{"head":"Gender and equity","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Many posts suggested opportunities by addressing gender or identified observed strengths and challenges around the role of women in sustainable livestock."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Opportunities and strengths identified included: Potential to empower women; gender-based solutions enable bigger impact and production; link to gender to ensure nutrition awareness of animal sourced foods for maternal and infants/children health development; increase women's participation in market activities which places them in better position to make nutritious decisions; and economic benefits for gender equality; and embedding gender in training."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Challenges included: Risk that men may take over control of income; how to increase women's access to knowledge and improve decision making; creating awareness on gender equity; need to identify economic benefits achieved through gender equality."}]},{"head":"Synthesis and directions for the Global Agenda","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The final morning began with participatory synthesis of lessons and insights by meeting participants. This was followed by reflection from the event organizers and sponsors, and then, an official closing."}]},{"head":"Key messages from the closing session","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"1. Need greater integration of approaches to sustainable livestock development -the integration of different stakeholders, integration of multiple benefits of livestock and their related trade-offs, and the integration of policy, technical and commercial approaches to benefit producers and consumers. 2. Include a broader range of stakeholders and more diverse voices into solution development:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"farmers, civil society, other private sector actors and non-believers in the benefits of the livestock sector 3. Must translate benefits from tools and models to the ground, across different livestock production contexts"}]},{"head":"Ethiopia Minister of Agriculture -closing observations","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":" Simple improvements to herd management, feed, and manure can increase milk and meat production and decrease GHG emissions  We have evidence of multiple benefits but we need to unlock their potential and implement them at scale  Improving smallholder access to formal markets has strong potential to contribute to multiple SDGs  We need to think about the long term impacts of livestock-based solutions -on climate change and on markets  Social benefits of livestock keeping are often missed out  Livestock deliver multiple benefits so we need multi-criteria assessments to properly capture these  Livestock production is often a way of life. Simple intentions to entirely transform to commercial systems is not useful  Achieving policy and development goals needs broader engagement of actors  A continental livestock strategy [For Africa] is based on keeping the diversity of livestock farming systems and supporting farmers, first of all smallholder and pastoralists and all actors of the value chain, targeting women and youth.  Success of adoption relies on the quality of relationships between multiple stakeholders  There are many tools and approaches to support sustainable livestock development but these need to be collated and made more visible; and accessible 'on the ground'."}]},{"head":"Participant reflections from the meeting","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"On livestock and the SDGs • SDG's are a good convergence for the many stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• We have seen the relevance of livestock in SDGs. The meeting has demonstrated this. One key challenge is to bring all this knowledge and experience outside the livestock sector. • It is critical to highlight livestock roles in food security, nutrition and incomes."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"On the tools and cases"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• Great to see enthusiasm in presenting case studies; it is still difficult to integrate into specific measures and actions. • We were exposed to many tools, but their best application is not always clear."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• They offer no single answer to questions on the livestock sector."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• We experienced a rich mix of methodologies; it's important to stay simple and make explanations easy."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"On participation in this meeting • We are missing out by not looking more at commercial investors to see the benefits of livestock sector investments. • We hardly heard about extension roles in livestock development."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• What are the interests for a farmer to be in the meeting? There are no SDGs in the farm."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"We need concrete discussions with farmers. • The voice of the beneficiaries is lacking; farmers are under-represented."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"• Need to increase private sector participation as it is key to making solutions sustainable."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• This is a forum for believers in livestock, we also need to consider ways to engage with the non-believers in livestock."},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"On the Global Agenda • The Global Agenda to capitalize and disseminate lessons and insights."},{"index":13,"size":64,"text":"• The Global Agenda as a platform is now mature enough to begin influencing policies. We need to pay attention to policymakers' demands and what we want them to get from our discussions. • The Global Agenda enables joined up work with researchers and others; which helps mainstream our impacts. • People now keen to see what they can do for the Global Agenda."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"• The Action Networks of the Global Agenda are highways for impact."},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"• The Global Agenda is the most comprehensive forum for livestock stakeholders to share and collaborate."},{"index":16,"size":55,"text":"Shirley Tarawali, Assistant Director General, International Livestock Research Institute, said that the theme of integration had prevailed among the discussions of the participants. She called for integration of stakeholders, integration of the multiple benefits of livestock and their related tradeoffs, and the integration of policy, technical and commercial approaches to benefit small-scale producers and consumers."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"Speakers also cautioned against focusing just on producers."},{"index":18,"size":40,"text":"Both While many participants identified and prioritized some tools and case studies as clearly useful in bringing benefits at grassroots levels, others, including farmer representative, Georg Zinsstag, urged the development of concrete actions of the ground, in dialogue with beneficiaries."},{"index":19,"size":24,"text":"The main challenge, underlined by many speakers, was how to translate benefits from the various tools on the ground across different livestock production contexts."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The cases shared were: Africa SustainableLivestock 2050 -Orsolya Mikecz, FAO  Animal welfare action network -Lesley Mitchell, GASL Consultant  Dairy Asia for health and prosperity -Melina Lamkowsky, FAO  The future is in the forest -Pablo Frere, Redes Chaco  Global Network on Silvopastoral Systems -Julián Chará, CIPAV  Improving grassland value -an option to intensify beef cattle production in upland cropping systems in North West Vietnam -Le Thi Thanh Huyen, National Institute of Animal Sciences, Vietnam  Livestock Antimicrobial Partnership -Ulf Magnusson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences  Livestock for social development -Ernesto Reyes, IFCN Dairy Research Network  Low carbon dairy and beef farms -Emmanuel Coste, CNE  Peste des Petits Ruminants Global Eradication Programme -Felix Njeumi, FAO  Restoring value to grasslands -Liz Wedderburn, AgResearch  Transitioning smallholder livestock value chains into sustainable solutions for poverty reduction and food security -Polly Ericksen, ILRI  Beyond livestock production and productivity: Ethiopia case study -Franck Berthe, World Bank Case studies -feedback Following the interactive session, feedback and insights from selected participant groups zoomed in on what they learned across the various poster presentations. It should be noted that the cases were a mix of action examples and proposals for the Global Agenda's Action Networks rather than any representative sample. Feedback was provided from different SDG perspectives and on livestock-based solutions. "},{"text":" the NGO and Civil Society representatives, Pablo Manzano of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Pablo Frere of Redes Chaco, said the Global Agenda needed to do more to include a broader range of stakeholders. This sentiment was reiterated by Samuel Thevasagayam, Director of Agricultural Development at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Recognizing the huge progress in establishing what is now, 'the most comprehensive livestock forum in the world, a place to share, learn and collaborate', Thevasagayam stressed the importance of including more diverse voices into the Global Agenda: farmers, other private sector actors and non-believers in the benefits of the livestock sector. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Comprehensive Livestock Environmental Assessment for Improved Nutrition, a Secured Environment and Sustainable Development along Livestock Value Chains (CLEANED) -An Notenbaert, CIAT  Conceptual models to assess the multiple values of grassland systems -Alexandre Ickowicz, CIRAD  Dairy Producer Organisations' Sustainability Assessment (POSA) tool -Isabelle Baltenweck, ILRI  Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) -Ben Lukuyu and Alan Duncan, ILRI  Gender capacity development tool -Annet Mulema and Wole Kinati, ILRI and ICARDA  General framework to estimate loss sources and magnitudes in live ruminants -Sikhalazo Dube, ILRI  Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model -GLEAM -Aimable Uwizeye, FAO  LEAP guidelines for the assessment of environmental performance of livestock supply chains -Pablo Manzano, LEAP  IMPACT model: Application to livestock sector scenarios -Barry Shapiro, ILRI  Participatory Epidemiology and Gender (PEG) tool to identify disease constraints -Barbara Wieland, ILRI  Rapid Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) -Mark van Wijk, ILRI  Revitalizing the LMIS for Mali to support the development of the livestock sector -Abdou Fall and Abdrahmane Wane, ILRI  Response-Inducing Sustainability Evaluation (RISE) -Sereke Firesenai, Bern University of Applied Sciences  Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework -Peter Thorne, ILRI "},{"text":" Regional policy forum: Livestock-based solutions for sustainable development in Africa In 2015, the African Union launched the Livestock Development Strategy for Africa (2015-2035) with a goal to transform the African livestock sector to enhance its contributions to socio-economic development and equitable growth. One year later, the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security released a report on sustainable agricultural development for food security and nutrition: what roles for livestock? It focused on the livestock sector because of its central role in food systems' development and its potential to contribute to sustainable agricultural development as a whole. Moderated by Brian Perry 2 , this session brought together senior livestock policy makers, private sector players and farmer representatives to explore key policy issues influencing the sustainable development of the livestock sector and its contribution to national economic and development ambitions. The forum also explored how to move from a broad livestock strategy to priorities and investments for livestock and the roles of different stakeholders in this. Amadou Diallo, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Representative to Ethiopia.  Bruce Mukanda, Senior Programs and Projects Officer, Africa Union-Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources  Emma Naluyima, Farmer, Uganda  Samuel Chief Ankama, Deputy Minister, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namibia  Thomas Cherenet, Senior Policy and Research Advisor to the State Minister for Livestock and Fisheries, Ethiopia.  Wayne Gaskell, Director of Operations for Ethiopia, Frigorifico Boran Foods PLC "}],"sieverID":"47266351-5d0f-4167-9393-06660bfd1063","abstract":""}

data/part_3/08fdf048c9fb187b0d486f31b1f6323e.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"08fdf048c9fb187b0d486f31b1f6323e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1569fd57-3f51-48f0-88f8-7384addcf450/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) Opportunities for small scale irrigators","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Challenges","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Transitioning from subsistence, rainfed systems to commercial irrigation requires enhancing the efficiency of water management and expanding and increasing the use of best-bet technologies. Small scale irrigation technologies must be profitable for farmers and investors and must fit the context of the farm and its biophysical environment as well as the market. When expanding and increasing the use of irrigation, whether using small, medium or large scale systems, consideration of the practical and sustainable limits of the market and the environment is crucial."}]},{"head":"How ILSSI is contributing to solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The project team are working on a number of interrelated components to meet these challenges:"},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":" Piloting; small-scale irrigation technologies that test combinations of water sources (shallow ground and surface water), water extraction technologies (motorized pumps, rope and washer, solar pumps and pulleys), appropriate water application methods (overhead, drip, furrow), and irrigation scheduling tools.  Generating biophysical and socio-economic data to assess opportunities and constraints to scaling these technologies and approaches.  Identifying potential business models to access small-scale irrigation for men, women and youth.  Exploring options for irrigating fodder that supports enhanced livestock production.  Ensuring the environmental and economic sustainability of irrigation interventions from farm to watershed scale through an integrated, process-oriented modeling suite including SWAT, APEX and FARMSIM.  Identifying potential pathways leading from irrigation to improved nutrition. "}]},{"head":"Pathway to impact: upscaling from the field to the watershed","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field intervention sites","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In Ghana, the project is working directly with around 60 women and men farmers in three districts of the Savannah Accelerated Development Authority (SADA) zone:  Northern region, Bihinaayili community, Savelugu district  Upper East region, Zanlerigu community, Nabdam district  Upper East region, Dimbasinia community, Kassena Nankana East district"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The ILSSI project also shares data from other Feed the Future projects in the SADA zone to ensure more robust and relevant modelling."}]},{"head":"From field level interventions to modeling scenarios and supporting decisions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"At all project sites, the research team is working with national universities and research partners, extension, subject matters specialists, local irrigation and finance cooperatives, and women and men farmers to pilot technologies and practices that hold potential for scaling up small scale irrigation. Primary data is being collected through installation of measurement instruments, sampling and field interventions in the relevant watersheds, as well as through socioeconomic surveys and farmer field books. In these, farmers are being encouraged to record data on daily and seasonal practices. By sampling and testing water quality in the watersheds the project team are able to monitor and analyse different water sources when considering multiple uses of them. This primary data is complemented with secondary data from national and international resources. ILSSI uses the data in a suite of models -SWAT, FARMSIM and APEX -that form an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS)."}]},{"head":"Partnerships, capacity and engagement: working toward impact","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The ILSSI helps to develop the research and publishing skills of students and young professionals in partner and stakeholder organizations. The project is contributing to strengthening the capacity of farmers, extension workers and private sector suppliers and service providers. For example, the research team has led capacity development training on irrigation scheduling, agronomic practices for irrigated drop production, and managing micro-finance loans for investment in small scale irrigation. ILSSI also holds annual training sessions for researchers and practitioners on using the IDSS suite of models to ensure decision support continues after completion of the project."}]},{"head":"Further information","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"This leaflet has been produced by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) www.iwmi.org. For more information on this project contact: Dr. Davie Kadyampakeni, project leader in Ghana, ([email protected]) and Dr. Nicole Lefore, project manager ([email protected]). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Farmers installing a drip kit designed by the University for Development Studies, Ghana. (Photo: Dr. Sylvester Ayambila, UDS) www.feedthefuture.gov "},{"text":" ILSSI team is led by Texas A&M University with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) leading field interventions and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) conducting household surveys. Continuous stakeholder engagement throughout is a core approach of the ILSSI project. In Ghana, the interventions are implemented and data collected by the University of Development Studies (UDS), iDE-Ghana, and the Animal Research Institute (ARI) and Water Research Institute (WRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). "},{"text":"Farmers and service providers in northern Ghana learning about the use and maintenance of motor pumps for irrigation. (Photo: Dr. Sylvester Ayambila, UDS) "}],"sieverID":"b3af62e4-a21e-4587-8d41-6e9d7e5c4413","abstract":"Increasing food production through irrigation in the dry season improves livelihoods. Entrepreneurs and farmers in Africa are already using groundwater, river or stream pumping, lowland/inland valley rice water capture systems and private small reservoirs and ponds in emerging irrigation systems.The Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) is working in Ghana, Ethiopia, and Tanzania, where small scale irrigation can contribute to national development goals. The aim of ILSSI is to identify ways of creating opportunities for farmers and other actors across scales. Researchers, with farmers and extension workers, are piloting systems to improve water lifting, conveyance and field distribution. They are also examining mechanisms to improve access to small scale irrigation technologies for both women and men. The project considers scaling technologies and practices with a focus on both the market and environmental sustainability."}

data/part_3/09668a474d682f708f260e0875ebe985.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"09668a474d682f708f260e0875ebe985","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/72afb848-9841-4fd8-8ada-a48d83861f9d/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"7. Rescatando variedades ancestrales: innovación de las papas nativas en Ecuador","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Resumen ejecutivo","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Este documento describe las innovaciones tecnológica, organizacional y comercial desarrolladas para el rescate de la papa nativa de Ecuador. La recuperación, mejoramiento y multiplicación de papas nativas se realizó con un enfoque de mercado, mediante alianzas público-privadas. Permitió el surgimiento de una nueva alternativa de ingresos para los pequeños productores y una nueva forma de hacer negocios a través de la vinculación contractual de un consorcio de pequeños productores y una pequeña empresa procesadora bajo condiciones de responsabilidad social empresarial (RSE)."}]},{"head":"Antecedentes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Las papas nativas son un producto ancestral, históricamente anclado en la cosmovisión de comunidades andinas ecuatorianas ubicadas a altitudes superiores a los 3000 msnm. Utilizadas como ofrenda en ritos milenarios, ceremonias y festejos, como medicina para sanar diversas dolencias o utilizadas como alimento o bien de trueque, las papas nativas contribuyen a la seguridad alimentaria de los pobladores de estas comunidades (Monteros y Reinoso 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Paradójicamente, este producto tradicional, desde un punto de vista histórico, es nuevo desde la perspectiva comercial. Un estudio de mercado realizado por el Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones (INIAP) en el 2007 mostró que solo el 1% de las amas de casa entrevistadas reconocían las papas nativas. Por su parte, comerciantes, procesadores y chefs de cocina, las confundían con otros productos o consideraban que sus colores se debían a daños o fallas y no a las características distintivas de estas variedades. La falta de mercado hizo que de las 350 variedades de papas nativas, solo 17 tuvieran una presencia marginal en el mercado, lo cual las colocó en riesgo de extinción (Monteros et al. 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"La pobreza en la Sierra Centro Ecuatoriana, unida a una extrema volatilidad de los precios por fluctuaciones en la producción local y la presión de precios de Perú y Colombia, colocó a los pequeños productores en una condición de extrema fragilidad frente a los mercados. En este contexto, se exploraron nuevas posibilidades en mercados de alto valor. En este sentido, el mercado de hojuelas fritas es atractivo y en los últimos años se ha incrementado el interés por parte de las industrias alimentarias y los consumidores de alimentos funcionales con alto valor nutritivo que se asocian con la prevención de enfermedades, por lo que variedades con pulpa de colores ofrecen interesantes oportunidades de mercado (Monteros y Reinoso 2011:13). El desafío fue, entonces, convertir su atributo de producto desconocido en atributo positivo de producto innovador. El desafío era convertir la papa nativa en una alternativa comercial para los pequeños productores."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"El proyecto \"Innovaciones tecnológicas y mercados diferenciados para productores de papas nativas\" fue ejecutado por el Programa Nacional de Raíces y Tubérculos (PNRT) del INIAP y financiado por el Fondo Regional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (FONTAGRO) con el apoyo de los proyectos Papa Andina e InnovAndes del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). Inició sus actividades en el 2006 y se nutrió de procesos anteriores, tal como el proyecto FORTIPAPA en el que se desarrollaron cuatro plataformas locales a nivel provincial basadas en cadenas de valor de papa y la creación del Consorcio de Productores de Papa (CONPAPA) (Cavatassi et al. 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"En la actualidad, la cooperación en esta temática sigue vigente con la incorporación de una alianza entre el CONPAPA y la Industria de Alimentos Procesados (INALPROCES). El CONPAPA se encarga de la vinculación entre los demandantes de papa y toda la cadena de aprovisionamiento, desde la planificación de siembra, la provisión de semilla hasta la producción y cumplimiento de los acuerdos comerciales con los clientes. Por su parte, INALPROCES es una empresa procesadora, pequeña, nueva e innovadora, fundamentalmente orientada hacia la exportación de Snack Gourmet. Su principal producto es un mix de vegetales hecho con remolacha, camote, yuca, zanahoria blanca y plátano maqueño. Posteriormente introdujo un mix de hojuelas de papas nativas. Estas dos empresas son las que desarrollaron la experiencia que se describe en este documento. "}]},{"head":"Breve descripción de la innovación","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enfoque y metodología","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Innovación tecnológica: recuperación, mejoramiento y multiplicación de la semilla de papa nativa de Ecuador El INIAP realizó una prolongada acción de investigación antes de lograr el mejoramiento de variedades de papa nativa aptas para satisfacer la demanda del mercado. El proceso se inició con la caracterización de la diversidad de variedades de papas nativas existentes en la sierra ecuatoriana. Se colectaron 120 cultivares de variedades de papas nativas en 19 comunidades. En cada una se formaron grupos de agricultores que llevaron muestras de cada variedad de papa nativa y se hizo una selección de acuerdo con tres tipos de caracterización:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"-Morfológica, basada en los descriptores morfológicos de papa y guía de colores de Huamán (1994) y Gómez (2004) del CIP. -Agronómica, que incluía días a la cosecha, rendimiento, días en anaquel e incidencia de enfermedades. -"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Por usos industrial y gastronómico, en la que se contó con la participación de universidades de agroindustria, chefs y escuelas de gastronomía. -Finalmente, se establecieron cinco jardines de conservación y multiplicación con la finalidad de incrementar la semilla de los cultivares de papas nativas (Monteros y Reinoso 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Posteriormente se realizó la selección de papas nativas con potencial de mercado para consumo en fresco. Con el concurso de agricultores, chefs, escuelas de gastronomía, supermercados, restaurantes gourmet y comerciantes, se establecieron las características ideales para satisfacer el mercado en fresco. Se caracterizaron hedónicamente (sabor) 50 variedades de papas nativas y se seleccionaron 11 variedades, que presentaron las mejores características organolépticas. Además, se realizó una caracterización nutricional y funcional y se encontró que las papas nativas colectadas no solo tienen formas y colores vistosos, sino que aportan cantidades importantes de proteína, fibra, minerales, carotenos, polifenoles (antioxidantes naturales) comparada con la variedad mejorada más comercializada en Ecuador, la superchola (Monteros y Reinoso 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Debido al amplio potencial de mercado de las hojuelas fritas de colores, se efectuó una selección de papas nativas para procesamiento. En conjunto con agricultores y empresas procesadoras de hojuelas fritas, se establecieron las características ideales que deberían tener las variedades para el procesamiento de hojuelas y se seleccionaron los materiales con potencial de mercado (Monteros y Reinoso 2011)."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"En el 2006, el PNRT−papa del INIAP− inició la evaluación y selección de genotipos con pulpa de colores. Se empezó con 15 clones provenientes de autofecundaciones y cruzamientos entre papas nativas de la colección ecuatoriana de la papa y cinco variedades nativas colectadas en Cotopaxi y Bolívar, que presentaban pulpa de colores. En la Estación Experimental Santa Catalina (EESC) se evaluaron estos clones por dos años y se seleccionaron siete, los cuales presentaban rendimientos mayores a 0,5 kg/planta, tolerancia a enfermedades y características adecuadas de procesamiento (Monteros y Reinoso 2011)."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Desde 2006 al 2008, continuaron las evaluaciones con la participación de agricultores y empresas privadas en 16 localidades de tres provincias (Cotopaxi, Tungurahua y Pichincha)."}]},{"head":"Innovación organizacional: sistema público-privado para la multiplicación de semillas","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"En el 2006, el CONPAPA comenzó a tener una demanda estable. Sus clientes exigían consistencia en el cumplimiento de fechas de entrega del producto y en la calidad. La asociación se abastecía de semilla del INIAP; sin embargo, cuando el volumen requerido se incrementó y los pedidos se hicieron más frecuentes, el CONPAPA tuvo que comprar semilla producida por grandes haciendas. Se trataba de un nexo comercial que implicaba la compra de volúmenes altos. No obstante, varios factores demostraron que este mecanismo de aprovisionamiento a partir de las haciendas no era eficiente, los cuales se señalan a continuación: a)"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"La calidad de la semilla no era estable, en muchas ocasiones no reunía los requerimientos acordados ni garantizaban la calidad física, sanitaria, fisiológica y genética de la semilla, lo que ocasionaba pérdidas en el rendimiento y calidad de la producción. b)"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"La disponibilidad no era continua y, por tanto, no les permitía cumplir con su calendario de aprovisionamiento a sus clientes. c) La semilla disponible solo atañía a variedades de tipo comercial y no abarcaba semilla de papa nativa. d) La volatilidad de los precios era elevada, lo cual reducía los márgenes de comercialización de los pequeños productores e introducía mayor incertidumbre al proceso productivo."