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Steven Terner Mnuchin ( ; born December 21, 1962) is an American investment banker and film producer who served as the 77th United States secretary of the treasury as part of the Cabinet of Donald Trump from 2017 to 2021. Previously, Mnuchin had been a hedge fund manager and investor. Upon graduating from Yale University in 1985, Mnuchin joined the investment bank Goldman Sachs where his father, Robert Mnuchin, was a general partner. Mnuchin worked at Goldman Sachs for 17 years, eventually becoming its chief information officer. After he left Goldman Sachs in 2002, he worked for and founded several hedge funds and launched Dune Entertainment, a motion picture production company that financed several films for 20th Century Fox. Mnuchin was a member of Sears Holdings's Board of Directors from 2005 until December 2016, and prior to this, Mnuchin served on Kmart's Board of Directors. After Sears went bankrupt, the company that formerly owned it sued Mnuchin and ex-CEO Eddie Lampert for "asset stripping" during their tenure. During the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Mnuchin bought failed residential lender IndyMac. He changed the name to OneWest Bank and rebuilt the bank, then sold it to CIT Group in 2015. During his time as OneWest CEO and Chairman, the bank became embroiled in several lawsuits over questionable foreclosures. Mnuchin joined Trump's presidential campaign in 2016, and was named National Finance Chairman for the campaign. On February 13, 2017, Mnuchin was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as Secretary of the Treasury by a vote of 53–47. As Secretary of the Treasury, Mnuchin supported the Trump tax cuts and the tax reform of 2017 and advocated reducing personal and corporate tax rates. In regard to regulatory policy, Mnuchin supported President Trump’s partial repeal of the Dodd–Frank Act, citing the complexity of the legislation. Early life and education Steven Mnuchin was born on December 21, 1962, in New York City, the second-youngest son in his family. Mnuchin's family is Jewish. He is the son of Robert E. Mnuchin of Washington, Connecticut, and Elaine Terner Cooper of New York. Robert Mnuchin was a partner at Goldman Sachs in charge of equity trading and a member of the management committee. He is also the founder of an art gallery in New York City, the Mnuchin Gallery. Mnuchin's great-grandfather, Aaron Mnuchin, a Russian-born diamond dealer who later resided in Belgium, emigrated to the U.S. in 1916. Mnuchin attended Riverdale Country School in New York City. He graduated from Yale University in 1985 with a bachelor's degree in economics. At Yale, Mnuchin was publisher of the Yale Daily News, and was also initiated into Skull and Bones in 1985. While a student at Yale, Mnuchin drove a Porsche and lived at New Haven's Taft Hotel. Mnuchin's first job was as a trainee at investment bank Salomon Brothers in the early 1980s, while still studying at Yale. Finance and banking career Goldman Sachs Mnuchin graduated from Yale in 1985 and started working for Goldman Sachs, where his father had been employed since 1957. Mnuchin started in the mortgage department, and became a partner at Goldman in 1994. Until he left the company in 2002, Mnuchin held the following positions as a partner: November 1994 – December 1998: Head of the Mortgage Securities Department December 1998 – November 1999: Overseeing mortgages, U.S. governments, money markets, and municipals at Fixed Income, Currency and Commodities Division December 1999 – February 2001: Member of the Executive Committee and co-head of the Technology Operating Committee February 2001 – December 2001: Executive Vice President and co-chief information officer December 2001 – 2002: Executive vice president, member of the Management Committee, and chief information officer Mnuchin left Goldman Sachs in 2002 after 17 years of employment, with an estimated $46 million of company stock and $12.6 million in compensation that he received in the months prior to his departure. Hedge funds After he left Goldman Sachs in 2002, Mnuchin briefly worked as vice-chairman of hedge fund ESL Investments, which is owned by his Yale roommate Edward Lampert. From 2003 to 2004 he worked as Chief Executive Officer at SFM Capital Management, a fund backed by George Soros. Mnuchin founded a hedge fund called Dune Capital Management, named for a spot near his house in The Hamptons, in 2004 with two former Goldman partners. After its founding, Mnuchin served as the CEO of the company. The firm invested in at least two Donald Trump projects, the Trump International Hotel and Tower in Honolulu and its namesake in Chicago. Dune Capital Management and other lenders to the skyscraper in Chicago were sued by Trump before a settlement was reached. Mnuchin was outbid by Lone Star Funds on a portfolio of residential mortgage-backed collateralized debt obligations being sold by Merrill Lynch during the financial crisis, which sold for $6.7 billion. Mnuchin has been criticized for his use of offshore entities for investment purposes as a hedge-fund manager, which is a common practice in the industry. Mnuchin has stated: "In no way did I use [offshore entities] to avoid U.S. taxes." OneWest Purchase of IndyMac and other loan portfolios In 2009, a group led by Mnuchin bought California-based residential lender IndyMac, which had been in receivership by the FDIC and owned $23.5 billion in commercial loans, mortgages, and mortgage-backed securities. The purchase price was a $4.7 billion discount to its book value. Mnuchin's investment group included George Soros, hedge-fund manager John Paulson, former Goldman Sachs executive J. Christopher Flowers, and Dell Computer founder Michael Dell. The FDIC agreed to retain some of the more problematic assets of the bank, and signed a loss-sharing agreement. The FDIC was estimated to be required to pay $2.4 billion to IndyMac under the shared loss agreement. After purchasing IndyMac, renamed OneWest Bank, Mnuchin moved into a 20,000 square foot house in Bel Air to begin his tenure as CEO and chairman. OneWest then bought several other failed banks including First Federal Bank of California in 2009 and La Jolla Bank in 2010. Furthermore, OneWest bought a portfolio belonging to Citi Holdings for $1.4 billion. OneWest was profitable one year after Mnuchin had bought it, and it became the largest bank of Southern California, with assets worth $27 billion. Sale to CIT In 2015, Mnuchin sold OneWest to CIT Group for $3.4 billion. After the acquisition by CIT, Mnuchin remained at OneWest, and became a member of CIT Group's board of directors. As of August 2016, Mnuchin owned $97 million in CIT Group stock, most of which he had received in exchange for his stake in OneWest. On December 2, 2016, Mnuchin resigned from the board of directors of CIT as a result of his selection as nominee for Secretary of the Treasury. Foreclosures OneWest was criticized for aggressively foreclosing on homeowners. In the five years following Mnuchin's acquisition of OneWest, the bank foreclosed on 36,000 homes in California, leading local activists to begin calling Mnuchin "the foreclosure king." The high foreclosure rate might have been a result of the loss sharing agreement with the FDIC, whereby the FDIC had to reimburse OneWest for losses. According to The New York Times, OneWest "was involved in a string of lawsuits over questionable foreclosures, and settled several cases for millions of dollars". Because of these foreclosures, around 100 protesters of Occupy Los Angeles gathered outside Mnuchin's home in October 2011 and held signs that read "Make Banks Pay". Two California fair-housing groups filed complaints to the federal government alleging that OneWest had violated the Fair Housing Act by not lending money to African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians. In November 2016, after OneWest was sold to CIT, the California Reinvestment Coalition submitted a Freedom of Information Act request to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to learn more about CIT's reverse mortgage subsidiary, Financial Freedom. According to the HUD's response, CIT/Financial Freedom foreclosed on 16,220 federally insured reverse mortgages from April 2009 to April 2016. This represented about 39% of all federally insured reverse mortgage foreclosures during that time. CRC estimated that Financial Freedom serviced only about 17% of the market and thus was foreclosing more than twice as often as its competitors. CIT Group disclosed to investors that it had received subpoenas from HUD's Office of the Inspector General in the third and fourth quarters of 2015. In November 2016, two non-profits filed a complaint with the Department of Housing and Urban Development, alleging redlining by OneWest Bank. In 2017 a leaked internal memo from the California attorney general's office was published, stating that the prosecutor's office had found more than a thousand violations of foreclosure law by OneWest during Mnuchin's tenure. The prosecutor, Kamala Harris, had declined to file a civil enforcement suit. Liberty Strategic Capital After Donald Trump lost the 2020 election, Mnuchin established an investment fund, Liberty Strategic Capital. The fund obtained funds from the Saudis, Emirati and Qatari sovereign wealth funds. According to the New York Times, "The scale of Mr. Mnuchin’s fund and its investments from countries where he traveled as Treasury secretary have raised questions about whether he used his government role to enrich himself." Film production career In 2004, he founded Dune Entertainment as a side business, which was the financier of a number of large budget films, mostly for 20th Century Fox, including the X-Men film franchise and Avatar. In 2012, after Dune's deal with 20th Century Fox ended, Mnuchin teamed up with filmmaker Brett Ratner and Australian businessman James Packer to merge his Dune Entertainment company with Ratner and Packer's newly founded RatPac Entertainment joint venture; resulting in RatPac-Dune Entertainment, which then struck a financing deal with Warner Bros. Between 2013 and 2018, RatPac-Dune financed many films for Warner Bros., including American Sniper and Mad Max: Fury Road. Mnuchin was co-chairman of the trio's movie company, Relativity Media, but left seven months before it went bankrupt. A source close to the company said he had resigned because of the potential for a conflict of interest between his duties at Relativity and OneWest. He and other investors reportedly lost $80 million. Filmography Politics Donations Before joining the presidential campaign of Donald Trump in 2016, Mnuchin had been involved in politics only by donating money to campaigns. Between 1995 and 2014, he donated over $120,000 to political organizations, PACs, politicians, and political parties. His contributions to candidates included 11 donations to Republicans and 36 donations to Democrats. The campaigns of Al Gore, Hillary Clinton, John Kerry, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney were among those to which he donated money. Mnuchin said most of those donations were favors for friends. Between June and September 2016, Mnuchin donated over $400,000 to the Republican Party, including donations to Paul Ryan and Donald Trump. Earlier in 2016, Mnuchin had donated $4,000 to Democrats Kamala Harris and Michael Wildes. 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump Mnuchin was an early supporter of Trump, and attended his victory party after the New York Republican primary victory on April 19, 2016, for which he received a last-minute invitation. He was called the following day by Trump, who asked him if he wanted to be the national finance chairman of his campaign. Mnuchin, who later said in an interview he had known Trump "for over fifteen years", accepted the offer. In a statement announcing the appointment, Trump said: "Steven is a professional at the highest level, with an extensive and very successful financial background." He also said Mnuchin would bring "unprecedented experience and expertise" that would benefit the Republican Party. After being appointed as the Trump campaign's main fundraiser, Mnuchin said: "It's a great privilege to be working with Mr. Trump to create a world-class finance organization to support the campaign in the General Election." Mnuchin worked with Republican National Committee counterpart Lewis Eisenberg on a late-developing joint operation for the committee and the Trump campaign. Before Mnuchin's appointment, no large-scale fundraising operation had been started for the Trump campaign. The late-summer fundraising goal was close to $500 million. The New York Times described Mnuchin's role during the campaign as "relatively behind the scenes", and the newspaper noticed he never "seemed to seek the spotlight". During an interview, Mnuchin said that because of his connection to the Trump campaign, "a lot of people in California and New York [...] wanted to stop being friends". After Trump won the election, he announced that Mnuchin would join the transition team on November 11. Political views In a November 30, 2016, interview on CNBC, Mnuchin called it the Trump administration's job to "make sure that the average American has wage increases and good jobs". Furthermore, he said his priority was getting a sustained growth of GDP of 3% or 4%. He said in order to get there, "our number one priority is tax reform". Mnuchin said he would reduce corporate taxes to 15%, cut taxes for the middle class, and simplify the tax system. When asked about trade, he said he believed in trade deals with individual countries, as opposed to regional trade deals. Mnuchin said, "This president [...] is going to have open communication with business leaders", when asked about keeping jobs from being offshored to Mexico. During the interview, he also said he wants to "strip back parts of Dodd–Frank" because he argued it was too complicated, and it prevented banks from lending. He called the stripping back of Dodd–Frank "the number-one priority on the regulatory side". Secretary of the Treasury Nomination and confirmation On November 30, 2016, Donald Trump announced on his website that he would nominate Mnuchin as United States Secretary of the Treasury. In the statement, Trump called Mnuchin a "world-class financier, banker, and businessman", and he said Mnuchin played an important role in developing his "plan to build a dynamic, booming economy". Mnuchin himself said he was "honored to have the opportunity to serve our great country in this important role". He called Trump's economic agenda a "bold" one "that creates good-paying jobs and defends the American worker". On February 1, 2017, the Senate Finance Committee approved his nomination by a vote of 11–0 with all Democrats boycotting the vote, sending the nomination to the Senate floor. After the nomination was announced, Mnuchin resigned from his position on the board of trustees of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, to which he had donated between $100,000 and $250,000. When the pick was announced, Mnuchin was also a member of the boards of UCLA Health System, the NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital, and the Los Angeles Police Foundation. The New York Times noted that Mnuchin's selection "fits uneasily with much of Mr. Trump's campaign attacks on the financial industry". For example, an ad of Trump's campaign said Goldman Sachs' CEO had "robbed [the] working class". Mnuchin is the third former Goldman-Sachs executive to serve in the job, after Hank Paulson, under President George W. Bush, and Robert Rubin, under President Bill Clinton, in the 2000s and 1990s, respectively. During his Senate confirmation hearing on January 19, 2017, Mnuchin was criticized by Democrats for OneWest's foreclose practices. Mnuchin said: "Since I was first nominated to serve as treasury secretary, I have been maligned as taking advantage of others' hardships in order to earn a buck. Nothing could be further from the truth". During the hearing, it was also noted that Mnuchin had failed to disclose $95 million of real estate that he owned and his role as director of Dune Capital International, an investment fund in a tax haven. Mnuchin described the omissions as mistakes made amid a mountain of bureaucracy. Following Trump's January 2017 announcement about an investigation into voter registration, it was discovered that Mnuchin is registered to vote in both California and New York. On February 13, 2017, Mnuchin was confirmed as secretary of the treasury by a vote of 53–47. He received unanimous support from Senate Republicans but from only one Senate Democrat, Joe Manchin of West Virginia. Tenure Artificial intelligence Mnuchin, when asked in an interview with Mike Allen of Axios "whether he was worried about AI displacing jobs, replied: 'not at all... I think we are so far away from that' — 50 or 100 years — 'it's not even on my radar screen'." Former treasury secretary Lawrence Summers was among critics of the statement, likening it to climate denial and creationism. Fortune columnist Alan Murray, noting the dispute, said he thought "the core of the misunderstanding is the term 'artificial intelligence'". While he felt Mnuchin expressed understanding of the role of technology in the labor market and also worried that the secretary and President Donald Trump were both in their ways underestimating technology's impact, he thought the climate-denial charge was excessive. Environment In January 2020, Mnuchin dismissed environmental activist Greta Thunberg, saying she should go to college and study economics before weighing in on policy. Others responded to Mnuchin, noting that thousands of economists with PhDs had signed a letter calling for taxation of carbon dioxide emissions. Federal budget and benefits On June 12, 2017, Mnuchin denied the debt ceiling not being raised before the August recess would cease federal government operations, and said Congress should weigh the option of "changing the timing so that the debt ceiling matches the budget process so we don't have to deal with this in this format" during a House appropriations subcommittee hearing. On June 14, during a prepared testimony ahead of the House subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs, Mnuchin said the budget proposal on the part of the Trump administration "should send a message that the international financial institutions need to operate more efficiently". On July 13, in response to limited lifespans being reported of Social Security and Medicaid, Mnuchin said: "To help make these programs sustainable into the future, we should focus on strengthening the economy today. Compounding growth will help ease projected shortfalls." Taxes Mnuchin is a member of the so-called "Big Six", a group of politicians convened to write a tax reform proposal that incorporated input from members of the House of Representatives, Senate, and White House. In addition to Mnuchin, the group consists of senators Orrin Hatch (R-UT) and Mitch McConnell (R-KY); representatives Kevin Brady (R-TX) and Paul Ryan (R-WI); and National Economic Council Director Gary Cohn. Shortly after the November 2016 election, Mnuchin, as the planned nominee for secretary of the treasury, stated in an interview with CNBC that "any reductions we have in upper-income taxes will be offset by less deductions so that there will be no absolute tax cut for the upper class", which Senator Ron Wyden (D-OR) subsequently called "The Mnuchin Rule" during his Senate confirmation hearing. Brad McMillan, chief investment officer for Commonwealth Financial Network, said a preliminary tax reform proposal by Trump in April 2017 "allocates much of the tax relief to the wealthy" and could increase the budget deficit. In a May 2017 event moderated by CNBC, Mnuchin stated the intent was to deliver a "middle-income tax cut", but that final results depended on the actions of Congress. Mnuchin appeared with White House Director of Legislative Affairs Marc Short in a July 2017 event when they vowed to have the tax reform proposal before Congress after it resumed operations on September 5, and Mnuchin added that "lowering the top [earners'] rate [would be offset by] elimination of huge deductions. So, for most people in the top rate, they're not going to get a tax cut." Mnuchin walked back the "Mnuchin Rule" in a September 2017 interview with CNN prior to the release of the proposed tax reforms, saying the "no absolute tax cut for the upper class" phrase "was never a promise... never a pledge... it was what the president's objective was". Under the tax reform proposal, the top tax rate would decline from 39.6 to 35 percent, and the budget deficit would likely increase. During an appearance at the Milken Institute Global Conference on May 1, 2017, Mnuchin said the White House and House Republicans were united in views on tax reductions: "We're all on the same page. On 80% of the details, we're in agreement. Another 20%, we need to work through." During a conference in Ottawa on June 9, Mnuchin said government tax receipts were "coming in somewhat lower", but that this did not concern the administration. While appearing on ABC News on July 9, Mnuchin confirmed the administration was not considering a tax increase on the American upper class and the upcoming tax plan would finance itself. Mnuchin advocated for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, a bill expected to add $1.5 trillion to the deficit. Mnuchin claimed the bill would pay for itself by causing explosive economic growth; he promised the treasury was working on an analysis that showed that, and that the analysis would be made public before Congress voted on the legislation. However, on November 30, 2017, sources within the Treasury department said Mnuchin had ordered no analysis of the tax plan and that there was no Treasury analysis that showed that the tax cuts would pay for themselves. In December 2017, the treasury released a one-page report on the tax plan which acknowledged that the plan would not pay for itself through economic growth. In May 2018, Mnuchin instructed his staff to accept a non-low-income tract in Storey County, Nevada, as an Opportunity Zone shortly after attending a Milken Institute event in Beverly Hills with Michael Milken. Milken was already an investor in the Nevada tract. In August 2018, Mnuchin attended a Milkin Institute conference on "opportunity zones" in the Hamptons with Milken and later accepted a flight to Los Angeles with Milken on his private jet. Treasury later issued a regulatory guidance that allows prior investors to benefit from newly designated "opportunity zones". International relations At a March 18, 2017, meeting of G-20 country finance ministers, Mnuchin supported the Trump administration's trade policy of economic protectionism. During an April 24, 2017, White House briefing, Mnuchin announced Department of Treasury sanctions against the Syrian Scientific Studies and Research Center. He said the sanctions were designed to create accountability for the Bashar al-Assad regime and its supporters in the wake of their violations both of U.N. Security Council resolutions and of the Chemical Weapons Convention. On June 29, Mnuchin announced the Bank of Dandong, a Chinese bank, had sanctions imposed on it by the U.S. He charged the bank with acting "as a gateway for North Korea to access the U.S. and international financial systems". On March 15, 2018, Mnuchin unveiled a series of sanctions, first time under CAATSA as well as Executive Order 13694, against various Russian entities and individuals. Beginning in November 2019, Mnuchin facilitated negotiations between the governments of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan with respect to the filling and operation of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam after tripartite negotiations between the three countries languished after eight years of talks. Egypt has opposed the dam, fearing that it will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile. In February 2020, Mnuchin stated that "final testing and filling should not take place without an agreement." Ethiopian Foreign Minister Gedu Andargachew said Mnuchin's advice to Ethiopia was "ill-advised". Support for President Trump While briefing reporters on April 26, Mnuchin said President Trump "has no intention" to release his tax returns, asserting that Trump "has released plenty of information". In the August 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, opposing the removal of Confederate statues, protesters included neo-Nazis and Klansmen, leading to violent conflicts. President Trump said there was "blame on both sides". Several hundred of Mnuchin's Yale classmates drafted a letter urging him to resign from the administration in protest. Mnuchin responded by saying: "While I find it hard to believe I should have to defend myself on this, or the president, I feel compelled to let you know that the president in no way, shape, or form, believes that neo-Nazi and other hate groups who endorse violence are equivalent to groups that demonstrate in peaceful and lawful ways." On September 24, Mnuchin appeared on This Week and State of the Union to defend Trump's call to "get that son of a bitch off the field right now", referring to the protests by professional athletes starting in 2016, most notably marked by Colin Kaepernick kneeling during the pregame singing of the national anthem. Mnuchin said: "...it's not about race, it's not about free speech. They can do free speech on their own time.... [T]his is about respect for the military and first responders in the country." Comments on Lego Batman movie In March 2017, Mnuchin drew ethics concerns as regarding a statement he had made urging parents to "send all your kids to LEGO Batman" during an interview with Axios, apparently endorsing The Lego Batman Movie which he was an executive producer of. Just earlier in the interview, Mnuchin acknowledged: "I'm not allowed to promote anything that I'm involved in." In response, Mnuchin wrote in a letter to Walter Shaub at the Office of Government Ethics (OGE) that he "should not have made that statement", and assured the OGE that "it was not my intention to make a product endorsement". Divestment from prior businesses In May 2017, it was reported that Mnuchin's fiancée, Louise Linton, had succeeded him as the interim CEO of Dune Entertainment effective February 2017. Mnuchin had stepped down from the role as part of his ethics agreement to divest his business roles in preparation for his appointment as Secretary of the Treasury. Linton's announcement of her role at Dune Entertainment drew the attention of Senator Ron Wyden [D-Oregon], a member of the Senate Finance Committee, who questioned whether the appointment of Linton meant Mnuchin had fully divested from the company. Although the Department of the Treasury replied that she was serving in an uncompensated capacity, Linton resigned as interim CEO later in May. Use of government aircraft Following criticism of his use of a United States Air Force jet on a trip to Kentucky that involved viewing the solar eclipse, the Treasury Department's Office of the Inspector General (OIG) opened up an inquiry into Mnuchin's use of government aircraft. The watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW) filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request regarding Mnuchin's use of government aircraft. After the government failed to respond to the FOIA request, CREW sued the Department of the Treasury to release the documents. Mnuchin denied the trip was related to viewing the solar eclipse, saying: "People in Kentucky took [the solar eclipse] very seriously. Being a New Yorker, I don't have any interest in watching the eclipse." Mnuchin, who was accompanied by his wife Louise Linton on the trip, reimbursed the government for Linton's travel to Kentucky, which amounted to $595 out of a total cost of $26,900. During the OIG's investigation into Mnuchin's use of government aircraft, it was revealed that Mnuchin had requested a military jet for his honeymoon travel to Europe in June 2017. Mnuchin stated that, as a member of the United States National Security Council, he needed access to secure communications during his honeymoon, but withdrew his request for the military jet after an alternative was identified. Mnuchin stated: "I'm very sensitive to the use of government funds. I've never asked the government to pay for my personal travel... The story [regarding the honeymoon travel request] was quite misreported." The OIG investigation also showed Mnuchin had taken a USAF C-37A, the military designation of the Gulfstream V, to return from New York to Washington on August 15 after flying to New York commercially. Although the request for travel on the military jet was initiated by Mnuchin's office, the aircraft had previously been used to fly Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao from Joint Base Andrews to Teterboro Airport. Mnuchin's return flight lasted less than an hour and had an operating cost of at least $25,000. The OIG released its report on October 4, 2017, concluding that there was "no violation of law in these requests and uses" of government aircraft by Mnuchin, but also expressing concern regarding "a disconnect between the standard of proof called for in the Daley memo and the actual amount of proof provided by Treasury and accepted by the White House in justifying these trip requests". The referenced Daley Memo was issued by then-White House Chief of Staff William M. Daley on April 4, 2011, and it stated the standards for use of government aircraft by senior executive branch officials were given in OMB Circular A-126, dated February 10, 1993. The Daley Memo also states that travel using military aircraft must be considered a White House Support Mission, taken at the specific direction of the President under one of a set of limited circumstances that "make commercial transportation unacceptable". The typical reimbursement paid by requesting federal executive agencies covers only the cost of an equivalent coach ticket on a commercial flight. In the report, the OIG reviewed nine travel requests by Mnuchin for military air transportation since March 2017, of which seven were approved and taken, one was withdrawn, and one was approved with travel pending in late October 2017. The total cost of the seven trips taken was $811,800, calculated from per-hour cost and operating hours for the specific aircraft, or Air Force-provided direct costs of operations. Two of the flights, taken to Europe in March and May 2017, each cost more than $300,000. On one flight, to Ottawa in June, Mnuchin was accompanied by his then-fiancée Linton. The total cost of the Ottawa trip was $16,350, and the reimbursement repaid for Linton's cost of travel was $744. Due to an inconsistency in the records provided for the trip to New York on August 15, the OIG opened a second inquiry in October 2017, "to assure that [the OIG] have in fact received all relevant records". Student heckling incident Mnuchin spoke at UCLA on February 26, 2018, where he was heckled and initially blocked the video from being released. The university said in a statement that Mnuchin, who at first "subsequently withdrew" his approval for the video to be posted online, later gave consent for the video to be published. Personal life Mnuchin's mother was a long-time investor with Bernie Madoff. After his mother died in early 2005, Mnuchin and his brother liquidated her investments, making $3.2 million. A Madoff trustee sued to retrieve the money from the Mnuchins, but a court ruled that the Madoff trust could recoup money only from those who had cashed out less than two years before the December 2008 collapse of Madoff's company. Marriages From 1992 to 1999, Mnuchin was married to Kathryn Leigh McCarver. In 1999, Mnuchin married Heather deForest Crosby, and they had three children together. Heather Mnuchin was active in philanthropy and AZIAM yoga. After he bought IndyMac, Mnuchin moved to a , $26.5 million house in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California, because the company's headquarters was in Pasadena. They divorced in 2014. Mnuchin married actress Louise Linton on June 24, 2017. Vice President Mike Pence presided over the ceremony. Non-profit work Mnuchin served as a member of the development board of Yale University, as a board member of the Riverdale Country School, as a member of the national board and senior member of the non-profit youth organization Junior Achievement, to which he had donated money, and as a board member of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden. See also List of people and organizations named in the Paradise Papers References External links Secretary of the Treasury Steven T. Mnuchin 1962 births 20th-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American politicians American bankers American film producers American hedge fund managers American people of Russian-Jewish descent Goldman Sachs people Living people Politicians from New York City Trump administration cabinet members United States Secretaries of the Treasury Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States Yale University alumni Riverdale Country School alumni People named in the Paradise Papers