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Ante la alta frecuencia de transacciones del aprovisionamiento de semilla, la incertidumbre de la transacción derivada de la volatilidad de los precios y la inestabilidad de la calidad y del requerimiento de semillas con características específicas para satisfacer a los clientes, el CONPAPA optó por iniciar la producción de semilla a través de acuerdos con productores socios."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"Se implementó un sistema mixto de semilla entre el CONPAPA y el INIAP, cuyo objetivo era poner a disposición de los socios de la organización semilla con las características de calidad, en la cantidad y en el momento más apropiados para que la organización cumpliera con sus compromisos de siembras y cosechas oportunas y lograra satisfacer la demanda de papa de mesa de los nichos de mercado que fueron identificados previamente (Montesdeoca et al. 2012). El primer paso consistió en identificar a los mejores agricultores y a aquellos interesados en producir semilla para los socios, quienes fueron formados como semilleristas. El CONPAPA fue el encargado de monitorear todo el proceso en función de los pedidos de compra de papa. La multiplicación de las variedades nativas fue favorecida por un financiamiento de la Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, antes llamada GTZ) en el marco de la vinculación INALPROCES-CONPAPA 6 ."},{"index":6,"size":166,"text":"El CONPAPA se encargaba de adquirir las semillas del INIAP y luego las distribuía a los agricultores semilleristas de acuerdo con su capacidad de producción (entre 450 a 675 k). Además, prestaba asesoría tecnológica y seguimiento. La entrega de las semillas se realizaba en forma de crédito, que consistía en esperar a que la cosecha adquiriera la totalidad de la semilla producida y posteriormente se descontaba el valor de la semilla entregada inicialmente. Una vez adquiridas, las semillas se colocan en las bodegas del CONPAPA para mantenerlas en un período de reposo y brote. Luego, de acuerdo con la planificación de ventas, se entregan las semillas a los socios encargados de la producción de papa y, de esta manera, se cierra el ciclo mercado-semilla-papa-mercado. Además, con el apoyo del INIAP, se han implementado los procesos de selección positiva que realizan los agricultores socios del proyecto, quienes después de capacitarse en la metodología, mejoran la calidad de su semilla en el lapso de dos a tres generaciones."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"La selección positiva consiste en la práctica de señalar las mejores plantas en el campo, cosecharlas por separado y seleccionar las mejores papas para semilla."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"La participación de mujeres en el proceso de multiplicación de la semilla es mayoritaria, lo cual constituye un honor dentro de la comunidad, porque se convierten en proveedoras del material. Son reconocidas por cumplir con mayor precisión con los criterios de calidad, clasificación y peso. Su interés es privilegiar la calidad antes que la cantidad."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"6. Proyecto \"Fomento de la cadena de valor de papas nativas para el procesamiento agroindustrial: valoración de los recursos de la agro-biodiversidad\" 2011-2012."}]},{"head":"Especialización y capacidades gerenciales","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Un rasgo importante de la experiencia del CONPAPA en la comercialización de sus productos es que en las actividades de cooperación precedentes se valoraron y potenciaron las capacidades empíricas de los productores y de los profesionales originarios de la zona. Esto se tradujo posteriormente en la incorporación de personal calificado al CONPAPA para cumplir las funciones de vinculación de los pequeños productores con el mercado."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"En su calidad de vinculador entre los productores y los clientes, el CONPAPA ha fijado una política de pago a los productores que refleja en cierta manera la política de pago de clientes a sus proveedores. Cuando el productor entrega la papa en las bodegas del CONPAPA, se le puede otorgar un adelanto en efectivo para cubrir algunos costos. El pago completo se realiza a los ocho días."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"A su vez, el CONPAPA ha establecido una política de cobros a clientes, concordante con los usos del sector y con los requerimientos de los clientes. En general, entrega el producto al cliente y le otorga un plazo de pago de 8 a 15 días. Entonces, el sistema de pagos en la cadena productor-CONPAPA-clientes está basado en el crédito: el productor entrega un producto ante un pago diferido; a su vez, el CONPAPA recibe un pago posterior a la entrega del producto al cliente; finalmente, los clientes, especialmente en el caso de las exportaciones de papa nativa, pueden estar sujetos a pagos diferidos post-envío del producto. En estas condiciones ¿cómo se protegen?"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"El CONPAPA ha tomado varias decisiones estratégicas para reducir el riesgo: a)"},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Conformar una cartera de clientes fijos en vez de orientar sus productos hacia el mercado mayorista. Entre 60% y 70% de las ventas totales están concentradas en los clientes más antiguos y solo un 2% de las ventas se realizan a clientes ocasionales. b)"},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Fidelizar clientes que ofrezcan mayor seguridad. Se han privilegiado clientes que demandan mayor volumen (más de 900 kg), debido a la experiencia con algunos impagos de clientes pequeños más propensos a salir del mercado. c)"},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Introducir salvaguardas en la transacción, requerimientos exigidos a la entrega del producto, tales como: pago al contado y cheque a la fecha aplicable a nuevos clientes en quienes la confianza aún no se ha instalado. Estas medidas mejoran la protección ante riesgos de impago, pero no les protegen contra la principal incertidumbre en los ingresos: la volatilidad de los precios."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"Cuando el precio en el mercado está en 15 a 16 dólares hacia arriba casi no tenemos inconveniente de colocar el producto, porque ya nos conocen y conocen la calidad. Pero, cuando está a seis o a siete dólares porque hay demasiada oferta, el cliente busca los precios más bajos (Ingeniero, CONPAPA)."},{"index":9,"size":87,"text":"En efecto, la mayoría de los clientes del CONPAPA no ofrecen estabilidad en el precio. Esto se fija en el momento de la entrega utilizando de referencia los precios del mercado mayorista 7 . Tampoco se comprometen a comprar cantidades predeterminadas ni a través de compromisos firmados. En otras palabras, la mayoría de los clientes del CONPAPA (95% de sus ventas) se mantienen en la manera tradicional y fundamentalmente informal de hacer negocios. La excepción ha sido el negocio de papas nativas, como se explica a continuación."}]},{"head":"La innovación genera un negocio: la vinculación contractual con RSE entre productores y la empresa privada","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"A finales del 2010, con el apoyo del CIP y el INIAP, se estableció el contacto entre la empresa procesadora la INALPROCES y el CONPAPA, que se concretó con la firma de un convenio (contrato) comercial con responsabilidad social. Este contrato estipula las condiciones de venta de papa nativa fresca a la INALPROCES, que posteriormente la procesa y comercializa en forma de hojuelas bajo la marca KIWA. La duración del contrato es de 18 meses. En él se determina la cantidad de producto requerido, el calendario de entrega y los parámetros de calidad y se establece un precio fijo para todo el año. El precio fue negociado con base en el costo de producción más un margen favorable para el productor. Se previeron, además, mecanismos de coordinación para realizar ajustes en caso de imprevistos en la entrega del producto, así como una cláusula de resolución de controversias ante la Cámara de Comercio de Quito. Este contrato otorgó seguridad a los productores y estimuló la producción de papa nativa."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"La INALPROCES procura firmar contratos con todos sus clientes. Con respecto a las exportaciones, actualmente está obteniendo la certificación Business Alliance for Secure Commerce (BASC) que requiere el respaldo de contratos internacionales. Aun así, ha pagado el costo del aprendizaje de negociar en el mercado exterior. Algunos contratos iniciales no resultaron del todo favorables para la empresa; sin embargo, por fidelidad a ciertos clientes que les abrieron primero las puertas, han optado por mantener invariable las condiciones hasta que puedan negociar un nuevo acuerdo."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"7. Técnicos del CONPAPA realizan diarios de mercado, a fin de conocer los precios y la condición de abastecimiento en los mercados principales de provincia. Esta información les permite definir el precio que pueden ofrecer al cliente para que el productor obtenga un nivel más elevado que el vigente en el mercado Los importadores de la INALPROCES adelantan un pago del 50% en el momento de hacer el pedido y 50% frente a documentos de envío antes del retiro del producto en la aduana de destino. El precio se establece antes de la entrega, es decir, cuando se negocia el acuerdo a través de un contrato de compra y venta, que implica que el importador adquiere la propiedad del producto y lo vende por su cuenta y riesgo en el mercado de destino."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"El uso de contrato de compra-venta es menos difundido en el comercio internacional de productos agrícolas que los contratos de consignación donde los riesgos de la venta son asumidos por el exportador, mientras el importador actúa como un agente bajo comisión por la venta del producto (Pavez y Codron 2012). Al optar por una política de no vender en consignación, la empresa disminuye gran parte de los riesgos del comercio exterior."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"La INALPROCES asumió el costo de la introducción de las papas nativas al mercado. Según Kotler (2006), el ciclo de un producto en el mercado está constituido por una fase de introducción, crecimiento, madurez y decadencia. La fase de introducción corresponde al lanzamiento de nuevos productos y se caracteriza por tener un alto costo, requerir de la identificación de clientes innovadores que estén dispuestos a probar nuevos productos, realizar ventas bajas, pero también por contar con pocos competidores."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"La INALPROCES absorbió el costo y riesgo y logró aprovechar la oportunidad de diferenciarse en el mercado al ofrecer un producto prácticamente único. La empresa con fondos propios y con el apoyo del Instituto de Promoción de Exportaciones e Inversiones (PROECUADOR) ha participado en varias ferias. Además, ha invertido en las actividades de promoción del producto en el exterior, así como en las adaptaciones requeridas, tales como empaque y etiquetado adaptado a los requerimientos específicos según cliente y país de destino. Asimismo, ha logrado certificarse con HACCP, BPM, KOSHER, Non-GMO, CSA Gluten-Free Product."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"Debido a su estrategia comercial basada en la calidad, la innovación y en la responsabilidad social y ambiental, la INALPROCES ha desarrollado una rápida incursión en el mercado externo. La estrategia de penetración en el mercado exterior utiliza como punta de lanza su producto principal el \"Mix de vegetales\". Una vez que la empresa cuenta con buenos distribuidores en términos de eficiencia y fiabilidad, puede introducir un producto nuevo y desconocido como el \"Mix de hojuelas de papas nativas\"."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"La empresa ha exportado a 20 países el \"Mix de vegetales\" y las papas nativas han sido exportadas a siete países. Una gran expectativa se ha creado en EE.UU y Canadá, donde se estima un crecimiento notable de las ventas de papa nativa. Se espera que para el 2013 un 50% de las exportaciones de la empresa se dirigirse a estos dos países."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"Por su parte, el mercado interno de Ecuador representa aproximadamente el 20% de las ventas totales de la INALPROCES, del cual el 70% va dirigido a una cadena de supermercados (37 locales) y el 25% a 14 clientes (pequeña distribución, cadenas gourmet y naturistas) y el 5% a una línea aérea internacional."}]},{"head":"Resultados e impactos","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A continuación se presenta un resumen de los principales resultados alcanzados en las tres categorías de innovaciones."}]},{"head":"Cuadro 7.1. Resumen de los resultados en las categorías de innovaciones.","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Categoría Resultados e impactos","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Tecnología Dos variedades nativas mejoradas: INIAP-puca shungo e INIAP-yana shungo. Tecnología de procesamiento de hojuelas de papa nativa desarrollada."}]},{"head":"Organizacional","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Comercial","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"El CONPAPA, integrado por 1200 socios registrados y 370 socios activos (65% hombres y 35% mujeres) ha contribuido a: Implementación del sistema público-privado de multiplicación de semillas, integrado por 29 semilleristas (15 mujeres y 14 hombres). Incremento de semilla disponible superior al 100%. Producción de semillas de siete variedades (nativas: puca shungo, yana shungo y tushpa. Mejoramiento del sistema de almacenamiento desde 2-3 meses hasta 5-6 meses, lo que permite una siembra gradual según los requerimientos del mercado."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Vinculación contractual entre el CONPAPA y la INALPROCES con RSE. Apertura de mercado interno y externo para la papa nativa por parte de la INALPROCES. Producto \"Mix de hojuelas de papa nativa\" vendido en mercado interno y exportado a siete países. Generación de empleos:"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"En muy corto tiempo, las innovaciones realizadas en este caso han mostrado que pueden ser sostenibles. La estrategia comercial y organizacional adoptada indica buenos resultados y los pronósticos son favorecedores. Si bien las ventas de papa nativa todavía son incipientes, las tasas de crecimiento de las ventas de 289% (2012 con respecto al 2011) y la expansión hacia mercados externos son relevantes."}]},{"head":"Cuadro 7.2. Evolución de las ventas de papa nativa.","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"* Pronóstico","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fuente: INALPROCES y CONPAPA.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"El Consorcio de Pequeños Productores, por ser una organización joven, actualmente no se autofinancia completamente, sino que recurre a apoyo externo para ampliar sus servicios de asistencia técnica y comercial a los asociados. Aun así, una señal que refleja el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades es que la organización capta y gestiona los recursos de fuentes nacionales e internacionales por sí sola, además de los recursos propios que genera."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"La empresa INALPROCES continúa implementando una estrategia de crecimiento. Actualmente está en fase de desarrollo de nuevos productos, tales como: una nueva marca llamada \"NATIFS\" con empaques especiales para cada variedad de papa nativa. La introducción de las variedades tushpa y lila shungo (corazón lila) complementa la paleta de productos ya comercializadas yana shungo (corazón negro) y puca shungo (corazón rojo). Además, debido a la existencia de un mercado relevante de venta en fresco en Ecuador, han contactado a varios chef de restaurantes y hay un interés en firme de compra por parte de la cadena de supermercados más importante del país."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"La relación contractual entre la INALPROCES y el CONPAPA tiene un enfoque de largo plazo, ambas partes se encuentran en posición de interdependencia. El CONPAPA es el único proveedor de papa nativas y la INALPROCES, el único comprador. Contractualmente existe una cláusula de no-exclusividad; sin embargo, ambas partes apuestan por mantener y desarrollar una relación de negocios de largo plazo. Esta interdependencia se da gracias al interés común entre proveedor y cliente de realizar conjuntamente objetivos de maximicen el desempeño y beneficio de ambas partes (Buchanan 1992)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"La visión de nuestra empresa es continuar creciendo y continuar trabajando con los productores con quienes trabajamos desde el inicio para que pasen a ser medianos o grandes productores, de la misma manera que INALPROCES evolucione de una pequeña empresa a una mediana. Se trata de compartir la creación de valor (Gerente, INALPROCES)."}]},{"head":"Evidencias: una estrategia comercial innovadora","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Además del crecimiento de ventas y expansión en los mercados internacionales, en solo dos años de lanzamiento de papas nativas, la estrategia innovadora de la empresa INALPROCES y su alianza con el CONPAPA mereció varios reconocimientos:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"• TASTE 11 Award for Top Innovations of Anuga-2011, otorgado al producto hojuelas de papas nativas en competición con 6500 expositores en la mayor feria internacional de alimentos. Este premio le permitió la apertura de los mercados de Arabia Saudita, Singapur y Dinamarca. "}]},{"head":"Replicabilidad de la experiencia","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Los métodos y resultados de esta experiencia se han aplicado en otras zonas del país. También se han realizado experiencias similares en otros países del área andina, lo que confirma su replicabilidad. En el caso de Ecuador, se registra una particularidad relevante, pues el desarrollo del negocio se ha dado de la vinculación comercial entre dos pequeñas empresas, el consorcio de productores, por una parte, y la pequeña empresa procesadora, por la otra."}]},{"head":"Lecciones aprendidas y oportunidades para mejorar","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Este caso muestra una coherencia en la aplicación de acciones de largo plazo y una convergencia de esfuerzos de diversas organizaciones locales, nacionales e internacionales con el objetivo común de mejorar las condiciones de vida de pequeños productores. Las innovaciones realizadas en las dimensiones tecnológica, organizacional y comercial se realizaron a través de un método participativo basado en alianzas público-privadas y en el empoderamiento de los actores locales."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"La integración a las cadenas de valor, por su parte, se realizó mediante un tipo de vinculación contractual que atenúa las incertidumbres de los pequeños productores, bajo un concepto de responsabilidad social empresarial. El modelo de contratación busca la equidad y, como todo emprendimiento, cumplir con el objetivo de garantizar la sustentabilidad financiera."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"La comercialización de la papa nativa en Ecuador, si bien reciente e incipiente, presenta perspectivas de crecimiento tangibles. Para continuar con el ritmo actual de expansión, se requiere mejorar las capacidades de inversión de los pequeños productores en la producción agrícola. Los actores de esta experiencia analizan posibilidades para la ampliación de actividades comerciales dentro del sector y laterales como el agroturismo asociado a la cultura de papas nativas. En fin, múltiples oportunidades se abren."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" nativa comercializados por la alianza el CONPAPA e INALPROCES. "},{"text":" • En el 2010, la INALPROCES obtuvo los reconocimientos de Mejor Proveedor en la categoría de innovación SUPERMAXI, la mayor cadena de supermercados de Ecuador y Trends and Innovations Award Feria Internacional SIAL en Montreal, Canadá. • Además, se dispone de amplia documentación en CIP http://papandina. • El premio al Mejor Proyecto de Responsabilidad Social Corporati- • El premio al Mejor Proyecto de Responsabilidad Social Corporati- va de Ecuador -INALPROCES, CONPAPA, INIAP y CIP -otorgado va de Ecuador -INALPROCES, CONPAPA, INIAP y CIP -otorgado por la GTZ y la Cámara de Comercio Germano-Ecuatoriana (2011). por la GTZ y la Cámara de Comercio Germano-Ecuatoriana (2011). • La INALPROCES ganó en dos ocasiones el premio otorgado por • La INALPROCES ganó en dos ocasiones el premio otorgado por la Federación Ecuatoriana de Exportadores (FEDEXPOR): Segun- la Federación Ecuatoriana de Exportadores (FEDEXPOR): Segun- da Mejor Pequeña Empresa Exportadora (2011) y Primera Mejor da Mejor Pequeña Empresa Exportadora (2011) y Primera Mejor Empresa Exportadora (2012). Empresa Exportadora (2012). "}],"sieverID":"cd67ead2-d95e-48f6-af53-dfb924a1caa0","abstract":""}

data/part_3/09b00d5f1c74c6bedadc2ace7aa217af.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"09b00d5f1c74c6bedadc2ace7aa217af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4890/a7ac97e765863419c8597616a38e5bfa.pdf"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Guidelines for managing the risks of introductions and transfers of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is a cichlid fish native to tropical and subtropical Africa and the Middle East. The Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain of Nile tilapia was the first genetically improved tropical aquaculture fish species in the world-the result of over 30 years of selective breeding by WorldFish and partners. The development of GIFT was a major achievement in the history of tilapia aquaculture and has been instrumental in enhancing worldwide production of Nile tilapia."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"WorldFish policy and a supporting code of practice and risk analysis guidelines have guided the organization's response and approach to GIFT dissemination, which is aligned with the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) policies on aquatic resources. Over the years, however, public and private stakeholders have introduced GIFT into many countries. These introductions have involved varying levels of risk analysis, depending on national legislation and the mode of introduction. The extent to which risk analysis has been applied in all circumstances is not known."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"It is evident that the increasing role of GIFT in future global fish supplies will increase GIFT introductions or transfers to more countries and territories in the coming years. Therefore, these risk management guidelines have been prepared to help move GIFT into any country or territory where risk analysis shows minimal risks using the highest safety standards and where cost-benefit analysis shows economic benefit potential. They are based on the strategies and recommendations of three comprehensive reviews of potential ecological, genetic and disease risks of GIFT introductions and transfers, as well as established international best practices provided by FAO and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). These guidelines complement earlier guidelines and policy documents prepared by the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) and WorldFish. Tilapia broodstock, Indonesia."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Movement of live aquatic organisms, including introductions 1 and transfers, 2 has contributed to global aquaculture growth and supplies of fish and other aquatic foods. Nevertheless, illegal, accidental or poorly planned introductions and transfers have caused significant socioeconomic and environmental impacts because of accompanying aquatic animal diseases. Negative impacts have also been linked to genetic exchange between farmed and wild fish of the same species (principally salmonids), as well as environmental (ecological) impacts, such as competition for food and reproductive habitats of native species. Such outcomes have highlighted the need for risk analysis (hazard identification, as well as the combination of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication) to evaluate the potential for disease, genetic and ecological impacts associated with proposed introductions and transfers. The risk analyses provide the framework for developing appropriate risk management measures for each proposed introduction or transfer."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"Nile tilapia is a cichlid fish native to tropical and subtropical Africa and the Middle East. It is widely distributed in the Nile and Niger river basins and in lakes Tanganyika, Albert, Edward and George. Numerous introduced populations are also found outside its natural range, in many smaller drainages and lakes in western and eastern Africa, and in the Yarkon River in Israel (Trewavas 1983). Several genetic improvement programs have been developed for farming this fish species, with the GIFT program being one of the most prominent and influential. The program was started in the 1980s by International Center for Living Aquatic Resources (ICLARM). The GIFT strain of Nile tilapia was the first genetically improved tropical aquaculture fish species in the world. It was the result of over 30 years of selective breeding by WorldFish (formerly ICLARM) along with partners in Norway and the Philippines. It used a selective breeding method approach pioneered in Norway in the 1970s for salmon and trout. The development of GIFT from a base population of seven Nile tilapia strains is considered a major achievement in the history of tilapia aquaculture (ADB 2004;Azhar et al. 2004;ADB 2005;FAO 2011). Undoubtedly, the GIFT strain has been instrumental in enhancing the worldwide production of Nile tilapia (ADB 2005;Li and Cai 2008;Ansah et al. 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"WorldFish has guided its dissemination of GIFT through policy and supporting code of practice and risk analysis guidelines (WorldFish 2006 and2007;Lind et al. 2015). These have guided the organization's response and approach to GIFT dissemination and are aligned with FAO's policies on aquatic resources (FAO n.d.). Over the years, however, public and private stakeholders have introduced GIFT into many countries. These include Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Indonesia, Fiji, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Timor-Leste and Vietnam. These introductions have involved varying levels of risk analysis, depending on national legislation and the mode of introduction. There are also records of private and public sector introductions and transfers of GIFT-derived stock to some of these and other countries. The extent to which risk analysis has been applied in such circumstances is not known."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"The increasing role of GIFT in future global fish supplies will increase GIFT introductions or transfers to more countries and territories in the coming years. These guidelines have therefore been prepared to guide the safe movement of GIFT from WorldFish Malaysia to any country or territory, with minimal risks and the highest level of safety."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The movements described in this document include introductions and transfers. The risk management guidelines provided are based on the strategies and recommendations of reviews of ecological, genetic and disease risks and established international best practices provided by FAO (Bondad-Reantaso et al. 2008) and the ICES (2005). They also complement earlier guidelines and policy documents prepared by ICLARM and WorldFish, and three comprehensive pathogen, genetic and ecology risk management plans developed by WorldFish (Arthur 2021;Bartley 2021;Amarasinghe 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"These risk management guidelines cover three stages of the introduction and transfer process: pre-border, border and post-border (Table 1)."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"The guidelines use this outline to provide more information on the respective roles and responsibilities of WorldFish and all essential partners to apply a robust risk management plan/strategy at all stages of the introduction/transfer to an importing country. • Select fish and prepare the facilities and expertise required to receive and care for them."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Assess suitable areas for farming when the second generation fry are to be released from quarantine."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"• Prepare paperwork and authorizations to ensure smooth passage through the border control point and for transportation to quarantine."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"• Ensure necessary export approvals and legal requirements are in place."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• Provide information necessary for the importer to make an accurate risk assessment."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Maintain stringent biosecurity, health management and control of the facility where the GIFT broodstock is kept."},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"• Advise the importer of the timing of the shipment and the preparation requirements (health certificate, packaging, labeling, cargo reservation), and share the waybill and expected time of arrival with the importer as soon as confirmed."}]},{"head":"Border","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Inspection and clearance of authorizations, certificates and fish upon their arrival at the border of the receiving country."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Release of shipment to the importer."}]},{"head":"Post-border","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Maintain quarantine control (facility and personnel), monitor fish health and collect other information needed to prepare for the transfer of second generation fry to farm facilities in suitable areas."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Maintain records from pre-border and border actions for any potential follow-up queries from import authorities (usually the competent authority)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Note: Importer in this document refers to the agency or company requesting to move GIFT from WorldFish Malaysia. Exporter in this document refers to WorldFish Malaysia."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Table 1. The roles and responsibilities of importer/exporter (WorldFish) at each stage of GIFT movement."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"The importer should make a detailed cost-benefit analysis to assist authorities with their decision to support, or not, the proposed import of GIFT. Once the import authority (usually the competent authority) has approved proceeding with import preparations, the importer must establish the primary contacts with the exporter for planning and importation logistics."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Sections 2.1-2.2 provide greater detail for the summary points outlined in Table 1 to help ensure that both exporters and importers have a clear understanding of their respective roles and responsibilities."}]},{"head":"Importer responsibilities","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Exporting facility","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"As the exporting facility, WorldFish Malaysia regularly conducts health checks on the parent population and maintains health records to demonstrate regular health examinations. It also guarantees the overall health of the fish to be transferred and ensures all consignments are accompanied by an acceptable international certificate of health provided by the Malaysian competent authority."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The original GIFT is currently only available from WorldFish Malaysia. Selecting GIFT from a source other than WorldFish Malaysia represents a high risk of loss from unknown pathogens or genetic weakness."}]},{"head":"Risk analysis and management strategy","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"In the case of a transfer of GIFT from WorldFish Malaysia, a risk analysis should be conducted to assess and, if necessary, manage the potential pathogen, genetic and ecology risks associated with the proposed introduction or transfer."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"In the case of a first-time introduction, a risk analysis, including an evaluation of the pathogen, genetic and ecology risks associated with the proposed introduction, must be conducted. The decision to proceed with the proposed introduction should be based on the results of the risk assessments, a cost-benefits analysis and the importing country's acceptable level of risk."}]},{"head":"Pre-border","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Extensive stakeholder consultation in the decision-making process should be included."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"All introductions and transfers should encompass an assessment of the three critical risk areas listed in sections 1.1.2.1-1.1.2.3."}]},{"head":"Ecosystem considerations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Assessing the potential risks to the aquatic ecosystems of the importing country is required to evaluate the potential negative impacts from the escape or intentional release of farmed GIFT into the natural environment. Escapes from aquaculture facilities should be assumed and may occur for several reasons, both within farm control (nets and pond breaches, lack of emergency preparedness, unauthorized and accidental fish removal and release), as well as outside farm control (vandalism, floods, fires, monsoons, typhoons, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The conditions to be compared should be the range of environmental conditions that Nile tilapia can tolerate, not just the conditions in the originating culture facilities, which may not be particularly relevant for some import environments."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The range of environmental conditions that Nile tilapia can tolerate need to be compared with those in the area(s) proposed for GIFT introduction. (This is required less for transfers within the natural range of Nile tilapia.) Ecosystem impacts should consider optimal growth, maturation and reproduction conditions, such as seasonal water temperatures, dissolved oxygen, turbidity or pollution. This will provide information needed to assess the likelihood that escapees will establish a population, should such an event occur."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Areas selected for proposed aquaculture development or growth should also be clearly separated from wetland conservation areas under local, regional or national conservation authorities. Delineation should be done using hydrographic separation. Selection should comply with the Convention on Biological Diversity and be done with input from a national advisory committee (NAC) established by the relevant government agency."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The NAC should consist of expertise that spans all stakeholder interests for the importing country, including farmers, government authorities, scientists, extension officers, conservationists and fisheries."}]},{"head":"Disease considerations","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Pathogen risk analysis should focus on determining the potential hazards (pathogens), the likelihoods of their entry and exposure, the magnitude of consequence, the total risk posed by each pathogen, and the acceptability of this risk to the importing country. Should the estimated risk exceed the receiving country's acceptable level of risk, it should also examine possible risk management options to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. While there are a number of significant pathogens of Nile tilapia, including those listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the health history of the GIFT broodstock, combined with importer and exporter adherence to risk management measures (section 2.2), will reduce the likelihood of disease introduction."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Some key diseases concerning Nile tilapia that require confidence in proof-of-freedom testing include epizootic ulcerative syndrome, viral nervous necrosis virus, spring viremia of carp, tilapia parvovirus and tilapia lake virus. 3 The list of diseases to be certified will be specific to the importing country and should be based on the results of risk analysis and include all relevant OIE-listed diseases. It should also be compatible with the national list of pathogens and animal quarantine regulations of the receiving country, if available. Bacterial diseases that are ubiquitous, such as streptococcosis, columnaris, francisellosis, epitheliocystis, edwardsiellosis, hemorrhagic septicaemia (motile Aeromonas infection) and red egg disease (hahellosis) would not be of concern to the risk assessment, but testing for them might prevent disease outbreaks in the receiving facility."}]},{"head":"Genetic considerations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In addition to establishing the genetic profile of the GIFT planned for transfers (where Nile or genetically compatible tilapia are in waters of the importing country), it is recommended that a sample of tilapia from the importing country's waters be taken for genetic screening and reference purposes, if an escape of GIFT occurs. Good genetic risk assessment is crucial to reduce associated genetic risks (Lind et al. 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"1.1.2.4. Risk analysis indicates an acceptable level of risk to the importing country Risk analysis does not, in itself, support introduction or transfer. This is often a political decision in which the risks of introduction must be weighed against the possible benefits."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"As such, it is recommended that the importing country also do a cost-benefit analysis."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"If the risk analysis indicates that the proposed introduction or transfer involves an acceptable level of risk, and a cost-benefit analysis indicates that potential benefits are likely to exceed potential costs, the competent authority, after appropriate stakeholder consultation, may decide to approve the proposed introduction or transfer."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"In this case, the importing authority needs to establish, and test, the receiving infrastructure and human resource expertise required to ensure success at the post-border stage (section 4)."}]},{"head":"Quarantine facilities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Effective quarantine containment means (i) preventing fish, genetic material or pathogens from escaping and (ii) providing evidence that helps demonstrate that any downstream occurrence of harm is, or is not, related to inadequate containment (section 2.1.5). FAO has provided a detailed procedure for live aquatic animal quarantine (Arthur et al. 2008). As such, land-based facilities to be used for GIFT quarantine need to meet stringent biosecurity measures (sections 2.1.3.1-2.1.3.10) and demonstrate that those measures are in place before the introduction/transfer and throughout the quarantine period."}]},{"head":"Effluent","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"All effluent needs to be disinfected 4 (ideally sterilized 5 ) before disposal. This can be done using filtration/ultraviolet systems with supporting settling tanks to trap solid waste within the quarantine boundary. All treated effluent must be chemically neutralized before release. Solid wastes should be treated as described for other materials (section 2.1.3.9). Alarm systems should be in place (and tested) to detect any failure in automated effluent treatment, such as an increase or decrease in effluent flow, and to warn of any risk of containment overflow. Under earthen pond-based systems, effluent water should be collected and retained in sedimentation ponds for a period of time before releasing it into the outside environment. Effective effluent treatment must be practiced, and the effluents must be free of sediments and fully disinfected prior to discharge."}]},{"head":"Chemical disinfection","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"If chemical disinfection is practiced, treatment efficacy should be verified using routine microbial screening (e.g. bacteriology plates) and/or pathogen-specific screening, such as polymerase chain reaction."}]},{"head":"Equipment and materials","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"All equipment and materials entering the facility must be disinfected before entry and disinfected completely before disposal or movement to a non-quarantined area or facility."}]},{"head":"Personnel","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Personnel accessing the quarantine area must be authorized and trained and use dedicated outer clothing (boots, gloves, lab coats, etc.) for work within the quarantine area. This clothing cannot be removed from that area without disinfection. Access must be controlled to prevent entry by unauthorized personnel, such as by controlled key access, keypad or magnetic strip card access, and video surveillance. 6"}]},{"head":"Quarantine delineation","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"There should be a clear delineation between \"clean\" and \"uncontrolled\" areas of the facility. Each entrance and exit point to the quarantine area must have a well-managed disinfection system, such as a footbath, handwash and a clothing exchange area, as well as a sign-in/sign-out procedure for personnel access."}]},{"head":"Water and content containment in clean areas","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Wet laboratories within the quarantine should have a raised barrier to contain all water if there is a leak/breach in the holding tanks. Where water flows to a catchment or disinfection tank, this should have an alarm in case there is a breach that reaches a level that could overflow the tank."}]},{"head":"Feed","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Feed used should be certified pathogen-free and of good quality. Any live feed used should also be certified pathogen-free. There should be a dedicated and closed area for feed storage designed to prevent potential exposure or entry of pests (insects, rodents, etc.) and to prevent potential exposure to microbes, such as fungi that produce aflatoxins, that cause poor feed quality."}]},{"head":"Quarantine laboratory support","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"There should be a dedicated lab area equipped with basic equipment for collecting and examining samples, and it should ensure effective containment if the samples must be moved to another lab for testing."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"1.1.3.9. Solid waste sterilization"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Ideally, an autoclave or incineration capacity should be available for mortalities, disposable materials, solid waste, etc., within the quarantine area or via a sealed mechanism for disinfection outside the quarantine area."}]},{"head":"Emergency preparedness","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Plans need to be in place for power outages, fire or other disasters, such as flooding and earthquakes. This requires consultation with emergency response providers for the site and testing of the plan through emergency drill exercises before the GIFT arrive."}]},{"head":"Human resources","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In addition to the quarantine personnel, importing countries should consider setting up an independent NAC (section 2.1.2.1) to oversee the preparation and execution of the introduction of GIFT. This should include health, genetics and ecosystem expertise (science) as well as government, industry and community stakeholders. This committee would ensure that all interests receive the same information preand post-introduction and that all have a clear understanding of the risk reduction measures being implemented and why."}]},{"head":"Knowledge of waters/watershed adjacent to the quarantine facility","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Ideal preparedness includes baseline knowledge of the health status of aquatic resources upstream and downstream and in proximity to the quarantine facility. This involves sampling common species for parasites, pests and microbial pathogens. Although such samples will likely be from healthy populations, screening for the absence of the diseases listed in section 2.1.2.2 should be included. Measures to minimize the risk of transferring pathogens into the quarantine facility must be in place."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"This suggestion also applies to a genetic profile or polymorphism screening of nearby tilapia populations to reinforce the selection of appropriate markers and/or a suite of polymorphisms to distinguish GIFT from wild tilapia populations (Lind et al. 2015;Moses et al. 2020) (section 2.1.2.3)."}]},{"head":"Exporter (WorldFish) responsibilities","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Information sharing","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"It is incumbent on the exporter to provide timely and accurate information on genetics, ecology and disease history of the batch of GIFT being introduced, as required by the importer for the risk analysis. WorldFish will provide any relevant reports and technical guidance on GIFT transfer to importers so that they can ensure they are fully prepared to receive the fish when ready for shipment."}]},{"head":"Broodstock isolation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Broodstock must be isolated from other fish at the production facility. This means using a water source that is not exposed to other fish and that, ideally, is independent of outside supply or is filtered/treated upstream of the holding tanks. This ensures that health testing (section 2.2.3) provides an accurate assessment of the fish to be transferred and reinforces health certifications prior to shipment."}]},{"head":"Health testing","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"WorldFish Malaysia should provide access to official health records produced by recognized 7 diagnostic laboratory expertise. Testing the fish for diseases should be done so that results are available before export. This means holding more than the number of fish destined for shipping to permit pre-shipment testing. Note: if health sampling is to be done on fish post-transfer (recommended under section 3), planning for this rests with the importer, in discussion with WorldFish Malaysia, to secure enough fish for testing."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Disease testing should be done by a laboratory recognized by the competent authority for Malaysia or of the country where the certified GIFT broodstock supplier is located. It can be in-country or via an agreement with an internationally recognized laboratory with established testing expertise. In addition, basic health screening for opportunistic microbes or parasites is recommended before preparation for shipment. This is to ensure that the fish will be in optimal health for transportation and do not carry any infectious agents that could cause disease in the receiving facility."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The competent authority should sign or endorse the health certification for the shipment, as per the national legislation of the exporting country."}]},{"head":"Transportation","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"For air transportation, the air cargo provider should establish timing and transportation needs. These include containers, tamperproof/security measures, environmental quality controls, priority shipping and requisite labeling of live animals, and pick-up requirements/contact information for the receiver at the import control point. Timing is critical for different life stages and should follow live fish transportation procedures to ensure optimal welfare and minimal stress, such as the use of oxygenated water, anesthetics and low temperature, as well as other measures."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Last, the exporter is responsible for providing safe and secure transportation of the fish to the transportation carrier and for collecting documentation confirming the date and time of receipt by the carrier."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The exporter should send the tracking information to the importing agency/company as soon as the fish are on-loaded with the carrier for shipment, even if copies also accompany the shipment. The GIFT exporter should keep copies of this information in case any issues arise with loss or damage to the GIFT cargo. The exporter should ensure that all necessary documentation is attached to the shipment so that there are no delays at the border control point."}]},{"head":"Border","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Importer responsibilities","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Border controls","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The importer should make sure all necessary permits and certificates (customs clearance, facility quarantine certification, etc.) for accepting a live fish consignment are ready by the time the fish arrive. All assessment procedures at the receiving end should be conducted appropriately by the competent authority. If anything goes wrong with the shipment and the fish arrive dead or dying, the pickup transportation must have the capacity to receive and contain the container for transportation to a facility equipped for biosecure disposal of the fish and all shipping materials."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Cage cultured tilapia, Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Photo credit: Salin Krishna/AIT"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"3. Post-border"}]},{"head":"Importer responsibilities","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Appropriate transportation for pickup and delivery to the receiving quarantine facility must be ready for immediate transfer on clearance of border point controls. This should be arranged in advance of the shipment but timed to coordinate with its arrival as closely as possible."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Upon successful transportation and delivery of healthy GIFT to the quarantine facility, the importing agency should ensure that the fish are regularly monitored for diseases and are adequately maintained and managed."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The importer should share information on the performance of the imported stock, including health issues and on-farm performance, with the exporter to support evidence of responsible dissemination of GIFT."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"The importer should share GIFT experiences with relevant stakeholders, including professional and farmers societies."}]},{"head":"Quarantine management","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The quarantine facility should be equipped and staffed appropriately to receive the fish, including ensuring that holding units, feed and water quality controls (notably temperature) are in place."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Adequate and secure perimeter fencing is essential. Entry and exit points should maintain dedicated clothing stations, regularly replenished footbaths, hand-and eye-washing stations and log-in/log-out books. Access should be restricted to authorized staff via control measures such as restricted key access, number pads or another method that will exclude unauthorized entry. Good record-keeping and regular testing for pathogens during quarantine are necessary."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Contact with emergency response authorities should be previously established, and the supervising officer should ensure that the contact information is up to date for both the quarantine and emergency response support. It is recommended that an emergency drill, such as a fire drill, be done shortly after receiving the fish. Note: In the event of an emergency (drill or real), emergency responders will breach entry points to ensure personnel safety and limit facility damage to the best of their ability. Once the facility is secured, however, the responders will need to disinfect their outer clothing-either onsite or by bagged removal to their own decontamination site."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"A robust animal-care schedule should be in place, with trained backup staff for all shifts in case of illness or emergency. Shifts may not be required 24/7 but must include all days of the week, including statutory holidays, to monitor and care for the fish."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"In addition to sign-in/sign-out logs, staff should maintain logs for general facility observations. These include water temperatures, feed logs, morbidity/mortalities (counts and actions taken), waste disposal (laboratory materials, gloves, etc.) and disinfection schedules (equipment, footbaths, etc.). All logs must be available for government officers to inspect upon request."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"Testing security alarms regularly is recommended to ensure they are working to the required specifications, such as controlled filling of the disinfection tank to the point of alarm."}]},{"head":"Post-quarantine environmental responsibility","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Areas requiring protection from the GIFT, such as wetland areas protected under the Ramsar Convention, can also be identified and delineated. The NAC should be tasked with collecting and summarizing relevant information to provide assurance to aquaculture development and conservation interests that all shared water resources have been taken into consideration in selecting areas for GIFT production. The importing agency/company should ensure that this issue has been discussed and confirmed with the appropriate national authorities."}]},{"head":"Regulation and public Information","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Diligent regulatory authority oversight and public awareness is needed to ensure (and provide evidence of ) consistent compliance with the basic biosecurity measures described in section 4.1. This should be accomplished by regular monitoring and inspection of the quarantine facility and adjacent waters during quarantine and its logbooks by authorities to ensure that the relevant components of the risk management plan have been adequately implemented and that relevant regulatory requirements have been met. This is important to demonstrate government oversight and support of environmentally responsible GIFT aquaculture development. As with grow-out site selection, documentation of this oversight provides valuable information that can be used to address any industry development and environmental concerns or questions throughout the introduction/transfer and stocking process. This also underpins the education and awareness of risks associated with illegal or unauthorized transfers of GIFT. Relevant national authorities may assist and advise here."}]},{"head":"Stocking: Post-quarantine","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Areas proposed for producing GIFT, when the second-generation fry are ready for release from quarantine, need to be prepared in advance of the arrival of the fry. These include farm and hatchery personnel, outreach and local support authorities, and laboratories. The GIFT advisory team and national authorities also need to maintain oversight of data on growth, productivity, health and containment (escapees). This information is essential for tracking the cost-benefit to local food-supply security and economic development. d. Be aware of surrounding fisheries and ecosystem characteristics to detect abnormalities, such as mass mortalities and biodiversity shifts, and accurately assess if they may be related to the GIFT or not. (Note: An ecosystem impact from GIFT post-quarantine would be highly unlikely, but observation records provide proof of due diligence.)"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"e. Maintain copies of observation/diagnostic reports for submission to the relevant authorities as appropriate-at least quarterly but perhaps bi-annually or annually."}]},{"head":"Exporter (WorldFish) responsibilities","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The exporter is responsible for maintaining all records related to the stock source and documentation (health, genetics, feed recommendations) supporting the GIFT export for a period of 5 years. WorldFish should inform the importing country of any confirmed introduction of an exotic pathogen to a new country along with importation of GIFT, or any finding of a serious pathogen in WorldFish GIFT broodstock."}]},{"head":"Importer checklist","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pre-border Border Post-border","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Undertake a risk analysis that includes the potential for negative disease, environment and genetic impacts on aquatic ecosystems in the country."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Undertake a cost-benefit analysis to ensure that economic potential is worth investment in required biosecurity measures."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Ensure that all relevant legal approvals have been secured and requirements met by the import authority (usually the competent authority)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Select the source of fish based on information provided by WorldFish or the certified GIFT supplier."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Ensure pickup personnel have the transportation and paperwork required to swiftly acquire and then securely transfer the GIFT to the quarantine facility."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"Conduct thorough quarantine management."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Ensure personnel have a plan for the transportation and biosecure disposal of GIFT that have been injured or killed during shipping."},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"Monitor grow-out and surrounding areas."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Establish an NAC consisting of multistakeholder interests to monitor and advise on conditions to ensure a biosecure introduction or transfer process."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"Provide ongoing advice as the introduction or transfer proceeds, including documentation of relevant authority oversight."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"Prepare quarantine facilities and expertise for staffing, and provide laboratory support in advance of fry arrival."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"Ensure steady communication with the national authority regarding the community interests of the receiving area (aquaculture, fisheries, environmentalists) and media before releasing the fry from quarantine."},{"index":13,"size":23,"text":"Ensure that paperwork to support border authorization for entry is ready for shipment and complete, including contact information for any border authority questions."},{"index":14,"size":25,"text":"Notes 1 Introduction in this document refers to the intentional or deliberate movement of GIFT to a geographic area where Nile tilapia is not native."},{"index":15,"size":1,"text":"2"},{"index":16,"size":22,"text":"Transfer in this document refers to the intentional or deliberate movement of GIFT to a geographic area where Nile tilapia is native."},{"index":17,"size":34,"text":"3 Note: If any of these are detected at the source and are known to be absent from the importer waters, this may halt the transfer until another source of fry can be found."},{"index":18,"size":1,"text":"4"},{"index":19,"size":8,"text":"Treatment that inactivates/kills a specific pathogen/group of pathogens."},{"index":20,"size":1,"text":"5"},{"index":21,"size":10,"text":"Treatment that inactivates all microbial life-forms (protozoans, bacteria, fungi, viruses)."},{"index":22,"size":1,"text":"6"},{"index":23,"size":63,"text":"Note: Cleaning staff must be trained and approved for access, along with animal care personnel, facility maintenance and engineering support. Recognized laboratories in this document mean laboratories that are approved by a national or local authority to produce reports that can be used to support the movement of GIFT for grow-out or export (proof of freedom from pathogens of concern to importing waters)."}]},{"head":"About WorldFish","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"WorldFish is a nonprofit research and innovation institution that creates, advances and translates scientific research on aquatic food systems into scalable solutions with transformational impact on human well-being and the environment. Our research data, evidence and insights shape better practices, policies and investment decisions for sustainable development in low-and middle-income countries."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"We have a global presence across 20 countries in Asia, Africa and the Pacific with 460 staff of 30 nationalities deployed where the greatest sustainable development challenges can be addressed through holistic aquatic food systems solutions."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Our research and innovation work spans climate change, food security and nutrition, sustainable fisheries and aquaculture, the blue economy and ocean governance, One Health, genetics and AgriTech, and it integrates evidence and perspectives on gender, youth and social inclusion. Our approach empowers people for change over the long term: research excellence and engagement with national and international partners are at the heart of our efforts to set new agendas, build capacities and support better decisionmaking on the critical issues of our times."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"WorldFish is part of One CGIAR, the world's largest agricultural innovation network."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"For more information, please visit www.worldfishcenter.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 7 "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Introduction or transfer stage Importer -general needs Exporter (WorldFish) -general needs Pre-border • Conduct risk analyses, cost-benefit Pre-border•Conduct risk analyses, cost-benefit analyses and stakeholder consultations to analyses and stakeholder consultations to determine whether or not GIFT should determine whether or not GIFT should be introduced. be introduced. • Ensure that the necessary government •Ensure that the necessary government approvals and legal requirements are approvals and legal requirements are in place if it is decided to proceed. in place if it is decided to proceed. • Develop a plan for the introduction, •Develop a plan for the introduction, including health certification needs, including health certification needs, quarantine procedures/infrastructure, quarantine procedures/infrastructure, training/capacity building, contingency training/capacity building, contingency planning and other biosecurity measures. planning and other biosecurity measures. "}],"sieverID":"87c3d24a-8d83-4ca1-93f2-518fd34e3b77","abstract":""}