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The Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People, also known as (MOSOP), is a mass‐based social movement organization of the indigenous Ogoni people of Central Niger Delta. MOSOP is the umbrella organization of currently 11 member groups representing more than 700,000 indigenous Ogoni in campaigning for social, economic and environmental justice in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. MOSOP's mandated use of non-violent methods to promote democratic principles assist Ogoni people pursue rights of self-determination in environmental issues in the Niger Delta, cultural rights and practices for Ogoni people. Founded in 1990 by Ken Saro-Wiwa, Ogoni Chiefs of MOSOP initiated efforts with the Ogoni Bill of Rights. Saro-Wiwa led its submission to the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Peoples in Geneva. In 1994, MOSOP, along with founder Ken Saro-Wiwa, received the Right Livelihood Award for their exemplary courage in striving non-violently for the civil, economic and environmental rights of their people'. Background The Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People began as a struggle against the exploitation of natural resources of Ogoniland by Shell Oil Company, a subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell, when in 1957 its Nigerian operations, Shell Nigeria, known as Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited (SPDC), struck oil in the Niger River Delta. Environmental Impact on the Niger River Delta Region Communities of the Niger River Delta which had sustained their economy on farming and fishing, saw the takeover of their land by multinational oil companies was causing devastating environmental degradation. Saro-Wiwa called it an 'ecological war'. The Ogoni country has been completely destroyed by the search for oil.... Oil blowouts, spillages, oil slicks, and general pollution accompany the search for oil.... Oil companies have flared gas in Nigeria for the past thirty three years causing acid rain.... What used to be the bread basket of the delta has now become totally infertile. All one sees and feels around is death. Environmental degradation has been a lethal weapon in the war against the indigenous Ogoni people. —Ken Saro-Wiwa, Interview on Channel 4 (U.K.) on November 15, 1995 Bronwen Manby, then researcher in the Africa Division of Human Rights Watch, documented in July 1997 that "according to the official estimates of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), based on the quantities reported by the operating companies, approximately 2,300 cubic meters of oil are spilled in 300 separate incidents annually. It can be safely assumed that, due to under-reporting, the real figure is substantially higher: conservative estimates place it at up to ten times higher. Statistics from the Department of Petroleum Resources indicate that between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4,835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least 2,446,322 barrels (102.7 million U.S. gallons), of which an estimated 1,896,930 barrels (79.7 million U.S. gallons; 77 percent) were lost to the environment. Another calculation, based on oil industry sources, estimates that more than 1.07 million barrels (45 million U.S. gallons) of oil were spilled in Nigeria from 1960 to 1997. Nigeria's largest spill was an offshore well blowout (well drilling) in January 1980, when at least 200,000 barrels of oil (8.4 million U.S. gallons), according to oil industry sources, spewed into the Atlantic Ocean from a Texaco facility and destroyed 340 hectares of mangroves. DPR estimates were that more than 400,000 barrels (16.8 million U.S. gallons) were spilled in this incident." Ogoni has suffered and continues to suffer the degrading effects of oil exploration and exploitation: lands, streams and creeks are totally and continually polluted; the atmosphere is for ever charged with hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide; many villages experience the infernal quaking of the wrath of gas flares which have been burning 24 hours a day for 33 years; acid rain, oil spillages and blowouts are common. The result of such unchecked environmental pollution and degradation are that (i) The Ogoni can no longer farm successfully. Once the food basket of the eastern Niger Delta, the Ogoni now buy food (when they can't afford it); (ii) Fish, once a common source of protein, is now rare. Owing to the constant and continual pollution of our streams and creeks, fish can only be caught in deeper and offshore waters for which the Ogoni are not equipped. (iii) All wildlife is dead. (iv) The ecology is changing fast. The mangrove tree, the aerial roots of which normally provide a natural and welcome habitat for many a sea food – crabs, periwinkles, mudskippers, cockles, mussels, shrimps and all – is now being gradually replaced by unknown and otherwise useless plants. (v) The health hazards generated by an atmosphere charged with hydrocarbon vapour, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are innumerable. —Dr. G. B. Leton, President of MOSOP, addendum statement in the Ogoni Bill of Rights Mangrove forest is particularly vulnerable to oil spills, because the soil soaks up the oil like a sponge and re-releases it every rainy season. Water contamination of local water supply resulted in fish kills and ruinous effects on farmland. A Human Rights Watch interview with Uche Onyeagocha, staff attorney, Civil Liberties Organisation (Port Harcourt), Washington, D.C., May 12, 1995, documented that members of minority groups in the Niger Delta, whose land is the source of over 90% of Nigeria's oil, especially opposed the prevailing revenue allocation formula, under which the federal, state, and local governments had almost complete discretion over the distribution of oil proceeds. 80% of Nigeria's federal government revenue comes from this resource rich region. The World Bank estimates this accrues to only 1% of the general population. The Ogoni people will make representation to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to the effect that giving loans and credit to the Nigerian Government on the understanding that oil money will be used to repay such loans is to encourage the Nigerian government to continue to dehumanise the Ogoni people and to devastate the environment and ecology of the Ogoni and other delta minorities among whom oil is found. The Ogoni people will inform the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity that the Nigerian Constitution and the actions of the power elite in Nigeria flagrantly violate the UN Declaration of Human Rights and the African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights; and that Nigeria in 1992 is no different from Apartheid South Africa. The Ogoni people will ask that Nigeria be duly chastised by both organizations for its inhuman actions and uncivilized behaviour. And if Nigeria persists in its perversity, then it should be expelled from both organizations. —Ogoni Bill of Rights Former World Bank Vice-President for Africa, Dr. Oby Ezekwesili, gave an estimation of $400 billion of Nigeria's oil revenue that was stolen or misspent from 1960 to 1999. Around 70% of the oil revenues were estimated by a Nigerian anti-corruption agency to have been wasted or lost to corruption. The Nuhu Ribadu led Task Force on Oil Revenue, produced a 146-page study covering 2002–2011. The report validated that "Nigeria lost out on tens of billions of dollars in oil and gas revenues over that decade from cut price deals struck between multinational oil companies and government officials cut-price gas, while Nigerian oil ministers handed out licenses at their own discretion. The report alleges international oil traders sometimes buy crude without any formal contracts, and the state oil firm had short-changed the Nigerian treasury billions over the last 10 years by selling crude oil and gas to itself below market rates." The Ribadu report also noted in a ten-year span: "The estimated cumulative of the deficit between value obtainable on the international market and what is currently being obtained from NLNG, over the 10 year period, amounts to approximately $29 billion." Shell Oil's Greenwashing efforts prompted Friends of the Earth Europe, on May 8, 2007, to file simultaneous complaints in three European countries to the national advertising standards authorities of Belgium, the Netherlands, and the UK about Shell's advertisements that depicted the outline of an oil refinery emitting flowers rather than smoke and claimed that it uses its "waste CO2 to grow flowers and [its] waste sulphur to make concrete". Shell Oil has maintained that the issues of pollution of the Niger Delta is brought about by illegal refining of crude oil, sabotage and theft of oil field infrastructure. Research by Amnesty International, CEHRD and Friends of the Earth provide examples of cases where Shell claimed the cause of a spill was sabotage, but this claim was subsequently called into question by other investigations or the courts. This evidence, which includes video footage of an oil spill investigation where the cause of the spill was changed, by Shell, from "equipment failure" to "sabotage, following the field investigation, has been shared with Shell. Under Nigerian law the operating company is responsible for cleaning up oil spills from its facilities, even if the spill is the result of third-party action. Therefore, the human and environmental impact of Shell's failure to properly clean up pollution cannot be defended by reference to illegal activity that, allegedly, caused the oil spills. Because of the oil-related suffering of the Ogoni people, governmental neglect, lack of social services, and political marginalization, these concerns were placed in the context of Ogonis as "a separate and distinct ethnic nationality". On this basis they sought autonomy, environmental protection, control of a fair share of the revenues from their resources, and cultural rights (such as the use of their local languages). History In 1970, Ogoni Chiefs and Elders of the Ogoni Divisional Commission (W. Nzidee, F. Yowika, N. Ndegwe, E. Kobani, O. Nalelo, Chief A. Ngei and O. Ngofa), submitted a petition to the local Military Governor as a formal complaint against Shell, then operating a joint venture with BP. It brought notice that the company was "seriously threatening the well-being, and even the very lives" of the Ogoni. Shell's response was that the petition was an attempt to place development and other responsibilities on the company and that the "contentions ... bear little relation to what is actually taking place". In July, there was a major blow-out at the Bomu oilfield in Ogoni, which continued for three weeks, causing widespread pollution and outrage. P. Badom, of the Dere Youths Association, issued a letter of protest citing: "Our rivers, rivulets and creeks are all covered with crude oil" wrote the Dere Youths Association, "We no longer breathe the natural oxygen, rather we inhale lethal and ghastly gases. Our water can no longer be drunk unless one wants to test the effect of crude oil on the body. We no longer use vegetables, they are all polluted." The Iko people wrote to Shell in 1980 demanding "compensation and restitution of our rights to clean air, water and a viable environment where we can source for our means of livelihood". In 1987, when the Iko once again held a peaceful demonstration against Shell, the notorious Mobile Police Force (MPF), locally known as "kill-and-go" was called, and 40 houses were destroyed, with 350 people made homeless by the MPF's attack. In August 1990, the Ogoni elders signed the Ogoni Bill of Rights, which rang for "political control of Ogoni affairs by Ogoni people, control and use of Ogoni economic resources for Ogoni development, adequate and direct representation as of right for Ogoni people in all Nigerian national institutions, and the right to protect the Ogoni environment and ecology from further degradation". MOSOP was the outgrowth of these protest demonstrations in the Delta. Goodluck Diigbo, a journalist, was the National President of the National Youth Council of Ogoni People, NYCOP. Saro-Wiwa had charged him with the responsibility of establishing seven of the ten affiliates that made up MOSOP. Before the affiliates came into being, Ken Saro-Wiwa who initiated the idea of MOSOP had attracted a mix of educated Ogoni elites and chiefs, including its first president Dr. Garrick Barile Leton. Chief E. N. Kobani became vice president of MOSOP. MOSOP succeeded in organizing its first efforts with the 1990 Ogoni Bill of Rights addressed to the Government of the Federal Republic and the People of Nigeria, General Ibrahim Babangida, the former military president of Nigeria and members of the Armed Forces Ruling Council, but received no reply to its demands for autonomy. The Ogoni lists their concerns: political autonomy to participate in the affairs of the Republic as a distinct and separate unit (by whatever name called), provided that this autonomy guarantees political control of Ogoni affairs by Ogoni people; the right to control and use a fair proportion of Ogoni economic resources for Ogoni development; adequate representations, as of right, in all Nigerian national institutions, and the right to protect the Ogoni environment and ecology from further degradation. The Niger Delta was brought to international attention with the protest at Shell's facility in the Umuechem community of Etche, east of Port Harcourt, Rivers State on October 30 and 31, 1990. Shell specifically requested the presence of the MPF. This incident saw approximately 80 unarmed demonstrators killed and the destruction and severe damage of 495 houses by the Nigerian Mobile Police. Early 1990s and The Ogoni Crises 1992 July 1992 – Saro-Wiwa addresses the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Peoples in Geneva. Early December 1992 – The conflict escalated to a level of greater seriousness and intensity on both sides. It was in this phase of the conflict that overt violence was applied on the large scale by the Nigerian government. In December 1992, MOSOP sent its demands to SPDC, Chevron, and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, along with an ultimatum to pay back royalties and compensation within thirty days or quit Ogoniland. The collision course between the two parties was set with an ultimatum to the oil companies (Shell, Chevron, and the Nigerian National Petroleum Company), which demanded some $10 billion in accumulated royalties, damages and compensation, and "immediate stoppage of environmental degradation", and negotiations for mutual agreement on all future drilling. If the companies failed to comply, the Ogonis threatened to embark on mass action to disrupt their operations. By this act, the Ogonis shifted the focus of their actions from an unresponsive federal government to oil companies actively engaged in their own region. The bases for this assignment of responsibility were the vast profits accrued by the oil companies from extracting the natural wealth of the Ogoni homeland, none of which were trickling down to the Ogoni. 1993 January 4 – The national government responded by banning public gatherings and declaring that disturbances of oil production were acts of treason. In spite of the ban, MOSOP went ahead with a massive public mobilization on January 4, 1993. The event, called the first Ogoni Day, attracted about 300,000 people in massive festivities. Over the next month as the mobilization continued, one Shell employee (out of thousands) was beaten by an Ogoni mob. As a security measure, Shell Petroleum Development Company withdrew its employees from Ogoniland. This action had very mixed consequences. Oil extraction from the territory has slowed to a trickle of (.5% of the national total). However, because the withdrawal was a temporary security measure, it provided the government with a compelling reason to "restore order": resume the flows of oil from Ogoniland and of oil money to national coffers. February 15–16, 18 – Shell International advisors meet with the Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) in London and the Hague to consider strategies for countering the "possibility that internationally organized protest could develop" over Shell's activities in Ogoni. April 18 – Ken Saro-Wiwa, chairman of the resistance group "Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP)", is held by the Nigerian State Security Service at Port Harcourt Airport for 16 hours without charges, is released, but then arrested 5 days later. April 30 – Construction work on Shell's Rumuekpe-Bomu Pipeline destroys freshly planted Ogoni farmland sparking a peaceful demonstration of approximately 10,000 Ogoni villagers. Nigerian Federal government soldiers open fire on the crowd of demonstrators, wounding at least 10. May 1 – Mass demonstrations along Bori Road against the pipeline construction continue. Shell decides to withdraw American workers and equipment. May 3 – Agbarator Otu is shot and killed by members of the Nigerian military while protesting work on the pipeline at Nonwa. May 16 – Saro-Wiwa has his passport seized while trying to leave for London. May 18 – Amnesty International issues an Urgent Action concerning the extra judicial killing of Otu and the Nigerian government's use of force against peaceful Ogoni protests. May 24 – Saro-Wiwa begins a European tour and succeeds in drawing attention to the struggle of the Ogoni people. Shell responds to the international attention and is "happy to discuss these matters further...." June 12 – Presidential elections are boycotted by the Ogoni. A ruptured pipeline begins to spray oil in Bunu Tai, Ogoni land. Forty days later, the flow is yet to be stopped. Saro-Wiwa is prevented from traveling to the UN conference in Vienna by Nigerian SSS, and his passport is seized. June 21 – Saro-Wiwa and other MOSOP officials are arrested. June 22 – Ogoni people march in Bori, in protest against MOSOP arrests. In reaction, Federal government soldiers are moved from Port Harcourt and stationed in Bori. Indiscriminate beatings and arrests of Ogoni people by "heavy[ily] armed and unfriendly Nigerian soldiers and police" are frequent. June 30 – Amnesty International issues a Fast Action concerning Saro-Wiwa. July 9 – At least 60 Ogoni people are killed, allegedly by Andoni, when arriving back from the Cameroon Republic by boat. This "incident" marks the beginning of Ogoni-Andoni violence. Mid-July – Saro-Wiwa is moved to a hospital and later released on bail, but charges still stand. August 5 – Kaa is the first village attacked in the Andoni-Ogoni conflict, resulting in 33 deaths and 8,000 refugees. Over the coming months, similar incidents occur in over 20 other villages. MOSOP accuses Shell of being behind the Andoni-Ogoni violence. August 31 – MOSOP leaders are summoned to Abuja for a meeting with the Interim government, installed by former head of state Babangida after the annulment of the June 12 election results. This is the first time that the Nigerian government officially discussed the situation in Ogoniland with MOSOP. Beginning September – Saro-Wiwa, Senator Birabi, and representatives of the Rivers State Security Council visit the destroyed village of Kaa and urge Governor Ada George to take measures to curb Andoni-Ogoni violence. Meetings are arranged between Andoni and Ogoni leaders and government representatives. This leads to the creation of a Peace Committee, headed by Professor Claude Ake. September 15 – General Sani Abacha promises Saro-Wiwa that Federal troops will be sent to Ogoniland to help curb Andoni-Ogoni violence. October 6 – A Peace Agreement is signed concerning the Ogoni-Andoni troubles, but without the signature of Saro-Wiwa, or the "consultation of the communities involved". October 17 – An oil spill at Korokoro oil fields in Ogoni, operated by Shell. Baritonle Kpormon is shot dead at a checkpoint in Bori by a Federal soldier who has been sent to ensure peace at the Ogoni-Andoni border; however Bori is not at the border. A MOSOP Steering Committee meeting accepts the Peace Agreement but for two paragraphs, and calls for a Judicial Commission of Inquiry to be installed by the Federal government. October 19 – Professor Ake, chairman of the Peace Conference, send a letter to Governor Ada George, stating that he does not agree with the Peace Agreement. According to him, it was drafted in haste and without proper consultation of the communities involved. October 23 – Two fire trucks from SPDC are seized at Korokoro by local inhabitants. October 25 – Three Ogoni men are shot at Korokoro oil fields by Federal government soldiers accompanying Shell workers who went back to retrieve the fire trucks. One man dies (Uebari Nna), and two are wounded (Pal Sunday and Mboo Ndike). November 17 – The interim government resigns. General Abacha becomes the new Nigerian head of state. December 13 – Governor Ada George is replaced by Lt. Col. Dauda Komo. Violent clashes between Ogoni and Okirika over crowded land at waterfronts, Port Harcourt. Over 90 people are reported dead, many more wounded. December 28 – Probably to prevent the start of the Ogoni Week, MOSOP leaders Dr. Owen Wiwa and Ledum Mitee, a lawyer, are arrested without being charged. The Ogoni Assembly is dispersed by Nigerian soldiers. Lt. Col. Komo states that Ogoni Week was aborted because MOSOP did not apply for a permit. 