data/part_3/09c90229e794462ff5718ffb11ff571f.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"09c90229e794462ff5718ffb11ff571f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e7277e30-9e9d-4809-9e58-3d5bd4e86dbf/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Determining the marketing margin for irrigation technologies in Ethiopia: A supply chain analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Irrigation development requires the design and implementation of appropriate water management interventions and the supply of affordable water-lifting, conveyance and application technologies. This may require building and improving distribution networks, and enhancing irrigation equipment repair and maintenance services (Malabo Montpellier Panel 2018). It is envisaged that the private sector will play a critical role in contributing to these areas (African Union 2020). This is based on the assumption that governments can use their resources more efficiently if the private sector provides financial support, shares risks, introduces technical expertise and increases sustainability along irrigation technology supply chains (Mandri-Perrot and Bisbey 2016). However, private sector irrigation technology suppliers have a limited presence in most developing countries. In addition, they rarely target smallholder farmers, particularly women and youth, who are seen as high risk (IWMI 2023). At the same time, most smallholders cannot afford the upfront cost of buying irrigation technologies, and few financial products are available that meet these farmers' credit needs and profiles."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In Ethiopia, the shortage of foreign currency means that suppliers, where they exist, do not hold stocks of pumps and accessories. Unclear import duties Water Issue Putting research knowledge into action"}]},{"head":"The context","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Irrigation, particularly farmer-led irrigation, has significant potential to increase crop productivity and improve the livelihoods of smallholders (see, e.g., Burney et al. 2013;Hagos et al. 2017;Passarelli et al. 2018). In sub-Saharan Africa, only 7.7% of the total agricultural land is irrigated (Malabo Montpellier Panel 2018). Ethiopia, the focus of this brief, has concrete plans for irrigation development, aimed at raising and sustaining agricultural productivity and cushioning households against droughts and climate variability (FDRE 2010;NPC 2016). Although the adoption of irrigation technologies is increasing, widespread use is hampered by underdeveloped supply chains, weak competition and high marketing margins that prevent smallholders from accessing these technologies."}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"■ The supply chain for irrigation technologies is short, competition is limited and the marketing margin is high."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"■ Three types of motorized and manual irrigation technologies were reviewed. The estimated marketing margin ranges between 12% and 60% for solar-powered pumps, 23% and 50% for fuel-powered pumps, and is more than 70% for rope and washer pumps."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"■ Addressing entry constraints and designing incentives are crucial for developing the supply chain and enhancing competition to bring down the prices of irrigation technologies for smallholders."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Farmers with a solar-powered pump in Arba Minch, Ethiopia (photo: Desalegne Tadesse/IWMI)."}]},{"head":"Adaptive Innovation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Scaling -Pathways from Small-scale Irrigation to Sustainable Development and tax exemptions coupled with lengthy import procedures further slow the diffusion of irrigation technologies, contrary to the objectives stated in agricultural policies. To provide a clearer understanding of these issues, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) analyzed the supply chain for selected motorized and manual irrigation pumps. The aim of the study was to characterize the actors involved throughout the process from importing the pumps to supplying them to end users, and to identify the effect of the structure of the supply chain on the marketing margin and sales price (Hagos et al. 2022). The study was conducted under the Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) project and the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), which ended in December 2021. The results of the study were used as a basis to make recommendations for an enabling environment that is more favorable to the supply and diffusion of the pumps reviewed."}]},{"head":"What is a marketing margin?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"A marketing margin refers to the difference between what a company pays for a product and what it charges for the product. The term 'marketing margin' is used because it is often the role of a distributor or other actor in the supply chain to market the product, even if it does not produce the product. There may be several such actors, including manufacturers, importers and retailers, each of whom incur costs and reap financial rewards as the product moves along the supply chain. A marketing margin is distinct from a profit margin, which is the percentage of the final sales price that a company earns as direct income. However, companies use the marketing margin as a way of measuring profitability. A high marketing margin reflects a high level of profitability. For end users, it also means a high purchase price."}]},{"head":"Marketing margin and cost structure","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Data for the study were collected through online, telephone and face-to-face interviews conducted with key pump suppliers in the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. Additional data on (import) prices and manufacturing costs were gathered from online research and by conducting a literature review. The pumps selected for this study were based on the technology's popularity in policy and development programs, and on the business and market environment. Although there is policy support for wider use of solar-powered pumps, the solar sector in Ethiopia is still nascent."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Various factors in the supply chain and enabling environment influence the marketing margin and its cost structure. These factors include complex financial regulations and tax regimes, complicated import rules and poor market infrastructure. Moreover, irrigation technology importers, manufacturers and distributors are confronted with the uneven application of existing regulations and standards as well as limited access to credit for developing markets (Poole 2017)."}]},{"head":"Calculating the marketing margin","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Based on Mendoza's (1995) formula for calculating the marketing margin for food crops, we devised two formulae to calculate the marketing margin for irrigation technologies. The first formula was used in instances where a given actor serves simultaneously as an importer, wholesaler and retailer: MMssc = (sales price -marketing cost) -IP + IC)"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"x 100 consumer or sales price where: MMssc is the marketing margin of imported irrigation technology, IP is the import price and IC is the import cost."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"The second formula was used in instances where the pumps are locally manufactured, e.g., rope and washer pumps, and a given actor serves simultaneously as a manufacturer, wholesaler and retailer:"}]},{"head":"MMlp =","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"(sales price -marketing cost) -MC x 100 consumer or sales price where: MMlp is the marketing margin of locally manufactured irrigation technology, and MC is the manufacturing cost."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The results indicate that the supply chain -which covers importation, manufacturing, distribution and use -for motorized pumps (petrol, diesel and solar) and manual rope and washer pumps is short. In other words, an importer or supplier of irrigation technologies and the wholesaler and retailer is the same company, with the occasional use of middlemen as the final link to end users. A short supply chain can benefit end users, as there is a smaller number of actors in the chain requiring a share of the marketing margin. In the Ethiopian context, however, the involvement of only a few actors makes the market structure more monopolistic and, therefore, less competitive."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"The estimated marketing margin for the pumps reviewed ranges between 12% and 60% for solar-powered pumps, 23% and 50% for fuel-powered pumps, and is more than 70% for rope and washer pumps. The basis for these estimates is described for each pump type below."}]},{"head":"Solar-powered pump supply chain","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"In the case of solar-powered pumps, the supply chain is composed of five or six import suppliers (GIZ 2020). These companies import and retail these pumps, provide site selection, installation, operation and maintenance (O&M) services (or use agents), train service providers and sell pumps directly to end users or indirectly through brokers, government agencies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The structure of the solar-powered pump supply chain is shown in Figure 1."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Brokers usually provide last-mile service delivery by connecting suppliers with smallholder farmers. Brokers earn a commission for this service."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Government agencies and NGOs are important actors in the supply chain. The government (regional and federal) buys irrigation equipment via tenders and favors cheaper products. Suppliers who sell high-quality and more expensive pumps rarely participate in tender bids. There are cases where suppliers (e.g., Solar Village) sell pumps to development organizations/projects (e.g., Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency [ATA]) and NGOs to be distributed to end users, sometimes for free (Gebregziabher 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Farmers are the end users and mainly obtain solar-powered pumps via subsidy schemes provided by government agencies and NGOs (IWMI 2018). A very small number of farmers use these pumps, and it is estimated that 1,500 solar-powered pumps were sold in the past 5 years (GIZ 2020). More than half of the users are smallholder farmers irrigating an area less than 1 hectare while the remaining are nonagricultural (e.g., construction) companies."}]},{"head":"Marketing margin for solar-powered pumps","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Table 1 presents six solar-powered pumps that were selected for this study. Suppliers prefer submersible pumps to surface pumps because they can abstract water from various groundwater depths (GIZ 2020). All pumps are delivered with panels, a panel frame and cables, and come with a one-or twoyear warranty."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The estimated marketing margin for the solar-powered pumps considered ranges between 12% and 48%, except for Grundfos, which is 60%. The latter percentage, which is exceptionally high, may be due to a lower import price and high sales price. The initial investment required to purchase a solar-powered pump is typically too high for smallholder farmers. The sales price of the Futurepump SF1 and SunCulture Rainmaker models may be favorable to smallholders, but they have limited capacity when it comes to the land area that can be irrigated."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The cost structure of the marketing margin includes import price, import duty, value-added tax (VAT) and marketing "}]},{"head":"Factors influencing the marketing margin","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Several supply chain-based factors influence the marketing margin of solar-powered pumps. The main factor among them is the dominance of a few multifunctional suppliers, resulting in weaker competition and higher prices even though the supply chain is short. Clearly, the benefits of short supply chains are not passed on to farmers. Another issue is market distortion through the distribution of free pumps. This reduces the number of potential customers for pump suppliers and undermines a growing niche market."}]},{"head":"Understanding of the market and market demand.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Most companies considered in this study do not import solarpowered pumps unless they have a guaranteed buyer (GIZ 2020). This indicates that their businesses mainly target institutional clients and might also lead to price uncertainty and issues regarding availability of the products."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Farmers' access to and willingness to invest in solar-powered pumps determine the growth of this niche market. The initial investment in solar-based irrigation is often prohibitively expensive for smallholders (Hartung and Pluschke 2018; World Bank Group 2018). There are few financial products, either provided by microfinance institutions (MFIs) or suppliers themselves, that address farmers' credit needs and profiles."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"One exception is pay-as-you-go, a financing model offered by Rensys, an IWMI partner, which allows farmers to use the pump while making regular payments until the total cost of the equipment is paid off. Financial limitations and factors such as access to irrigation technologies and related information have affected farmers' willingness to invest in solar-powered pumps, hampering the market demand and marketing margin to be captured through economies of scale."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Farmers' confidence and the presence of after-sales services are other important determinants of pump sales (UKaid and Power Africa 2019). Suppliers are responsible for the installation of pumps and provision of after-sales services."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"All solar-powered pump suppliers considered in this study provide a one-or two-year warranty. However, suppliers do not maintain a regular stock of spare parts because of a shortage of foreign currency to import parts in bulk. Moreover, there is a lack of local capacity to undertake regular O&M of pumps. Suppliers also disclosed that the availability of skilled technicians at the local level is a major obstacle. These limitations undermine farmers' confidence in irrigation technologies and the return on investment they can expect. VAT rates. In 2019, the government exempted all agricultural machinery, including solar-and fuel-powered pumps, from import duties, which would otherwise range from 0% to 35% depending on the type of product. All solar products are supposedly exempted from VAT, worth 15% of the gross product price. However, the VAT exemption is only applied to solar panels, which constitute a small fraction of the cost of solar-based irrigation systems, especially when installation services are added. Despite these policy provisions, suppliers indicate that benefiting from tax exemptions is challenging and time consuming because of the bureaucracy involved."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Foreign currency policy and currency availability influence suppliers' import capacity and associated costs (e.g., operational expenses). They may also affect the sales price of pumps, import costs (Ethiopia is a landlocked country), and the market structure of the irrigation sector. Further, devaluation of the local currency and inflation have caused a 20%-30% increase in the price of solar-based irrigation products in the last 3 or 4 years (GIZ 2020)."}]},{"head":"Standardization and enforcement of national standards","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"impact the import of quality solar-based irrigation equipment."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Although the Ethiopian Standards Agency and other government bodies exist to develop guidelines and standards for irrigation equipment and implement a national standardization strategy, enforcement appears to be weak. Some of the companies we interviewed stated that they have their own quality management unit and, therefore, do not need to adhere to (national) standards. Better standardization and enforcement of the standards would contribute to the sustainability of (smallscale) irrigation by making it easier to import quality equipment and spare parts."}]},{"head":"Fuel-powered pump supply chain","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"As with solar-powered pumps, most of the suppliers in the fuel-powered pump supply chain fulfil multiple functions. These companies import and retail diesel or petrol pumps, provide O&M services (or use agents) and train service providers. The pumps are supplied to end users through direct sales or via government agencies and NGOs. The structure of the fuelpowered pump supply chain is shown in Figure 2."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Regional and federal governments are other important actors, usually buying pumps via tenders and favoring cheaper products. "}]},{"head":"Import suppliers Farmers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Farmers are given a warranty and can get after-sales services if they buy a pump directly from the major suppliers. Farmers also buy fuel-powered pumps from local markets and make a cash payment (Gebregziabher et al. 2016). These pumps are usually cheaper and substandard products. In addition, a warranty or O&M is not provided for these products, and the availability of spare parts is not guaranteed. Consequently, farmers are not assured of after-sales services."}]},{"head":"Marketing margin for fuel-powered pumps","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The estimated marketing margin for fuel-powered pumps ranges between 23% and 50% (Table 2). For the majority of the pumps reviewed, the estimated marketing margin is greater than the anticipated profit. This indicates a higher-than-expected sales price, which is advantageous for suppliers but not farmers."}]},{"head":"Factors influencing the marketing margin","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The supply chain-based factors influencing the marketing margin for fuel-powered pumps are similar to solar-powered pumps, namely the dominance of a few suppliers, unfair competition from lower quality and cheaper (Asian) products, and market distortion caused by the distribution of free pumps."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Furthermore, the companies interviewed do not conduct formal demand assessments, relying instead on informal information regarding the demand for fuel-powered pumps. As with solar-powered pumps, a shortage of foreign currency to import pumps in bulk or maintain a regular stock of spare parts, and the lack of local capacity to undertake regular O&M are challenges faced by many fuel-powered pump suppliers."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Enabling environment-based factors for fuel-powered pumps mainly relate to fiscal policies. As indicated earlier, the government exempted agricultural machinery from import duties. In addition, diesel and petrol pumps are exempted from VAT, worth 15% of the gross product price. However, benefiting from these tax exemptions is challenging and time consuming because of the bureaucracy involved."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"A shortage of foreign currency is another factor affecting import capacity and associated costs (e.g., operational expenses). Several suppliers stated that it is easier to gain access to foreign currency when supplying pumps to government institutions."}]},{"head":"Rope and washer pump supply chain","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Manual rope and washer pumps are regarded as having significant potential for both domestic uses and small-scale irrigation (Minh and Schmitter 2020). Manufacturers and local assemblers produce and supply these pumps for household and community use, and sell them to regional governments and NGOs, and directly to farmers. The structure of the rope and washer pump supply chain is shown in Figure 3."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Several capacity in assembling rope and washer pumps, certify youth who are trained in well digging/drilling, and provide services in these areas."}]},{"head":"Marketing margin for rope and washer pumps","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Various types of rope and washer pumps are available to smallholder farmers at a price ranging from ETB 5,598 to ETB 8,180 (Table 3). The estimated marketing margin for rope and washer pumps is more than 70% and higher than the anticipated profit of 10%."}]},{"head":"Factors influencing the marketing margin","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Rope and washer pumps are locally manufactured using local raw materials. One of the supply chain-based factors influencing the marketing margin for these pumps is the rising cost of raw materials. In addition, poor production and installation practices may add to poor performance of the pumps and give the technology a bad reputation (Sutton and Hailu 2011). There is also a lack of installation and repair skills at the local level."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Improving the quality of wells and pumps by certifying service providers and manufacturers, as done by iDE, is very important. capital. This will enable pumps to be imported in bulk. As these factors are key determinants of the sales price, cost savings at this point in the supply chain can be passed on to end users."}]},{"head":"Model and brand","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Set and enforce quality standards","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Setting and routinely enforcing quality standards will support the sustainability of small-scale irrigation by making it easier to import high-quality technologies and protect suppliers from being undercut by suboptimal products. Moreover, adding small-scale irrigation technologies and equipment to the list of priority import goods of the National Bank of Ethiopia and facilitating customs clearance will make these products readily available and more affordable to smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Clarify and simplify tax rules","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The current policies regarding import duties and tax exemptions for irrigation equipment are often unclear, inconsistently applied and administratively cumbersome. Clarifying and simplifying these rules will accelerate import procedures and reduce costs for import companies."}]},{"head":"Improve access to suitable financing","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"MFIs provide farmers with small loans at high interest rates."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The loan amounts are insufficient to buy irrigation equipment."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The state-owned Development Bank of Ethiopia (DBE) could provide larger and more attractive loans. However, these loans"},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"The issue of low quality can be attributed to the enabling environment as well. Although our study focused on companies based in Addis Ababa, there were others operating in the major regional towns that are engaged in the manufacture and supply of rope and washer pumps. These companies reportedly do not adhere to the nationally stipulated quality standards."}]},{"head":"The way forward","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The findings of this study show that the actors involved in the supply of motorized and manual pumps fulfil multiple functions but do not directly target smallholder farmers. The supply chain is short, competition is limited and the marketing margin for irrigation equipment is high. The estimated marketing margin ranges between 12% and 60% for solar-powered pumps, 23% and 50% for fuel-powered pumps, and more than 70% for rope and washer pumps. This has a knock-on effect on the sales price. Developing the supply chain by addressing entry constraints and designing incentives is crucial for enhancing competition and bringing down the prices of pumps for smallholder farmers. To achieve this, the following actions need to be taken:"}]},{"head":"Address import restrictions","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The government can lower import costs and provide import companies with better access to foreign currency and working Aregash Bacha using a rope and washer pump near Meki, Ethiopia (photo: Apollo Habtamu/ILRI)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"are dependent on having adequate collateral, which most smallholders cannot provide. MFIs can address smallholders' needs by offering alternative collateral requirements, for example, by using land certificates or moveable assets such as the pumps themselves as collateral. Shared ownership may also be a viable option, with three or four farmers jointly purchasing an irrigation technology."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"For suppliers, DBE and private banks can introduce innovative financing schemes like public-private sector collaboration and partial risk guarantees (Bryan et al. 2020). Such schemes can enhance suppliers' bulk purchasing capacity, thereby increasing their stocks and supporting their working capital needs."}]},{"head":"Assess market demand","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The companies interviewed have no formal information regarding market demand. Typically, they respond to the immediate demands of government agencies and NGOs, usually through tender bids. Government agencies and NGOs play an important role in the diffusion of irrigation technologies and practices. However, regularly assessing and addressing the demands of other customer segments, notably cooperatives and individual farmers, would provide a more complete picture of the market and open up new and potentially lucrative business opportunities."}]},{"head":"Incentivize farmers' investment in irrigation","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Enhancing the economic feasibility of pumps by providing farmers with marketing opportunities for high-value irrigated crops is critical for scaling up/out (innovative) irrigation technologies. Subsidies to reduce the initial purchase price of these technologies could also help."}]},{"head":"Establish multi-stakeholder platforms","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Establishing multi-stakeholder platforms that bring together suppliers, service providers, development actors, farmers and other irrigation stakeholders can enhance information exchange, raise awareness of available technologies and lead to mutually beneficial partnerships, as experience in Ghana has shown (Minh et al. 2020)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Solar-powered pump supply chain: structure, costs and influencing factors. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Fuel-powered pump supply chain: structure, costs and influencing factors. "},{"text":" a few import suppliers • Unfair competition (cheaper Asian products) and market distortion • Weak after-sales services Enabling environment-based influencing factors • Foreign exchange policy and availability • Tax exemption policy and its enforcement • Standardization and enforcement of national standards "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Rope and washer pump supply chain: structure, costs and influencing factors. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Solar-powered pumps: models supplied, quantity sold, sales price and marketing margin in 2019/2020.* Model and Quantity Warranty Import Import VAT Marketing Sales Marketing Anticipated Agent's Model andQuantityWarrantyImportImportVATMarketingSalesMarketingAnticipatedAgent's brand sold (year)/ price duty (ETB)/ cost price margin profit (%) commission brandsold(year)/priceduty(ETB)/costpricemarginprofit (%)commission unit (ETB)/ (ETB)/ unit (ETB)/ (ETB)/ (%)/ (%)/unit unit(ETB)/(ETB)/unit(ETB)/(ETB)/(%)/(%)/unit unit unit unit unit unit unitunitunitunitunit Futurepump SF1 1 18,500 0 2,275 Unknown 24,500 13 20 15 Futurepump SF1118,50002,275 Unknown 24,500132015 SunCulture 800 2 33,896 8,000 5,084 Unknown 85,000 45 20 15 SunCulture800233,896 8,000 5,084 Unknown 85,000452015 RainMaker RainMaker (submersible) (submersible) RainMaker2S with 2 65,022 0 0 Unknown 50,000 12 20 15 RainMaker2S with265,02200Unknown 50,000122015 ClimateSmart ClimateSmart battery (20 meters) battery (20 meters) RainMaker2C with 2 38,235 0 0 Unknown 65,000 48 20 15 RainMaker2C with238,23500Unknown 65,000482015 ClimateSmart ClimateSmart battery (30 meters) 16 battery (30 meters)16 RainMaker2C with 2 49,715 0 0 Unknown 85,000 33 20 15 RainMaker2C with249,71500Unknown 85,000332015 ClimateSmart ClimateSmart battery battery (submersible) (submersible) (500 meters) (500 meters) Grundfos SQFlex 5 1 45,517 0 6,828 Unknown 130,000 60 n.a. 15 Grundfos SQFlex5145,51706,828 Unknown 130,00060n.a.15 2-5-2 2-5-2 "},{"text":"Model and brand Quantity sold Warranty (year)/ unit Import price (ETB)/ unit Import duty (ETB)/ unit VAT (ETB)/ unit Marketing cost (ETB)/ unit Sales price (ETB)/ unit Marketing margin (%)/ unit Anticipated profit (%) Agent's commission (%) Kohler Lombardini 2 49,515 11,379 7,427 30,000 120,000 23 25-30 15 Kohler Lombardini249,515 11,379 7,427 30,000 120,0002325-3015 (7.5-25 horsepower) (7.5-25 horsepower) diesel, surface pump diesel, surface pump Kohler Lombardini 2 98,211 24,552 14,727 67,500 270,000 32 25-30 15 Kohler Lombardini298,211 24,552 14,727 67,500 270,0003225-3015 (7 horsepower) petrol, surface pump 50 (7 horsepower) petrol, surface pump50 (30 meters) (30 meters) Kohler Lombardini 2 n.a. n.a. n.a. 6,750 27,000 n.a. 25-30 15 Kohler Lombardini2n.a.n.a.n.a.6,75027,000n.a.25-3015 (7 horsepower) (7 horsepower) petrol (70 meters) petrol (70 meters) Hailin HL80C 2 8,763 1,314 1,314 2300 23,000 50 25 15 Hailin HL80C28,7631,314 1,314230023,000502515 Surface 3-inch Surface 3-inch 100 100 Hailin HL100C 2 14,606 14,606 2,190 3,000 30,000 30 25 15 Hailin HL100C214,606 14,606 2,1903,00030,000302515 Surface 4-inch Surface 4-inch "},{"text":"Table 2 . Fuel-powered pumps: models supplied, quantity sold, sales price and marketing margin in 2019/2020.* Notes: Notes: * Exchange rate was USD 1 = ETB 32.7071 in 2020. * Exchange rate was USD 1 = ETB 32.7071 in 2020. n.a. = not applicable. n.a. = not applicable. "},{"text":"Table 3 . Rope and washer pumps: models supplied, quantity sold, sales price and marketing margin in 2019/2020.* Quantity Warranty Manufacturing Marketing Sales price Marketing Anticipated QuantityWarrantyManufacturingMarketingSales priceMarketingAnticipated sold (year)/unit cost (ETB)/unit cost (ETB)/ (ETB)/unit margin (%)**/ profit (%)/ sold(year)/unitcost (ETB)/unitcost (ETB)/(ETB)/unitmargin (%)**/profit (%)/ unit unit unit unitunitunit Rope model (1) 6 months 1,309 Unknown 5,598 76 10 Rope model (1)6 months1,309Unknown5,5987610 Rope model (2) 30 6 months 1,494 Unknown 7,465 76 10 Rope model (2)306 months1,494Unknown7,4657610 Rope model (3) 6 months 2,066 Unknown 8,180 75 10 Rope model (3)6 months2,066Unknown8,1807510 Imio model 110 6 months 1,950 Unknown 6,950 72 10 Imio model1106 months1,950Unknown6,9507210 Notes: Notes: * Exchange rate was USD 1 = ETB 32.7071 in 2020. * Exchange rate was USD 1 = ETB 32.7071 in 2020. "}],"sieverID":"2419a11b-1acb-469a-942e-36aa8cfa29f6","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0a22fa19630e0def55412f8ea355a7de.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a22fa19630e0def55412f8ea355a7de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c51c4a2b-965c-4f3a-859c-8278dcad2e6b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Vitamin A Orange Sweet Potato: IDIAP C0317","keywords":["Contributing Centers/PPA partners","Evidence link","• https","//tinyurl.com/wlf3s3o"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"5cfd480e-abdb-4b3f-9cc7-1a8dcc7e9b0c","abstract":"As with the 260+ biofortified varieties released in the past, these varieties not only have higher levels of micronutrients but are also high-yielding, climate-smart, and carry other attributes farmers and consumers look for."}

data/part_3/0a50082bdd298d3dea970b4f849581d6.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a50082bdd298d3dea970b4f849581d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/375b383f-0851-49ac-bc61-84ce432a6491/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION RESEARCH APPROACH","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Focus group discussions were organized in 18 communes in Hung Yen and Nghe An provinces to map and characterize the pig value chains."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Baseline surveys with more than 1000 actors of pig value chain were implemented to collect detailed information about value chain actors, their roles and functions, and information to evaluate value chain performance. Where applicable, FGDs and survey tools were gendered to understand men and women's involvement in the pig value chain. Descriptive statistical analysis was used to analyze the data."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The smallholder pig value chain involves a range of actors from producers, pig traders, slaughter house operators, meat retailers, meat processors, all the way to consumers. Women are a dominant presence at each node of the chain, in varying degrees. In production, women represent half of family labor playing the main role, while they comprise more than 90% of meat retailers. At home, food and meat purchasing and cooking is handled by most women. Both men and women work in slaughterhouses, performing di erent tasks, although men dominate this node; men are also dominant in pig trading."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Women farm at relatively smaller scale and have lower production costs; they also contribute about 1.5 times more labor than men in performing tasks related to breed selection, feeding, cleaning barns, and keeping records. Women-led pig production also exhibited relatively less sick pigs and lower pig mortality cost. "}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Gendered pig value chain in Vietnam (Smallholder) "}],"sieverID":"4a343a33-06b5-4b02-bc9b-f4c5d9e71cf9","abstract":"The pig sector in Vietnam, consisting largely of smallholders, is undergoing dynamic transformation, opening up new opportunities but also exposing the key actors to new challenges. Food safety risk is an increasingly important concern driven by emerging demand for food quality attributes by a growing, highly urbanized consumer class with increasing purchasing power. In response, food systems change; however, the likely gendered implications of these changes, particularly on the health and food safety risks to di erent actors in the pig value chain, are as yet not well understood. This study aimed to characterize the pig value chain in Vietnam, using a gender lens and its implication in addressing animal health risks and food safety in the chain.Women's dominance in home-based work and men in far-away-from-home work and women's significant participation in processing and distribution; and relative importance of women being disproportional to production scale. Men take on more responsibility for technical and heavier work such as vaccination, treating sick pigs.Given their dominant presence and various roles in production, processing, and retailing meat, women could have important roles to play in managing risk. This also implies that women, as do men, are likely exposed to human health hazards from their working environment, albeit with di erential impacts. Understanding these risks and impacts will be useful in guiding and targeting interventions.It is also essential to understand women's communication means, social networks and languages to deliver appropriate information on the roles and responsibility of producers, retailers and consumers for safe pork. To promote safer pork value chains to di erent types and scale of producers, we need to understand incentives for both men and women, and identify appropriate communication means and messages that work for all. Better risk communication to all actors in the chain is crucial to better manage risks and engender food safety outcomes."}

data/part_3/0a9b07c5f09cedad19b8347a0c98be16.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a9b07c5f09cedad19b8347a0c98be16","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/480caffa-f3eb-427e-9051-a8789a2039de/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Soil Erosion Control and Moisture Conservation Using Contour Ridge Tillage in Bougouni and Koutiala, Southern Mali","keywords":["Runoff and Erosion","Nutrients Loss","Yields"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Mali's economy is essentially based on the primary sector where agriculture accounts for more than 35 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and 80 percent of livelihoods [1]. The predominantly rainfed nature of its agriculture remains problematic because of rainfall unreliability which threatens dangerously crop production and development strategy [2]. Water is one of the main constraints to crop production [3] [4] as it influences directly plants growth, therefore it's very important to minimize rain water runoff in rainfed agriculture [5]."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Runoff is harmful to agricultural production. In one hand, it reduces water availability for crops and parkland trees, and on the other hand, it can lead to soil degradation by erosion of the upper soil layer [6]. Water erosion, which removes nutrients, thins the soil layer, reduces rooting depth and infiltration, damages soil structure, is the most common form of land degradation worldwide. Erosion usually increases with agricultural activity, particularly with annual cropping systems where the soil surface is seasonally exposed to rain with high intensities. This situation results in negative nutrient balances and lower crop yields in most farming systems in West Africa [7]. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), rain comes as downpours under high anthropogenic (deforestation and population) pressure leading to over 50 tons•ha −1 soil losses in many situations [8]. Soil chemical properties that were most adversely influenced by erosion or topsoil removal in SSA include pH, organic matter content, total N, available P, exchangeable bases, and cation exchange capacity [9] [10]."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Losses were estimated in cultivated soils of southern Mali [11] to 25 kg of N ha −1 •year −1 and 20 kg of K•ha −1 •year −1 . [11] concluded that 44% of farmer's agricultural incomes losses are due to soil depletion which is a major factor influencing food security in the area and finally the economy of the country since it affects the main rainfed staple crop. According to [12], the major staple crops grown in southern Mali are millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench), and maize (Zea mays) and these crops are becoming dominant southwards."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"In southern Mali, erosion was emphasized by inadequate soil and crop management which could even jeopardize national food security goals, since impacting negatively directly on crop productivity [13] [14] [15]. So, because of unpredictable rainfall and decreased agricultural productivity, many soils and water conservation technologies such as stone lines, half-moons, contour hedgerows, rock bunds, filter walls, zaï, agroforestry, mulching, soil amendments, water harvesting, contour ridges, terraces, check dams, benches and no-tillage have been developed and are now widespread to improve soil quality, decrease runoff, erosion and nutrient losses, and increase infiltration and crop productivity [5] [16] [17] [18]."},{"index":5,"size":202,"text":"In Mali, contour ridge tillage (CRT), which is also referred to as \"Aménagement en courbes de niveau\" [19] [20] is a water conservation technique locally developed in the early 1990s by Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER) and the Agri-cultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) [18]. It is a holistic landscape level method for managing surface water on farmers' fields, in which it decreases runoff, increases water infiltration and, therefore, captures rainfall close to the crop root system [21]. Placing a field under CRT requires the construction of permanent ridges (using a topographic equipment: automatic level, water level etc.), about 100 cm wide, prior to crops planting. Then, the annual small ridges will be constructed along these permanent ridges following contour lines. When necessary, waterways to evacuate excess water off the fields may also be added to the works. So, the furrows become rain water infiltration area which could be of great advantage for crop. Consequently, when applied in Sudanian area (rainfall varying from 800 to 1200 mm) in southern Mali, where runoff still occurs in fields with a slope as low as 1% to 2% leading to crops yields increase of 30% to 50% for maize, sorghum, millet, groundnut and cotton [22]."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"In the semi-arid zones of southern Mali where low inputs and low yields agriculture systems dominate, the development of soil and water conservation techniques such as CRT, is essential to ensure sustainable farming systems [18]. Thus, the need for integrated land and water resources management to reduce poverty and food insecurity especially in semi-arid Africa, where over 80% of rural livelihoods depend on land and water resources, cannot be overemphasized [23]."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"In the Soudanian area of southern Mali, although the effects of CRT on crop yield and infiltration were widely studied [5] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [24], influence of erosion and runoff of this area are not well documented. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of CRT compared with farmer conventional agriculture on runoff, soil loss, nutrient loss, moisture conservation on cereals (maize and sorghum) yields under rainfed conditions. The hypothesis is that the use of CRT under natural rainfall conditions as opposed to farmer's practice will improve crop yields due to decreased soil, water, and nutrient losses from erosion."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Sites","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The experiment was conducted in two sites of southern Mali belonging to Soudanian Agro-ecological zone. The first one is located at a technology park in Flola village, district of Bougouni. The second site is at a technology park in Mpessoba village, district of Koutiala. The technology park of Flola is at 11˚42'N latitude, 7˚64'W longitude and 350 m altitude and the technology park of Mpessoba is at 12˚67'N latitude, 5˚71'W longitude and 346 m altitude. The two experimental sites are represented in Figure 1."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The average annual rainfall over the last 46 years (1971-2017), was 857 mm in Koutiala (40 km from Mpessoba village toward north) and 1095 mm for Bougouni (15 km from Flola village toward south) and has an irregular spatio-temporal distribution. Over 37 years (1971Over 37 years ( -2008)), low temperatures occurred between December and February with monthly averages of 16.8˚C and 16˚C, and high temperatures between April and May, with monthly averages of 38˚C and 37˚C, respectively for Koutiala and Bougouni (Figure 2(a)). The daily evapotranspiration was 6 -7 mm•day −1 in the dry season and 4 mm•day −1 during the rainy season."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Rainfall follows a uni-modal pattern with maximum events occurring in July and August. Enough rain for crop planting without prolonged dry spells that could hurt seedlings after sowing occurs in May and ends of rainy season in October [25]. Monthly rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures and potential evapotranspiration (PET) were collected from the National Meteorological Service of Mali in Bougouni and Koutiala during the study period (Figure 2(b))."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"Dominant soil types in the study areas are classified as leached tropical ferruginous soils with spots and concretions [26]; Arenosols, Lixisols and Acrisols [27] and Alfisols according to Soil Taxonomy [28], with many Paleustalfs and frequent Plinthustalfs. The Alfisol soil order indicates that the soils are constrained by both small amounts of nutrients and a low capacity to retain nutrients due to the chemical constituents [21]. Soils are characterized by light textured sandy loam topsoil (0 -20 cm) with 8% clay covering heavy textured subsoil of 20% -28% clay. Average bulk density is 1.5 g•cm 3 at 0 -20 cm soil horizon. These soils are inherently fragile with weak water retention capacity and poor in plant nutrients [12]. Soil pH varied from moderately acid (pH 2 O = 6.5) to acid (pH 2 O = 5.5), Organic Carbon (5 -6 g•kg −1 ), Nitrogen (<0.5 g•kg −1 ), available P (<0.07 g•kg −1 ), exchangeable K (<72 mg•kg −1 ), Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) (4 -6 cmol•kg −1 ) and a base saturation ratio 75%. "}]},{"head":"Farming System in the Study Areas","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The main farming system in Bougouni and Koutiala is a crop-livestock based rotation system of Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum, L.), Maize (Zea mais), and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Tested varieties were Sotubaka (improved maize variety) and Pablo (sorghum hybrid). Rotation head is cotton followed by maize and sorghum allowing cereals to benefit from the cotton residual fertilizer effects. Annual staple crops, sorghum and maize, were planted in the middle and bottom of the catena. Cotton was also planted in the bottom while grazing area was in the top of the catena. Smallholder farmers used extensively animal manure collected in farmyard or sometime compost to improve crop productivity for food (grain) and straw for feed. The rainy season covers May to November for the main cropping period. Income from cash crops and livestock sales was partially used to cover farm inputs and other household needs [29]."}]},{"head":"Agronomic Practices for Yield Data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"For both sites, maize and sorghum were planted from 15-25 June in 2016 and from 18-30 June in 2017 respectively in CRT and NoCRT plots. Planting density was 0.40 m within hills on the row and 0.75 m between rows for maize. For sorghum, density was 0.5 m within hills on the row and 0.75 m between rows. Elementary plot sizes were 34 m length and 7.5 m width for 255 m 2 . One row at each border of the plot was discarded to determine the net plot sizes leading to 34 m length and 6 m width i.e. 204 m 2 . Seedlings were thinned to two plants per hill 15 days after emergence for targeted populations of 66,666 (Maize) and 53,333 (Sorghum) plants•ha −1 which are the density advised by extension services for the area. Thinning was done two weeks after emergence. Base fertilizer was uniformly applied to each treatment (CRT and NoCRT plots) at the rate of 100 kg•ha −1 of NPK (15-15-15) at planting time for both crops. Thirty days after germination, 75 kg•ha −1 of urea for Maize and 50 kg•ha −1 of urea (46% of nitrogen) for sorghum were applied followed by hand hoeing. A second dose of 75 kg•ha −1 of urea was applied 45 days after germination on maize. Fertilizer was buried 5 cm below and 5 cm away from plants on the row banks."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In CRT and NoCRT plots, harvest was done from 2-30 October and from 7-27 October in 2016 and 2017, respectively for maize and sorghum, followed by 20 days of sun drying."}]},{"head":"Experimental Design for Runoff and Erosion Measurement","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The erosion study was conducted in 2016 and 2017 in the technology park of Flola and Mpessoba, in Mali. Experiment plot was divided in two parts: the first one was under contour ridge tillage (CRT) and the second one with farmer's practice (NoCRT) as a control. There were 4 experimental plots with 0.75 m width and 34 m length surrounded by an oblique galvanized iron sheets of 55 cm height inserted to a depth of 15 cm to prevent runoff to seep in or out from the plot, corresponding to four replicates for both in CRT and NoCRT plots."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"In the paired CRT and NoCRT erosion plots, the surface runoff from each experimental plot was 1/10 diverted by a channel into a collection barrel of 200 liters capacity and an additional barrel for collecting another 1/10 of total runoff water. These barrels were placed in a pit of 1.5 m × 0.7 m × 1.3 m, covered by a metal sheet of 1.8 m × 1.0 m."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Runoff coefficient (Rco) was used to compare the influence of CRT and NoCRT and expressed as follow:"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"where Rw = Runoff water; Ra = Rainfall received;"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"( ) ( )"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"where Vw = Volume of water generated; S = Water measurement area."},{"index":7,"size":228,"text":"To measure the average sediment concentration in the runoff water and estimate soil loss in each of the four replicates of the CRT and NoCRT plots. Three water samples of one-liter each were taken in each collecting barrel to maximize accuracy of the operation. These samples were taken after runoff water has been stirred vigorously to better capture sediments in the barrel. Sediments and nutrients concentrations were measured by oven drying at 40˚C for 7 days to constant weight and chemical analysis (organic carbon, N, P, K) whereas concentrations were determined in the Soil Plant and Water Laboratory of Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER). Runoff, soil loss by erosion, and nutrients contents were compared between CRT and NoCRT plots using pairwise t test at 0.05 significant levels. Two rain gauges were installed in each research site. Time-domain refractometry probes were installed, 100 cm deep below soil surface at the middle of CRT and NoCRT plots to measure soil moisture during the whole cropping season. Before rain onset, dry soil moisture content was recorded immediately after trials installation. In order to characterize soil moisture during the cropping season, CRT and NoCRT plots were represented by soil moisture daily measured, at the months of July (beginning of the rainy season), August (at the middle of the rainy season) and September (at the end of the rainy season) in 2016 and 2017."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"In each site (CRT and NoCRT) plots were treated the same way in sowing dates, crop species and other cropping operations, except ridging mode."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"Soil Water Storage calculation was performed to quantify the water stored in each soil profile, In each profile it was calculated as the sum of the soil water per depth interval through the profile."}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"On each site, 40 samples from horizon 0 -20 cm were randomly collected in May 2016, on 1ha, using an Edelman Combination Auger (4 cm core) of 1.2 m length, mixed to form composite soil samples. Samples were air dried by spreading them on a plastic sheet at room temperature. Composite samples were made from the ones taken in an asterisk shape pattern in each site. Samples were analyzed for both physical and chemical properties. Particle size (soil texture) analysis was performed by the hydrometer method [30], pH was determined by the electrometric method in a soil solution with a soil/water ratio of 1:2.5. Soil organic was determined by the modified Walkley-Black wet oxidation method as outlined by [31]. Total nitrogen was determined by the modified Kjeldahl digestion method of [32], while bases, CEC and available P were determined as described in [33]."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Crop yields were measured in central rows while discarding the two border rows on each side of the plot. At harvest, total panicles and cobs, grain and stems dry weights were recorded in the central rows and data extrapolated from the subplot size to hectare. Paired CRT and NoCRT plots data were analyzed as a simple trial in a four-block experimental design to determine the global significance of runoff volume, soil erosion, nutrient losses and crops yields using STATBOX 7.4.4. Newman-Keuls test was used to separate means for significant differences between treatments. Treatments effects were considered significant at P < 0.05."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rainfall Trend","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Total cropping season rainfalls were 730 and 954 mm in 2016 and 635 and 945 mm in 2017 for Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively. Maximum rainfalls of 264 and 391 mm were received in July in 2017, while 260 and 269 mm were observed in August 2016, for Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively. July 2017 accounted for 42% and 41% of the total amount of rainfall in Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively. In August 2016, rain amount was +79 and +65% higher than those of 2017 for the same month, for Koutiala and Bougouni respectively. These increases represented 36% for Koutiala and 28% for Bougouni. In May, at the beginning of the rainy season, on both sites, rainfall was less than 85 mm (Figure"}]},{"head":"2(b)).","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The mean annual minimum temperature was 16˚C and 15.5˚C and maximum temperature was 38.8˚C and 39.5˚C, for Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Lowest mean annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) of 3.65 and 3.20 was recorded from June to September for Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively, while the other months of the year showed values varying from 5 to 6 mm."}]},{"head":"Soil Characteristics","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Table 1 presents surface soil horizon data on granulometry and chemical properties. Granulometric composition of Bougouni and Koutiala soils was closer. However, soil in Koutiala was slightly sandy than that of Bougouni (+8%), less silty (−2%) and less clayed (−6%). Soil pH (water and KCl) of the study sites were globally slightly acid. The Ca, K and CEC values in Bougouni were at least +40% higher than those of Koutiala while Mg value was +20% higher, compared to the same site. Phosphorus level was low but slightly higher in Bougouni (+7%) than Koutiala. Soil of both sites showed very low values in organic matter and nitrogen."}]},{"head":"Runoff, Erosion and Soil Moisture Dynamics","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effects of CRT and NoCRT on Runoff","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Monthly rainfall distribution, runoff and soil loss in 2016 and 2017 is given in Figure 3 for Koutiala (Mpessoba) and Figure 4 for Bougouni (Flola). Results showed that severe individual runoff and soil loss events occurred during heavy rainfalls of July and August. Highest runoff peaks curves were observed on NoCRT plots under farmer's practice conditions in both sites. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show evidence that the runoff coefficient for the CRT plots was always lower than that of the NoCRT ones. In 2016 and 2017, the mean runoff coefficient was highly significant and lower (P = 0.004) on the CRT plot than the control (Table 2). Also, the average runoff coefficient in the NoCRT plots in the two sites was 35.62% compared to 19.25% for the CRT plots explaining a runoff reduction of 46%. Runoff was 31% higher (p = 0.03) in Bougouni (Flola) than in Koutiala (Mpessoba) and varied across year. Mean runoff coefficient of 2016 (+30%) was greater than that of 2017 (24%) at the 5% probability level."