1994 January 2 – Saro-Wiwa is placed under house arrest. January 4 – Owen Wiwa and Ledum are released and Saro-Wiwa's house arrest is lifted. January 11 – A seven-member Commission of Inquiry is installed by the Rivers State government to investigate Ogoni-Okirika clashes, and starts public sittings in Port Harcourt. January 20 – A three-member ministerial team starts a two-day tour of Rivers State to investigate the hostilities between the communities there, as part of a general inquiry of community clashes. The Nigerian government is especially worried about troubles in oil-producing areas. January 21 – A $500 million contract is signed in Port Harcourt between Shell Nigeria and ABB Global Engineering UK, allowing the latter to collect gas from 10 flow stations in Rivers State. January 24 – The three major oil companies in Port Harcourt estimate to have lost over $200 million during 1993, due to "unfavorable conditions in their areas of operation", and call for urgent measures to combat the situation. April – A memo was sent from Komo to Okuntimo, entitled "Restoration of Law and Order in Ogoniland" It gave details for an extensive military presence in Ogoni, drawing resources from the army, air force, navy, and police, including both the Mobile Police Force and conventional units. In a move meant to facilitate the reopening of oil installations, one of the missions of this operation was to ensure that those "carrying out business ventures ... within Ogoniland are not molested". Saro-Wiwa, commenting on the memo above, said: "This is it – they are going to arrest us all and execute us. All for Shell." The following month Okuntimo sent a "restricted" memo back to Komo remarking, "Shell operations still impossible unless ruthless military operations are undertaken for smooth economic activities to commence." To counter this, Okuntimo recommended: "Wasting operations during MOSOP and other gatherings making constant military presence justifiable." Beginning April – A small conflict between Ogoni and Okoloma leads to serious clashes; Lt. Col. Komo is reported to have said that soldiers have been directed to deal with aggressive communities, and if necessary shoot trouble makers. Fifteen Ogoni people are arrested without being charged, including Dr. Wiwa. On May 21, 1994, four Ogoni chiefs (all on the conservative side of a schism within MOSOP over strategy) were murdered. Saro-Wiwa, head of the opposing faction, had been denied entry to Ogoniland on the day of the murders, but was then detained in connection with the killings. Rivers State Military Administrator Lt. Col. Dauda Komo did not wait for a judicial investigation to blame the killings on "irresponsible and reckless thuggery of the MOSOP element". Led by Major Paul Okuntimo of Rivers State Internal Security, who claimed to be "searching for those directly responsible for the killings of the four Ogonis", witnesses say that they engaged in terror operations against the general Ogoni population. Amnesty International characterized the policy as deliberate terrorism. By mid-June, 30 villages had been completely destroyed, 600 people had been detained, and at least 40 had been killed. An eventual total of around 100,000 internal refugees and an estimated 2,000 civilian deaths was recorded. Mid 1990s and the Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni Nine Ken Saro-Wiwa, N. G. Dube and Kobari Nwilewas were arrested in Port Harcourt in Rivers State in southern Nigeria on June 21, 1993. Following their arrest, Ken Saro-Wiwa, N. G. Dube and Kobari Nwile were first transferred to Lagos, then to Owerri in Imo State and finally to Port Harcourt where they are currently in prison. The three were charged on 13 July 1993 under the Criminal Code of Eastern Nigeria in connection with their activities on behalf of the Ogoni community. Charges on six counts relating to unlawful assembly, seditious intention and seditious publication. Bail was not set and all three remanded in custody until September 20. On June 11, Saro-Wiwa's passport was confiscated at Lagos airport, preventing him from traveling to Vienna to represent MOSOP at the United Nations World Conference on Human Rights. On November 10, 1995, nine activists from the movement, Barinem Kiobel, John Kpunien, Baribor Bera, Saturday Dobee, Felix Nwate, Nordu Eawo, Paul Levura, and Daniel Gbokoo along with playwright and Nobel Peace Prize nominee Ken Saro-Wiwa, were hanged 10 days after being convicted by the Nigerian government on charges of "incitement to murder" of the four Ogoni leaders. In the final address to the military-appointed tribunal, Saro-Wiwa concludes the responsibility of Shell Corporation and its actions as war crimes against the Ogoni People: I repeat that we all stand before history. I and my colleagues are not the only ones on trial. Shell is here on trial and it is as well that it is represented by counsel said to be holding a watching brief. The Company has, indeed, ducked this particular trial, but its day will surely come and the lessons learnt here may prove useful to it for there is no doubt in my mind that the ecological war that the Company has waged in the Delta will be called to question sooner than later and the crimes of that war be duly punished. The crime of the Company's dirty wars against the Ogoni people will also be punished. Excerpt from: An anonymous interview revealed a first hand telling of that day and the events that took place; “Everywhere was quiet and then on the morning of May 21st ... as we woke up in the morning most of the Ogoni communities were filled with soldiers and mobile policemen armed with sophisticated weapons. We don’t (sic) know why they just came, it was only when four prominent Ogoni sons were killed later in the afternoon of that day that we inOgoni ever knew that there was a grand design to cause disturbances in Ogoni in order to create an excuse for the government to send in more troops” His death provoked international outrage and the immediate suspension of Nigeria from the Commonwealth of Nations as well as the calling back of many foreign diplomats for consultation. According to the Nigerian Medical Association's President, these were the fastest executions in the West African nation's history. Nigerian human rights activists and opposition groups had longed urged the Commonwealth and the United States to impose economic sanctions on the Nigerian government. This they argued was the opportune time to "turn the screws on" Nigeria's military government by boycotting its oil. The United States, which buys half of Nigeria's oil, declined through a press statement. Compelling new evidence suggests the Nigerian military killed four Ogoni elders whose murders led to the execution of the playwright and activist Ken Saro-Wiwa in 1995. The evidence also reveals that the notorious military commander Lieutenant-Colonel Paul Okuntimo, whose troops were implicated in other crimes, was in the pay of Shell at the time of the killings and was driven around in a Shell vehicle. 1997-present On January 4, 1998, Ogoni national day, the Rivers State Internal Security Task Force (RVISTF), arrests dozens of activists and raided several villages. Saro-Wiwa vs. Shell On November 10, 2014, MOSOP President Legborsi Saro Pyagbara, at the 19th anniversary commemoration of the "Ogoni Martyrs" held in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, called on the federal government to clear the late activist, Ken Saro-Wiwa, and the other nine Ogoni people executed by General Sani Abacha's government for murder. Pyagbara recalled that the UN, which monitored the trial of Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni Nine, observed that the returned verdict did not follow any known local or international standard. See also Ken Saro-Wiwa Environmental issues in the Niger Delta Petroleum industry in Niger Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Shell Co. Niger Delta Conflicts Conflict in the Niger Delta Shell to Sea Third World Approaches to International Law References External links Memorial Events for Tenth Anniversary of November 10 Executions The Ogoni Crisis: A Case-Study of Military Repression in Southeastern Nigeria 1990 establishments in Nigeria Fossil fuels in Nigeria History of Nigeria Ken Saro-Wiwa Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization Niger River Delta Ogoni people Organizations established in 1990 Political movements in Nigeria Political organizations based in Nigeria Secessionist organizations Separatism in Nigeria Social movements in Nigeria Peace movement in Nigeria

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Missundaztood is the second studio album by American singer-songwriter Pink. It was released on November 20, 2001, by Arista Records. After the commercial breakthrough of her 2000 debut album Can't Take Me Home, Pink became frustrated and dissatisfied with the lack of creative control and being marketed as a white R&B singer. Aspiring to pursue a rawer rock-inspired musical direction, she started working on the album with Linda Perry after unwittingly discovering her phone number in her makeup artist's phone book. Rather than rely on trendy producers, Pink decided to collaborate with producers and artists who were inspiring to her, enlisting help from Dallas Austin, Damon Elliott, Marti Frederiksen, and Scott Storch. The album also features guest appearances from Perry, Scratch, Steven Tyler, and guitarist Richie Supa. Production for the album took place at various recording studios during 2001. Pink was more involved in the songwriting on the record, drawing on individual experiences and vulnerabilities. The resulting music features introspective themes of personal insecurities, loneliness, self-identity, and family problems. Departing from the upbeat R&B production of her previous album, Missundaztood is a pop rock record. It comprises sounds from a wide range of other genres, including blues, metal, hip hop, new wave, and disco. Prior to the album's release, Pink had a conflict with her record label for more artistic freedom. Initially, they rejected her new musical approach, fearing that her sharp abandonment of R&B music would result in a commercial failure and losing her fanbase. To further promote the album, Pink made televised performances and embarked on the Party Tour in 2002. Missundaztood was supported by four singles, three of which peaked inside the top 10 of the US Billboard Hot 100: "Get the Party Started", "Don't Let Me Get Me", and "Just Like a Pill". The record was a worldwide commercial success, reaching number one in Ireland and the top five of albums charts in Austria, Germany, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It was certified five-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and received multi-platinum certifications in other countries. As of April 2012, the album has sold 13 million copies worldwide, becoming Pink's highest-selling album. A critical success, Missundaztood was viewed as a vast progression from Can't Take Me Home and an artistic breakthrough for Pink. The album was lauded by most music critics for its emotional depth and blending of styles, while others appreciated Pink's vocal performances and songwriting. At the 45th Annual Grammy Awards, Missundaztood was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album. In retrospect, critics praised Pink for her reinvention and taking more creative control, while considering the album distinguished and remarkable. Background In April 2000, Pink released her debut studio album, Can't Take Me Home, through LaFace Records. It is an R&B and dance-pop record with hip-hop influences. The album, which was produced by L.A. Reid and Babyface, was a commercial success and sold over three million copies worldwide. Nonetheless, Can't Take Me Home had a mixed critical reception; many critics affirmed that the album's sound was too similar to that of American girl groups Destiny's Child and TLC. Despite the album's success, Pink felt unsatisfied and constricted by the lack of creative control and being marketed to a teen audience as an R&B singer. In an interview with MTV News published in October 2000, Pink's father, Jim Moore, said she was interested in experimenting and showcasing her versatility on her forthcoming album. Pink sought to create an album that would be reflective of the musical influences she grew up with, resembling the music of Annie Lennox and Method Man. Writing and recording Sessions with Linda Perry During a photo shoot for Teen in the spring of 2001, Pink stumbled upon the phone book of her makeup artist, Billy Brasfield. She discovered the number of Linda Perry, the lead singer of former American alternative rock band 4 Non Blondes. While growing up, Pink cited Bigger, Better, Faster, More! (1992) as one of her favorite albums and referred to Perry as her "childhood idol". Thus, Pink stole the number and called her, leaving a 10-minute message on Perry's answering machine. According to Pink, the message was about "how much I loved [Perry] and how she owes me because I got arrested singing her music out of my window at 3:30 in the morning, and how I'm gonna stalk her if she doesn't return my call". A few minutes later, Perry called Pink back and invited her to her house in Los Angeles. When Pink proposed to write a song with Perry, she was initially reluctant to do so. In an interview with San Francisco Chronicle, Perry explained, "I told [Pink] 'I'm not hip at all. I make low-fi, garage-sounding classic rock records'", to which Pink responded, "I know — that's what I want". Afterward, Pink drove to meet Perry. The recording sessions of Missundaztood commenced at Perry's home studio with her sitting at the piano and asking Pink to express her feelings in a melody. Pink felt in the beginning "petrified" and confused, being used to a different creative process. As Perry began to play chords over a rough instrumental, Pink picked up a microphone and started to ad-lib. In approximatively five minutes, "Eventually" was the first song they had written and recorded together. Its lyrics were improvised and Pink's vocals were recorded in a single take. Perry described the song's creation as emotional, helping Pink to feel comfortable and understood during the recording process. A week before meeting Pink, Perry worked on a song titled "Get the Party Started". Unfamiliar with new music technology, Perry decided to call a friend and ask him about it. She then purchased the equipment, including a Korg Triton synthesizer, an Akai MPC, a TASCAM DA-88 recorder, and Roland expansion cards. Perry had originally no goal in mind and was "just figuring out what all [that] stuff does". She programmed her first beat and made extensive use of a bass guitar, a horn sample, and looping "weird chords and sounds". Perry finished the song by including "every catch phrase you possibly could imagine", before laughing at the realization that she had written her first dance song. Aware of its commercial appeal, Perry offered "Get the Party Started" to Madonna, but was rejected. Soon after the sessions of Missundaztood began, Perry brought the song to Pink's attention, who agreed to record it. Pink moved into Perry's home for several months. The pair intended to write 25 songs for the album and spent their time "kicking around ideas". The sessions at Perry's home studio yielded approximately 20 tracks completed in a month and a half. Introspection and emotional discovery became the emphases of the sessions. Working with Perry was an essential factor in Pink's decision to take artistic control of the record. Pink sought to abandon the R&B "marketing concept" present on Can't Take Me Home, and rather capture reflections on her past, vulnerabilities, and insecurities. She considered the album's creation to be "amazing, liberating, inspiring" and felt as though she and Perry had "five years of friendship in six months". Concerning her working relationship with Pink, Perry remarked, "What happened was that we were able to open up to each other ... she completely abandoned what she was told she was supposed to be, and just became Alecia Moore". Other collaborations Pink was introduced to Dallas Austin in 1996, after being signed to LaFace. Austin generally disapproved of Pink's R&B direction, and sessions for Can't Take Me Home were ultimately unproductive. Nevertheless, Pink was keen on working with Austin again on her forthcoming album. The two pursued a pop rock sound, and the material they had written instantly took an autobiographical form. Austin co-wrote and produced four songs on Missundaztood: "18 Wheeler", "Don't Let Me Get Me", "Just Like a Pill", and "Numb", all of which are characterized by self-analytical introspective lyrics. Austin encouraged Pink to be more daring in the songwriting process, as he commented, "when you're writing songs, you're not just writing a song, you're helping craft the attitude". Pink worked with Scott Storch on "Family Portrait", a song that originated as a poem Pink wrote at the age of nine. The track observes her parents' divorce and growing up in a dysfunctional family. Reflecting on these themes, Pink acknowledged how affected her life was and decided to express her suffering through a song. "It makes me sad, but it also helped release some of my feelings", she explains. "Pain is not always a bad thing. It can be a learning thing". Another collaborator was Steven Tyler, the lead singer of the American rock band Aerosmith. One of her musical inspirations, Pink met Tyler at a radio show in New York. They bonded quickly and planned to record a song together. "Misery" was written by Richie Supa and co-produced with Marti Frederiksen. Tyler brought the song to Pink, who loved it and went on to record it as a duet. Pink described the collaboration as "an experience of a lifetime". Record label dispute Pink had begun working with Perry on Missundaztood without the knowledge of her record label. After a few sessions, the singer played four songs for Reid, including "Get the Party Started". Although regarding the latter a distinct lead single choice, Reid rejected most of the material. Two weeks later, he and Pink held a meeting in Miami. Reid was originally concerned that Pink was departing remarkably from her R&B sound, hence alienating her audience who was expecting another album in the vein of Can't Take Me Home. Pink's desire for more creative control was also met with some resistance, as she was still a new artist. However, Reid failed to persuade Pink to record R&B songs. After a strenuous dispute, he reconsidered his decision and gave Pink "the opportunity to fail". Once Missundaztood took definite form, Reid felt the completed album was a "masterpiece", adding, "there was no doubt that it would be a huge record". Pink discussed the danger of transcending musical genres with Los Angeles Times, saying: "I knew the risk involved. I'd seen artists change styles and fail miserably, but I've also seen artists change and continue to do well. That's why Madonna has always been an inspiration for me. I told him I had faith in my ability and I was willing to take the chance. And I have so much respect for [Reid] because he turned around during that meeting. By the end, he said, 'OK, let's do it'." Musical style Missundaztood is a radical departure from the upbeat R&B stylings of Pink's debut album. Instead, it encompasses a stylistic amalgam and features an eclectic mix of musical styles. According to Ed Condran of The Philadelphia Inquirer, the music on Missundaztood incorporates a variety of music genres from pop, rock, and disco, to R&B, blues, and hip hop. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic summed up the album's musical influences as "late-'80s, metal-spiked album rock, modern hip-hop and dance" with a noticeable "dazzling modern pop production". E! Online asserted that the album draws particularly from "'80s new wave, alternative rock, unashamed radio pop, and R&B". MTV News journalist Jennifer Schonborn said its fusion of styles possesses a "strangely" coherent quality. In the opinion of music writer Paul Lester, the diverse musical textures of Missundaztood "shouldn't have fit together, but defied all odds and did." Kate Sullivan from Spin viewed Pink's direction as "a rebellion against the producer-driven machinery that created her 2000 debut, Can't Take Me Home". Songs on the album are characterized by a "harder, edgier, rock sound". PopMatters Jason Thompson writes that the production on "Missundaztood" melds "a funky ass bass line" with "some simple electric rhythm guitar and a spare synth line". "Don't Let Me Get Me" and "Just Like a Pill" are prominently driven by rock-influenced electric guitars. "Get the Party Started" features vocodered vocals and elements of dance-pop and new wave genres. The sixth track on the record, "18 Wheeler", has been noted by critics for its arena rock influences and rock instrumentation. Pink sings over a pop-R&B instrumentation that melds a "snare" piano and strings on "Family Portrait". The blues rock ballad "Misery" incorporates "gritty" vocals and a guitar solo played by Bon Jovi's Richie Sambora. It is followed by "Dear Diary", which consists of a trip hop beat. "Numb" is an electropop song with grunge metal elements which, according to Lester, resemble the music of the American rock band Nirvana. The last track on Missundaztood, "My Vietnam", is a rock and neofolk ballad set against an acoustic guitar played by Perry. Towards the end of the song, a sonic interpolation of Jimi Hendrix's "Star Spangled Banner" is heard. Lyrics and themes The lyrics on Missundaztood explore personal topics such as self-identity, loneliness, family issues, self-doubt, and rebellion. The album title refers to Pink's feeling of being constantly misunderstood by people. She explained: "I say the wrong things, I tell the truth, which tends to get me in trouble, and I'm a very eclectic person, so I feel that's misunderstood, as well." ABC News interprets the album to be "a guidebook to teenage angst told through the excruciating detail of Pink's childhood". Todd Burns of Stylus Magazine said the singer "emerges as a conflicted and deeply troubled artist that is unafraid to confront her demons". The album's subjects were summarized by music journalist Greg Kot as "autobiographical tunes that balance vulnerability with toughness". Sadie Jo Smokey from The Arizona Republic compared the record's content with early 1990s music, "when women sang about issues and experiences". In the opinion of The Michigan Daily journalist Devon Thomas, the introspective lyrics on Missundaztood reveal "a surprising sense of vulnerability". The title track is an "optimistic and spunky" song. On "Don't Let Me Get Me", Pink describes her feelings of inadequacy and self-hatred. According to Kot, the song can be interpreted as "[Pink's] own abjection as a teenager who never found a peer group to belong to". The song's narrative also explores Pink's frustrations with the music industry, with lyrics such as, "L.A. told me, 'You'll be a pop star/All you have to change is everything you are.'/Tired of being compared to damn Britney Spears/She's so pretty, that just ain't me". Thompson describes it as an attempt "to break free from the image making machine". The next song, "Just Like a Pill", uses drug references as a metaphor for unhealthy relationships. The track also explores themes of substance abuse and personal insecurities. "Get the Party Started" deviates significantly from the introspective themes of the album, suggesting "a fun, independent woman emerging to take charge". "Respect" features a female empowerment message. On "18 Wheeler", Pink discusses taking abuse, before assuring that "nothing will keep her down". Among other themes, family struggles are expressed on "Family Portrait". The song's emotive lyrics describe the tempestuous relationship of Pink's parents and their divorce. On "Lonely Girl", Perry asks Pink questions such as, "Do you even know who you are?/Do you even know what you have?" Schonborn asserted that Pink faces difficulties in answering and sounds "fraught with uncertainty and doubt". The lyrics of "Dear Diary" detail feeling disillusioned and abandoned, while "Numb" deals with suffering from a defunct relationship. It is followed by "Gone to California", a socially-minded track featuring introspective expressions of society. Missundaztood closes with "My Vietnam", which examines Pink's self-discovery. The lyrics include references to her father's military service in the Vietnam War and its aftermath on his and the singer's life. Lester notes that the song uses "the image of battle as a metaphor for [Pink's] turbulent upbringing". Marketing and sales Missundaztood was released on November 20, 2001, through Arista Records. The record was released in several European countries on January 28, 2002, with a different track list order and the bonus track "Catch-22". The deluxe edition was released on November 26, 2002. It includes the standard version of the album on CD, and a DVD comprising the music videos for "Family Portrait" and "Don't Let Me Get Me", and two live performances of "Numb" and "Family Portrait" at Scala, in London. The album was released on vinyl for the first time in October 2017. Four singles were released from the album—"Get the Party Started" on October 16, 2001, "Don't Let Me Get Me" on February 18, 2002, "Just Like a Pill" on June 10, and "Family Portrait" on September 16. All singles peaked within the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100, with the first three peaking inside the top 10. Missundaztood was promoted by Pink's awards shows performances at the Billboard Music Awards, the Kids' Choice Awards, the MTV Asia Awards, and the MTV Video Music Awards. Pink also made television appearances and performed on shows including the Late Show with David Letterman, Saturday Night Live, and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Further promotional efforts in Europe included performances on Wetten, dass..? and at the MTV Europe Music Awards. In support of the album, Pink embarked in 2002 on her first headlining tour, the Party Tour. In the week of December 8, 2001, the album debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart, selling 220,000 copies. It ultimately peaked at number six on January 26, 2002, and spent a total of 90 weeks on the chart. Missundaztood was the sixth-best-selling album of 2002 in the United States, with sales of 3.1 million copies. On October 22, 2003, the album was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of five million units in the US. In Canada, Missundaztood peaked at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified quintuple platinum by Music Canada (MC) for shipments of 500,000 copies. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart. Almost a year after its release, in the week of January 18, 2003, the album peaked at number two, behind Avril Lavigne's Let Go. As of February 2021, the album had sold 1.86 million copies in the UK and has been certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The album's highest international charting was number one in Ireland, topping the Irish Albums chart in the week ending January 9, 2003. Missundaztood peaked within the top five of albums charts in Scotland (number two); Austria, New Zealand, Norway (number four); and Germany, Iceland, and the Netherlands (number five). It received multi-platinum certifications in Germany, Switzerland (double platinum); Australia and New Zealand (quadruple platinum). As of April 2012, the album had sold 13 million copies worldwide, becoming Pink's highest-selling album. Critical reception Missundaztood was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 72, based on 15 reviews. The Tampa Tribunes Cloe Cabrera described the album as "an edgy, rock-driven set", applauding its focus on expressing themes of "loneliness, family discord and [Pink's] refusal to fit in". Erlewine commended the album's mixture of "bewildering" sounds and attitudes with painful subjects, adding that "there hasn't been a record in the mainstream this vibrant or this alive in a long, long time". Thomas was impressed by Pink's "heartfelt and revealing" lyrics, as well as her "assured and confident" vocals, concluding that Missundaztood is "an introspective charmer that shows the promise and versatility evident in a young and rising star." Smokey remarked that Missundaztood eschews the "slick pop-R&B diva image" of Can't Take Me Home in favor of a rock direction and sound. Writing for Billboard, Rashaun Hall called the record "a rock-fused, hook-friendly set", citing "Numb" and "Lonely Girl" as instances that showcase Pink's versatility. Thompson saw the album's appeal as being that it "covers such a wide array of style and substance" and highlighted Pink's songwriting. Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian viewed the record as "an unusually three-dimensional picture of growing up in a broken home" and found it "surprisingly good". Reviewing for The Boston Globe, Keri Callahan praised the album for its honest lyrics and catchiness that "echoes optimism and survival". In Entertainment Weekly, Jim Farber said that, in comparison to Alanis Morissette's Jagged Little Pill (1995), Missundaztood "captures girlish confusion with greater accuracy and delight". He further commented that Pink sounds "like Cyndi Lauper's long lost stepsister". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the album's diverse sound which "differentiates [Pink] from the pop pack". He asserted that Pink's vulnerability is "striking and seemingly more authentic" compared to Can't Take Me Home. In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau regarded the portrayal of "credible personal pain rooted in credible family travails" as "a next step for a genre I never thought would take one". Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield called the album "the teen-pop In Utero" and appreciated Pink's self-expressive songwriting. Other reviewers expressed less enthusiastic assessments. Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols unfavorably compared Missundaztood to Can't Take Me Home, referring to the "tendency to sound vaguely familiar". Alex Pappademas of Blender wrote: "Pink sees herself as a singer whose talent defies boundaries, but the melodic shortcomings of Missundaztood show that those eye-popping videos aside, she's no Madonna." NMEs Jim Alexander rated the record 1.5 out of 5 stars and criticized its content overall. Accolades Missundaztood received industry nominations for Album of the Year at the 2002 Billboard Music Awards, Best Album at the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards, Favorite Pop/Rock Album at the 2003 American Music Awards, and Best International Album at the 23rd Brit Awards. At the 45th Annual Grammy Awards in 2003, Missundaztood was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album, while its single "Get the Party Started" also earned a nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Impact and legacy The release of Missundaztood coincided with a period of declining popularity of teen pop music. Sia Michel from Spin credited the success of the album with the coming of age of former teen pop fans and their growing interest in different types of music. Writing for The Guardian, Dorian Lynskey similarly attributed Pink's newfound popularity to the "lucrative and untapped market" of "teenage girls who may have liked Britney three years ago but now have a taste for low-key rebellion, the Osbournes and boys with tattoos". Most critics praised the album for its musical departure from contemporary music and altering the industry's perception of Pink as an artist. Thompson hailed Missundaztood as bold and applauded Pink for "breaking away from the stereotypes and misconceptions regarding pop stars". Robert Hilburn, writing for Los Angeles Times, observed that Pink's reinvention and its potential commercial impact was initially questioned, but later considered "a move industry observers now applaud as brilliant". Idolators Jon Reyes remarked that Missundaztood "defied expectations both in sound and themes". Barry Walters of Rolling Stone cited it as one of "one of the most radical R&B to-rock transformations since Prince abandoned disco for a Dirty Mind [(1980)]". In her 2019 book White Negroes, Lauren Michele Jackson compared Pink's rebellious artistic transformation with Janet Jackson's Control (1986). She further stated that Pink's choice to leave the black-dominated R&B industry was able to "ultimately keep her apart from her peers". In a 2021 anniversary retrospective, Arielle Gordon of Stereogum asserted that Pink's opposition to her label's strong emphasis on remaining an R&B singer "somehow wrestled autonomy of her image and sound in an industry practically fueled by harnessing complete control of their young, primarily female stars." In a similar article, People editor Lanford Beard declared Missundaztood "a career-shaping album" which helped establish Pink as a "prolific creator of 'autobiographical songs filled with attitude'". Pink herself commented in a 2019 interview with Variety: "[Missundaztood] was a huge turning point in my life. But before it came out, I was being told that it's going to completely fail. Still, I was stoked to be given the opportunity to fail". The album's commercial success was pivotal in promoting the career of Perry as a songwriter. In subsequent years, she went on to write songs with Alicia Keys, Courtney Love, and Gwen Stefani, among others. Retrospectively, Perry recalled that her life "took a complete turn" after the release of Missundaztood and its lead single, "Get the Party Started". She added that working with Pink helped her discover that "helping artists with their vision is kind of cool". Christina Aguilera cited Missundaztood as a contributing factor to enlisting Perry as one of the collaborators for her fourth studio album, Stripped (2002). She further commented: "I wasn't a big fan of the Dallas Austin songs, but I really, really loved the Linda Perry songs. They had a really personal, real sense about them." Track listing Notes "Missundaztood" is stylized as "M!ssundaztood". Personnel Credits are adapted from album's liner notes. Studios The Enterprise; Burbank, California (recording: track 1, 7; mixing: track 1, 4–5, 7, 9–11, 13–14; saxophone, harmonica, organ recording: track 13) Pinetree Studios; Miami Beach, Florida (recording: track 2–3, 6, 12) DARP Studios; Atlanta, Georgia (recording: track 2, 6, 12) Larrabee Studios North; North Hollywood, California (mixing: track 2–3, 6, 12; additional recording: track 4) LP Studios; Sherman Oaks, California (recording: track 4–5, 9–11, 13–14) Sony Studios; Santa Monica, California (additional recording: track 5) Drive By Studios; North Hollywood, California (recording: track 8) MF Studios; Monrovia, California (mixing: track 8) Hit Factory Mastering; New York City (mastering) Musicians Linda Perry guitars (track 1), instruments (track 4–5, 10–11, 13–14), drum programming (track 4–5, 9–11), background vocals (track 11), bass, Rhodes piano, synthesizer, additional drum programming (track 13) Pink background vocals (track 1–6, 8–10, 12–14) Damon Elliott bass, piano (track 1), drum programming (track 1, 5, 13), saxophone, harmonica (track 13) Dallas Austin arrangement (track 2–3, 6, 12) Scratch beatbox (track 5) Steven Tyler background vocals (track 8) Richie Supa arrangement, guitar solo, strings arrangement (track 8) Marti Frederiksen arrangement, drums, bass, guitars, mellotron (track 8) Jim Cox B3 organ, piano (track 8) Wayne Hood keyboard, strings, strings arrangement, drums loop (track 8) Jimmy Z saxophone, harmonica (track 13) David Seigel organ (track 13) Technical Linda Perry writer, production (track 1, 4–5, 9–11, 13–14), recording (track 4–5, 9–11, 13–14) Pink writer (track 1–3, 5–7, 9–10, 12–14) Damon Elliott production (track 1, 5, 13), recording (track 1), organ recording (track 13) Dave "Hard Drive" Pensado mixing (track 1, 4–5, 7, 9–11, 13–14) Dave Guerrero assistant mixing (track 1, 4–5, 7, 9–11, 13–14) Dallas Austin writer, production (track 2–3, 6, 12) Carlton Lynn recording (track 2–3, 6, 12) Doug Harms assistant recording (track 2–3, 6, 12) Dave Way mixing (track 2, 6, 12) Tim LeBlanc assistant mixing (track 2, 6, 12) Rick Sheppard MIDI, sound design (track 2–3, 6, 12) Kevin "KD" Davis mixing (track 3) Bernd Burgdorf additional recording (track 4–5), Pro Tools programming (track 4–5, 9–10) Johnathan Merritt assistant additional recording (track 5) Scott Storch writer, production (track 7) Wassim Zreik recording (track 7) Oscar Ramirez recording (track 7) Richie Supa writer, production (track 8) Marti Frederiksen production (track 8) Richard Chychki recording (track 8) Herb Powers Jr. mastering Management & design Pink executive production Antonio "L.A." Reid executive production Kawan "KP" Prather A&R direction Celeste Moses A&R coordinator Christie LaRocque A&R coordinator Joe Mama-Nitzberg creative direction Jeff Schulz art direction, design Terry Richardson photography Patti Wilson stylist Alberto Guzman hairstyling Kristoff hair coloring Devra Kinery make-up Lee Taft director programming Donald Passman legal representation J. Eugene Saloman legal representation Jerome Levanthal business management Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Decade-end charts All-time charts Certifications and sales Release history See also List of best-selling albums by women List of best-selling albums of the 21st century List of number-one albums of 2003 (Ireland) List of best-selling albums of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom References Notes Citations Websites Chart positions and certifications Others Media notes Print sources Books Newspapers and magazines Cited literature 2001 albums Pink (singer) albums Albums produced by Dallas Austin Albums produced by Scott Storch Albums produced by Linda Perry Arista Records albums

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Latin American cuisine is the typical foods, beverages, and cooking styles common to many of the countries and cultures in Latin America. Latin America is a highly diverse area of land whose nations have varying cuisines. Some items typical of Latin American cuisine include maize-based dishes arepas, pupusas, tacos, tamales, tortillas and various salsas and other condiments (guacamole, pico de gallo, mole, chimichurri, chili, aji, pebre). Sofrito, a culinary term that originally referred to a specific combination of sautéed or braised aromatics, exists in Latin American cuisine. It refers to a sauce of tomatoes, roasted bell peppers, garlic, onions and herbs. Rice and beans are also staples in Latin American cuisine. Latin American beverages are just as distinct as their foods. Some of the beverages can even date back to the times of the Native Americans. Some popular beverages include coffee, mate, hibiscus tea, horchata, chicha, atole, cacao and aguas frescas. Desserts in Latin America are generally very sweet in taste. They include dulce de leche, alfajor, rice pudding, tres leches cake, teja and flan. Cultural influences Native American influence Information about Native American cuisine comes from a great variety of sources. Modern-day Native peoples retain a rich body of traditional foods, some of which have become iconic of present-day Native American social gatherings (for example, frybread). Foods like cornbread are known to have been adopted into the cuisine of the United States from Native American groups. In other cases, documents from the early periods of contact with European, African, and Asian peoples allow the recovery of food practices which passed out of popularity in the historic period (for example, black drink). Archaeological techniques, particularly in the subdisciplines of zooarchaeology and paleoethnobotany, have allowed for the understanding of other culinary practices or preferred foods which did not survive into the written historic record. The main crops Native Americans used in Mexico and Central America were corn and beans, which are used in contemporary dishes such as pupusas, tamales, pozole, chuchitos, and corn tortillas. The main Native American crops used by Natives of South America were potatoes, corn and chuño, used mainly in modern-day Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, Bolivian and Paraguayan dishes such as arepas, papa a la huancaína, humitas, chipa guasu, locro and many more. African influence Africans brought and preserved many of their traditions and cooking techniques. They were often given less desired cuts of meat, including shoulder and intestines. Menudo, for example, was derived from the habit of the Spaniards of giving the slaves cow's intestines. Enslaved Africans developed a way to clean the offal and season it to taste. African slaves in the southern United States did the same thing with pig's intestines, creating the dish known today as chitterlings. In South America, the scraps of food the landlords did not eat were combined to create new dishes that nowadays have been adopted into the cuisines of their respective nations (such as Peruvian tacu-tacu). European influence Europeans brought their culinary traditions, but quickly adapted several of the fruits and vegetables native to the Americas into their own cuisines. Europe itself has been influenced by other cultures, such as with the al-andalus in Spain, and thus their food was already a mix of their world. The European influence for many Latin American cuisine mainly comes from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and to a lesser extent France, although some influences from cuisines as diverse as British, German and Eastern European are also evident in some countries' cuisines such as Argentina and Uruguay, which have Italian cuisine as a main influence, with great Spanish, British, German, Russian, French, and Eastern European influence as well. Asian influence A wave of immigrants from Asia, such as China and Japan, also influenced the cuisine of Perú and Brazil. The Chinese brought with them their own spices and food-styles, something that the people of Latin America accepted into their tables. Not only that, but several Asian restaurants also adapted many Latin American food-styles into their own. This case can clearly be seen in the Peruvian chifa. Other countries in Latin America such as Uruguay and Argentina have adapted Armenian and Israeli cuisine due to mass immigration from those countries to Argentina and Uruguay. North America North American cuisine is a term used for foods native to or popular in countries of North America, as with Canadian cuisine, Cuisine of the United States, Cuisine of the Caribbean, Cuisine of Central America, and Cuisine of Mexico. It has influences from many international cuisines, including Native American cuisine and European cuisine. The cuisines of nearby Central America and the Caribbean region – sometimes grouped with the North American continent – may be considered part of North American cuisine in the technical sense that they are not assigned to their own continents. Caribbean Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of Amerindian, African and European cuisine. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created from this vast wealth of tradition many styles that are unique to the region. Seafood is one of the most common cuisine types in the islands, though this is certainly due in part to their location. Each island will likely have its own specialty. Some prepare lobster, while others prefer certain types of fish. For example, the island of Barbados is known for its "flying fish." Another Caribbean mainstay is rice, but the rice on each island may be a little different. Some season their rice, or add peas and other ingredients such as coconut. Sometimes the yellow rice is served as a side, but it is oftentimes part of a dish. Though it comes in many forms, it is a common side dish throughout the region. Cuba Cuban cuisine is a distinctive fusion of Spanish, African and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share their basic spice palette (cumin, oregano, and bay leaves) and preparation techniques with Spanish and African cooking. The black Caribbean rice influence is in the use of local foods such as tropical fruits, root vegetables, fish, etc. A small but noteworthy Chinese influence is the daily use of steamed white rice as the main carbohydrate in a traditional Cuban meal. Rice is essential to a Cuban meal. It is usually eaten during lunch and dinner almost every day. Unlike nearby Mexico and Central America which have tortillas in their cuisines, the only resemblance to the use of tortillas is with casave, dating from pre-Columbian indigenous times which is called Casave. This flatbread is produced by grinding yuca (cassava) root to form a paste which, when mixed with water, becomes a dough. This is lightly cooked as a flat circular disk and air-dried to preserve it for consumption for a later time. It is traditionally reconstituted in salt water and eaten with roasted pork. The other culinary curiosity is a regional dish consisting of a roasted rodent uniquely found in Cuba, jutia (Desmarest's hutia). Dominican Republic The cuisine of the Dominican Republic, much like its neighbors, is a fusion of Indigenous (Taino), Spanish, and African cuisines. All or nearly all food groups are accommodated in typical Dominican cuisine, as it incorporates meat or seafood; grains, especially rice, corn, and wheat; vegetables, such as beans and other legumes, potatoes, yuca, or plantains, and salad; dairy products, especially milk and cheese; and fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and mangos. However, there is heaviest consumption of starches and meats, and least of dairy products and non-starchy vegetables. Differences between Dominican cuisine and those of other parts of the West Indies include the milder spicing, which mainly uses onions, garlic, cilantro, cilantro ancho (culantro), ají cubanela (cubanelle pepper), and oregano. Sofrito, locally known as sazón, a sautéed mix including local herbs and spices, is used in many dishes. Throughout the south-central coast bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes and tipili, two dishes brought by Levantine Middle Eastern immigrants. Other favorite foods and dishes include chicharrón, yautía, pastelitos or empanadas, batata (sweet potato), pasteles en hoja (ground roots pockets), chimichurris, plátanos maduros (ripe plantain), yuca con mojo (boiled yuca/cassava) and tostones/fritos (fried plantains Cuisine also varies due to geographical areas. In general, most Dominican meat dishes tend to involve pork, as pigs are farmed quite heavily on the island. Meat dishes tend to be very well cooked or even stewed in Dominican restaurants, a tradition stemming from the lesser availability of refrigeration on the island. Seaside Dominican fishing villages will have great varieties of seafood, the most common being shrimp, marlin, mahi-mahi or dorado, and lobster. Most villagers more commonly dine on cheap, lesser-quality fish, usually stewed with la criolla, a type of rice. Premium seafood tends to be too expensive for the many locals, and is saved for the island's upper class and the tourist resorts. Haiti Haitian cuisine is a mixture of various cuisines, predominately of a similar nature with fellow Latin American countries. In addition to native Taino cooking, French and Spanish colonization in concordance with the introduction of African slaves heavily influenced the culinary practices of Haiti. For example, a staple food of major Haitian cities (e.g. Port-au-Prince) is French baguettes. The French and Spanish brought Roman Catholicism along with them, so the Haitian food calendar follows that of the Catholic tradition. For example, soup joumou (also known as giraumon soup) is served on New Year's Day. Joumou is a pumpkin soup made with salt beef and seasoned with nutmeg and other spices. Haitians eat traditional foods (e.g. benye, white beans, kremas) in excess on feast days. Poorer areas, which were more impacted by the immigration of Syrians and the Lebanese in the 19th century, popularized Pain Haitien. Slaves created various popular Haitian dishes such as pain patate, akra de mori, and thiaka. Other staple foods are rice (diri), other grains, and millet (piti mii) for the poor. All of these foods are usually in every meal along with beans. Poultry is far more popular than pork or meat; however, the majority of the protein provided in a Haitian diet is from rice and beans. Some foods are regional staples. Seafood, while popular everywhere, has a heavy cultural influence on coast towns. Fruits and nuts from the mountains of Haiti are exported across that region of the island, providing Haitians with delicious and healthy drinks and desserts. Though similar to other cuisine in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors in the island. Puerto Rico Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa, and the Amerindian Taínos. When in 1493 Spanish colonizers began a period of great change on the islands. The Spanish introduced foods from around the world including Europe, Asia, and Africa. They realized that not all the food they introduced to this new location were viable. So, while they had to abandon some of what was fundamental to their home country, they began to discover the local assets such as pigs and cattle. Still, some of what the Spaniards brought to Puerto Rico became of great importance to modern traditional dishes such as plantains, bananas, and coffee; all of which are now prominent in current Puerto Rican food culture. In the latter part of the 19th century the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago . Many crops cultivated in Puerto Rico stem from New World origins like plantains. Chef Doreen Colondres celebrates Puerto Rican and Latin American cuisine more broadly in her television segments and her cookery book. Central America Central American cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous, Spanish and African influence. Most of the countries are within the Mesoamerica cultural and historic region. Some of its staple foods, such as maize, bell peppers, squash, beans, and tomatoes originated and are native to the region and overtime have become basic staples in other international cuisines around the world. Its cuisine varies with its geographical areas, as well as its demographics. In the Pacific coasts of the countries in Central America, the influence of its food are more of a Indigenous and European infusion. In the Caribbean coast the fusion is more of a Indigenous and African fusion. The exception being El Salvador and Belize, where they are the other two countries that do not border both the Pacific and Caribbean. However, their cuisines still posses a fusion of all three cuisines because of their, and their neighboring countries' demographics. Another staple in both Pacific and Caribbean cuisine of the area is rice. It is accompanied by a meat (pork, beef, and chicken), or seafood. Dishes mixed with rice are common throughout the region, an example being gallopinto. The Caribbean coasts of Central America also have a more heavy usage of dishes containing coconut (milk, oil, etc.). Costa Rica The main staple, known as gallo pinto (or simply pinto), consists of rice and black beans, which in many households is eaten at all three meals during the day. Other Costa Rican food staples include corn tortillas, white cheese and picadillos. Tortillas are used to accompany most meals. Costa Ricans will often fill their tortillas with whatever they are eating and eat it in the form of a gallo (direct translation: rooster, however, it resembles a soft Mexican taco). White cheese is non-processed cheese that is made by adding salt to milk in production. Picadillos are meat and vegetable combinations where one or more vegetables are diced, mixed with beef and garnished with spices. Common vegetables used in picadillos are potatoes, green beans, squash, ayote, chayote and arracache. Often, picadillos are eaten in the form of gallos. El Salvador Salvadoran cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of El Salvador. The traditional cuisine consists of food from the Pipil people, with a European twist in most modern dishes. Many of the dishes are made with maize (corn). El Salvador's most notable dish is the pupusa, a thick hand-made corn flour or rice flour tortilla stuffed with cheese, chicharrón (fried pork rinds), refried beans or loroco (a vine flower bud native to Central America). There are also vegetarian options, often with ayote (a type of squash), or garlic. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes rellenos. Yuca frita, which is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Panes con Pavo (turkey sandwiches) are warm turkey submarines. The turkey is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with turkey, tomato, and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. A lot of Salvadoran food is served with French bread, or pan frances in Spanish. Guatemala The cuisine of Guatemala reflects the multicultural nature of Guatemala, in that it involves food that differs in taste depending on the region. Guatemala has 22 departments (or divisions), each of which has very different typical foodstuffs. Guatemalan cuisine is widely known for its candy originating from Antigua Guatemala. There are also foods that it is traditional to eat on certain days of the week - for example, by tradition it is known that on Thursday, the typical food is "paches" which is like a tamal made with a base of potato, and on Saturday it is traditional to eat tamales. Honduras Honduran Cuisine combines Spanish, Caribbean, and pre-Columbian influences of the indigenous Maya-Lenca population. Its most notable feature is that it uses more coconut than any other Central American cuisine in both sweet and savory dishes. Regional specialties include pollo con tajadas (fried chicken with fried green banana chips) fried fish, carne asada, and baleadas. Platano maduro fritos with sour creme are also a common dish. In addition to the baleadas, the following are also popular: meat roasted with chismol carne asada, chicken with rice and corn, fried fish (Yojoa style) with encurtido (pickled onions and jalapeños). In the coastal areas and in the Bay Islands, seafood and some meats are prepared in many ways, some of which include coconut milk. Among the soups the Hondurans enjoy are: conch soup, bean soup, Mondongo soup, or soup of intestine, seafood soups, beef soups, all of which are mixed with plantains, yuca, cabbage among other things, and complemented with corn tortillas. Other typical dishes are the montucas or corn tamale, stuffed tortillas, tamales wrapped up with banana leaves, among other types of food. Also part of the Honduran typical dishes are an abundant selection of tropical fruits such as: papaya, pineapple, plums, epazotes, passionfruits, and a wide variety of bananas and plantains which are prepared in many ways. Nicaragua The Cuisine of Nicaragua is a fusion of Spanish, Caribbean and pre-Columbian dishes of the indigenous peoples. When the Spaniards first arrived in Nicaragua they found that the indigenous peoples had incorporated foods available in the area into their cuisine. Despite the blending and incorporation of pre-Columbian and Spanish influenced cuisine, traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast. While the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast makes use of seafood and the coconut. As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as in some sweets and desserts. Locally grown vegetables and fruits have been in use since before the arrival of the Spaniards and their influence on Nicaraguan cuisine. Many of Nicaragua's dishes include fruits and vegetables such as jocote, grosella, mimbro, mango, papaya, tamarind, pipián, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote. Gallo pinto is Nicaragua's national dish, consisting of red beans and rice. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil or grated coconut which is primarily prepared on Nicaragua's Caribbean coast. It is thought to have originated in Nicaragua; however, there is some controversy about the origins of this dish. Panama Panamanian cuisine has its own unique and rich cuisine. As a land bridge between two continents, Panama is blessed by nature with an unusual variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking. Also, as a crossroads of the world catalyzed by the Panama Canal, Panamanian cuisine is influenced by its diverse population of Hispanic, native Indian, European, African, Colombian, Jamaican, and Chinese migration. A common Panamanian diet includes seafood such as crab, lobster, and squid, many versions of chicken soup, and vast amounts of fruit such as papayas, coconuts, and bananas. They also drink chicha, a very common drink found in Panama. Mexico Mexican cuisine is a style of food which is primarily a fusion of indigenous Mesoamerican cooking with European (especially Spanish) cooking developed after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. The basic staples remain the native corn, beans and chili peppers but the Europeans introduced a large number of other foods, the most important of which were meat from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese) and various herbs and spices. While the Spanish initially tried to superimpose their diet on the country, this was not possible thanks largely to Mexico's highly developed indigenous cuisines. Instead, the foods and cooking techniques of both the indigenous Mexicans and the Spanish began to be mixed contributing to the development of an even more varied and rich cuisine. Over the centuries, this resulted in various regional cuisines, based on local conditions such as those in the north, Oaxaca, Veracruz and the Yucatán Peninsula. Mexican cuisine is highly tied to the culture, social structure and its popular traditions, the most important example of which is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South region of the country. For this reason and others, Mexican cuisine was added by UNESCO to its list of the world's "intangible cultural heritage". Mexican-Americans in the United States have developed regional cuisines largely incorporating the ingredients and cooking styles of authentic Mexican cuisines. Tex-Mex is a term describing a regional American cuisine that blends food products available in the United States and the culinary creations of Mexican-Americans influenced by Mexican cuisine. Mexican cuisine varies by region, because of local climate and geography and ethnic differences among the indigenous inhabitants and because these different populations were influenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. Central Mexico's cuisine is largely made up of influences from the rest of the country, but also has its authentics, such as barbacoa, pozole, menudo, tamales, and carnitas. Southeastern Mexico, on the other hand, is known for its spicy vegetable and chicken-based dishes. The cuisine of Southeastern Mexico also has quite a bit of Caribbean influence, given its geographical location. Veal is common in the Yucatán. Seafood is commonly prepared in the states that border the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico, the latter having a famous reputation for its fish dishes, in particular à la veracruzana. South America The richest products of South America come from the middle of the continent, the Amazonia Potatoes are frequently grown as a result of this, and also plants such as quinoa. The Peruvian capital, Lima, was declared the "Gastronomic Capital of the Americas" in 2006. Many plains are also on this continent, which are rich for growing food in abundance. In the Patagonia south of Argentina, many people produce lamb and venison. King crab is typically caught at the southern end of the continent. Antarctic krill has been recently discovered and is now considered a fine dish. Tuna and tropical fish are caught all around the continent, but Easter Island is where they are found in abundance. Lobster is also caught in great quantities from the Juan Fernández Islands. Argentina The cuisine of Argentina is strongly influenced by Italian and Spanish cuisines and cooking techniques. Indigenous gastronomies derived from groups such as the Quechua, Mapuche, and Guarani have also played a role. There are many regional differences, specially in the provincial states of the north, west, east and central Argentina, with many plants, fruits and dishes that are not known or barely known in Buenos Aires. Another determining factor in Argentine cuisine is that Argentina is one of the world's major food producers. It is a major producer of meat (especially beef), wheat, corn, milk, beans, and since the 1970s, soybeans. Given the country's vast production of beef, red meat is an especially common part of the Argentine diet. Due to the very large number of Argentines of Italian ancestry, pizza and especially pasta are also very popular, but there are food traditions from other European nations as well, including the English afternoon tea. Bolivia Bolivian cuisine is the result of Spanish cuisine with infusions of ancient Andean tradition and varies greatly due to the geography of Bolivia. It has been influenced by the Inca cuisine, Aymara cuisine, Spanish cuisine, and to a lesser extent the cuisines of other neighboring countries, like Argentina and Paraguay. European immigration to Bolivia is not as common when compared with other Latin American countries, and while German, Italian, Basque and other cuisines have influenced the cuisine of Bolivia, Spanish cuisine remains the primary influence. In Western Bolivia in the Altiplano, due to the high, cold climate cuisine tends to use spices, whereas in the lowlands of Bolivia in the more Amazonian regions dishes consist of products abundant in the region: fruits, vegetables, fish and yuca. Almuerzo is the most important meal of the Bolivian day, so much so that daily life tends to revolve around it. Long lunches are traditional throughout the country, so businesses and shops often close between the hours of 12 and 2 pm, so that the workers have time to return home for lunch. A typical Bolivian lunch would consist of several courses, including a soup, a main course of meat, rice, and potatoes, then a dessert and coffee. Lunch is taken at a leisurely pace and is traditionally followed by a nap, the oft-cited siesta. Brazil The cuisine of Brazil, like Brazil itself, varies greatly by region. Brazilian cuisine can be divided into several distinct locations. From the north of Brazil through the Amazonian jungle, and directly down the Brazilian coastline. This diversity reflects the country's mix of native Amerindians, Portuguese, Africans, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Syrians, Lebanese and Japanese, among others. This has created a national cooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences. Coffee, being one of the main agricultural products of Brazil, is an indispensable part of every Brazilian's diet. "Chimarrão," a caffeinated drink made of “erva mate”, and the super caffeinated "cafezinho" are commonly served at meals, between meals, and for snacks. The average Brazilian drinks 12-24 of these concoctions per day. Chile Chilean cuisine stems from the combination of traditional Spanish cuisine with indigenous ingredients. European immigrants also brought with them various styles and traditions in cooking, heavily influencing the cuisine of Chile, including Italian, German, and French influences as well as the English afternoon tea. These mixtures have created a unique fusion. Seafood is widely used and an array of produce which historically has grown throughout the region have been implemented into Chilean gastronomy. Many recipes are accompanied and enhanced by Chilean wine such as Curanto. Colombia The cuisine of Colombia consists of a large variety of dishes that take into account the difference in regional climates. For example, in the city of Medellín the typical dish is the bandeja paisa. It includes beans, rice, ground meat or carne asada, chorizo, fried egg, arepa and chicharrón. It is usually accompanied by avocado, tomato and sauces. Inland, the plates resemble the mix of cultures, inherited mainly from Amerindian and European cuisine, and the produce of the land mainly agriculture, cattle, river fishing and other animals' raising. Such is the case of the sancocho soup in Valledupar. Local species of animals like the guaratinaja, part of the wayuu Amerindian culture. Ecuador The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Ecuadorian cuisine is an amalgamation of Spanish, Andean, and Amazonian cuisines and to a lesser degree Italian, African, and Chinese. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional 3 course meal of sopa/soup and segundo/second dish which includes rice or pasta and a protein such as meat, poultry, pig or fish. Then dessert and a coffee are customary. Dinner is usually lighter and sometimes just coffee or agua de remedio/herbal tea with bread. Some of the typical dishes in the coastal region are: a variety of ceviches, pan de yuca (cassava bread), corviche (plantain, peanut and fish dumplings), guatita, encebollado (fish, cassava and onion stew), empanada de viento (deep-fried flour empanada with cheese filling, served sprinkled with sugar), empanada de verde (green plantain empanada with cheese filling), mangrove crab, arroz con menestra (lentil or bean stew and rice), caldo de bola (beef soup featuring a green plantain ball filled with meat, egg, and spices). Local staples are rice, plantains and a great variety of seafood. Typical dishes in the mountain region include: hornado, fritada, humitas, tamales, llapingachos, lomo saltado, and churrasco. Pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and corn or potatoes). A popular street food in mountain regions is hornado, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. Fanesca, a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during Lent and Easter. During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or All Souls' Day, the fruit beverage colada morada is typical, accompanied by t'anta wawa which is stuffed bread shaped like children. Paraguay The cuisine of Paraguay is the set of dishes and culinary techniques of Paraguay. Much like its neighboring countries, Paraguayan cuisine is a fusion of Indigenous cuisine (Guaraní), Spanish cuisine and international cuisines from those who have immigrated over the years. Meat, especially beef, is a staple of the Paraguayan diet. This is reflected in the Asado, a series of barbecuing practices and the social event that are traditional to Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. The cuisine of Paraguay includes unique dishes such as sopa paraguaya, kiveve prepared using a pumpkin, also known as "andai", or Chipa Guasú. Chipa Guasú, an original dish to Paraguay, is a cake made with corn grains that is now widely served in Northeastern Argentina as well. The national drink of Paraguay is known as terere, in addition to fruit juices and soft drinks being very common throughout the country. Yucca and corn are two important ingredients in Paraguayan cuisine Peru Peru has a varied cuisine with ingredients like potato, uchu or Ají (Capsicum pubescens), oca, ulluco, avocado, fruits like chirimoya, lúcuma and pineapple, and animals like taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis), llama and guinea pig (called cuy). The combination of Inca and Spanish culinary traditions, resulted in new meals and ways of preparing them. The arrival of Africans, Chinese and Japanese immigrants in the 19th century also resulted in the development of Creole cuisine in the city of Lima, where the vast majority of these immigrants settled. Some typical Peruvian dishes are ceviche (fish and shellfish marinated in citrus juices), the chupe de camarones (a soup made of shrimp (Cryphiops caementarius)), anticuchos (cow's heart roasted en brochette), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of ulluco and charqui), the Andean pachamanca (meats, tubers and broad beans cooked in a stone oven), the lomo saltado (meat fried lightly with tomato and onion, served with french fries and rice) that has a Chinese influence, and the picante de cuy (a casserole dish made of fried guinea pig with some spices). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the chicha de jora (a chicha made of tender corn dried by the sun). There are also chichas made of peanuts or purple corn, known as chicha morada. Uruguay The cuisine of Uruguay is traditionally based on its European roots, especially from Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Germany and Britain. Many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation's diet. The Uruguayan barbecue, asado, is one of the most exquisite and famous in the world. A sweet paste, Dulce de Leche is the national obsession, used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, milhojas, and alfajores. The base of the country's diet is meat and animal products: primarily beef but also chicken, lamb, pig, and sometimes fish. The preferred cooking methods for meats and vegetables are still boiling and roasting, although modernization has popularized frying (see milanesas and chivitos). Meanwhile, wheat and fruit are generally served fried (torta frita and pasteles), comfited (rapadura and ticholos de banana), and sometimes baked (rosca de chicharrones), a new modern style. Bushmeat comes from mulitas and carpinchos. Regional fruits like butia and pitanga are commonly used for flavoring caña, along with quinotos and nísperos. Venezuela Due to its land, diversity of agricultural resources, and the cultural diversity of the Venezuelan people, Venezuelan cuisine often varies greatly from one region to another. Its cuisine, traditional as well as modern, is influenced by its European, West African and Native American traditions. Food staples include corn, rice, plantain, yams, beans and several meats. Potatoes, tomatoes, onions, eggplants, squashes, spinach and zucchini are also common sides in the Venezuelan diet. Venezuela has several representative national dishes such as the arepa (a corn based bread like patty), pan de jamón, tequeño, pabellón criollo and the hallaca at Christmas time. Traditional eating customs There are many different kinds of traditions associated with eating in Latin America. There are a variety of special days where certain foods are consumed, as well as many holidays that are celebrated in Latin America. Traditions There are many forms of gratitude that inhabitants of Latin America employ when they discard excess food. Some people kiss the bread while others cut it before discarding it. Other such traditions are upheld largely by the country, Argentina and Uruguay have one such tradition known as a ":es:Ñoquis del 29" or "the Gnocchi 29", where on the 29th of each month a family eats gnocchi, sometimes placing money under their plate to wish for abundance in the next month. There is a holiday celebrated in Latin America known as Three Kings Day (otherwise known as Epiphany) which is celebrated on January 6 of each year where families feast in honor of God's manifestation in human form in Jesus. In many countries of Latin America families consume lentils on the first day of the New Year because they are thought to bring prosperity. See also Latin American culture List of cuisines Louisiana Creole cuisine Native American cuisine Aztec cuisine Inca cuisine Maya cuisine North American cuisine South American cuisine Spanish cuisine References

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Iolanthe; or, The Peer and the Peri () is a comic opera with music by Arthur Sullivan and libretto by W. S. Gilbert. It is one of the Savoy operas and is the seventh of fourteen operatic collaborations by Gilbert and Sullivan. In the opera, the fairy Iolanthe has been banished from fairyland because she married a mortal; this is forbidden by fairy law. Her son, Strephon, is an Arcadian shepherd who wants to marry Phyllis, a Ward of Chancery. All the members of the House of Peers also want to marry Phyllis. When Phyllis sees Strephon hugging a young woman (not knowing that it is his mother – immortal fairies all appear young), she assumes the worst and sets off a climactic confrontation between the peers and the fairies. The opera satirises many aspects of British government, law and society. The confrontation between the fairies and the peers is a version of one of Gilbert's favourite themes: a tranquil civilisation of women is disrupted by a male-dominated world through the discovery of mortal love. Iolanthe opened in London on 25 November 1882, at the Savoy Theatre to a warm reception, and ran for 398 performances, the fourth consecutive hit by Gilbert and Sullivan. It was the first work to premiere at the Savoy (although Patience had transferred to the theatre in 1881) and was the first new theatre production in the world to be illuminated entirely with electric lights, permitting some special effects that had not been possible in the era of gas lighting. The opera opened simultaneously in New York, and touring companies were sent around the UK and US to play the piece. The first Australasian touring production followed in 1885, and the opera was revived in London beginning in 1901. The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company toured the opera nearly continuously in repertory from 1891 until 1982, and made several recordings of the opera over that period. Numerous other professional and amateur productions have been given of this enduring work, and various other recordings have been issued. Background W. S. Gilbert presented his basic idea for a new opera to Arthur Sullivan in October 1881. Gilbert's earliest ideas for the story of Iolanthe originated in his Bab Ballad, "The Fairy Curate": "Once a fairy / Light and airy / Married with a mortal." The fairy marries a "prosaic" attorney and bears him a son. After her son grows up, she visits him on Earth, but she is mistaken for his lover, since fairies perpetually appear young and beautiful. Sullivan found the premise funny, and Gilbert set to work on fleshing out the story. By December, he had written some lyrics for Sullivan to look at, but he struggled with the plot for several months, whereas he had dashed off earlier operas in a matter of weeks. During these months, Sullivan took an extended trip to Egypt, Italy and elsewhere. Upon his return to London in April 1882, he moved into a new home; in May, his beloved mother died rather suddenly. By the end of July 1882, Gilbert had supplied Sullivan with lyrics to several of the songs, and Sullivan began work setting them to music. Over the next two months, Sullivan met Gilbert to discuss the libretto as more lyrics were completed. Music rehearsals began in September, and staging began in October, scheduled around performances of Gilbert and Sullivan's previous opera, Patience, which had transferred to the Savoy Theatre a year earlier. Sullivan was still composing more numbers for the opera until 20 October, with a few modifications continuing into early November. Uncharacteristically, Sullivan composed the overture himself, instead of assigning it to an assistant. Two casts rehearsed simultaneously, as the opera was to open on the same night in London and New York City, a historic first for any play. Gilbert had targeted the aristocracy and political officials for satiric treatment in earlier works. In this opera, the House of Lords is lampooned as a bastion of the ineffective, privileged and dim-witted, whose only qualification to govern is noble birth. The political party system, the law and other institutions also come in for a dose of satire. Throughout Iolanthe, however, both author and composer managed to couch the criticism among such bouncy, amiable absurdities and "splendid pageantry" that it is all received as good humour, with Prime Minister Gladstone complimenting the opera's good taste. In fact, Gilbert later refused to allow quotes from the piece to be used as part of the campaign to diminish the powers of the House of Lords. Although titled Iolanthe all along in Gilbert's plot book, for a time the piece was advertised as Perola and rehearsed under that name. According to an often-repeated myth, Gilbert and Sullivan did not change the name to Iolanthe until just before the première. In fact, however, the title was advertised as Iolanthe as early as 13 November 1882 – eleven days before the opening – so the cast had at least that much time to learn the name. It is also clear that Sullivan's musical setting was written to match the cadence of the word "Iolanthe," and could only accommodate the word "Perola" by preceding it (awkwardly) with "O", "Come" or "Ah". Henry Irving had produced a W. G. Wills adaptation of King René’s Daughter in London in 1880, under the name Iolanthe, and in October 1882 Gilbert asked his producer, Richard D'Oyly Carte, to request Irving's permission to use the name. It is not known whether Irving replied. Iolanthe premiered only three days after Patience closed at the Savoy. The Savoy Theatre, opened only a year earlier, was a state-of-the-art facility, the first theatre in the world to be lit entirely by electricity. Patience had transferred to the Savoy from the Opera Comique, upon the theatre's opening, but Iolanthe was the first show to premiere at the theatre. New lighting technologies made such special effects as sparkling fairy wands possible for the first time. The principal fairies' heads were also lit by wreaths of small illuminated stars attached to a battery. The audience that attended the opening night in London included Captain (later Captain Sir) Eyre Massey Shaw, head of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, whom the Fairy Queen apostrophises in the second act ("Oh, Captain Shaw / Type of true love kept under / Could thy brigade with cold cascade / Quench my great love, I wonder?"). On the first night Alice Barnett, as the Queen of the Fairies, sang the verses directly to Captain Shaw, who was sitting in the centre of the stalls. The opera's premiere was received by an enthusiastic audience and earned critical praise, although there was general agreement that the second act needed some trimming. Iolanthe became the fourth consecutive major success for Gilbert, Sullivan and their producer, Richard D'Oyly Carte, following H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance (1879) and Patience (1881). Increasingly viewing his work with Gilbert as frivolous, beneath his skills and repetitious, Sullivan had intended to resign from the partnership with Gilbert and Carte after Iolanthe, but on the day of its premiere, he received a letter from his broker, Edward Hall, notifying him that Hall had lost all his money, including £7,000 of Sullivan's investments, the bulk of his fortune. Sullivan's lifestyle was not inexpensive, and he was helping to support his late brother's large family, as well as his mistress, Fanny Ronalds, and her family. He soon concluded that the only certain way to restore his financial security was to continue writing Savoy operas. On 8 February 1883, he signed a new five-year creative partnership agreement with Gilbert and Carte; Gilbert was already at work on their next piece, Princess Ida. On 22 May 1883, Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria for his "services ... rendered to the promotion of the art of music" in Britain. Roles The Lord Chancellor (comic baritone) George, Earl of Mountararat (baritone) Thomas, Earl Tolloller (tenor) Private Willis, of the Grenadier Guards (bass) Strephon, an Arcadian Shepherd (baritone) Queen of the Fairies (contralto) Iolanthe, a Fairy, Strephon's mother (mezzo-soprano) Celia, a Fairy (soprano) Leila, a Fairy (mezzo-soprano) Fleta, a Fairy (speaking role/chorus) Phyllis, an Arcadian Shepherdess and Ward in Chancery (soprano) Chorus of Dukes, Marquises, Earls, Viscounts, Barons, and Fairies Synopsis Act I The beloved fairy Iolanthe, who arranged the fairies' songs and dances, committed the capital crime (under fairy law) of marrying a mortal man. The Queen of the fairies commuted Iolanthe's sentence of death to banishment for life on the condition that she left her husband and never communicated with him again. After the passage of 25 years, the fairies, still missing Iolanthe deeply, plead with their Queen to pardon Iolanthe and to restore her place in fairyland ("Tripping hither, tripping thither"). Summoned by the Fairy Queen ("Iolanthe! From thy dark exile thou art summoned"), Iolanthe rises from the frog-infested stream that has been her home in exile. The Queen, unable to bear punishing her any longer, pardons Iolanthe, who is warmly greeted by the other fairies. Iolanthe tells her sisters that she has a son, Strephon, noting that he's a fairy down to the waist, but his legs are mortal. The fairies laugh that Iolanthe appears too young to have a grown son, as one of the advantages of a fairy's immortality is that they never grow old. Strephon, a handsome Arcadian shepherd, arrives and meets his aunts ("Good-morrow, good mother"). He tells Iolanthe of his love for the Lord Chancellor's ward of court, the beautiful Phyllis, who does not know of Strephon's mixed origin. Strephon is despondent, however, as the Lord Chancellor has forbidden them to marry, partly because he feels that a shepherd is unsuitable for Phyllis, but partly because the Lord Chancellor wishes to marry Phyllis himself. In fact, so do half the members of Britain's House of Lords. The Fairy Queen promises her assistance ("Fare thee well, attractive stranger"). Soon Phyllis arrives, and she and Strephon share a moment of tenderness as they plan their future and possible elopement ("Good-morrow, good lover"; "None shall part us from each other"). A cadre of the peers of the realm arrive in noisy splendour ("Loudly let the trumpet bray") with the Lord Chancellor ("The law is the true embodiment"). They are all smitten with Phyllis, and they have appealed to the Lord Chancellor to decide who will have her hand. The Lord Chancellor hesitates to act upon his own regard for Phyllis due to his position as her guardian. The Lords send for Phyllis to choose one of their number, but she will not marry any of them, as virtue is found only in a "lowly" cottage ("My well-loved Lord" and "Nay, tempt me not"). The peers beg her not to scorn them simply because of their "blue blood" ("Spurn not the nobly born" and "My lords, it may not be"). Strephon approaches the Lord Chancellor, pleading that Nature bids him marry Phyllis. But the Lord Chancellor wryly notes that Strephon has not presented sufficient evidence that Nature has interested herself in the matter. He refuses his consent to the marriage between Strephon and Phyllis ("When I went to the Bar"). Disappointed, Strephon calls on Iolanthe for help. She appears and promises to support her son. Spying on the two, the peers – led by the brainless and stuffy Earls Tolloller and Mountararat – together with Phyllis, see Iolanthe and Strephon in a warm embrace. All three jump to the obvious conclusion, since the centuries-old Iolanthe appears to be a girl of seventeen ("When darkly looms the day"). The peers scoff at the seemingly absurd claim that Iolanthe is Strephon's mother as Strephon pleads: "She is, has been, my mother from my birth!" Phyllis angrily rejects Strephon for his supposed infidelity and declares that she will marry either Lord Tolloller or Lord Mountararat ("...and I don't care which!"). Strephon then calls for help from the fairies, who appear but are mistaken by the peers for a girls' school on an outing. Offended, the Fairy Queen pronounces a magical "sentence" upon the peers: Strephon shall not only become a Member of Parliament, but will also have the power to pass any bill he proposes ("With Strephon for your foe, no doubt"). Act II Private Willis, on night guard duty, paces outside the Palace of Westminster and muses on political life ("When all night long a chap remains"). The fairies arrive and tease the peers about the success of MP Strephon, who is advancing a bill to open the peerage to competitive examination ("Strephon's a member of Parliament"). The peers ask the fairies to stop Strephon's mischief, stating that the House of Peers is not susceptible of any improvement ("When Britain really ruled the waves"). Although the fairies say that they cannot stop Strephon, they have become strongly attracted to the peers ("In vain to us you plead"). The fairy Queen is dismayed by this. Pointing to Private Willis of the First Grenadier Guards, who is still on duty, the Queen claims that she is able to subdue her response to the effects of his manly beauty ("Oh, foolish fay"). Phyllis cannot decide whether she ought to marry Tolloller or Mountararat, and so she leaves the choice up to them. Tolloller tells Mountararat that his family's tradition would require the two Earls to duel to the death if the latter were to claim Phyllis. The two decide that their friendship is more important than love and renounce their claims to her ("Though p'r'aps I may incur thy blame"). The Lord Chancellor arrives dressed for bed and describes a nightmare caused by his unrequited love for Phyllis ("Love, unrequited, robs me of my rest"). The two peers try to cheer him up and urge him to make another effort to persuade himself to award Phyllis to ... himself ("If you go in you're sure to win"). Strephon now leads both parties in Parliament, but he is miserable at losing Phyllis. He sees Phyllis and reveals to her that his mother is a fairy, which accounts for her apparent youth ("If we're weak enough to tarry"). Phyllis and Strephon ask Iolanthe to plead with the Lord Chancellor to allow their marriage, for "none can resist your fairy eloquence." This is impossible, she replies, for the Lord Chancellor is her husband. He believes Iolanthe to have died childless, and she is bound not to "undeceive" him, under penalty of death. However, to save Strephon from losing his love, Iolanthe resolves to present his case to the Lord Chancellor while veiled ("My lord, a suppliant at your feet"). Although the Lord Chancellor is moved by her appeal, which evokes the memory of his wife, he declares that he himself will marry Phyllis. Desperate, Iolanthe unveils, ignoring the warnings of the unseen Fairies, revealing that she is his long-lost wife, and Strephon is his son. The Lord Chancellor is amazed to see her alive, but Iolanthe has again broken fairy law, and the Fairy Queen is now left with no choice but to punish Iolanthe with death ("It may not be ... Once again thy vow is broken"). As she prepares to execute Iolanthe, the Queen learns that the rest of the fairies have chosen husbands from among the peers, thus also incurring death sentences – but the Queen blanches at the prospect of slaughtering all of them. The Lord Chancellor suggests a solution: change the law by inserting a single word: "every fairy shall die who doesn't marry a mortal." The Fairy Queen cheerfully agrees and, to save her life, the dutiful soldier, Private Willis, agrees to marry her. Seeing no reason to stay in the mortal realm if peers are to be recruited "from persons of intelligence", the peers join the fairy ranks and "away [they] go to fairyland" ("Soon as we may, off and away"). Musical numbers Overture Act I 1. "Tripping hither, tripping thither" (Celia, Leila, and Chorus of Fairies) 2. "Iolanthe! From thy dark exile thou art summoned" (Queen, Iolanthe, Celia, Leila, and Chorus of Fairies) 3. "Good-morrow, good mother" (Strephon and Chorus of Fairies) 4. "Fare thee well, attractive stranger" (Queen and Chorus of Fairies) 4a. "Good-morrow, good lover" (Phyllis and Strephon) 5. "None shall part us from each other" (Phyllis and Strephon) 6. "Loudly let the trumpet bray" (Chorus of Peers) 7. "The law is the true embodiment" (Lord Chancellor and Chorus of Peers) 8. "My well-loved Lord" and Barcarole, "Of all the young ladies I know" (Phyllis, Lord Tolloller, and Lord Mountararat) 9. "Nay, tempt me not" (Phyllis) 10. "Spurn not the nobly born" (Lord Tolloller and Chorus of Peers) 11. "My lords, it may not be" (Phyllis, Lord Tolloller, Lord Mountararat, Strephon, Lord Chancellor, and Chorus of Peers) 12. "When I went to the Bar" (Lord Chancellor) 13. Finale Act I (Ensemble) "When darkly looms the day" "The lady of my love has caught me talking to another" "Go away, madam" "Henceforth Strephon, cast away" "With Strephon for your foe, no doubt / Young Strephon is the kind of lout" Act II 14. "When all night long a chap remains" (Private Willis) 15. "Strephon's a member of Parliament" (Chorus of Fairies and Peers) 16. "When Britain really ruled the waves" (Lord Mountararat and Chorus) 17. "In vain to us you plead" (Leila, Celia, Chorus of Fairies, Mountararat, Tolloller, and Chorus of Peers) 18. "Oh, foolish fay" (Queen with Chorus of Fairies) 19. "Though p'r'aps I may incur thy blame" (Phyllis, Lord Mountararat, Lord Tolloller, and Private Willis) 20. "Love, unrequited, robs me of my rest" ... "When you're lying awake" (Lord Chancellor) 21. "If you go in you're sure to win" (Lord Tolloller, Lord Mountararat, and Lord Chancellor) 22. "If we're weak enough to tarry" (Phyllis and Strephon) 23. "My lord, a suppliant at your feet" (Iolanthe) 24. "It may not be" (Lord Chancellor, Iolanthe, and Chorus of Fairies) 25. "Soon as we may, off and away" (Ensemble) Deleted songs 18a. "De Belville was regarded as the Crichton of his age" (Mountararat) was cut soon after the opening night of Iolanthe. The number appeared soon after Mountararat's Act II entrance, after Phyllis's comment about Strephon going about "with a mother considerably younger than himself". After a short dialogue (which would also be cut) about how people become peers, Mountararat sings a long song about De Belville, a polymath whose talents ranged from painting to literature to inventions. Government was at a loss as to how to reward him – until he inherited millions and obtained a seat in Parliament and "a taste for making inconvenient speeches in the House (of Commons)". He was promptly rewarded by being removed from that House by being given a peerage. According to Reginald Allen's The First Night Gilbert and Sullivan, as well as contemporaneous reviews, it was recited on the first night, rather than sung, and the middle stanza omitted. The music has been lost, except for a leader violin part found in a private collection of band parts in 1999. 