}]},{"head":"Effects of CRT NoCRT on Erosion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Figure 3 and Figure 4 showed erosion patterns in Koutiala and Bougouni, respectively. It appears that erosion peaks corresponded to runoff peaks and they were high-pitched in Bougouni than in Koutiala. Also, the highest erosion peak was always observed with NoCRT plot."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"For the two years experiments, a mean of 12,095 t•ha −1 of soil was lost from the NoCRT plots, compared to a mean of 4970 t•ha −1 from the CRT plots. It appeared clearly that the use of CRT contributed to a significant decline in soil loss from cultivated lands. Thus, erosion was 2.4 times greater in NoCRT plots than those of CRT ones and the difference was statistically significant (p = 0.02). Erosion varied greatly among sites (p = 0.04) and was 97% greater in Bougouni, where average rainfall on the two years was also 39% higher than in Koutiala. Erosion varied among years (p = 0.04) with the highest values in 2016 (+92%) which was also the rainiest year. "}]},{"head":"Effects of CRT and NoCRT on Nutrient Losses","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Table 3 shows carbon and other nutrients losses in eroded soil of Mpessoba and Flola technology parks. Nutrient loss was not significantly different between the two sites (p = 0.06 -0.98). However, nutrient losses between CRT and NoCRT plots were significantly different in all cases, and the highest nutrient loss was always recorded from the NoCRT plots. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous quantities were at least two folds greater in NoCRT plot than the CRT one."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Losses of calcium, magnesium and potassium in the NoCRT plots, were 80%, 66%, 75% higher compared to CRT ones, respectively. Except for phosphorous (p = 0.12), nutrient loss was significantly higher in 2016 than 2017 (P values varying from 0.003 to 0.02). Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and potassium losses in total nutrients eroded from the fields were 74%, 6.6%, 5.0%, 6.6%, 3.3% and 5.0% in 2016 compared to 66%, 8.0%, 7%, 8.0%, 5.0% and 5.0% in 2017, respectively."}]},{"head":"Effects of CRT and NoCRT on Soil Moisture","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Figure 5 showed that along the profile, that soil water content was always higher in CRT compared to the NoCRT, plots in both sites. Deeper soil layers water content was also higher. Soil water content was higher in CRT plots in 2017 compared to 2016 except in Flola which had less rain at the beginning of the cropping season."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"At the beginning of the rainy season (June), in the 10 cm of soil surface layer, differences of soil water content between CRT plots in 2016 and 2017 and NoCRT plots were +33% and +37% respectively for Flola and Mpessoba. Also, in all cases, a global moisture decrease was observed in the 10 -20 cm depth. Soils moisture mean differences of 21% and 27% were observed at 100 cm depth, respectively at Mpessoba and Flola. In the upper 60 cm soil layer, soil moisture was not greater than 20% in both sites."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"August, the middle of the growing season, had frequent rainfalls with deep drainage, where mean soil moisture content along the profile was about 30% in Flola while this value was rather observed in the 60 -100 cm soil layers in Mpessoba. Here also, soil water content was always higher in CRT plots compared to the NoCRT plots. The difference between CRT and NoCRT was visible along the profile where, at the deepest 100 cm soil layer, mean soil moisture was +40 and +31% greater in the CRT plots (32.68 and 23.27) compared to the NoCRT plots (32.57 and 24.80), respectively for Flola and Koutiala."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"At the end of the growing season (October), the drainage was deep with less water, but at 100 cm, mean soil moisture in CRT plots was 31% in both sites. Soil moisture remained always greater in CRT plots than the NoCRT ones. Also, mean differences of 24% and 33% were observed between CRT and NoCRT plots at 100 cm depth, respectively in Flola and Mpessoba. "}]},{"head":"Effects of CRT and No CRT on Soil Moisture Storage","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Water storage in CRT plots reached a maximum of 218 mm end of July 2017 and 200 mm end of August 2016 in Mpessoba (Figure 6). The corresponding values observed in Flola were 225 and 195 mm in mid-September for 2017 and 2016, respectively. Globally, from end of August, water storage decreased regu-larly until end of October, both on CRT and NoCRT plots in Mpessoba, while the same pattern was observed from mid-September in Flola for the two techniques. At the end of the growing season in October, mean water storage for the two years was 30% higher in CRT plots compared to that of the NoCRT plots in Mpessoba while this advantage was 50% for the CRT plots over the NoCRT plots in Flola. Water storage was always higher in CRT compared to the NoCRT, plots with a surplus of 11.86 mm•day −1 in 2016-and 8.56-mm•day −1 in 2017 resulting from 150 days (June 1 st to 28 October) monitoring period in both sites. ( )"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The use of CRT significantly improved maize grain and straw yields in both sites. Maize grain yield in Mpessoba was 92% and 82% higher in the CRT compared to the NoCRT plots, respectively for 2016 and 2017. In Flola, maize average grain yield in CRT plots was more than two folds compared to that of NoCRT plots in 2016 and 48% in 2017 (Table 4)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Maize average straw yields in CRT plots were 73%, 67%, 67%, 71% higher in 2016 and 2017 than the ones of NoCRT plots, respectively for Mpessoba and Flola sites."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Sorghum average grain yield was at least two folds higher in CRT plots than in the NoCRT plots for both years in both sites. The same trend was observed for sorghum straw, except in Mpessoba, in 2016, where average CRT plot was only 49% higher than the NoCRT (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rainfall Trend","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Rainfall analysis revealed not only inter-annual rainfall variabilities (635 -1437 mm) but also intra-annual rainfall distributions. This situation is likely to negatively impact crop production as reported by [34] when studying the relation between climate and soil productivity in Sudanian and Sahelian zones of Africa where amount of rainfall distribution in a given year determines crop productivity level [35] [36]. In the same way, [37] mentioned that climate variability was among the main impediment to the realization of the first Millennium Development Goal of reducing poverty and food insecurity through increase of agricultural production in developing countries. Mean temperatures and PET values during the study period were very close to those from 37 years data analysis."}]},{"head":"Soil Characteristics","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Soils were predominately loamy and sandy (Table 1) indicating a strong susceptibility of surface soil layers to compaction which can lead to severe runoff and erosion, mainly when combined with greater than average rainfall [38] [39]. In both sites, the highest organic carbon content was less than 6 g•kg −1 •ha −1 and in line with the low values of nitrogen, phosphorus and CEC, indicating that they had low soil fertility and water-holding capacity. Findings reported in this study agree well with those claimed by several authors [6] [18] [40] [41] [42] for tropical ferruginous soils of West Africa. Findings of [42] showed that in soil surface layers of West Africa, organic carbon content is dependent on soil texture, explaining that the lower the clay and fine silt contents, the lower the soil carbon content. In the same way, the dominant clay type, although low in these soils is kaolinite (1:1 low activity clay) indicating the necessity to apply fine elements such organic matter to improve soils CEC and storage capacity for nutrients exchange [18] [42] [43]. This observation agrees with what of [44] for sandy soils who reported that an increase of 1 g•kg −1 of organic carbon leads to an increase of 4.3 mol•kg −1 of CEC."}]},{"head":"Effect of CRT and NoCRT on Runoff","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":484,"text":"For all rainfall events measured, runoff was always greater in the NoCRT plots than the CRT ones. The greater rainwater loss was probably due to high runoff and low infiltration rates during intensive rainfall peaks (Figure 3 and Figure 4). These peaks may be due to soil saturation leading to infiltration reduction rate. In assumption, a light rain event is associated with less runoff than a heavy rain event, which may release a greater volume of water over a short period of time. In this study, runoff peaks were observed in July and August, the rainiest period of the cropping season in both sites, explaining that conditions for runoff to occur are important. In fact, wet soils generally have lower infiltration rates than dry soils since pore spaces are already filled with water due to previous rain events. Soil type also, may play a role in runoff severity because number and pores sizes are reduced in a clay type soil which swells when wet. This situation results in weak infiltration rate and consequently to runoff. Soil in Bougouni has more clay and silt, when saturated and then receives considerable quantity of rainfall, may explain the highest runoff rate compared to Koutiala site. The sandy nature of the parent materials of the studied soils also emphasizes runoff, in agreement with [45] who reported that in most tropical soils in Africa, even not originally sandy, were intensively washed by runoff and leaching that transform their texture to coarse after heavy rainfalls. These observations agreed with those of several authors [5] [21] [46]- [52]. In agreement with findings of this study, it has been reported by many authors [20] [24] [53] that CRT was beneficial for reducing runoff and soil loss, as well as for increasing crop yield and was a holistic landscape approach to managing water and capturing precipitation in farmer's fields. Mean runoff coefficient was significantly higher in the NoCRT plots cultivated up and down the slope which was farmer's practice compared to the CRT plots where ridges followed the contour line. This practice of up and down ridging does not create any kind of resistance to runoff flow, facilitating faster flow of excess water leading to high runoff amounts. This water loss is detrimental to agricultural production because, it reduces availability for crops and can result in severe moisture shortage during dry spells occurrences which are the cropping season characteristic in the area. These results agreed with other findings [5] [18] [53] who have pointed out significant water losses due to runoff in semi-arid lands. Runoff reduction was 46% in our study and agrees with the findings of [21] who reported that the main roles of CRT were capturing and recycling precipitations in treated fields. Also, CRT assists to the evacuation of excessive rainfall and surface fluxes destructive that can trickle into the fields as its application reduced rain runoff from 22% to 61%."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Mean runoff coefficient was higher in 2016 than 2017 for both sites. This situation can be attributed to rainfall difference between year and rain erosivity, in agreement with those reported by [53] when studying runoff in southern Mali."}]},{"head":"Effect of CRT and NoCRT on Erosion","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"Mean soil loss was two folds greater in NoCRT plots than CRT ones where the difference was statistically significant (p = 0.02). Similar observations were reported [54] in Sri lanka and in southern Mali [5]. CRT reduced soil erosion in cultivated land by reducing the erosive power of runoff intercepting and its speed [55]. These results support CRT use in cultivated fields to ensure soil conservation. Erosion varied greatly between the two experimental sites. These findings agree with those of many scientists [56] [57] who have widely reported the spatial variation of erosion when studying soil erosion and restoration in Mali and Burkina watersheds, in the semi-arid areas of West Africa. The fact that erosion was greater in Bougouni than in Koutiala can be attributed to 39% higher rainfall amount obtained in Bougouni. Soil loss was also greater in 2016 than 2017 but no year showed erosion above the tolerable limit of 2.5 t•ha −1 and 12.5 t•ha −1 reported by several researchers [57] [58] [59] [60]. This can be attributed to rainfall amount and aggressivity for Koutiala and Bougouni as mentioned by [61] in similar agro-ecological zone of Burkina Faso. Also, soils of the studied area were both sandy and low in organic matter (Table 1) resulting to weak surface structure, then leading to runoff and erosion by surface sealing as similarly reported by [39] for sandy soil of United Kingdom. Our results support the recommendation of organic manure to improve soil surface structure for saving agricultural land from erosion. Globally, the use of CRT reduces runoff velocity and rainfall energy resulting in runoff and soil loss decrease in cultivated lands as supported by [62] who mentioned that a small reduction in runoff velocity can substantially reduce the amount of transported material. These results corroborated with the findings of many researchers [5] "}]},{"head":"Effect of CRT and NoCRT on Nutrient Loss","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"In NoCRT plots, a large amount of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and exchangeable bases, vital plant nutrients, were annually lost through eroded sediments, compared to the CRT ones. This situation can be explained by the serial disposal of narrowly spaced ridges (0.6 -0.70 m) and furrow between ridges, which allow rainwater to be retained where it falls, resulting in better infiltration and remarkable slowing down or stopping runoff, erosion and nutrients losses."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"Higher nutrient loss in farmer's practice (NoCRT) and reduced nutrient loss in CRT plots in the fields on gentle slope (1% -3%) is in line with earlier similar studies on CRT [57] [60] [63]- [68]. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus were at least two folds greater in the NoCRT plots than the CRT ones. This can be explained through the work of [67] who reported that about 95% of the soil nitrogen and 25% to 50% of the phosphorus are contained in the soil organic matter and a large amount of it is found in the soil surface as decaying leaves, stems and other fine organic particles, facilitating erosion and nutrients losses. This rela-tion among phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen were well explained [69] who mentioned that the loss of soil organic matter was often followed by a corresponding loss of nitrogen. This situation is detrimental for agriculture since several soil quality indicators such as infiltration, water retention capacity, aggregate stability, cation exchange capacity (CEC), nutrient availability to plants are tightly related to organic matter and well documented [6] [52] [70] [71] [72]."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Moreover, organic carbon lost from agricultural land could be released as inorganic carbon and increase quantity of greenhouse in the atmosphere. Otherwise, concerning phosphorus, farmers in the area annually apply cotton complex fertilizer composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur and boron corresponding to NPKSB (14-22-12-8-1) at the rate of 150 kg•ha −1 , buried in the soil surface using animal traction. Therefore, increasing runoff may increase phosphorus amount in eroded soil since the concentration is high in the upper soil layer as reported by [73] who concluded that "}]},{"head":"Soil Moisture Content and Storage","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"In Mpessoba and Flola, soil moisture was always higher in the CRT plots compared to the NoCRT ones. CRT technology is applied to reduce runoff, which therefore increases infiltration and soil moisture as demonstrated by the work of [18] who, for instance, reported an average moisture difference of 25% at 60 cm depth when comparing CRT and NoCRT, plots. In fact, CRT plots benefited from rain water captured as reported [21] who mentioned that CRT increased soil moisture in areas explored by plant roots by 16% to 64% compared to NoCRT plots. At the end of the season, soil moisture was at least 25% on CRT plots explaining a real water supply potential for the park land trees as reported by [21] when assessing the effects of CRT on soil water dynamic in Siguidolo and Fansirakoro, in Mali. This finding also corroborated with [78] regarding assessment of farmers' perception on the effect of CRT in Cinzana (Mali) who showed that with the use of CRT, soil moisture was found to be better conserved and allowed field operations for an extended 7 to 10 days."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"Water storage was always higher in CRT plots than the NoCRT ones in both sites. These observations were supported by [20] who reported 17% of water storage in CRT plots in the 80 -160 cm profile horizons and 12.7% in the first 80 cm. Similar trend was mentioned [18] when studying the effect of CRT on soil moisture in a 60 cm soil profile in Sahelian area of Mali. They concluded that, the use of CRT can result in reducing soil erosion by reducing precipitation water runoff. It allows more time than the control for rainwater to infiltrate, therefore increasing water storage. This leads to better growth and higher yield during cropping seasons with unpredictable rainfall or low total rainfall as reported by many authors [18]. [19] [22] Also, this situation can be important for crops sown late in the growing season but also for trees to continue surviving during the dry and hot season when the maximum temperature may reach 46˚C."}]},{"head":"Effects of CRT and NoCRT on Crop Yields","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Significantly lower maize and sorghum grain and straw yields were obtained under NoCRT plots, a traditional cropping system [79]. Part of this trend explanation was the high amounts of runoff and erosion, which resulted in low moisture and nutrient availability for plant growth. These observations corroborated with several researchers' findings who reported that CRT allowed water accumulation which became significantly available for crop to accomplish its physiological processes of biomass accumulation and grain filling compared to e"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"NoCRT plots [4] [5] [20] [22]. In related studies [64] [80] reported that CRT increases soil nutrients and available soil moisture for crop uptake and enhances crop growth and dry matter yield compared to the NoCRT plots."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Higher grain and straw biomass sorghum yields compared to the national average yield of 1000 kg•ha −1 of grains, could be attributed to growth and genetic characteristics of hybrid crop. In fact, improved varieties have a greater ability to convert assimilates to grain and biomass as reported by [18] when studying the effect of CRT on improved and local cereals varieties in Sahelian area of Mali."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"However, sorghum hybrid grain yields obtained in this study were lower than those reported by [81] in Mali which averaged 3500 kg•ha −1 . One of the explanations of higher yield reported by [81] could be sites difference since their trials were implemented in the ICRISAT Research Center at Samanko where all fields operations were under control."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"The average maize grain yield of 2600 kg•ha −1 for the same variety reported by [82] in southern Mali fell within the range of 1729 to 2732 kg•ha −1 obtained in this study."}]},{"head":"Novelty and Importance of the Study","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"This study, besides what has been mainly reported in Mali, combines determination of runoff, erosion, nutrient losses and crop yields at the same time. These data on soil and yield are strong decision-making tools for agricultural policies under rainfall conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, farmers can increase crops grain yield by 50% and up to 87% for maize grain. For draught and fattening animals, there are gains of 116% and 70% for sorghum and maize straw yields, respectively. All these advantages were obtained when CRT was applied."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Consequently, this study pleads for training of farmers, NGOs and extension agents on the contour ridge tillage technique for wide up scaling, targeting sustainable crop production through more water and nutrient conservation to mitigate recurrent drought."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This research results updated erosion and runoff data performed since the 1990s in Mali. The study highlighted threats related to nutrient and crop yield losses."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Scientists can use these current data to advocate policy and lawmakers in reorienting strategies and efforts for food security. Current findings clearly showed that NoCRT, a farmer traditional practice, does not only increase water, soil and nutrient losses from farm fields, but also results in low maize and sorghum yields subsequent to its higher erosion, runoff and soil nutrients depletion. CRT, a soil and water conservation technology, provides lower water and nutrients losses, thus increases crops yield. Therefore, it became very important to undertake awareness and proactive CRT training of stakeholders, mainly farmers, NGOs and extension agents of Malian Agricultural Ministry to change its traditional practice in order to reduce farm runoff, erosion, nutrient and crop yield losses from agricultural lands. The CRT technology could be a good option in similar ecologies in other West African countries. This could be a motivation source for CRT adoption for food security with a great advantage for draught and fattening animals in Mali and beyond; allowing a better integration between crop and livestock production, a key strategy to sustain agricultural production in a climatically volatile environment."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Location of the experimental sites where the effects of contour ridge tillage (CRT) on runoff; erosion; nutrient loss; water dynamics and cereals productivity were measured in 2016 and 2017 in southern Mali. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Long-term annual rainfall for Koutiala and Bougouni (a) and monthly rainfall average, maximum (Max T), minimum (Min T) temperatures and potential evapotranspiration (PET) of two consecutive years (2016 and 2017) (b) in Koutiala (Mpessoba) and Bougouni (Flola), Southern Mali. "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 4 . Figure 3. Rainfalls, runoffs and soil losses in 2016 (a) and 2017 (b), in Koutiala (Mpessoba), southern Mali. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Vertical distribution of soil moisture 0 -100 cm depth in Contour ridge tillage plots (CRT) and no contour tillage (NoCRT) plots in Flola (Bougouni) and Mpessoba (Koutiala) villages in 2016 and 2017; (a) beginning of the growing season (June 10, 2016 and 2017); (b) middle of the growing season (August 20, 2016 and 2017); (c) end of the growing season (October 30, 2016 and 2017); dry is dry soil during the dry season (May 10-11, 2016 and 2017); bars indicate standard errors of the means; VMC Volumetric moisture content. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. soil water storage in the 100 cm profile in the Mpessoba (a) and Flola (b) village in 2016 and 2017 performed on CRT contour ridge tillage plots and NoCRT plots without contour ridge tillage. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Soils characteristics in the 0 -20 cm soil depth of Bougouni and Koutiala experimental sites in 2016 in southern Mali. Sites Koutiala (Mpessoba) Bougouni (Flola) SitesKoutiala (Mpessoba)Bougouni (Flola) pH (water) 5.7 6.3 pH (water)5.76.3 pH (KCl) 4.9 5.5 pH (KCl)4.95.5 OC (g•kg −1 ) 4.1 5 OC (g•kg −1 )4.15 Azote total (g•kg −1 ) 0.33 0.42 Azote total (g•kg −1 )0.330.42 P Available (mg•kg −1 ) 5.71 6.12 P Available (mg•kg −1 )5.716.12 CEC cmol•kg −1 3.69 5.18 CEC cmol•kg −13.695.18 Ca cmol•kg −1 2.63 3.85 Ca cmol•kg −12.633.85 Mg cmol•kg −1 0.81 0.98 Mg cmol•kg −10.810.98 K cmol•kg −1 0.22 0.31 K cmol•kg −10.220.31 Na cmol•kg −1 0.03 0.03 Na cmol•kg −10.030.03 Sand% > 0.05 mm 76 70 Sand% > 0.05 mm7670 Silt% 0.05 -0.002 mm 19 23 Silt% 0.05 -0.002 mm1923 Clay% < 0.002 mm 5 8 Clay% < 0.002 mm58 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Runoff coefficient and soil loss in Koutiala (Mpessoba) and Bougouni (Flola) during 2016 and 2017 cropping season in Mali. Runoff coefficient (%) Soil loss kg•ha −1 •year −1 Runoff coefficient (%)Soil loss kg•ha −1 •year −1 CRT 19.25 b 4970 b CRT19.25 b4970 b Technique NoCRT 35.62 a 12,095 a TechniqueNoCRT35.62 a12,095 a P value 0.004 0.02 P value0.0040.02 Mpessoba 23.75 b 5733 b Mpessoba23.75 b5733 b Sites Flola 31.12 a 11,332 a SitesFlola31.12 a11,332 a P value 0.03 0.04 P value0.030.04 2016 30.87 a 11,228 a 201630.87 a11,228 a Year Year "},{"text":"Table 3 . Nutrient losses in eroded soil (kg•ha −1 •year −1 ) under farmers' practice (NoCRT) compared to contour ridge tillage technology (CRT) in Mpessoba and Flola, Southern Mali, in 2016 and 2017. C N P Ca Mg K CNPCaMgK CRT 45b 5b 4b 5b 3b 4b CRT45b5b4b5b3b4b Technique NoCRT 106a 11a 8a 9a 5a 7a TechniqueNoCRT106a11a8a9a5a7a P value 0.04 0.006 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 P value0.040.0060.020.010.010.02 Mpessoba 75 7 4 8 4 5 Mpessoba7574845 Sites Flola 76 8 6 7 4 6 SitesFlola7686746 P value 0.97 0.98 0.06 0.6 0.62 0.76 P value0.970.980.060.60.620.76 2016 112a 10a 7 10a 5a 7a 2016112a10a710a5a7a Year 2017 39b 5b 4 5b 3b 3b Year201739b5b45b3b3b P value 0.02 0.01 0.12 0.008 0.003 0.01 P value0.020.010.120.0080.0030.01 "},{"text":"3.3.6. Effects on Crop Yields Average maize grain yields in Mpessoba were 2296 kg•ha −1 and 1729 kg•ha −1 in 2016 and 2017, respectively (Table4). The corresponding values for Flola were 2732 and 2475 kg•ha −1 for 2016 and 2017 respectively. Averages maize straw yields in Mpessoba were 5184 and 3334 kg•ha −1 in 2016 and 2017 and 6673 and 5150 kg•ha −1 for the same years in Flola. Average sorghum grain yields were 1709 and 2312 in 2016 and 2017 and 1879 and 1334 in 2016 and 2017, respectively for Mpessoba and Flola. Sorghum straw average yields in 2016 and 2017 were 10,156 and 13,665 kg•ha −1 in Mpessoba and 7798 and 6650 kg•ha −1 in Flola during the same years. "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effects of contour ridge tillage (CRT) and without contour ridge tillage (NCRT) on sorghum and maize yields (kg/ha −1 ) in Mpessoba and Flola during the 2016 and 2017 cropping season in Mali. Sites Year Technique Maize Grain Maize Straw Sorghum Grain Sorghum Straw SitesYearTechnique Maize Grain Maize Straw Sorghum Grain Sorghum Straw CRT 3017 a 6567 a 2350 a 12,150 a CRT3017 a6567 a2350 a12,150 a NoCRT 1575 b 3800 b 1068 b 8163 b NoCRT1575 b3800 b1068 b8163 b Mean 2296 5184 1709 10,156 Mean22965184170910,156 2016 2016 Probability 0.007 0.002 0.008 0.01 Probability0.0070.0020.0080.01 MSD 428 577 359 1432 MSD4285773591432 CV (%) 17.8 9.9 17.8 14.1 CV (%)17.89.917.814.1 Mpessoba Mpessoba CRT 2233 a 4167 a 3267 a 19,768 a CRT2233 a4167 a3267 a19,768 a NoCRT 1225 b 2500 b 1358 b 7563 b NoCRT1225 b2500 b1358 b7563 b Mena 1729 3334 2312 13,665 Mena17293334231213,665 2017 2017 Probability 0.0002 0.003 0.004 0.005 Probability0.00020.0030.0040.005 MSD 139 414 483 3476 MSD1394144833476 CV (%) 8.5 12.7 19.8 27.5 CV (%)8.512.719.827.5 CRT 3823 a 8384 a 2836 a 11,329 a CRT3823 a8384 a2836 a11,329 a NoCRT 1641 b 4961 b 922 b 4267 b NoCRT1641 b4961 b922 b4267 b Mena 2732 6673 1879 7798 Mena2732667318797798 2016 2016 Probability <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Probability<0.0001<0.0001<0.0001<0.0001 MSD 368 670 480 1569 MSD3686704801569 CV (%) 15.3 11.7 27.8 22.9 CV (%)15.311.727.822.9 Flola Flola CRT 2950 a 6500 a 1825 a 9100 a CRT2950 a6500 a1825 a9100 a NoCRT 2000 b 3800 b 842 b 4200 b NoCRT2000 b3800 b842 b4200 b Mean 2475 5150 1334 6650 Mean2475515013346650 2017 2017 Probability 0.01 0.01 0.005 0.01 Probability0.010.010.0050.01 MSD 206 562 144 917 MSD206562144917 CV (%) 8.5 12.4 9.1 16.3 CV (%)8.512.49.116.3 "},{"text":" 80 percent of eroded P were transported in surface runoff from most cultivated land during flow events. Similar findings were mentioned by several authors[74] [75][76] [77] when reporting on factors affecting nutrient losses.It was observed that higher quantities of carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium were lost in eroded soil in 2016 compared to 2017. This could be attributed to higher and severe rainfall events in 2016, where, for instance, in Flola, 31 July and 07 August rains produced 60 mm and 70 mm corresponding to I 30 of 67-and 75-mm•h −1 , respectively. For Mpessoba, in 2016, 21 July and 07 August rains produced 76 and 65 mm corresponding to I 30 of 80 and July and 07 August rains produced 76 and 65 mm corresponding to I 30 of 80 and 72 mm•h −1 , respectively. Additionally, in Flola, 32 rain events producing runoff 72 mm•h −1 , respectively. Additionally, in Flola, 32 rain events producing runoff were recorded in 2016 against 19 in 2017. For Mpessoba, the number of rain were recorded in 2016 against 19 in 2017. For Mpessoba, the number of rain events was almost the same (21 in 2016 and 22 in 2017) but rain intensity and events was almost the same (21 in 2016 and 22 in 2017) but rain intensity and quantity were greater in 2016. quantity were greater in 2016. "}],"sieverID":"3b6b78f9-f96a-4be8-a3d8-c3ca5f30ba73","abstract":"Soil erosion is among the critical environmental constraint for crop production in southern Mali. Contour ridge tillage (CRT), a water conservation technique had been locally applied since 1990. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of CRT compared with farmer conventional agriculture practice (NoCRT) on runoff, soil loss, nutrient loss, moisture conservation and cereals yields under rainfed conditions in two Southern Mali sites, in 2016 and 2017 in farmer fields. Measurements were performed on erosion plots composed of CRT and NoCRT plots from which water samples were collected to determine sedimentation levels, concentration and nutrients losses using pairwise comparison. Average runoff coefficient in NoCRT plots was 35.62% compared to 19.25% for the CRT plots explaining a runoff reduction of 46%. Mean soil losses of 12,095 t•ha −1 and 4970 t•ha −1 were respectively measured in NoCRT and CRT plots. Losses in calcium, magnesium and potassium nutrients in the NoCRT plots were 80%, 66%, 75% higher compared to CRT ones, respectively. Sorghum grain yield was at least two folds higher in CRT plots compared to the NoCRT plots. Maize average grain yield was 87% higher in CRT plots than in the NoCRT. For sustained soil productivity, CRT is advocated as a better soil and water management technique than the NoCRT one."}

data/part_3/0a9ec115d2a8daba0e76e90bee863a16.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a9ec115d2a8daba0e76e90bee863a16","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78d9b6d2-bc70-4bc0-bc43-115ea11b8dc2/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"Herramientas informáticas para el estudio de los recursos genéticos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Surgimiento de las técnicas de secuenciación masiva: del capilar al nanopore. La secuenciación del primer genoma (Haemophilus influenza 1.8 Mb) se realizó utilizando tecnología de secuenciación capilar desarrollada por Frederick Sanger en la decada de los 70 (Fleischmann et al., 1995). Al inicio del siglo XXI, se planteó el proyecto de secuenciar organismos eucariontes comenzando por la mosca de la fruta en el año 2000, el primer bosquejo del genoma humano en el 2001 y el ratón en el 2002 (Goodwin et al., 2016). Usando este tipo de tecnología capilar (de aquí en adelante secuenciación Sanger), producir un millón de bases de DNA costaba aproximadamente $1,500 USD, y se necesitaba de un día entero para la corrida del experimento (Escobar-Zepeda et al., 2015). Es por lo que el primer bosquejo (\"draft\") del genoma humano (3 billones de bases o 3 Gb), se calcula que tuvo un costo de billones de dólares y se necesitaron años de horas máquina para refinarlo. En 2005 apareció formalmente el primer equipo de secuenciación de nueva generación, o \"NGS\" por sus siglas en inglés next generation sequencing (Escobar-Zepeda et al., 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"La secuenciación por síntesis de Roche 454, implementó una química de secuenciación basada en la detección y medición de luz emitida por una luciferasa al momento de que se hidroliza ATP, por la incorporación de un nucleótido en las hebras recién sintetizadas de DNA. El uso de ATP en la reacción confiere el nombre de pirosecuenciación a la técnica (Buermans y Den Dunnen 2014). Esta tecnología hizo posible obtener un genoma humano, con una cobertura 7.4x, en tan solo dos meses y con un costo 10 veces menor en comparación con la secuenciación Sanger (Escobar-Zepeda et al., 2015). Aunque esta tecnología revolucionó la forma de secuenciar, en el año 2016 la empresa Roche anunció la descontinuación de los equipos 454 (Buermans y Den Dunnen 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"La segunda NGS en comercializarse fue utilizando la tecnología Illumina, esta difiere de 454 ya que adoptó la secuenciación por síntesis usando nucleótidos fluorescentes removibles usados en la polimerización del DNA (Buermans y Den Dunnen 2014). Actualmente, y con el precipitado avance en las nuevas tecnologías de secuenciación, se tienen plataformas con la capacidad de generar entre 120-1500 Gb por corrida y una media del tamaño de secuencia de 150 bp. En estos se encuentra además una gama compacta para laboratorios llamada MiSeq, la cual es pequeña en tamaño, y se pueden lograr de 0.3 Gb a 15 Gb de datos en un tiempo que puede ser de 4 horas (Buermans y Den Dunnen 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"Además, se ha desarrollado una nueva forma de secuenciar DNA sin requerir un paso previo de amplificación por PCR. Este tipo de tecnología se denomina secuenciación a partir de molécula única (single-molecule sequencing). Este tipo de secuenciación implementa una polimerasa directamente embebida en una celda de vidrio o un poro dependiendo el modelo de las plataformas. Usando estas tecnologías se puede obtener hasta 100 Gb de información (aprox. 33 veces el genoma humano) a un costo aproximado de $ 1,000 dólares (Ameur et al., 2019). El uso de las NGS ha revolucionado el estudio de diversos organismos y su información genética (genomas y metagenomas), así como la respuesta de cambio en los genes a diversos estímulos (transcriptomas y metatranscriptomas)."}]},{"head":"Herramientas bioinformáticas para el estudio de la diversidad de los recursos genéticos.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Mediante las NGS podemos responder algunas preguntas, como ¿que se encuentra en determinado ambiente? y ¿qué función biológica está realizando?, información básica en la ecología microbiana, etc. Podemos resolver estas cuestiones con dos enfoques diferentes: 1) secuenciación de genes marcadores (metabarcoding) o 2) secuenciación de todo el contenido genético (whole-genome sequencing WGS). La secuenciación de uno o varios genes blanco, comunes en los organismos de la comunidad son utilizados para la estrategia del metabarcoding. Para esto se utilizan iniciadores, dirigidos al gen de interés, generalmente se utiliza el gen 16S rRNA para bacterias y arqueas y la secuencias intergénicas del gen 18S rRNA (ITS) para hongos. Estos métodos son rápidos y rentables lo que permite obtener una visión global de los organismos presentes en una comunidad microbiana en poco tiempo y a bajo costo (Knight et al., 2018;Calle, 2019). El segundo enfoque, es un método que permite capturar todos los genomas presentes en cierta comunidad, para esto se secuencia el DNA total de la muestra y bioinformáticamente se separan los genomas de cada individuo presente en la comunidad (binning). Al poder analizar no sólo un marcador sino todos los genes presentes en los distintos organismos de la comunidad (bacterias, arqueas y hongos), se obtiene no sólo una visión taxonómica si no funcional de los miembros del ecosistema secuenciado (Knight et al., 2018;Calle, 2019)."}]},{"head":"Análisis taxonómico.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":337,"text":"Una vez obtenidos los datos por NGS se realiza el análisis bioinformático y spon diversos protocolos los que se han desarrollado para conocer la composición taxonómica de los miembros de una comunidad microbiana. Sin embargo, todos siguen algunos lineamientos generales para el procesamiento y análisis de los datos. El primer paso para el análisis es la remoción de secuencias de baja calidad y artefactos de secuenciación (adaptadores). Una vez obtenidas secuencias de alta calidad, por lo regular se procede a la agrupación o clustering de secuencias y su asignación a unidades operacionales taxonómicas (OTUs) o variantes de secuencias ribosomales (ASVs) (Callahan et. al., 2017). Esto puede hacerse directamente de los datos obtenidos por el método de metabarcoding o bien extrayendo las secuencias de los genes ribosomales (u otro gene taxonómicamente informativo) de los datos producidos por WGS (Rausch et al., 2019). Finalmente, cada una de estas OTUs son asignadas a un nivel taxonómico determinado utilizando búsquedas en bases de datos por ejemplo Silva, RPD o GreenGenes y emparentándolas con su homólogo en dicha base (Balvočiūtė et al., 2017). Todo esto finaliza en la obtención de una matriz de relación OTU, taxonomía y muestra, comúnmente conocida como matriz de OTUs (Callahan et al., 2017). Programas informáticos como Mothur (Schloss et al., 2009) y Qiime 1 y 2 (Quantitative Insights Into Microbial Ecology) (Caporaso et al., 2010), y Phyloseq (McMurdie y Holmes, 2013) son softwares que siguen protocolos comunes para el análisis de datos. Estos protocolos consisten en (1) limpiar y filtrar las secuencias obtenidas, (2) asignar secuencias a OTUs o ASVs y (3) describir la diversidad ( y ), composición y diferencias o similitudes entre las comunidades. Con todo esto, las diferencias en la abundancia relativa de los miembros presentes en las comunidades microbianas pueden ser calculadas por medio de análisis multivariados de agrupación y minería de datos (ejemplo análisis de componentes principales o PERMANOVA). Estos análisis pueden ser después visualizados por graficas de ordenación tipo análisis de componentes principales (PCA) o NMDS (Rausch et al., 2019) (Figura1)."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Figura 1. Representaciones graficas de información obtenida de un análisis de diversidad (metabarcoding). A) Análisis de componentes principales (PCA), mostrando diversos grupos de comunidades microbianas presentes en diferentes ambientes del suelo. B) Histogramas de abundancia de phylum en cada compartimento (tomado y modificado de Edwars et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"Análisis taxonómico: ¿Que se encuentra en determinado ambiente, y qué función biológica está realizando? El hecho de obtener la secuencia del genoma completo (o cuasi completo) de la mayoría de organismo presentes en una muestra vía WGS permite conocer la taxonomía y posible nicho que ocupan los miembros de la comunidad. Los primeros pasos de la mayoría de los protocolos descritos para analizar datos tipo WSG son similares a los utilizados en el metabarcoding. Esto es el filtrado por calidad de secuencias y remoción de adaptadores. Programas como fastQC, software desarrollado para proporcionar una visión general de las secuencias obtenidas, ayuda a visualizar de manera gráfica la calidad y presencia de artefactos en las secuencias (Andrews, 2010). El filtrado por remoción de lecturas (secuencias tipo NGS) con baja calidad puede llevarse a cabo utilizando paqueterías bioinformáticas tipo trimmomatic (Bolger et al., 2014). Este tipo de software permite remover utilizado un corte en valor Phred de calidad además de la remoción de artefactos como quimeras y adaptadores presentes en las lecturas."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Para poder recuperar la información genética de los organismos presentes en las muestras secuenciadas por WGS, es necesario ensamblar los genomas. El ensamble consiste en recuperar secuencias de mayor longitud, denominadas \"contigs\" en los cuales se podrá recuperar las regiones codificantes de los genes. Programas como SPAdes (Bankevich et al., 2012), IDBA (Peng et al., 2010) o MEGAHIT (Li et al., 2014), permiten la recuperación de ensambles genómicos. Todas estas herramientas trabajan bajo el mismo principio, el uso de gráficas de Brujin y fragmentación de lecturas en k-mer para la extensión de secuencias cortas (Bankevich et al., 2012). Con este tipo de estrategias es posible recuperar genomas casi completos o completos a partir de muestras metagenómicas."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"Al recuperar secuencias con una longitud mayor a 1,000 nucleótidos (tamaño promedio de un gen bacteriano) podemos empezar a predecir unidades codificantes (genes) presentes en el ambiente. Genes taxonómicamente informativos como secuencias ribosomales, genes mitocondriales o genes de copia única pueden ser utilizados para la asignación taxonómica de los individuos presentes en la comunidad (Wu et al., 2008;Darling et al., 2014). MetaPhlAn1 y 2 (Truong et al., 2015), Kraken (Wood and Salzberg, 2014), AMPHORA (Wu et al., 2008) y PhiloSift (Darling et al., 2014), son ejemplos de herramientas que proveen información y clasificación taxonómica a partir de búsqueda de genes de copia única en los genomas. Esta información puede ser representada en forma de árboles filogenéticos o matrices de comparación."},{"index":6,"size":128,"text":"Una vez obtenida la clasificación taxonómica de los miembros presentes en la comunidad, es posible separar cada uno de los genomas utilizando una técnica denominada binning. El binning consiste en clasificar y separar por similitud aquellas secuencias comunes pertenecientes al genoma de un organismo en particular. En donde un bin representara un genoma (Wu et al., 2016). Rasgos como cobertura de secuencias, porcentaje y frecuencia de k-meros, frecuencia de tetranucleótidos, así como motivos particulares en las secuencias (Kislyuk et al., 2009, Strous et al., 2012), son utilizados para agrupar aquellos contigs similares y separarlos en genomas individuales. Programas informáticos como MaxBin (Wu et al., 2016), MetaBat (Kang et al., 2015) y CONCOCT (Alneberg et al., 2014) emplean este tipo de estrategias para aislar genomas presentes en comunidades metagenómicas."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"Con los genomas individuales de cada uno de los organismos presentes en el ambiente podemos empezar a clasificar el contenido de genes presentes en ellos, proceso denominado anotación genómica. Programas como Prokka (Seemann, 2014), KOALA (Kanehisa et al., 2016), y el Prokaryotic Genome Annotation Pipeline del National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI, (Tatusova et al., 2016) son capaces de predecir las secuencias codificantes y anotar los genes presentes en ellas a partir de búsquedas de homología con bases de datos (ejemplo Uniprot (Apweiler et al., 2004), Pfam (Bateman et al., 2002), KEGG (Kanehisa y Goto, 2000)."},{"index":8,"size":94,"text":"Una vez ensamblados los contigs se puede utilizar MetaPhlAn2, que se encarga de la asignación taxonómica, utilizando regiones genómicas y marcadores moleculares de copia única (Truong et al., 2015), para esto también es posible utilizar Kraken, el cual asigna etiquetas taxonómicas a secuencias de DNA, mucho más rápido y eficiente que MetaPhlAn2 (Wood y Salzberg, 2014). Una vez realizada la clasificación taxonómica se pueden utilizar otras herramientas para predecir y anotar genes en vías metabólicas, prokka (Seemann, 2014) e InterProScan (Mitchell et al., 2019) son herramientas que se utiliza con estos fines (Figura 2)."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Figura 2. Flujo de trabajo que representa las diferencias de secuenciación y análisis bioinformático entre metabarcoding (amplicones) y WGS."},{"index":10,"size":104,"text":"Herramientas bioinformáticas para el estudio de la expresión diferencial de genes en los recursos genéticos. Toda la información de un organismo se encuentra contenida en el genoma, sin embargo, no toda se expresa al mismo tiempo. Por ejemplo, una planta sometida a estrés por sequía, expresará ciertos genes para contrarrestar los efectos del estrés, que no expresaría bajo condiciones normales. A la expresión de ciertos genes o transcritos (moléculas de RNA) en determinadas condiciones como estrés, enfermedades o tipos celulares se le conoce como transcriptoma. Se considera que el transcriptoma es dinámico debido a que este depende de las condiciones de crecimiento del organismo."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"Existen dos técnicas para el análisis de los transcritos, por un lado están los microarrays/microarreglos, que cuantifican un conjunto de secuencias predeterminadas o conocidas, y la secuenciación de RNA (RNA-Seq), que utiliza NGS para capturar todas las secuencias (Figura 3)."},{"index":12,"size":67,"text":"Figura 3. Microarreglos y RNA-Seq se basan en el análisis de imágenes de diferentes maneras. En un chip de microarreglos, cada punto en un chip es una sonda de oligonucleótidos definida, y la intensidad de fluorescencia detecta la abundancia de una secuencia hibridada y específica. En la secuenciación de alto rendimiento, se secuencia un nucleótido a la vez, el color en cada ronda indica el nucleótido añadido."},{"index":13,"size":255,"text":"Existen diversas herramientas informáticas para el análisis de transcriptomas, este capítulo se centrará en el análisis de RNA-seq, debido a que es la técnica más novedosa y actualmente más usada, para la identificación de los niveles de expresión, es los diferentes recursos genéticos. El análisis de secuencias de RNA-seq, se puede dividir en cuatro etapas: control de calidad, alineación, cuantificación y expresión diferencial. Para el control de calidad, generalmente se usa FastQC (Andrews, 2010), el cual permite visualizar la calidad de las secuencias, este software hace un llamado de base por base y evalúa su calidad, asignándole un puntaje según la escala, permite ver el contenido de GC, y la cantidad de secuencias obtenidas. Posterior a la visualización de calidad de las secuencias se realiza una limpieza de datos, la cual consiste en quitar aquellas bases de mala calidad, secuencias sobrerrepresentadas, quimeras, y los adaptadores. Las herramientas más utilizadas para estos fines son Trimmomatic (Bolger et al., 2014), Trimgalore (Krueger, 2015) y FastX (FastX, 2015). Una vez limpias las secuencias se procede al alineamiento, elk cual consiste en empalmar las secuencias obtenidas por NGS contra un genoma de referencia o de novo. Dentro de los programas utilizados para el alineamiento se encuentran Burrow-Wheeler Aligner (BWA) (Li y Durbin 2009), Bowtie (Langmead et al., 2009), TopHat (Trapnell et al., 2009), y GSNAP (Wu y Nacu 2010), la elección de estos dependerá del genoma de referencia utilizado ya que TopHat y GSNAP aumenta la probabilidad de identificar nuevas transcripciones generadas por splicing alternativos (Yang y Kim, 2015)."},{"index":14,"size":266,"text":"Una vez alineadas las secuencias al genoma de referencia, se realiza la cuantificación de secuencias alineadas por contig/gen, para esto es posible utilizar programas como RSEM (Li y Dewey, 2011), que proporciona estimaciones a nivel de genes e isoformas como salida primaria al calcular estimaciones de abundancia de máxima verosimilitud basadas en el algoritmo de Expectación-Maximización (EM) después de leer el mapeo. RSEM puede dar estas cuantificaciones normalizadas por millón (TPM), así como también admite la visualización de la alineación y la profundidad de lectura mediante un navegador genómico como el navegador genómico Santa Cruz (UCSC) de la Universidad de California. Cufflinks es el el programa informático más utilizado y estima la abundancia, mediante la abundancia de probabilidad máxima, basada en la cobertura de la transcripción. Las abundancias se informan por kilobase por millón de fragmentos mapeados (FPKM o RPKM). Finalmente, para el análisis de expresión diferencial, se han desarrollado varias paqueterías de software que incluyen EdgeR (Robinson et al. 2010), DESeq (Anders y Huber, 2010), que ocupan modelos binomiales negativos y NOIseq (Tarazona et al. 2015), que son no paramétricos. Los programas anteriores adoptan uno o más de los varios métodos de normalización disponibles (recuento total, cuartil superior, mediana, normalización DESeq, media recortada de valores M, normalización de cuantil y RPKM) para corregir los sesgos que pueden aparecer entre las muestras (profundidad de secuenciación) o dentro de la muestra (longitud del gen y contenido de GC) (Yang y Kim, 2015). Estos programas permiten encontrar aquellos genes involucrados, con alguna respuesta a cierta condición, estrés o ambiente al cual se encuentren sometidos, los diferentes recursos genéticos."},{"index":15,"size":14,"text":"Sistemas de información geográfica. Datos pasaporte, una primera etapa a los mapas de distribución."},{"index":16,"size":81,"text":"Actualmente se ha difundido en gran medida el uso de tecnologías como drones, principalmente para fotografía artística y técnica (Figura 4), servidores de mapas en teléfonos móviles para ubicar una dirección, incluso el cine 3D o la llamada realidad aumentada; todo lo mencionado es tecnología cuyos orígenes se remontan a los años 50's con el desarrollo de los hoy llamados Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG), impulsados con fines científicos y militares para el estudio del territorio de las naciones (Olaya, 2014)."},{"index":17,"size":19,"text":"Figura 4. Vuelo de dron y georreferenciación de puntos de control con estación total para un estudio de hidrología."},{"index":18,"size":40,"text":"Los SIG son una herramienta informática que consiste en software capaz de almacenar, capturar, verificar, gestionar, analizar, transformar, mostrar y transferir datos especialmente referidos a la tierra (georreferenciados), con la finalidad de realizar diversos análisis de carácter territorial (SGM, 2019)."},{"index":19,"size":10,"text":"Los SIG se conforman de cinco componentes (FAO, 2006): 1."},{"index":20,"size":52,"text":"Hardware: Equipo de cómputo. 2. Software: Programas que permiten el manejo y visualización de las bases de datos. 3. Datos: Conjunto de información con carácter espacial. 4. Personas: Especialistas y técnicos que diseñan, operan y mantienen el SIG. 5. Métodos: Modelos y prácticas realizadas en el análisis y mantenimiento de los datos."},{"index":21,"size":61,"text":"La función principal de un SIG es servir como una herramienta para la toma de decisiones, ya que permite mediante la visualización de mapas, responder a preguntas sobre la localización, condición, cambio histórico, modelación y simulación de un fenómeno (INEGI, 2014). Estos mapas se utilizan entre otras cosas para (ESRI, 2013): 1. Conocer y compartir información. 2. Compilar y mantener datos."},{"index":22,"size":10,"text":"3. Organizar y visualizar. 4. Mediante geoprocesos, generar nueva información."},{"index":23,"size":74,"text":"Debido a los avances en el desarrollo de tecnologías de la información y cómputo, la aplicación de los SIG es cada vez más diversa, por ejemplo, en ámbitos como el productivo, científico, cultural y de gobernanza (McCall, 2003;Siabato, 2018). Una de las áreas de interés en la actividad científica, es el uso de los SIG en la conservación de los recursos genéticos, generando mapas de distribución geográfica de las especies con fines de resguardo."},{"index":24,"size":117,"text":"Un mapa de distribución geográfica conocida, muestra los sitios o regiones donde se tiene registro de la presencia de una especie (Figura 5), planta o animal, y puede ser utilizado para la planeación de acciones de conservación in situ, así como para la distribución de los sitios de colecta en la conservación ex situ (Maxted et al., 2013). Realizar un mapa de distribución geográfica conocida, requiere que los registros tengan las coordenadas geográficas donde se determinó la presencia de la especie (avistamiento/colecta); es precisamente cuando los datos pasaporte tienen especial relevancia, ya que en ellos se registra un lote de información respecto al origen de las colectas de germoplasma, incluidas las coordenadas, localidad, municipio o referencias geográficas."},{"index":25,"size":69,"text":"En el CNRG, el proceso de ingreso de accesiones de germoplasma solicita que se incluyan los datos pasaporte de cada accesión; estos datos cuentan con una estructura con base en acuerdos internacionales, como el Tratado Internacional Sobre los Recursos Filogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura, ITPGRFA, por sus siglas en inglés, de la Organización Mundial para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO) Biodiversidad Internacional (Alercia et al., 2015). "}]},{"head":"Ecogeografía, una caracterización multidisciplinaria.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"El primer resultado de realizar un mapa de distribución geográfica conocida, consiste en agrupar y visualizar los sitios y regiones donde está presente una especie. Además, es posible conocer las características ambientales de estas regiones, bióticas, abióticas y antrópicas; como altitud, temperatura, precipitación, suelo, vegetación dominante, uso del suelo y topografía, entre muchas otras. En ecología, al conjunto de estas características ambientales que determinan las regiones dónde puede o no estar presente una especie se le denomina hábitat, y puede modelarse tanto para las condiciones actuales como para las históricas y futuras, por ejemplo, para condiciones de cambio climático (Figura 6). De este modo, al estudio de los factores que determinan el hábitat y el ambiente al cual un individuo, población o especie se ha adaptado, se le conoce como análisis ecogeográfico, y es importante dado que estas adaptaciones tienen su representación en la información genética de cada individuo. El análisis ecogeográfico requiere de la recopilación y síntesis de información geográfica, taxonómica y genética; sus resultados son de carácter predictivo, pueden utilizarse para formular y priorizar proyectos de recolección y conservación de especies (Castañeda et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"La caracterización ecogeográfica de una región o país se realiza mediante el compilado y análisis de información espacial edáfica, bioclimática, geofísica, biótica y antrópica, a través de un SIG; y se representa con mapas, que al combinarse reflejan los diferentes escenarios de adaptación ambiental. Además, con la cartografía y datos espaciales, se pueden realizar análisis de distribución potencial, riesgo e índices de biodiversidad (Figura 7)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Figura 7. Riqueza de razas de maíz en México (número de razas que ocurren dentro de cada celda ó pixel). Fuente: (Perales y Golicher, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Según Maxted et al., (2013), el uso de los SIG en el análisis ecogeográfico permite:"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"1. Caracterización ambiental de los sitios de colecta. 2. Optimización de las colectas de germoplasma orientada a una mayor representatividad de la diversidad genética. 3. Interpretación de patrones geográficos, ecológicos y taxonómicos."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"4. Representatividad y sesgo ecogeográfico en colectas existentes (análisis de vacíos). 5. Determinación de sitios para establecer reservas genéticas. 6. Impacto del cambio climático en las poblaciones naturales."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"La caracterización ecogeográfica de los recursos genéticos, es una herramienta que permite determinar el rango adaptativo de las especies, y con ello determinar los factores ambientales más determinantes. El valor genético de estos rasgos puede utilizarse en el mejoramiento genético de especies de interés agrícola, forestal y pecuario. Por otra parte, en el caso de cultivos, la regeneración del germoplasma puede realizarse en los sitios más acordes a las condiciones ecogeográficas nativas, para garantizar un mayor éxito de la regeneración y reducir la erosión genética (Parra et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"La planeación: el análisis de vacíos y la caracterización predictiva.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Anteriormente se mencionó que derivado del análisis ecogeográfico y los mapas de distribución geográfica, la información permite determinar la calidad o sesgo de las colectas de germoplasma con base en la diversidad ecogeográfica no representada, a esta determinación se le conoce como análisis de vacíos, y puede aplicarse en la planeación de las jornadas de colecta para mejorar la representatividad ecogeográfica de la conservación ex situ (Parra et al., 2012), incluso para determinar zonas de interés por su diversidad en recursos genéticos. Ejemplo de ello, es el análisis de vacíos realizado por Contreras et al., (2019) para parientes silvestres de cultivos en México, donde de forma complementaria propuso áreas para el establecimiento de reservas genéticas (Figura 8)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Figura 8. Sitios propuestos para el establecimiento de reservas genéticas de parientes silvestres de cultivos en México. Fuente: (adaptado de Contreras et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Determinar los sitios de colecta con el objetivo de obtener rasgos adaptativos para realizar mejoramiento genético, es una herramienta de selección denominada caracterización predictiva, y ha generado metodologías y protocolos internacionales como el Focused Identification of Germoplasm Strategy (FIGS). La metodología FIGS consiste en la búsqueda de rasgos específicos, con base en la relación fenotipogenotipo, utilizando herramientas geográficas para determinar la presión del medio ambiente sobre los individuos; FIGS asume la probabilidad de que el germoplasma refleje las adaptaciones de las muestras colectadas (Bari et al., 2012). Esta herramienta se utiliza en la búsqueda de rasgos como la tolerancia a sequía, plagas y enfermedades (Maxted et al., 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":487,"text":"Caso de estudio: Análisis de vacíos geográficos y ecológicos de conservación para plantas silvestres. Para abordar las necesidades persistentes de indicadores para la conservación de la biodiversidad y recursos genéticos, particularmente con respecto a la evaluación eficiente de la conservación de la diversidad genética, dentro y entre los taxones, se han desarrollado análisis de vacíos de conservación. Khoury et al. (2019b) ofreció una metodología de análisis de brechas aplicada a los sistemas de conservación ex situ e in situ para plantas silvestres. El método proporcionó una aproximación de la distribución de la diversidad genética de una especie de planta silvestre, utilizando el alcance de la variación ecogeográfica (es decir, geográfica y ecológica) en su rango nativo, predicho como un proxy, que se ha demostrado que es un sustituto efectivo (Hanson et al., 2017, Hoban et al., 2018), facilitando la planificación de la conservación a pesar de las brechas persistentes en los datos genéticos a nivel de población (Balmford et al., 2005, Hanson et al., 2017;Hoban et al., 2020). La variación ecogeográfica evidente a partir de un análisis de la ubicación de los sitios de recolección de muestras, salvaguardadas en repositorios de conservación (es decir, bancos de genes, semillas, y jardines botánicos) (ex situ), y en el rango de distribución de las especies dentro de áreas naturales protegidas (in situ), se midió contra la variación ecogeográfica encontrada dentro del rango nativo general predicho de la especie. El proceso identificó brechas geográficas y ecológicas en la protección actual, que pueden representar puntos focales para acciones futuras. Posteriormente, se priorizó los taxa para realizar más esfuerzos de conservación, y se combinaron los puntajes de múltiples taxones para proporcionar indicadores a diferentes escalas, locales, nacionales, regionales y globales (Khoury et al., 2019a). La metodología se basó en datos y herramientas de acceso abierto (Khoury et al., 2019a) y fue reportada en formatos de resumen fácilmente comprensibles, al tiempo que proporcionaron información específica por taxón útil para acciones de conservación. Además, cuando se aplica repetidamente a lo largo del tiempo, los resultados podrían usarse para visualizar el progreso hacia el objetivo de la conservación integral, incluida la determinación de cuándo se ha alcanzado ese objetivo. El análisis de vacíos de conservación se basó en métodos desarrollados durante la última década, primero para medir el estado de conservación de los taxones en repositorios y para ayudar a guiar los esfuerzos de recolección adicionales, destinados a construir colecciones ex situ más diversas (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2010, Castañeda-Álvarez et al., 2016). Recientemente, el enfoque se adaptó para medir la representación dentro de las áreas naturales protegidas (Khoury et al., 2019b,c,d, Lebeda et al., 2019;Mezghani et al., 2019). Tales estudios se han llevado a cabo con mayor frecuencia en una variedad de especies dentro de un género, aunque también se han aplicado a nivel nacional (Norton et al., 2017;Khoury et al., 2020) y global para grupos específicos de plantas (Castañeda-Álvarez et al., 2016;Khoury et al., 2019b)."