21a. "Fold your flapping wings" (Strephon) was sung on the first night and cut soon afterwards. The song, preceded by a recitative for Strephon ("My bill has now been read a second time") appeared shortly after #21, following the exit of the two Earls and the Lord Chancellor and the entrance of Strephon. The tone of the song is dark and angry, in marked contrast with the generally genial tone of Iolanthe, and the lyrics make the case that bad behaviour by the underclasses is caused by their unfortunate circumstances: "I might be as bad – as unlucky, rather – if I only had Fagin for a father." The music to this song survives, and although most productions continue to omit it, the song has been used in some modern productions and as a separate concert piece. Musical and textual analysis At the time they wrote Iolanthe, both Gilbert and Sullivan were in their peak creative years, and Iolanthe, their seventh work together, drew the best from both composer and author. Sullivan's biographer, Arthur Jacobs, wrote: "[Sullivan] had composed a brilliant new score (his most subtle yet) to a scintillating libretto. ... Iolanthe is the work in which Sullivan's operetta style takes a definite step forward, and metamorphosis of musical themes is its characteristic new feature. ... By recurrence and metamorphosis of themes Sullivan made the score more fluid". Sullivan's overture was superior in structure and orchestration to those that his assistants had constructed for the earlier operas. Much of his "fairy" music pays deliberate homage to the incidental music written by Felix Mendelssohn for an 1842 production of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. Richard Wagner's Ring cycle premiered in London earlier in 1882. The music for the fairies reflects Wagner's style, and the score uses leitmotifs, including a distinctive four-note theme associated with the character of Iolanthe. The Fairy Queen's music parodies that of Wagnerian heroines such as Brünnhilde. The score is wider in range of emotion and style, with innovative use of pizzicato strings, clever and varied underscoring of patter, the tender, sentimental eleventh-hour number for the title character, apt matching of the music to the absurd comedy of the lyrics, and a sustained first act finale with a series of dramatic situations that ends with the confrontation between the fairies and peers. Gilbert, too, was influenced by earlier works, including The Mountain Sylph by John Barnett. Two characters in Iolanthe, Strephon and Phyllis, are described as Arcadian shepherds. Arcadia was a legendary site of rural perfection, first described by the Ancient Greeks, that was a popular setting for writers of the 19th century. Gilbert had written an earlier work called Happy Arcadia. He had also created several "fairy comedies" at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s. These plays, influenced by the fairy work of James Planché, are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference. Several of Iolanthe's themes are continued from Patience, including the battle between the sexes and the satire on legal and political themes. Iolanthe is one of several of Gilbert's works, including among others The Wicked World, Broken Hearts, Fallen Fairies and Princess Ida, where the introduction of males into a tranquil world of women brings "mortal love" that wreaks havoc with the status quo. Gilbert's absurdist style is on full display in Iolanthe. For example, all the members of the House of Lords are in love with Phyllis, a ward of the Lord Chancellor. Gilbert satirically sets up the fantastical fairies as the agents of common sense in contrast with the nonsensical peers, who should be sober parliamentarians, while the most poetically romantic of the fairies, the "Arcadian" shepherd, Strephon, is chosen to lead both houses of Parliament. One of Gilbert's biographers, Andrew Crowther wrote: "The things that make [the opera] memorable as a work of art [include] the peers entering in the full pomp of their formal robes, magnificent and ridiculous." Among many pot-shots that Gilbert takes at lawyers in this opera, the Lord Chancellor sings that, as a young lawyer, he decided to "work on a new and original plan" similar to the practice in other professions, that diligence, honesty, honour and merit should lead to promotion. Gilbert uses the "fairy law" as a proxy for mortal law, in which an "equity draughtsman" can, with "the insertion of a single word", change the entire meaning of the law. Crowther notes: "All kinds of tone ... mingle in this opera: whimsy, fantasy, romance, wit and political satire." Productions Iolanthe had a successful initial run in London of 398 performances, spanning the holiday seasons of both 1882 and 1883. Gilbert designed the costumes himself, and sets were by the Drury Lane designer Henry Emden. In an unprecedented first for any play, the New York premiere was given on the same date – 25 November 1882, with the composer's assistant, Alfred Cellier, conducting there. In Australia, Iolanthe was first seen on 9 May 1885 at the Theatre Royal, Melbourne, produced by J. C. Williamson. In the British provinces, Iolanthe played – either by itself, or in repertory – continuously from February 1882 through 1885, then not again until late 1891. From then on, it was always present in the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company's touring repertory, being included in some part of every season until the company's closure in 1982. Most of the costumes were redesigned by Percy Anderson in 1915 and by George Sheringham in 1932, and Peter Goffin designed new sets in 1957 and some new costumes in 1960. After its original production, Iolanthe was not revived in London until 1901, making it the first of the operas to be revived after the composer's death the year before. It was also included in two Savoy repertory seasons, in 1907 and 1908–09. Iolanthe was the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera performed professionally in Britain by a non-D'Oyly Carte company. It was produced by the Sadler's Wells Opera (now English National Opera) in January 1962, immediately after the Gilbert copyrights expired. It was well received and was successfully revived for many seasons by Sadler's Wells until 1978. Michael Heyland restaged Iolanthe for D'Oyly Carte in 1977, the year of Queen Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee, with silver-themed designs. Iolanthe has remained one of the most popular of the Gilbert and Sullivan works. Thousands of professional and amateur productions of the opera have been given throughout the English-speaking world, and the opera continues to be performed regularly today. The Internet Broadway Database lists 20 productions of the opera on Broadway alone. The following table shows the history of the D'Oyly Carte productions in Gilbert's lifetime (not including touring companies): Historical casting The following tables show the casts of the principal original productions and D'Oyly Carte Opera Company touring repertory at various times through to the company's 1982 closure: Selected recordings Of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company recordings of this opera, the 1930 and 1960 recordings have been the best received, and the latter includes the dialogue. The revived D'Oyly Carte's 1991 recording contains Strephon's cut number "Fold Your Flapping Wings" as a bonus track. On video are the 1982 Brent Walker production and more recent performances from the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival. 1930 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: Malcolm Sargent 1951 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: Isidore Godfrey 1960 D'Oyly Carte (with dialogue) – New Symphony Orchestra of London, Band of the Grenadier Guards, Conductor: Isidore Godfrey 1982 Brent Walker Productions (video) – Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Conductor: Alexander Faris; Stage Director: David Pountney 1991 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: John Pryce-Jones 2013 Lamplighters Music Theatre (with dialogue) – Conductor: Baker Peeples Cultural influence British politics When Margaret Thatcher was elected as Prime Minister, the press joked about the line from the opera, "This comes of women interfering in politics!" Lord Falconer, who served as Tony Blair's second Lord Chancellor, was reportedly influenced by Iolanthe in his moves to reform or disband the office. Effect upon Chief Justice Rehnquist William H. Rehnquist, former Chief Justice of the United States, was an avid Gilbert and Sullivan fan and was inspired by the costume of the Lord Chancellor, in a production of Iolanthe, to add four golden stripes to the sleeves of his judicial robes. The next Chief Justice, John G. Roberts Jr., did not retain the ornamentation. In 1980, while an Associate Justice, Rehnquist, in his dissenting opinion in the case of Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia, compares these words of the Lord Chancellor to the "flavor from the various opinions supporting the judgment in this case": The Law is the true embodiment/Of everything that's excellent,/It has no kind of fault or flaw,/And I, My Lords, embody the Law. Adaptations The Ratepayers' Iolanthe was a 1984 musical adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton. Sherrin directed and won a Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in a Musical for the musical's "conception". Literature and music The science fiction writer Isaac Asimov was a Gilbert and Sullivan fan. His Foundation Trilogy was conceived after his reading Iolanthe started a train of thought about military empires. Also, in "Runaround", a story in Asimov's I, Robot, a robot, while in a state similar to drunkenness, sings snippets of Gilbert and Sullivan songs, including "The Nightmare Song" from Iolanthe. In Michael Chabon's 2004 novel The Final Solution, Bruno the parrot sings bits from Iolanthe. The eponymous hero of David Nobbs' The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin has "Iolanthe" as a middle name, allegedly due to his being born during a performance of the opera. An illustrated booklet, A Parody on Iolanthe, was written and published by D. Dalziel in 1883 and concerns the Chicago & Alton Railway. In his 1974 album Todd, Todd Rundgren performs the "Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song" ("When you're lying awake..."). See also Mount Ararat, after which one of the characters, Lord Mountararat, is named. Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907, proposals for which are mentioned in the opera Notes References Also, five supplements, privately printed. External links Iolanthe at The Gilbert & Sullivan Archive Iolanthe at The Gilbert & Sullivan Discography Online copy of the libretto Transcription of a review of Iolanthe by Clement Scott Biographies of the people listed in the historical casting chart Gilbert & Sullivan song parodies, including some from Iolanthe Photos from D'Oyly Carte productions of Iolanthe, 1882 to 1980 Operas by Gilbert and Sullivan English-language operas English comic operas 1882 operas Operas Operas set in England Operas set in London Operas set in fictional, mythological and folkloric settings Works by W. S. Gilbert

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The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010. The HRWS has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have derived the human right to water beyond the General Assembly resolution from Article 11.1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), making it binding under international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council in 2010. They acknowledged that there was a human right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 acknowledged the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it accepted that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. The acceptance that access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a free human right in the General Assembly’s Resolution (64/292) brings an important worldwide governmental control of it. The fulfillment of a productive and healthy life will transpire by recognizing broadly the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services. A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal. The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses." The HRWS obliges governments to ensure that people can enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation. Affordability of water considers the extent to which the cost of water becomes inhibitive such that it requires one to sacrifice access to other essential goods and services. Generally, a rule of thumb for the affordability of water is that it should not surpass 3–5% of households' income. Accessibility of water considers the time taken, convenience in reaching the source and risks involved while getting to the source of water. Water must be accessible to every citizen, meaning that water should not be further than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet and must be within 30 minutes. Availability of water considers whether the supply of water is available in adequate amounts, reliable and sustainable. Quality of water considers whether water is safe for consumption, including for drinking or other activities. For acceptability of water, it must not have any odor and should not consist of any color. The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation. They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service. International context The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation reported that 663 million people did not have access to improved sources of drinking water and more than 2.4 billion people lacked access to basic sanitation services in 2015. Access to clean water is a major problem for many parts of the world. Acceptable sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections." Although 9 percent of the global population lacks access to water, there are "regions particularly delayed, such as Sub-Saharan Africa". The UN further emphasizes that "about 1.5 million children under the age of five die each year and 443 million school days are lost because of water- and sanitation-related diseases." Legal foundations and recognition The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international human rights conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation. The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right:… (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications." The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that "parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health … 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia… the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water..." The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that "parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs." "The International Bill of Human Rights"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree. Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of the University of the Pacific in 1992 and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999. McCaffrey stated that "Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the right to health, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: "that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice." The UN Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002. It found that a right to water was implicitly part of the right to an adequate standard of living and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food. It defines that "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements." Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) after publication of General Comment 15. A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states. Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged "the Human Right to Water and Sanitation" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes)." The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living. The mandate of Catarina de Albuquerque as "Independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation" was extended and renamed as "Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation" after the resolutions in 2010. Through her reports to the Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly, she continued clarifying the scope and content of the human right to water and sanitation. As Special Rapporteur, she addressed issues such as: Human Rights Obligations Related to Non-State Service Provision in Water and Sanitation (2010); Financing for the Realization of the Rights to Water and Sanitation (2011); Wastewater management in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013); and Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013). Léo Heller was appointed in 2014 to be the second Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of "The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water. International jurisprudence Inter-American Court of Human Rights The right to water has been considered in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of the Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay. The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the American Convention on Human Rights; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant. World Bank data shows that water privatization spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s. Azurix Corp v. Argentina The first notable case regarding the right to water in the ICSID is that of Azurix Corp v. Argentina. The dispute was between the Argentine Republic and Azurix Corporation regarding discrepancies arising from a 30-year contract between the parties to operate the water supply of various provinces. A consideration in regard to the right to water is implicitly made during the arbitration for compensation, where it was held that Azurix was entitled to a fair return on the market value of the investment. This was rather than the requested US$438.6 million, citing that a reasonable business person could not expect such a return, given the limits of water price increases and improvements that would be required to ensure a well-functioning, clean water system. Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania Secondly, a similar case encountered by the ICSID is that of Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania. This was again a case of a private water company in a contractual dispute with a government, this time the United Republic of Tanzania. This contract was for the operation and management of the Dar es Salaam water system. In May 2005, the Tanzania government ended the contract with Biwater Gauff for its alleged failure to meet performance guarantees. In July 2008, the Tribunal issued its decision on the case, declaring that the Tanzania government had violated the agreement with Biwater Gauff. It did not however award monetary damages to Biwater, acknowledging that public interest concerns were paramount in the dispute. Right to water in domestic law Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) through one of two means: as "directive principles" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts. South Africa In South Africa, the right to water is enshrined in the constitution and implemented by ordinary statutes. This is evidence of a slight modification of the second technique of constitutionalisation referred to as the "subsidiary legislation model". This means that a large portion of the content and implementation of the right is done an ordinary domestic statute with some constitutional standing. Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council The first notable case in which the courts did so was the Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council. The case was brought by residents of a block of flats (Bon Vista Mansions), following the disconnection of the water supply by the local Council, resulting from the failure to pay water charges. The court held that in adherence to the South African Constitution, that constitutionally all persons ought to have access to water as a right. Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures. The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the "fair and reasonable" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15. Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg The quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg. The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues: whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful. It was held in the High Court that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water. The big respondents took the case to the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) which held that the city's water policy had been formulated based upon a material error of law in regards to the city's obligation to provide the minimum set in the South African National Standard, therefore it was set aside. The court also held the quantity for dignified human existence in compliance with section 27 of the constitution was in fact 42 litres per person per day rather than 50 litres per person per day. The SCA declared that the installation of water meters was illegal, but suspended the order for two years to give the city an opportunity to rectify the situation. The issues went further to the Constitutional Court, which held that the duty created by the constitution required that the state take reasonable legislative and other measures progressively to realise the achievement of the right to access of water, within its available resource. the Constitutional Court also held that it is a matter for the legislature and executive institution of government to act within the allowance of their budgets and that the scrutiny of their programs is a matter of democratic accountability. Therefore, the minimum content set out by the regulation 3(b) is constitutional, rendering the bodies to deviate upwards and further it is inappropriate for a court to determine the achievement of any social and economic right the government has taken steps to implement. The courts had instead focused their inquiry on whether the steps taken by Government are reasonable, and whether the Government subjects its policies to regular review. The judgment has been criticized for deploying an "unnecessarily limiting concept of judicial deference". India The two most prominent cases in India regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the Constitution of India, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water. Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use. Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar Also notable is the case of Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar, where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the right to life, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process. World Rights to Water Day Water is essential for existence of living beings including humans. Therefore, having access to pure and adequate quantity of water is an inalienable human right. Hence, the Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) deems it necessary to recognise the right to water (with ensured per capita minimum quantity of water) through the appropriate expressed legal provision. The United Nations with its several covenants has made it obligatory for all the nations to ensure equitable distribution of water amongst all the citizens. Accordingly, the ENF began to observe and promote the celebration of World Rights to Water Day on 20 March, the date on which Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar ("the father of modern India") led the world's first satyagraha for water in 1927. The World Right to Water Day calls for the adoption of special legislation establishing the universal right to water. Under the guidance of founder Dr Priyanand Agale, the ENF arranges a variety of several programmes to ensure the right to water for Indian citizens. New Zealand ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights. United States In Pilchen v. City of Auburn, New York, a single mother named Diane Pilchen was living as a rental tenant in a foreclosed house, in which the owner (landlord) of the house had failed to pay the water bill for some time. The City of Auburn billed Pilchen for the landlord's arrears, and repeatedly shut her water service off without notice when she could not pay these debts, making the house uninhabitable. The city condemned the home and forced Pilchen and her child to move out. Pilchen was represented by the Public Utility Law Project of New York (PULP) in the lawsuit. The City of Auburn attempted unsuccessfully to argue that water is not a constitutional right because bottled water could be used instead, an argument that was contested by PULP as absurd. In 2010, Pilchen won summary judgment in which it was determined that shutting off the water violated her constitutional rights, and that Pilchen could not be billed and stopped from having water due to an unrelated party's delays in paying water bills. Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers In 2016, there was a prominent case known as Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers, where the Sioux Tribe challenged the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL). This crude oil pipeline spans over four states, which includes the beginning in North Dakota, then passes through both South Dakota and Iowa, and ends in Illinois. The Standing Rock Reservation is located near the border of North and South Dakota and the pipeline is built within a half a mile of it. Since the pipeline was built near the reservation, the tribe feared that historical and cultural significance of Lake Oahe would be tampered with, even though the pipeline doesn't run directly through the lake. Lake Oahe provides basic water necessities for the Sioux Tribe such as drinking water and for sanitation. The construction of the oil pipeline means that there is a higher risk of an oil spill into Lake Oahe, which made the tribe concerned. The Sioux Tribe sued the DAPL company as they believed that the creation of the pipeline was violating the National Environmental Policy Act and the National Historic Preservation Act. After the 2016 briefing, the court was unable to come to a conclusion, so the court decided to do additional briefings. After 5 briefings in 2017 and 1 briefing in 2018, the court has allowed the construction of the pipeline, but the Standing Rock tribe continues to fight to ensure that pipeline is removed. Australia The attention in Australia is focused on the rights of Indigenous Australians to water and sanitation. History of settler-colonialism overshadows today's state governance that regulates water use to indigenous Australians. There are many governmental agreements, but most of them are incomplete to fully influence power to the indigenous right to water and sanitation. In Mabo v Queensland, 1992, Native rights were legally recognized at the first time. Indigenous Australians often claim cultural bonds to the land. Although "culture" was recognized in the court as much as land resources, cultural and spiritual value of Aborigines to water body are fuzzy. It is challenging but needed to transcend their cultural and spiritual values into legal sphere. For now, there is virtually no progress. Australian water law basically prescribes surface water for citizens who can use surface water but cannot own. In the constitution, however, there is no description about inland and riparian water. Therefore, the sphere of inland/riparian water rights are the primary mandates of the state. The Commonwealth Government obtains authority over water by borrowing the help of external relationship, including the Grants Power, Trade and Commerce Power. In 2000, the Federal Court concluded the agreement that allowed indigenous landowners to take water for traditional purposes. However, the use is limited to traditional purpose, which did not include irrigation as a traditional practice. In June 2004, CoAC concluded an intergovernmental accord on a National Water Initiative (NWI), promoting recognition of indigenous right to water. However, NWI is not concerned broadly about complex history of settler-colonialism, which has systematically created a unequal pattern of water distribution. Indigenous people in Australia are constantly seeking the right to water. Remaining discussions Transboundary effects Given the fact that access to water is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the Middle East, South Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of North America amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap and cross borders, states also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global "water crunch" (as a future threat and one negative result of human over-population). Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another. Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan The water dispute between India and Pakistan is influenced by the scarcity of water in the South Asian region. The two countries have a pre-existing agreement known as the Indus Waters Treaty. The treaty was formed to limit the conflict between India and Pakistan regarding the use of the Indus basin and allocate water supply for both countries after the countries gained independence. However, disagreements regarding it have surfaced. According to the treaty, India is allowed to use the western river basin for irrigation and non-consumptive purposes, while Pakistan has the majority of control over the basin. However, Pakistan has voiced concerns that India's construction on the rivers may lead to severe water scarcity in Pakistan. Moreover, Pakistan voiced that the dams constructed by India for non-consumptive purposes may be used to divert water flow and disrupt Pakistan's water supply. In addition, the treaty involves rivers that originate from Jammu and Kashmir, which have been excluded from control over their own water bodies. Water commercialization versus state provision Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and sanitation. The commercialization of water is offered as a response to the increased scarcity of water that has resulted due to the world population tripling while the demand for water has increased six-fold. Market environmentalism uses the markets as a solution to environmental problems such as environmental degradation and an inefficient use of resources. Supporters of market environmentalism believe that the managing of water as an economic good by private companies will be more efficient than governments providing water resources to their citizens. Such proponents claim that the government costs of developing infrastructure for water resource allocation is not worth the marginal benefits of water provision, thus deeming the state as an ineffective provider of water. Moreover, it is argued that water commodification leads to more sustainable water management due to the economic incentives for consumers to use water more efficiently. The opponents believe that the consequence of water being a human right excludes private sector involvement and requires that water should be given to all people because it is essential to life. Access to water as a human right is used by some NGOs as a means to combat privatization efforts. A human right to water "generally rests on two justifications: the non-substitutability of drinking water ("essential for life"), and the fact that many other human rights which are explicitly recognized in the UN Conventions are predicated upon an (assumed) availability of water (e.g. the right to food)." Pluralism perspectives as a mean to protect the right of a socially weak community A legal pluralism perspective is gaining momentum, with the idea of Anthropocene and the recognition of indigenous people who face a serious incursion of right to their culturally important land and water. Pluralism perspectives are a multidisciplinary approach, which apply different rules to a group of people. There are a huge number of international and domestic agreements, which limits the power over indigenous rights to water, recognize indigenous rights, and promote them. For example, they include International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ratified by 167 countries in 1996, which usurps the power of state who invades the indigenous rights and gives the right of self-determination for indigenous people. Self-determination is the idea that people should be able to autonomously manage their natural resources. Also, in the same year, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) recognized self-determination of indigenous people to land and water use. The UN Conference on Environment and Development adopted Agenda 21 supported by 174 states, further protecting indigenous people from incursion of their natural resources. There are many other arrangements in international and domestic sphere. Pluralist concerns about all of them to apply these different rules to the same jurisdiction on case-by-case basis. There are many limitations on this multifaceted approach, though. Some rules use abstract languages about the right, featuring ambiguous. They are often taken advantage by a state to power the right to water resources over a specific community. Many states make it rule to adopt their customary rules rather than international arrangements. Also, a content of each rule features differently, causing "inconsistencies" under the same content, agenda. Ambiguity, customary laws, and inconsistencies become impediments to put in practice pluralism perspectives. In spite of these drawbacks, pluralism perspectives provide other options to governance to help socially weak people, including marginalized indigenous people, therefore worthwhile exploring more. Organizations Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below. United Nations organizations OHCHR (UN Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights) UNDP UNICEF Sanitation and Water for All Governmental cooperation agencies DFID (United Kingdom's Cooperation Agency) GIZ (German Corporation for International Cooperation) SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation) EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) International non-governmental organizations and networks Action against Hunger (ACF) Blood:Water Center for Water Security and Cooperation Freshwater Action Network (FAN) Pure Water for the World The DigDeep Right to Water Project The Pacific Institute The Water Project Transnational Institute with the Water Justice project UUSC WaterAid WaterLex (defunct as of 2020) PeaceJam See also References External links Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights WaterLex Archive The Human Right to Water and Sanitation Translating Theory into Practice (2009) by GIZ Right to Water: Understanding children’s right to water on Humanium Human rights by issue Water Sanitation Right to health

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The Great Movie Ride was a dark ride located at Disney's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida. The attraction employed the use of Audio-Animatronic figures, practical sets, live actors, special effects, and projections to recreate iconic scenes from twelve classic films throughout motion picture history. The attraction—which debuted with the park on May 1, 1989—was located inside the park's replica of Grauman's Chinese Theatre, one of Hollywood's most famous movie palaces. The Great Movie Ride was originally developed by Walt Disney Imagineering as a pavilion for the Future World section of Epcot. Under the direction of Michael Eisner and Marty Sklar, the concept was expanded into a third theme park that included the dark ride as its centerpiece. To accurately represent a broad spectrum of cinema, Disney also incorporated films from outside of its own library, mainly through its licensing agreement with MGM. Turner Classic Movies sponsored the attraction for the final two years of its operation, with TCM film historian Robert Osborne serving as the attraction's host during that time. The Great Movie Ride closed on August 13, 2017, becoming the last operating attraction from the park's opening day to close. The attraction was replaced by Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway. History The Great Movie Ride directly inspired the creation of Disney's Hollywood Studios. In a Walt Disney Imagineering book, it was revealed that The Great Movie Ride was originally planned as the main attraction in a show business themed pavilion at Epcot, which was to be called "Great Moments at the Movies". However, the newly assigned Disney CEO Michael Eisner and WDI president Marty Sklar decided the idea was strong enough to lead an entire new theme park. The idea for the ride was expanded, and the Disney-MGM Studios went into official development. The attraction used the likenesses of numerous living and deceased actors to be recreated as audio-animatronics. Chad Everett provided the voice for John Wayne's figure at the behest of Wayne's family. Lee Marvin's inebriated character of Kid Shelleen from Cat Ballou was planned to be included in the Western segment but was replaced with one of Clint Eastwood, as Marvin's family believed that particular portrayal was inappropriate to showcase. Plans called for The Great Movie Ride to be the main attraction for the Disney-MGM Studios Europe theme park, which was scrapped due to the early financial difficulties of the Euro Disneyland Resort. Years later when the resort began turning profits, a show business themed theme park went into development again, and the Walt Disney Studios Park opened in 2002 at the Disneyland Resort Paris, although minus The Great Movie Ride. A show called CinéMagique was built in lieu of the ride due to claims by Disney management that the French preferred shows to ride-through attractions. Three separate attempts were made by Walt Disney Imagineering to bring The Great Movie Ride to California. First were plans to incorporate the attraction into the proposed “Disney-MGM Studio Backlot” project, a film studio themed retail and entertainment district that was planned (but ultimately never built) for downtown Burbank, California during the late 1980s. Several years later, plans called for the ride to serve as the centerpiece of the proposed Hollywoodland at Disneyland, which would have been added to the park during the planned Disney Decade in the 1990s. Due to budget cuts, however, Hollywoodland was canceled. Later, plans called for the ride to be built as part of the Hollywood Pictures Backlot area of the Disney California Adventure Park theme park at the Disneyland Resort. But budget cuts in the park's original development planning forced the ride's projected cost to be spent on smaller, original and less expensive attractions. An early concept was supposed to be called Great Moments at the Movies, presented by Sears Roebuck & Co. The Walt Disney Company and the retailer (then the largest in the world) announced a 10-year joint marketing and licensing agreement on November 19, 1987. Sears would sponsor the park’s signature attraction and a Hollywood Showcase Store. However, these plans were scrapped before the park's opening. Coca-Cola stepped in as the attraction’s sponsor, and it became The Great Movie Ride to reflect it was a ride, not a movie, despite being housed in a replica of a famous movie theater. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Disney was interested in purchasing Jim Henson's Muppets. Walt Disney Imagineering developed a Muppet-themed land for Disney-MGM Studios called Muppet Studios. The land was to feature two main attractions; one was Muppet*Vision 3D and the other was The Great Muppet Movie Ride, a parody of The Great Movie Ride featuring Muppet characters such as Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, and Gonzo re-enacting scenes from famous films such as Frankenstein and Peter Pan. However, after Henson died, the deal fell apart and Disney cut back on the Muppet-themed area to just Muppet*Vision 3D. On the park's opening day, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Minnie Mouse, Goofy, Roger Rabbit and other Disney characters placed their signatures, footprints, and handprints in front of the façade of the Great Movie Ride. Unlike many Disney dark rides that feature separate embarkation and debarkation areas, the Great Movie Ride had only a single combined unloading and loading area. The last people to exit the vehicles often passed the next group of guests waiting to board the vehicles. At the time the ride was designed (the mid to late 1980s), it was common throughout the theme park industry to have all major rides exit into a store selling merchandise associated with the attraction. The Great Movie Ride, however, did not exit directly into a store and instead allowed guests to directly exit back outside into the park. In 2014, as part of an exclusive programming deal with Disney, Turner Classic Movies agreed to become the sponsor of the attraction. The attraction underwent a refurbishment in 2015, with the addition of a new pre-show and post-show hosted by Robert Osborne, who also provided onboard narration to the ride. The changes were unveiled on May 29, 2015. On July 15, 2017, it was announced that The Great Movie Ride would be permanently closed in order to make room for its replacement, Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway. The attraction had become outdated over the years and the animatronics were starting to age. Plus, Disney's Hollywood Studios was changing the theme from show business to popular Hollywood movies. Last rides were given at 9:30 PM on August 13. By the next morning, the signs were taken down and a photo opportunity of Mickey & Minnie’s Runaway Railway was installed near the former exit. There are three references in Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway that pay tribute to The Great Movie Ride. A poster that says The Great Moving Ride can be found in the carnival scene between the popcorn stand and Donald's hot dog stand. The tornado scene contains a mailbox with the iconic No Place Like Home quote. Prior to the factory scene, an alley cat sound effect can be heard in the back alley. There is also a Hidden Mickey in the same area that resembles a control box. On April 17, 2019, it was announced that Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway at Disneyland was scheduled to open in 2022. However, it was delayed to 2023 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Modifications Footlight Parade The first sequence of the ride, Footlight Parade, was plagued with engineering and technical problems from the beginning. When the ride was newly opened, the Footlight Parade segment was different from what it later became. The entire portion following the neon lighted entrance was fleshed out. All the walls leading up to, around, and beyond the "cake" were painted in art deco style patterns as seen in "By A Waterfall". Approximately three "diving boards" with three mannequin "dancers" wearing capes were perched on the right-hand side of the wall as you enter the ride segment. The five-tiered "cake" was prominently displayed at a left-hand turn. It was in the open air illuminated with an array of animated lights. During this pass through the Footlight Parade segment, riders would hear a "loop" of "By A Waterfall" (a song featured in Footlight Parade) lasting approximately 40 seconds as bubbles fall from the ceiling. For approximately the first year, the "cake" actually rotated and was adorned with water jets as seen in the film. Allegedly, the rotating "cake" mechanism was constantly breaking down, causing frequent repairs and downtime. In addition, the water pumps would constantly fail, flooding the ride path. Park operations believed it was much cheaper and less problematic to leave the "cake" in place with lighting effects used to provide what Imagineers term as "kinetics" to the segment. When it closed, this segment was still the "opening act" of The Great Movie Ride, but significantly toned down. The guests entered a segment with its lighting significantly diminished. The outer walls were dark with practically no art deco recreations from the film set. The "diving boards" had been replaced with art deco style wall sconces. Instead, guests passed through a deco inspired archway to find themselves facing a large scrim-lined proscenium decorated with gray/blue clouds and remnants of the art deco set designs. Throughout the segment, three large rotating projections of Busby Berkeley-style kaleidoscope dance sequences appeared on the scrim (from By A Waterfall, Dames, and Shadow Waltz). These disappeared to expose the "cake," which was behind the scrim and was simultaneously illuminated with washes of light and reflective water effects. The caped dancers on diving boards were located to the far left of the "cake" behind the scrim. The art deco style wall panels still resided behind the "cake". The looping song segment and bubbles remained. The Wizard of Oz The Wizard of Oz scene did not have major structural changes, but Walt Disney Imagineering replaced the original A-100 Wicked Witch audio-animatronic character with a newer-design figure utilizing Sarcos technology. The Sarcos-equipped audio-animatronics are capable of a great deal more movement possibilities than the original "limited animation" figure designs and can move much more quickly. As a result, they were made much more lifelike. Attraction Facade The Great Movie Ride was located inside a recreation of the famous Hollywood landmark, Grauman's Chinese Theatre. The park's Chinese Theatre is a full-scale replica of the original building; Imagineers used the original building's 1927 blueprints in the construction of the park's theatre. At the time the attraction opened, the actual theater's name was "Grauman's Chinese Theatre" and later "Mann's Chinese Theatre", however, the park's proper name for this version of the building is simply "The Chinese Theater". From 2001 to 2015, the theatre façade was obscured from view (when looking from the park's entrance), when the Sorcerer's Hat was situated directly in front of the attraction. The Chinese Theatre facade and courtyard remained after the attraction's closure and was retained for Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway. Queue The line wound through a recreation of the Chinese Theatre lobby past glass display cases containing actual costumes, props, and set pieces from various films. The lobby also featured digital posters of various motion pictures. The line then took guests into a small pre-show theatre where Turner Classic Movies host Robert Osborne provided insight and commentary about various motion pictures and film genres—such as musicals, adventure, science-fiction, westerns, romance, and gangster films— including those films that were featured within the ride. The queue line ended at a pair of automatic doors at the front of the theatre that lead into a 1930s era Hollywood soundstage where guests were loaded onto waiting ride vehicles. Ride experience As the guests reach the end of the queue, they entered a 1930s-era Hollywood sound stage where they become loaded by cast members into one of two pairs of open, theatre-style seating ride vehicles. The ride vehicles utilize a "traveling theatre"-style automated guided vehicle ride system similar to the former Universe of Energy attraction at Epcot. However, here the ride vehicles are much smaller in size, are grouped together in pairs of two, and feature an open cab in the first row of the front vehicle for a live tour guide to stand, provide narration, and operate the ride vehicle. Earlier and later in the day, only the second pair of ride vehicles (#2B) are used as the first pair of ride vehicles (#1A) are only used during the busier times of day. The film set within the soundstage features a large neon theatre marquee and a cyclorama of the 1930s-era Hollywood Hills complete with the original Hollywoodland Sign. As the ride begins, the song "Hooray for Hollywood" plays overhead as the vehicles' tour guide welcomes the guests and introduces Osborne, who informs them (via onboard narration) that they will be taken through scenes from different classic films throughout history. The first genre of films introduced are musicals, which begins with a cake of starlets from By a Waterfall from Busby Berkeley's Footlight Parade. The next musical scenes include audio-animatronic figures of Don Lockwood (Gene Kelly) swinging from a lamp post from Singin' in the Rain, followed by Mary Poppins (Julie Andrews) and Bert (Dick Van Dyke) singing on the rooftops of London from Mary Poppins. The next scene is a tribute to gangster films. The ride vehicle passes through the dark and seedy backstreets of a 1930s Chicago and past an audio-animatronic Tom Powers (James Cagney) in a scene from The Public Enemy. When both pairs of ride vehicles are in use, the #1A ride vehicle continues on to the next show scene past a green traffic light above a tunnel entrance while the #2B ride vehicle is stopped when the traffic light changes to red. While stopped, a live gangster named Mugsy (Boy) or Mugsi (Girl) and their audio-animatronic companions Squid and Beans show up and get involved in a shoot-out with rival mobsters (Brains, Legs, and Weasel) in a car on the opposite side of the street where the ride vehicle is stopped. During the shootout, the live gangster then chases the tour guide and hijacks the ride vehicle. Next, the ride vehicle enters into a tribute to the Western genre. Here, the guests encounter audio-animatronics of the Man with No Name (Clint Eastwood) standing outside of a saloon and Ethan Edwards (John Wayne) sitting atop his horse. The #2B ride vehicle (which is already being driven by the gangster) continues past a shootout between the town sheriff and an audio-animatronic bank robber named Snake. The gangster ignores the shootout and continues on to the next scene. However, the #1A ride vehicle (which is still being driven by the tour guide) stops in front of the town bank while a bank robbery is in progress. Suddenly, a live bank robber named Kate Durango (Girl) or Kid Carson (Boy) appears from inside the bank. After getting into a shoot-out with the town sheriff and chasing the tour guide into the bank, the bandit sets the town bank ablaze with dynamite and hijacks the ride vehicle. Following this scene, the remainder of the attraction is the same for both the #1A and #2B ride vehicles. Next, the ride vehicle continues into a darkened corridor of a seemingly abandoned spaceship, revealing itself to be the Nostromo, the doomed vessel from Alien. The ride vehicle passes an audio-animatronic Ellen Ripley (Sigourney Weaver) holding a flamethrower as she prepares to confront a creature lurking within the ship. Guests could also hear Jones, Ripley's pet cat, meowing in the darkness, as well as the Nostromo'''s "Mother" computer warning of an imminent ship self-destruction countdown. Hearing this, the gangster or the bandit becomes nervous and speeds the ride vehicle through the ship, but not before the Alien appears and attacks the guests, popping out from both the ceiling and the wall. The ride vehicle next enters a scene set in an ancient Egyptian tomb filled with snakes. Osborne informs the guests that they are in a scene from Raiders of the Lost Ark as audio-animatronic figures of Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford) and Sallah (John Rhys-Davies) struggle to lift the Ark of the Covenant. A second room within the temple features a large altar in the form of the ancient Egyptian god Anubis. Near the top of the altar, a large priceless jewel is being watched over by a cloaked temple guard. The gangster or the bandit sees the jewel, stops the ride vehicle, and disembarkes to take it. Before touching the jewel, the temple guard gives a warning that those who disturb the treasure of the gods must pay with their life. Ignoring the warning, the gangster or the bandit reaches to grab the jewel. Suddenly, a plume of fiery smoke shoots from the ground engulfing the temple altar (as the temple guard leaves, undressing to reveal that the temple guard is the original tour guide while doing so before reappearing from the shadows). When the smoke clears out, the skeletal corpse of the Gangster or Bandit is revealed and the tour guide reboards the ride vehicle and continues on with the show. The next film genre introduced are horror films as the ride vehicle goes through an ancient burial chamber full of mummies, some of which have come to life. The ride vehicle soon departs the tomb and enters a dense jungle. Here, audio-animatronic figures of Tarzan (Johnny Weissmuller) swinging on a vine, Jane (Maureen O'Sullivan) sitting atop Timba the elephant, and Cheeta the chimpanzee can be seen. The ride vehicle then moves past the final scene from Casablanca, featuring audio-animatronics of Rick Blaine (Humphrey Bogart) and Ilsa Lund (Ingrid Bergman) as they stand in front of a waiting airplane. Next, the ride vehicle passes a film projection of Mickey Mouse in his role as the Sorcerer's Apprentice from the 1940 Walt Disney's animated film, Fantasia.The ride vehicle then enters into the Munchkinland scene from The Wizard of Oz, where Dorothy's house has landed on the Wicked Witch of the East. When both the #1A and #2B ride vehicles are in use, they meet up here and come to a stop in the middle of the scene. Audio-Animatronic Munchkins begin to appear from various places and sing as they welcome guests to their home. However, a plume of smoke suddenly rises from the ground as an audio-animatronic Wicked Witch of the West (Margaret Hamilton) appears and asks who is responsible for killing the Wicked Witch of the East. The tour guide aboard the #1A ride vehicle briefly interacts with her before she disappears in another puff of smoke. The Munchkins reappear from their hiding places and begin to sing again as both ride vehicles follow the Yellow Brick Road out of Munchkinland past audio-animatronic figures of Dorothy (Judy Garland), Scarecrow (Ray Bolger), Tin Man (Jack Haley), Cowardly Lion (Bert Lahr) and Toto (Terry) standing in front of the Emerald City, and onto the ride's grand finale. For the grand finale, when both the #1A and #2B ride vehicles are in use, they both enter a dark theatre where they line up side by side and come to a stop in front of a large movie screen. There, Osborne or the tour guide concludes the tour with a three-minute film montage of classic film moments. At the conclusion of the film, as guests applaud the tour guide declaring the tour a success, both ride vehicles exit the theater lined up single-file again and return to the 1930s soundstage where the ride concluded. Films represented Licensing rights Most of the non-Disney films represented in The Great Movie Ride were produced by and/or owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer when the ride's operation began. In 1985, Disney and MGM entered into a licensing contract that gave Disney worldwide rights to use the MGM name and logo for what would become Disney-MGM Studios (now known as Disney's Hollywood Studios), while separate contracts were used for The Wizard of Oz, Casablanca, Singin' in the Rain, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, The Public Enemy, Tarzan and His Mate and Footlight Parade to give these films representation in The Great Movie Ride. Disney's license for the aforementioned films continued with Turner Entertainment until the attraction's closure. The Great Movie Ride also included Alien, owned by 20th Century Fox, as Disney originally acquired the licensing rights to the film for a different ride, which was ultimately cancelled. Disney, however, retained the rights to use Alien and decided to incorporate it into the Great Movie Ride. In addition to Fox, scenes from almost all of the major film studios were presented in the film montage with one notable exception; there was no reference to any motion picture released by Universal Pictures, whose parent company operates the rival Universal Orlando Resort, although Shakespeare In Love, which was made by Miramax & Universal, was featured in the montage. Final set of films in finale In alphabetical order: 10 2001: A Space Odyssey 42nd Street The Absent-Minded Professor The Adventures of Robin Hood Airplane! Aladdin Alien All About Eve Amadeus An American in Paris Anchors Aweigh Armageddon Arsenic and Old Lace Arthur Babes in Arms The Band Wagon Behind the Screen Ben-Hur Beverly Hills Cop Big The Birth of a Nation The Black Pirate Blazing Saddles Braveheart The Bridge on the River Kwai Bright Eyes Broadcast News Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid Cabaret Cabin in the Sky Camille Casablanca Chariots of Fire Chicago The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Citizen Kane Cocktail Cocoon Cops Crocodile Dundee The Cure David Copperfield The Defiant Ones The Dentist Dirty Dancing Doctor Zhivago Down and Out in Beverly Hills Fantasia Fatal Attraction Finding Nemo Follow the Fleet Footlight Parade Forbidden Paradise Forrest Gump The French Connection From Here to Eternity Frozen Funny Girl Gentlemen Prefer Blondes Giant Gilda The Godfather The Godfather Part II The Gold Rush Good Morning, Vietnam The Great Train Robbery Grease The Great Escape Gone with the Wind Grand Hotel The Grapes of Wrath Guardians of the Galaxy High Noon High Society Honey, I Shrunk the Kids Hud The Incredibles