},{"index":5,"size":248,"text":"En México, un resultado interesante de este análisis de vacíos para parientes silvestres, es el de Cucurbita argyrosperma C. Huber subsp. sororia (LH. Bailey) L. Merrick & D. M. Bates, el progenitor de C. argyrosperma C. Huber subsp. argyrosperma (calabaza pipiana), que fue domesticada en el sur de México unos 7000 años pb. (Antes del presente, Before Present) (Smith, 2006). Este taxón anual mesofítico se distribuye a lo largo de las costas tropicales del Pacífico y del Golfo de México, desde el estado de Sonora en México hasta el sur de Nicaragua, y ha sido reconocido como una fuente de resistencia a varios virus de importancia económica en el cultivo (Khoury et al., 2019d). Usando el método de análisis de vacíos, se descubrió que las 59 ocurrencias de germoplasma estaban relativamente bien distribuidas en el rango geográfico y ecológico de los taxones, aunque tal vez faltan representaciones en las partes más al norte y más al sur de su rango (Fig. 9A). La comparación de su distribución prevista con las áreas protegidas oficialmente reconocidas, encontró que las áreas principales de su distribución geográfica no están representadas en áreas protegidas, mientras que la mayoría de su variación ecológica está posiblemente representada (Figura 9). A la especie se le asignó un valor de acuerdo al grado de conservación, en un rango de 0 a 100, 46.8 y 31.8, para la conservación ex situ e in situ, respectivamente; interpretándose 100 como una conservación integral y 0 limitada (Khoury et al. 2019d)."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"Figura 9. Análisis de vacíos de conservación para Cucurbita argyrosperma C. Huber subsp. sororia (L. H. Bailey) L. Merrick y D. M. Bates, que muestra la representación geográfica del pariente silvestre en la conservación ex situ (A) y en las áreas protegidas in situ (B). El verde representa el rango predicho del taxón basado en información de ocurrencia, datos climáticos y topográficos. El púrpura representa áreas consideradas como conservadas, con base en colecciones ex situ anteriores (A) y en áreas protegidas existentes (B). Datos y mapas derivado de Khoury et al., (2019d)."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Análisis de vacíos geográficos y ecológicos de conservación ex situ para plantas cultivadas El grado de representación de las variedades tradicionales de los agricultores (variedades locales) en la conservación ex situ es poco conocido, en parte debido a la falta de métodos que puedan identificar los determinantes antropogénicos y ambientales de sus distribuciones geográficas. Ramírez-Villegas et al., (2020) desarrollaron un nuevo marco de modelado espacial y de análisis de vacíos de conservación ex situ para variedades locales de cultivos, utilizando frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) como estudio de caso."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"El modelado de cada una de las variedades locales incluyó cinco pasos principales: (1) determinar grupos relevantes de variedades locales utilizando literatura, de manera que, al probar modelos estadísticos de clasificación, fuera posible encontrar que existe una diferencia significativa entre ellos según las características ambientales y socioeconómicas de su distribución geográfica;"},{"index":9,"size":144,"text":"(2) modelar la distribución geográfica potencial de estos grupos utilizando datos de presencia (local), contemplando predictores ambientales y socioeconómicos; (3) calcular puntajes de vacíos geográficos y ambientales para las colecciones actuales en bancos de germoplasma; (4) mapear los vacíos de conservación ex situ; y (5) compilar aportes de expertos (Ramírez-Villegas et al., 2020). La metodología, logró distinguir las distribuciones (Figura 10A) y las brechas de conservación para los dos principales grupos genéticos de frijol (andino y mesoamericano), y los resultados se alinearon bien con la opinión de expertos. Se encontró que ambos grupos genéticos estaban relativamente bien conservados en bancos de germoplasma, respecto a sus distribuciones geográficas previstas, con colecciones ex situ que representaban el 78.5% del grupo andino y el 98.2% del mesoamericano. Las prioridades de recolección de variedades locales mesoamericanas se concentran en varias zonas de México, Belice y Guatemala (Figura 10B)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 5 . Figura 5. Mapa de distribución geográfica conocida de Echinocactus playacanthus, especie en peligro de extinción según la NOM-059-SEMARNAT 2010. Fuente: (adaptado de CONABIO, 2014). "},{"text":"Figura 6 . Figura 6. Escenarios de cambio climático propuestos por el Panel Intergubernamental del Cambio Climático (IPCC). Fuente: (adaptado de IPCC, 2007). "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"7132c84b-6782-43eb-86f6-b45706c97b29","abstract":"especies conservadas, así como el análisis del genoma y diversidad. A través de herramientas informáticas, es posible determinar el contenido genómico y como este cambia o responde a diversas condiciones ambientales. Por otro lado, con el apoyo de la modelación espacial y los sistemas de información geográfica se ha realizado la planeación y evaluación en las colectas, para determinar la distribución actual y potencial de las especies conservadas. Además, sirven para conocer las condiciones ambientales del suelo, clima y relieve, en las que dichas colectas se desarrollan.El continúo avance y desarrollo de tecnologías informáticas ha permitido realizar estudios cada vez más complejos. La ciencia de datos (data science), ha permitido el modelado y caracterización de los recursos genéticos. Así la bioinformática y los sistemas de información geográfica, son herramientas que contribuyen al conocimiento y conservación de la biodiversidad."}

data/part_3/0aa565fd783a35f916d79bb355b39ba4.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0aa565fd783a35f916d79bb355b39ba4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0fdda95-d98b-4a3b-8f0d-d107118a13d9/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Règles générales","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"(i) Si un champ permet de renseigner plusieurs valeurs, celles-ci doivent être séparées par un point-virgule (;) sans espace (exemple: Nom de l'accession: Symphony;Emma;Songino)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"(ii) Si aucune donnée n'est disponible pour un champ donné, celui-ci doit rester vide (exemple: Altitude). Si les données sont échangées sous format ASCII, pour un champ ne comportant pas de valeur numérique, il doit rester vide. Si les données sont échangées sous un format de base de données, les valeurs numériques manquantes doivent être représentées par des valeurs génériques \"NULL\" (VIDE)."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"(iii) Les dates sont enregistrées sous le format AAAAMMJJ. Si le mois ou le jour sont manquants, ils doivent être remplacés par des tirets ou \"00\" [double zéro]. Si les deux (mois et jour) sont manquants, insérer deux doubles zéros (exemple: 1975----, 19750000 ou 197506--, 19750600)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"(iv) Noms de pays: Les codes ISO de trois lettres (ISO 3611-1) sont utilisés pour les pays. La liste des codes et le pays, ou les codes numériques du pays ou de la région ajoutés ou modifiés sont disponibles en ligne:"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49alpha.htm."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Remarque: La liste des codes désuets est également disponible en ligne: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-1_alpha-3#Reserved_code_elements."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"(v) Pour les instituts, les codes WIEWS de la FAO doivent être utilisés. La liste des codes des instituts en vigueur est disponible sur le site web de la FAO "}]},{"head":"Numéro d'accession (ACCENUMB)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Identifiant unique pour les accessions au sein d'une banque de gènes et est attribué au moment de l'introduction d'un échantillon dans la collection (exemple: \"PI 113869\")."}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Numéro de collecte (COLLNUMB)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Identificateur original attribué par le(s) collecteur(s) à l'échantillon. Il est normalement composé du nom ou des initiales du/des collecteur(s) suivi(s) d'un numéro (exemple : \"FM9909\"). Cet identifiant est essentiel pour identifier les doubles conservés dans des collections différentes."}]},{"head":"Code de l'institut collecteur (COLLCODE)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Code WIEWS de la FAO de l'institut ayant effectué la collecte de l'échantillon. Si l'échantillon a été collecté par l'institut détenteur, le code de l'institut collecteur (COLLCODE) sera le même que celui de l'institut détenteur (INSTCODE). La norme suivie est la même que pour INSTCODE. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace."}]},{"head":"Nom de l'institut collecteur (COLLNAME)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Nom de l'institut ayant effectué la collecte de l'échantillon. Ce descripteur ne doit être utilisé qu'au cas où le COLLCODE ne pourrait pas être pourvu parce que le code WIEWS de la FAO pour cet institut n'est pas disponible. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace."}]},{"head":"Adresse de l'institut collecteur (COLLINSTADDRESS)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Adresse de l'institut ayant effectué la collecte de l'échantillon. Ce descripteur ne doit être utilisé qu'au cas où le COLLCODE ne pourrait pas être pourvu parce que le code WIEWS de la FAO pour cet institut n'est pas disponible. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace."}]},{"head":"Identifiant de la mission de la collecte (COLLMISSID)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Identifiant de la mission de collecte attribué par l'institut collecteur (4 ou 4.1) (exemple: \"CIATFOR-052\" ou \"CN426\")."}]},{"head":"Genre (GENUS)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Nom de genre du taxon. La première lettre doit être en majuscule."}]},{"head":"Espèces (SPECIES)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La partie correspondant à l'épithète d'espèce dans le nom scientifique doit apparaître en lettres minuscules. Seule l'abréviation suivante est permise: \"sp\"."}]},{"head":"Nom d'auteur se rapportant à l'espèce (SPAUTHOR)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Indiquer le nom d'auteur se rapportant à l'espèce."}]},{"head":"Sous-taxons (SUBTAXA)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Les sous-taxons peuvent être utilisés pour ajouter tout identifiant taxonomique supplémentaire."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Les abréviations suivantes sont admises: \"subsp.\" (pour sous-esp��ces); \"convar.\" (pour convariété); \"var.\" (pour variété); \"f.\" (pour forme); \"Group\" (pour \"groupe de cultivars\")."}]},{"head":"Nom d'auteur se rapportant au sous-taxon (SUBTAUTHOR)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Indiquer le nom d'auteur se rapportant au sous-taxon de plus bas niveau taxonomique."}]},{"head":"Nom commun de la plante (CROPNAME)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Le nom commun de la plante. Exemple: \"malting barley\", \"macadamia\", \"maïs\". "}]},{"head":"Pays d'origine (ORIGCTY)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Code ISO 3166-1 de trois lettres du pays dans lequel l'échantillon a été initialement collecté (exemple: race locale, espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées, variété de l'agriculteur), amélioré ou sélectionné (ligne de l'améliorateur, OGM, population ségrégant, hybrides, cultivars avancés, etc.)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Remarque: Les descripteurs de 14 à 16 ci-dessous doivent être remplis seulement si a été \"collectée\"."}]},{"head":"Localisation du site de collecte (COLLSITE)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Informations concernant la localisation au sein du pays, décrivant le lieu où l'accession a été collectée, si possible en anglais. Elles peuvent comprendre la direction et la distance en kilomètres depuis la ville, le village ou le point de référence sur la carte les plus proches (exemple: 7 Km au sud de Curitiba dans l'État du Paraná)."}]},{"head":"Coordonnées géographiques","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":" Pour les descripteurs de latitude et longitude, deux formats sont proposés. Néanmoins, seul le format adopté pour la collecte doit être utilisé."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":" Latitude et longitude en degrés décimaux avec une précision de quatre décimaux correspond à environ 10 mètres de l'équateur et décrit le point de rayon du site avec la référence géodésique et l'incertitude des coordonnées en mètres."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Remarque: Les deux formats suivants qui s'excluent mutuellement peuvent être employés pour la latitude:"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"15.1 Latitude du site de collecte (degrés décimaux) (DECLATITUDE)"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Latitude exprimée en degrés décimaux. Les valeurs positives se trouvent au nord de l'équateur, les négatives au sud de l'équateur (exemple: -44.6975)."}]},{"head":"Latitude du site de collecte (degrés, minutes, secondes) (LATITUDE)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Degrés (2 chiffres), minutes (2 chiffres) et secondes (2 chiffres), suivis par N (Nord) ou S (Sud) (exemple: 103020S). Chaque valeur manquante (minutes ou secondes) doit être indiquée par un tiret. Les zéros doivent être écrits avant les chiffres (exemple: 10----S; 011530N; 4531--S)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Remarque: Les deux formats suivants qui s'excluent mutuellement peuvent être employés pour la longitude:"}]},{"head":"Longitude du site de collecte (degrés décimaux) (DECLONGITUDE)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Longitude exprimée en degrés décimaux. Les valeurs positives sont à l'Est (E) du méridien de Greenwich, les négatifs à l'Ouest (W) (exemple: +120.9123)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"15.4 Longitude du site de récolte (degrés, minutes, secondes) (LONGITUDE)"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Degrés (3 chiffres), minutes (2 chiffres) et secondes (2 chiffres), suivis par E (Est) ou W (Ouest) (exemple: 0762510W). Chaque valeur manquante (minutes ou secondes) doit être indiquée par un tiret. Les zéros doivent être écrits avant les chiffres (exemple: 076----)"}]},{"head":"Incertitude des coordonnées [m] (COORDUNCERT)","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Incertitude associée aux coordonnées en mètres. Laisser le champ vide si la valeur est inconnue."}]},{"head":"Coordonnées de référence (COORDDATUM)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Les données géodésiques ou le système de référence spatiale sur lesquelles se basent les coordonnées (latitude et longitude) en degrés décimaux (exemple: WGS84, ETRS89, NAD83). Le GPS utilise la référence de WGS84."}]},{"head":"Méthode de géoréférenciation (GEOREFMETH)","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"La méthode de géoréférenciation utilisée (GPS, carte, dictionnaire géographique ou logiciel). Laisser le champ vide si la méthode de géoréférenciation est inconnue."}]},{"head":"Elévation du site de collecte [m asl] (ELEVATION)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"L'élévation du site de collecte exprimée en mètres au-dessus du niveau de la mer. Les valeurs négatives sont admises."}]},{"head":"Date de collecte de l'échantillon [AAAAMMJJ] (COLLDATE)","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Date de collecte de l'échantillon. AAAA correspondant à l'année, MM au mois et JJ au jour. Les données manquantes (MM ou JJ) doivent être indiquées par des tirets ou \"00\" [double zéro]."}]},{"head":"Code de l'institut ayant effectué la sélection (BREDCODE)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Code WIEWS de la FAO de l'institut dans lequel le matériel a été amélioré. Si c'est l'institut détenteur qui a fait les croisements, son code (BREDCODE) doit être le même que celui de l'institut détenteur (INSTCODE). La norme suivie est la même que pour INSTCODE. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace."}]},{"head":"Nom de l'institut ayant effectué la sélection (BREDNAME)","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Nom de l'institut (ou de la personne) ayant amélioré le matériel. Ce descripteur ne doit être utilisé qu'au cas où le BREDCODE ne pourrait pas être pourvu parce que le code WIEWS de la FAO pour cet institut n'est pas disponible. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace."}]},{"head":"Statut biologique de l'accession (SAMPSTAT)","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Le système de codage proposé peut être utilisé à 3 niveaux de précision différents soit en utilisant les codes généraux (en gras) tels que 100, 200, 300, 400 soit en utilisant les codes plus spécifiques tels que 110, 120, etc. Oui (il est inclus) 99 Autre (préciser dans le champ Remarques, exemple: \"en cours d'élaboration\")"}]},{"head":"100) Sauvage","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Remarques (REMARKS)","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Le champ Remarques est utilisé pour ajouter des notes ou donner des détails sur les descripteurs de valeur 99 ou 999 (= Autre). Faire précéder les remarques du nom du champ auquel elles se rapportent suivi par de deux-points (:) sans espace (exemple: COLLSRC:bord de route). Séparer par un point-virgule sans espace les remarques se rapportant à différents champs."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" de l'accession par rapport au Système multilatéral (MLS en anglais) du Traité international sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture. Si l'état est inconnu, laisser le champ vide. 0Non (il n'est pas inclus) 1 "},{"text":"11 Nom de l'accession (ACCENAME) Désignation enregistrée ou autre appellation officielle donnée à l'accession autre que le numéro d'accession du donateur (23) ou le numéro de collecte (3). La première lettre doit être en majuscule. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace, par exemple: Bogatyr;Symphony;Emma. 12. Date d'acquisition [AAAAMMJJ] (ACQDATE) 12. Date d'acquisition [AAAAMMJJ](ACQDATE) Date d'entrée de l'accession dans la collection. AAAA correspond à l'année, MM au mois et JJ au Date d'entrée de l'accession dans la collection. AAAA correspond à l'année, MM au mois et JJ au jour. Les données manquantes (MM ou JJ) doivent être indiquées par des tirets ou \"00\" [double jour. Les données manquantes (MM ou JJ) doivent être indiquées par des tirets ou \"00\" [double zéro]. zéro]. "},{"text":"Marché ou boutique 40) Institut, station expérimentale, organisme de recherche, banque de gènes 50) Société semencière 60) Habitat envahi de mauvaises herbes, perturbé ou rudéral Le système de codage proposé peut être utilisé à 2 niveaux de précision différents: soit en utilisant les codes généraux (en gras) tels que10, 20, 30, 40, etc., soit en utilisant les codes plus spécifiques tels que 11, 12, etc. 21. Source de la collecte ou de l'acquisition (COLLSRC) 21. Source de la collecte ou de l'acquisition(COLLSRC) 10) Habitat naturel 10) Habitat naturel 110) Spontané 11) Forêt ou bois 110) Spontané 11) Forêt ou bois 120) Semi-spontané/sauvage 12) Végétation arbustive 120) Semi-spontané/sauvage 12) Végétation arbustive 130) Semi-spontané/semé 13) Prairie 130) Semi-spontané/semé 13) Prairie 200) Envahi de mauvaises herbes 14) Désert ou toundra 200) Envahi de mauvaises herbes 14) Désert ou toundra 300) Cultivar traditionnel/variété indigène 15) Habitat aquatique 300) Cultivar traditionnel/variété indigène 15) Habitat aquatique 400) Matériel de sélection/recherche 20) Ferme ou habitat cultivé 400) Matériel de sélection/recherche 20) Ferme ou habitat cultivé 410) Lignée de sélectionneur 21) Champ 410) Lignée de sélectionneur 21) Champ 411) Population synthétique 22) Verger 411) Population synthétique 22) Verger 412) Hybride 23) Jardin d'arrière-cour, potager ou familial (urbain, peri-urbain ou rural) 412) Hybride 23) Jardin d'arrière-cour, potager ou familial (urbain, peri-urbain ou rural) 413) Stock fondateur/population de base 24) Jachère 413) Stock fondateur/population de base 24) Jachère 414) Lignée consanguine (parent de cultivar hybride) 25) Pâturage 414) Lignée consanguine (parent de cultivar hybride) 25) Pâturage 415) Population ségrégant 26) Entrepôt de ferme 415) Population ségrégant 26) Entrepôt de ferme 416) Sélection clonale 27) Aire de battage 416) Sélection clonale 27) Aire de battage 420) Stock génétique 28) Parc 420) Stock génétique 28) Parc 421) Mutant (exemple: mutation par induction/insertion, populations pour 'TILLING') 422) Stocks cytogénétiques (exemple: ajout/substitution de chromosomes, aneuploïdes, amphiploïdes) 423) Autres stocks génétiques (exemple: cartographie des populations) 30) 61) Bord de route 500) Cultivar avancé ou amélioré (méthodes de sélection conventionnelles) 62) Bordure de champ 600) OGM (par génie génétique) 99) Autre (préciser dans le champ Remarques) 999) Autre (préciser dans le champ Remarques) 20. Données généalogiques 22. Code de l'institut donateur (DONORCODE) (ANCEST) Code WIEWS de la FAO de l'institut donateur. La norme suivie est la même que pour Information sur le pedigree ou autre description contenant généalogie (exemple: variété du géniteur lorsqu'il s'agit d'un mutant ou d'une sélection). Par exemple, un pedigree INSTCODE. 421) Mutant (exemple: mutation par induction/insertion, populations pour 'TILLING') 422) Stocks cytogénétiques (exemple: ajout/substitution de chromosomes, aneuploïdes, amphiploïdes) 423) Autres stocks génétiques (exemple: cartographie des populations) 30) 61) Bord de route 500) Cultivar avancé ou amélioré (méthodes de sélection conventionnelles) 62) Bordure de champ 600) OGM (par génie génétique) 99) Autre (préciser dans le champ Remarques) 999) Autre (préciser dans le champ Remarques) 20. Données généalogiques 22. Code de l'institut donateur (DONORCODE) (ANCEST) Code WIEWS de la FAO de l'institut donateur. La norme suivie est la même que pour Information sur le pedigree ou autre description contenant généalogie (exemple: variété du géniteur lorsqu'il s'agit d'un mutant ou d'une sélection). Par exemple, un pedigree INSTCODE. \"Hanna/7*Atlas/Turk/8*Atlas\"; ou \"mutation trouvée dans Hanna\"; ou \"croisement concernant 22.1 \"Hanna/7*Atlas/Turk/8*Atlas\"; ou \"mutation trouvée dans Hanna\"; ou \"croisement concernant 22.1 Hanna ou Irene entre autres\". Hanna ou Irene entre autres\". "},{"text":"Nom de l'institut donateur. (DONORNAME) Nom de l'institut donateur (ou de la personne donatrice). Ce descripteur ne doit être utilisé que dans le cas où le DONORCODE ne peut pas être rempli parce que le code WIEWS de la FAO pour cet institut n'est pas disponible.Code WIEWS de la FAO de l'institut (ou des instituts) conservant un double de sécurité. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace. La norme suivie est la même que pour INSTCODE.Si le matériel génétique est conservé de plusieurs façons, des choix multiples sont admis, séparés par un point-virgule sans espace (exemple: 20;30). (Pour une description détaillée des modes de conservation, voir Normes applicables aux banques de gènes, FAO 2014). 25. Localisation des doubles de sécurité (DUPLSITE) 25. Localisation des doubles de sécurité(DUPLSITE) 25.1 Institut conservant un double de sécurité (DUPLINSTNAME) 25.1 Institut conservant un double de sécurité(DUPLINSTNAME) Nom de l'institut conservant un double de sécurité. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un Nom de l'institut conservant un double de sécurité. Les valeurs multiples sont séparées par un point-virgule sans espace. point-virgule sans espace. 26. Mode de conservation du matériel génétique (STORAGE) 26. Mode de conservation du matériel génétique(STORAGE) 23. Numéro d'accession du donateur (DONORNUMB) 23. Numéro d'accession du donateur(DONORNUMB) Numéro attribué par le donateur à une accession. La norme suivie est la même que pour Numéro attribué par le donateur à une accession. La norme suivie est la même que pour ACCENUMB. ACCENUMB. 24. Autre(s) numéro(s) associé(s) à l'accession (OTHERNUMB) 24. Autre(s) numéro(s) associé(s) à l'accession(OTHERNUMB) Tout autre numéro d'identification connu dans d'autres collections pour cette accession. Utiliser le Tout autre numéro d'identification connu dans d'autres collections pour cette accession. Utiliser le modèle suivant : INSTCODE:ACCENUMB;INSTCODE:identifiant…INSTCODE et identifiant sont modèle suivant : INSTCODE:ACCENUMB;INSTCODE:identifiant…INSTCODE et identifiant sont "}],"sieverID":"a251436e-39d7-4448-935f-0cbf70ad3d76","abstract":"Cette liste des descripteurs de passeport \"multi-cultures\" (MCPD en anglais) V.2.1, est une mise à jour de la publication MCPD V.2 publiée en 2012. La liste MCPD V.2 était une révision de la première version FAO IPGRI publié en 2001 enrichie pour répondre aux besoins émergents, tels que l'utilisation plus large d'outils GPS, ou la mise en oeuvre du Système multilatéral d'accès et de partage des avantages du Traité international sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture.La liste MCPD, élaborée conjointement par Bioversity International (anciennement IPGRI) et la FAO, a été largement utilisée et fournit des normes internationales qui facilitent l'échange de données passeport du matériel génétique. Ces descripteurs ont pour objectif d'être compatibles avec les listes de descripteurs des plantes cultivées élaborées par Bioversity, avec les descripteurs utilisés par le Système mondial d'information et d'alerte rapide (WIEWS) sur les ressources phytogénétiques (RPG) de la FAO, et avec le portail mondial GENESYS.Chaque descripteur de passeport multi-cultures est accompagné d'une brève explication du contenu, du système de codage et du nom de champ suggéré. L'Annexe I fournit un accès simple à la «Liste historique des changements importants» des versions précédentes MCPD."}

data/part_3/0abdf4fbfeb58d7a9b8889303ada9b9d.json ADDED Viewed

	@@ -0,0 +1 @@

+ {"metadata":{"id":"0abdf4fbfeb58d7a9b8889303ada9b9d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/223d2f1c-85ac-4e6f-b8f3-fa215de3defc/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #2353 Contributing Projects: • P347 -Evidence on enabling environments, effective decision making processes and impacts of nutrition-sensitive agricultural policies","keywords":["Other MELIA activity Geographic scope:","National Country(ies):","Tanzania, United Republic Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications: <Not Defined>"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e493bd63-1b86-4e15-b073-3549afb9b6b0","abstract":"Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets:• # of more people, of which 50% are women, without deficiencies of one or more of the following essentials micronutrients: iron, zinc, iodine, vitamin A, folate and vitamin B12 Description of activity / study: 2016-2019; FS1461 UNICEF This project will set out to explain changes in child stunting, maternal anemia and maternal overweight status in Tanzania over 2004-05 to 2015-16, using several rounds of Demographic Health Surveys. The project will primarily use quantitative regression-decomposition methods, supported by qualitative literature reviews and stakeholder consultation."}

data/part_3/0b012c8023ea5a7e133bf3e6b4f3f9e2.json ADDED Viewed

The diff for this file is too large to render. See raw diff