Independence Day It Happened One Night It's a Wonderful Life Jailhouse Rock The Jazz Singer The Karate Kid King Kong The Kiss Klute Lady and the Tramp Lassie Come Home The Last Emperor Lawrence of Arabia Lethal Weapon The Lion King The Live Ghost Malcolm X Marathon Man Mary Poppins The Matrix Million Dollar Mermaid Mission: Impossible Never Say Never Again A Night at the Opera A Nightmare on Elm Street North by Northwest Notorious Our Dancing Daughters Pal Joey Patton Pearl Harbor Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl A Place in the Sun Platoon A Plumbing We Will Go Poltergeist Pretty Woman The Public Enemy Queen Christina Raiders of the Lost Ark Rambo: First Blood Part II Return of the Jedi The Rink Risky Business Roman Holiday Royal Wedding San Francisco Saturday Night Fever The Searchers The Seven Year Itch Shampoo Shanghai Knights The Sheik Show Boat Silkwood Singin' in the Rain Sister Act Shakespeare in Love Some Like It Hot The Sound of Music Stagecoach Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country Star Wars Star Wars: The Force Awakens Steamboat Willie A Streetcar Named Desire Sunset Boulevard Superman Swing Time Take the Money and Run Tangled Taxi Driver The Ten Commandments The Ten Commandments The Terminator Terms of Endearment Thelma & Louise Three Men and a Baby The Three Musketeers Top Gun Tootsie Toy Story Trading Places True Grit Unforgiven The Way We Were Who Framed Roger Rabbit Wings The Wizard of Oz Wuthering Heights Yankee Doodle Dandy Young FrankensteinProps The Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior plane, is often claimed to be the actual plane used during the filming of Casablanca, but no full-size plane was actually used during the filming of Casablanca. The back half of this plane was cut off and can be found resting along the shoreline of the Jungle Cruise attraction at the Magic Kingdom. Notable props most recently residing in the queue Wardrobe pieces and miniature scale props from Who Framed Roger Rabbit. The Dejarik board used aboard the Millennium Falcon in the original Star Wars. Freddy Krueger's red and green striped sweater from A Nightmare on Elm Street 2: Freddy's Revenge. Alex Delarge's hat from A Clockwork Orange. Rose's dress from Titanic. Veronica's (played by Judy Garland) dress from In the Good Old Summertime. Props that formerly resided in the queue Indiana Jones' machete and monkey heads from Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. The ruby slippers from The Wizard of Oz (Another pair is in the National Museum of American History administered by the Smithsonian). The dip machine model and bullet case from Who Framed Roger Rabbit (from 1988). Spacesuit and various props from the films Alien and Armageddon. Sam's piano from Casablanca. A dress worn by Maria in The Sound of Music. The title object from Cocoon. The model Nautilus submarine and a dive suit from Disney's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. Susan's costume from The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. A green peacock Elizabethan dress worn by Judi Dench in Shakespeare in Love. Mary Poppins' carousel horse from the film of the same name. Fiona's (played by Cyd Charisse) dress from Brigadoon (film)''. List of imprints in forecourt This is a list of handprints and footprints in the Chinese Theatre's courtyard. Ann-Margret (August 31, 1994) Eddie Albert (September 21, 1990) Alan Alda (1988) June Allyson (August 21, 1989) Harry Anderson (April 29, 1989) Lauren Bacall (April 29, 1989) Warren Beatty (August 19, 1990) Robby Benson (December 29, 1991) Pat Boone (November 3, 1989) Carol Burnett (June 25, 1988) George Burns (May 1, 1989) LeVar Burton C-3PO and R2-D2 (December 20, 1989) Carol Channing (February 9, 1993) Cyd Charisse (May 10, 1989) Chevy Chase (March 24, 1990) Dick Clark (June 1, 1990) Jackie Cooper (November 21, 1988) David Copperfield (January 4, 1994) Tom Cruise (April 9, 1989) Macaulay Culkin (February 22, 1991) Tony Curtis (March 27, 1992) Geena Davis (June 10, 1992) Rebecca De Mornay (1991) Danny DeVito (June 17, 1990) Gérard Depardieu (December 10, 1996) Neil Diamond (February 1993) Phyllis Diller (1989) Donald Duck (May 1, 1989) Patty Duke (March 28, 1993) Douglas Fairbanks Jr. (October 10, 1990) Jamie Farr (May 25, 1996) Harrison Ford (January 9, 1991) John Forsythe Michael J. Fox (May 29, 1999) Annette Funicello (May 1, 1989) Estelle Getty (April 17, 1989) Bobcat Goldthwait (December 28, 1990) Goofy (May 1, 1989) Louis Gossett Jr. (April 6, 1989) Elliott Gould (December 29, 1989) Mark Hamill (January 13, 1990) Daryl Hannah (February 13, 1989) Glenne Headly (June 14, 1990) Jim Henson and Kermit the Frog (August 28, 1989) Audrey Hepburn (April 29, 1989) Pee-Wee Herman (February 13, 1989) Charlton Heston (December 7, 1995) Dustin Hoffman (June 14, 1990) Hulk Hogan (November 9, 1993) Bob Hope (May 1, 1989) Ernie Hudson Kate Jackson (April 16, 1989) Michael Jackson (January 13, 1990) Samuel L. Jackson (March 3, 1995) Billy Joel and Christie Brinkley (March 20, 1990) Van Johnson (October 26, 1995) George Kennedy (December 23, 1991) Charlie Korsmo (June 19, 1990) Dorothy Lamour (September 12, 1990) Michael Landon (July 13, 1988) Angela Lansbury (November 2, 1991) Jerry Lewis (April 10, 1996) Ray Liotta (February 18, 1995) George Lucas (August 26, 1989) Steve Martin (1991) Rue McClanahan (April 17, 1989) Ed McMahon (June 15, 1992) Bette Midler Ann Miller (August 8, 1991) Liza Minnelli (March 20, 1990) Mary Tyler Moore (May 8, 1993) Rick Moranis (April 30, 1989) Pat Morita (August 23, 1991) Mickey Mouse (May 1, 1989) Minnie Mouse (May 1, 1989) Leonard Nimoy (1989) Donald O'Connor (November 18, 1991) Maureen O'Sullivan (February 21, 1992) Jack Palance (January 15, 1997) Regis Philbin and Kathie Lee Gifford (October 2, 1991) Jane Powell (August 30, 1989) Jason Priestley (June 22, 1991) Roger Rabbit (May 1, 1989) Tony Randall (April 16, 1989) Burt Reynolds (June 23, 1988) John Ritter The Rocketeer (film) (June 21, 1991) Ruby slippers (worn by Judy Garland) Jane Russell (February 8, 1992) Susan Sarandon (March 21, 1999) Charlie Sheen (September 17, 1994) Martin Short (November 1, 1991) Suzanne Somers (April 15, 1989) Sally Jo Sousa (October 22, 1996) Sissy Spacek Sylvester Stallone (December 13, 1990) Sally Struthers Lily Tomlin (December 3, 1994) John Travolta (June 18, 1989) Cicely Tyson (April 29, 1989) Dick Van Dyke (April 14, 1989) Jim Varney Patrick Wayne (April 29, 1989) Betty White (February 24, 1990) Cindy Williams (June 25, 1988) Robin Williams (December 28, 1990) See also List of films considered the best References External links 1989 establishments in Florida 2017 disestablishments in Florida Alien (franchise) Amusement rides introduced in 1989 Amusement rides that closed in 2017 Audio-Animatronic attractions Disney's Hollywood Studios Dark rides Former Walt Disney Parks and Resorts attractions Hollywood Boulevard (Disney's Hollywood Studios) Hollywood history and culture Indiana Jones in amusement parks Licensed properties at Walt Disney Parks & Resorts The Wizard of Oz (1939 film) Turner Classic Movies

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John H. Ritter (born October 31, 1951, San Pedro, California) is an American novelist, short story writer, teacher, and lecturer. He has written six novels and numerous short stories spanning the historical, sports, and sociopolitical genres in the young adult field of literature. His first novel, Choosing Up Sides, published in 1998, won the 1999 International Reading Association Children's Book Award for Older Readers and was designated an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults. Kirkus Reviews praised Choosing Up Sides, which attacked the once-prevalent views of religious fundamentalists toward left-handed children, as, "No ordinary baseball book, this is a rare first novel." In 2004 Ritter received the Paterson Prize for Books for Young People for his third novel, The Boy Who Saved Baseball. Ritter's novels have tackled subjects as diverse as the Vietnam War, the war in Iraq, the complexities of exurban land development, jazz fusion, Billy the Kid, the originations of the racial ban against African Americans in Major League Baseball, and the ascension prophecies of 2012. According to Vicki Sherbert, writing in The ALAN Review for the National Council of Teachers of English, Ritter "uses the game of baseball, the glory of music, and the power of the written word to illustrate how young people can overcome everyday, and not-so-everyday, challenges. Each book goes beyond the story of the game, beyond the story of the problem, right to the heart of Ritter's message: What is really valuable in life?" Early life Born in San Pedro, California, on October 31, 1951, novelist John H. Ritter grew up in the rural hills of eastern San Diego County. His father, Carl W. Ritter, was a sports writer, and later financial editor, for The San Diego Union newspaper. Ritter's mother, Clara, died of breast cancer, when he was four years old. Ritter recalls, "One thing I remember about my mom is that she sang to us constantly, making up a song for each of her four children that fit our personalities perfectly. So from her, I got a sense of how to capture a person's spirit in a lyrical phrase." Writing in Dear Author: Letters of Hope, edited by Joan F. Kaywell, Ritter had this to say about his childhood. "When I was very young, my mother died. And my father, who deeply loved her, fell into a deep depression and began to drink heavily. After being left with four young children, my dad feared he would not be able to cope. I learned quite early that when a man drinks, he morphs into someone else. I didn’t like that drinking man. I hated the late-night arguments that filled our house, the screaming, the breaking of furniture, and the many sleepless nights I would lie in bed praying for peace, praying that my father could see the pain he was causing, how he was harming his children with his tirades, and driving the housekeepers away. In the morning, sober again, my dad would return to being the gentle, loving soul I knew him to be. And sometimes it would last all day. But never all week. Before long, I’d see his car roll up the driveway, see him climb out drunk and belligerent, and I would disappear. "As time went on, my dad did coach our ball teams, and we did have some great times. He even remarried. But he never stopped drinking. Eventually, his second wife divorced him. His children grew up and moved away. And my dad retired into a dark and lonely house." In an essay which appeared in the 2003 book Making The Match: The Right Book for the Right Reader at the Right Time for all yawl, Ritter again writes about his childhood. "It was right around that time [1967] when a certain black book fell from heaven into my hands and changed my life. An amazing book—full of crazy characters, of sadness and love, of desperation and revolution, of insight and morality. It was political and poetical, religious and surreptitious. It was a biography of the world and it was pure fiction. I was captivated by it, motivated by it, undressed, unblest, and depressed by it. All that summer, I’d been teaching myself primitive piano, had fancied myself a bluesy, outraged rock star or an actor maybe, or anyone with an audience, anyone with a voice. Then on this one particular hot, dry October afternoon, my older brother left for college and left behind his Bob Dylan Songbook. "It was long, lean, shiny, and black, a paperback, over a hundred pages full of musical notes and chords and the most surprising poetry I’d ever read. All of a sudden I had a new dream. I tore the baffle off my electric organ, cranked up the tiny Sears and Roebuck mail order amp, and sang that raggedy book from cover to cover, memorizing beat street lyrics, adopting the wail of a moaning man of constant sorrow, a tambourine man, a weather man, only a pawn, only a hobo, but one more is gone, leaving nobody to sing his sad song, and on and on. And I knew what I wanted to be. I would be the storyteller, the historian, the biographer of mixed up, dreamed up characters like these, ‘who push fake morals, insult, and stare, whose money doesn’t talk, it swears.’ Or those who ‘sing in the rat race choir, bent out of shape by society's pliers.’ Characters with eyes, with guts."<ref>Making the Match: The Right Book for the Right Reader at the Right Time, Grades 4-12 (Portland, Maine: Stenhouse, 2003) 5-7.</ref> Dylan's poems led Ritter to Jack Kerouac's On the Road, then to John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, "and back again somehow—with different eyes—to Mark Twain's Roughing It. All journey books, all road poems, all the manic panic of romance and motion that a country boy needs." After high school, Ritter attended the University of California at San Diego. There he played baseball and met his wife, Cheryl, who later became an elementary school teacher in San Diego, where Ritter worked for 25 years as a painting contractor while trying to establish himself as a writer. Writing career Choosing Up Sides In 1994, Ritter received the Judy Blume Award and a cash grant from the Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators (SCBWI) for a novel in progress. In 1996, he submitted his first novel, Choosing Up Sides, through Curtis Brown (literary agents), to Philomel Books, then a division of Penguin Putnam in New York, where the novel became the first acquisition of junior editor, Michael Green. Since then, Green has risen to become Editorial Director and Publisher of Philomel Books and has edited all six of Ritter's novels.Choosing Up Sides is set in southern Ohio in the 1920s. The novel's protagonist, 13-year-old Luke Bledsoe, is the oldest child of a preacher. Born left-handed, Luke is, in the eyes of his fundamentalist father, Ezekiel, a heathen and potential follower of Satan, for he believes the left hand is the hand of the devil. The authoritarian Ezekiel tries to "cure" Luke of his left-handedness, but with little luck. When Ezekiel becomes minister of the Holy River of John the Baptist Church in Crown Falls, Ohio, Luke inadvertently becomes involved with the local baseball team, which won the county championship the previous year and hopes to repeat their success. Unfortunately, in addition to viewing left-handedness as a conscious choice, "Pure backwards of what's right and good," Ezekiel also views baseball as a temptation that needs to be resisted, so Luke must practice pitching in secret, by throwing rocks and may apples in the woods. Early on, while Luke is watching a forbidden game, a ball lands at his feet. Throwing it back with his left hand, he amazes the crowd with both distance and placement. The ballplayers and his uncle, Micah, a sports editor for a northern Ohio newspaper, set about convincing Luke that wasting a talent such as his is the actual sin. When Luke decides to pitch for the team, a confrontation with his father ends in a violent beating, which later leads directly to the death of the father, when a crippled Luke is unable to save the man from drowning. Reviewing Choosing Up Sides, Elizabeth Bush described it in the Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books as a novel that "pits fire and brimstone Fundamentalism against a rival religion—Baseball—and treats both with cathartic understanding." Patricia K. Ladd wrote in The ALAN Review that Ritter "addresses themes of autonomy and independence common to young adult readers and portrays plot through authentic dialect and well-developed characters", and his uses of dialogue, similes, metaphors, and imagery "add dimensions to the plot that leave readers pondering the book's messages long after turning the final page." Dr. Stefani Koorey in her Voice of Youth Advocates review maintained, "Unlike many sports novels, Choosing Up Sides does more than offer a mere glimpse of the grand old game of baseball—it takes a deeper look at faith, truth, and individuality", going on to dub the tale a "well-designed study of personal choice." For many years, Ritter painted the story the same way book critics did. The IRA Award-winning novel did indeed take a deeper look at faith. As Ritter revealed, nearly ten years later, Choosing Up Sides was actually inspired by a law passed by Colorado voters in 1992 known as Amendment 2 to the Colorado State Constitution, which prohibited enactment or enforcement of anti-discrimination protections for gay, lesbian and bisexual Coloradans. Though later declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court, the law's enactment inspired Ritter to search for a metaphorical children's story paralleling the discriminatory amendment and the religious-based beliefs behind it. Responding to a question in a November 17, 2003, interview by Holly Atkins for the St. Petersburg Times, Ritter hints at the book's meaning: Atkins: "In ‘A Note from the Author’ at the end of Choosing Up Sides you write about where the idea for this novel originated. So although on one level this is a novel about a left-handed future baseball star, it's really about the larger issue of discrimination?" Ritter: "Yes—and religious-based discrimination, to be specific. That's the hardest prejudice to defeat, since it is delivered bearing a religious righteousness. I remember, as a boy, hearing segregation and racism being justified from the pulpit and I could not comprehend this glaring hypocrisy, totally contrary to what Jesus taught. Only later did I realize that the Bible often gets interpreted and reinterpreted in such a way as to reinforce one's own bigotry and social bias. I think it's important for children to recognize this practice as soon as possible and apply their critical thinking skills to it, since it certainly continues today." Around the year 2007, Ritter began to sense a cultural shift toward tolerance, even in the most conservative states where his books are most popular, and began testing the waters toward a public disclosure of his true inspiration. In a January 2007 interview in a newsletter published online by Brodart Books, he was asked, "Do you ever feel that the self-given title of ‘baseball novelist’ is inhibiting, that it corners you into one genre?" Ritter responded, "This might be hard to understand, but being called a baseball novelist actually gives me a certain unique freedom among writers. I slip under the radar of an awful lot of people because of that title, and it allows me to reach an audience who would most likely never pick up a book about religious based bigotry [Choosing Up Sides] or the cowardice of war [Over the Wall] or one that demonizes anti-environmental developers [The Boy Who Saved Baseball], and so on, if I didn’t write under the cover of baseball." At this point, Ritter began to openly acknowledge and discuss the metaphorical underpinnings of Choosing Up Sides in schools and conferences across the country. Over the Wall In April 2000, Ritter published his second novel, Over the Wall. Inspired by his sense of outrage at the circumstances surrounding the U.S. Gulf War in the early 1990s and the U.S. bombing of Iraq in 1998, Ritter once again adopted an historical setting in a story about a boy's attempt to reconnect with his father and discover who he is in the process, this time using the "festering wound" of the Vietnam War. "There are many 'walls' in 13-year-old Tyler's life: the literal wall of the baseball field he wants to clear with a mighty slam; the Vietnam Memorial Wall bearing his grandfather's name; and the invisible wall Tyler's dad has built around himself since causing the death of Tyler's sister nine years earlier." "Beginning with the lines, 'People say time heals all wounds. I used to think so. Now I know better. Time won’t heal anything. Time is nothing but a stack of yesterdays,' Over the Wall is a study not only of one family's case of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but the collective case of PTSD which Ritter believes the entire nation has suffered ever since the end of the Vietnam War. When young Tyler Waltern is invited to spend the summer in New York City with his cousin, he launches a book-length journey to find out what, if anything, truly will heal his family's wounds. Tyler is determined to make it onto the roster of an all-star baseball team. However, his explosive temper gets in the way of his obvious talent. With the help of his pretty cousin and with the sage advice of his coach, a Vietnam vet who also suffers from PTSD, the young man manages to navigate the risky waters of this passage. In this novel, Ritter parallels the parable of the Good Samaritan to show how, step by daunting step, Tyler's crippling anger dissolves into compassion for the "battered man" who was once his enemy." "By the end", noted Todd Morning in a review for School Library Journal, "Tyler has gained a level of self-awareness by unraveling some of the tangled stories in his family's past and understanding the intricacies lying beneath the surface of life." A Publishers Weekly reviewer wrote that Ritter "tackles tough subjects relating to violence in sports, religious hypocrisy, and the Vietnam War while creating layers of metaphors which neatly unfold..." and described the novel as a "powerful lesson in compassion." Writing in The ALAN Review, Patricia K. Ladd noted "Readers are left questioning societal mores and values, rules and politics, and their own moral development," and Roger Leslie commented in Booklist that Over the Wall is a "fully fleshed-out story about compassion and absolution." After publishing two completely different books in time and place, Ritter began to be noticed for his ability to switch writing style and voice at will. His editor at Philomel, Michael Green, told writer Kelly Milner Halls, in an interview on authorial voice for the 2002 Edition of Children's Writer's and Illustrator's Market, that when it comes to voice, "John is a true chameleon." In the wake of Over the Wall, with its strong anti-war theme, Ritter viewed America's response to the 9/11/2001 events with increasing dismay. Writing in the September 2002 volume of the California English Journal, Ritter stated, "The strain of this past year has been tough on me. After witnessing for days the grand, immediate outpouring of selflessness, generosity, and sacrifice in lower Manhattan—the ‘small friendly town of New York City’ that I celebrated in my recent novel, Over the Wall—I now sit in a blue funk, disappointed in our nation's response and the public outcry for further military retaliation. Discouraged might be a better word. I mean, why do I even bother to write books about empathy and reaching out to others, why do our teachers bother to offer lessons on the same thing, when in crisis, we hunker in survivor mode under a blanket of ethnocentrism, fear, and nationalistic fervor? Seems to me that these were the precise sentiments that drove the hijackers." The Boy Who Saved Baseball Ritter finally met with widespread recognition in 2003 with his third novel, The Boy Who Saved Baseball. In an admitted attempt to lift his spirits, Ritter took on the U.S. Invasion of Iraq by disguising it as an environmental issue and using a lighter and more humorous vein in a work based loosely on Gabriel García Márquez's One Hundred Years of Solitude. Cited in People Magazine as a book to read, "Now that the youngsters have read Harry Potter...", the story centers on Doc Altenheimer, the eccentric octogenarian owner of an apple orchard in Dillontown, California, who is preparing to sell his acres of land—including the town's century-old baseball field—to wealthy outside developers including a banker from Texas in cahoots with a comical and dishonest mayor. After talking with twelve-year-old Tom Gallagher, however, Doc decides to let the fate of his land rest on the outcome of a single baseball game pitting a team of local ballplayers against an all-star squad from a neighboring community. "Do or die," Doc tells the townsfolk. "If our team wins… the town stays the way it is. If they lose, bring on the bulldozers." With the help of a mysterious newcomer, Cruz de la Cruz, Tom convinces a disgraced former major leaguer and social recluse, Dante Del Gato, to whip the Dillontown team into shape. Del Gato's character, Ritter reveals in an interview for the Baker & Taylor book distributor's newsletter, "was partially based on the real life tragic hero, Ken Caminiti, who was a big league MVP and batting champ in the '90s, but struggled with addictions, leaving the game under a cloud, and was dead by age 41." Once again heralding Ritter's authorial voice, a starred review in Publishers Weekly said the book's prose was "Enthralling...at times stunning," and that, "Ritter delivers a baseball tale of legendary dimension, featuring several larger-than-life characters." Writing in the Summer 2003 edition of The ALAN Review, editor Pamela Sissi Carroll noted, "This uplifting novel is a joy to read and to carry in the mind. Like Ritter's previous novels...[he] addresses the realities that trouble today's teens and the forces that shape and reshape local and national cultures. Yet John H. Ritter's game is unfailingly hopeful and encouragingly positive." Blair Christolon observed in School Library Journal that the work "is peppered with both optimism and dilemmas; it has plenty of play-by-play action, lots of humor, and a triumphant ending." "Baseball in Iraq" Despite the reception and commercial success of The Boy Who Saved Baseball, Ritter could not shake the ever-increasing depression he felt over the suffering caused by the U.S.-led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and subsequent loss of civil liberties at home. He began to use writing invitations to rail against the violent turn the nation had taken. In an essay published in the Summer 2004 volume of The ALAN Review, he wrote, "The idealistic hopes and dreams for a better America, for a more balanced and peaceful world which guided so many of us in the ‘60s and ‘70s has, in the last three years, evaporated into thunderclouds of arrogance, self-indulgence, anger, and fear." He used the invitation from editors M. Jerry and Helen Weiss, to contribute a short story to their fantasy anthology, Dreams and Vision, which examines the morality of going to war versus terrorism. The story, "Baseball in Iraq," is a somber depiction of a newly dead American soldier facing a life review by a six-foot-tall rooster and a sympathetic Oklahoma City bomber, Timothy McVeigh. Writing in The Washington Post, longtime Book World reviewer Paul di Filippo states, "Overall, the Weisses exhibit fine taste and editorial restraint, although...their selection of the [clichéd] opening piece is puzzling...But then a challenging story such as John H. Ritter's ‘Baseball in Iraq (Being the True Story of the Ghost of Gunnery Sergeant T. J. McVeigh)’ comes along and dispels all cant and cliché with its elegant portrayal of the reviled terrorist working out his karma." Under the Baseball Moon In a further bid to battle overwhelming personal despair, Ritter chose a somewhat autobiographical skateboarder from a musical family as the focus of his fourth novel, Under the Baseball Moon, to examine the true definition of happiness and success for an artist in the midst of a Faustian bargain: professional good fortune paid for by an overwhelming loss of spirit and joy. Reviewers reacted positively. According to a starred review in Kirkus, Under the Baseball Moon was "…a work that is far beyond the ordinary. It's about music and softball, dreams and passion, courage and loyalty and mysticism. The characters are eccentric and dynamic... Even the language is multi-layered, mixing music, sport and street talk with soaring imagery." In a starred review in Booklist, writer Bill Ott noted that "Ritter pulls out all the stops in his myth-heavy plot, but what really makes the book soar is his sense of place: the laid-back, hippie-influenced, communal spirit of OB permeates every scene, offering stark contrast to the coldly commercial world toward which Andy aspires. As in his earlier work, Ritter melds style to content beautifully, telling his story in a hip, street-smart argot that perfectly matches Andy's trumpet improvisations. Teen friendly, lots of fun, never preachy, but with plenty of thematic pizzazz," and a Publishers Weekly contributor noted that "Ritter's dialogue crackles with the rhythms of the funky California setting, and Andy's passion and ambition give the novel its heartbeat." In the novel, Andy Ramos, a skilled trumpeter who hopes to revolutionize the music scene with his band's fusion of Latin jazz, rock, and hip-hop, finds himself strangely drawn to Glory Martinez, a childhood rival and talented softball pitcher who has returned to the neighborhood. Andy and Glory soon discover that their talents peak when they perform together, but when a mysterious benefactor promises to launch Andy's musical career, he agrees to walk away from his budding romance. Asked whether there were any autobiographical characterizations in his work, Ritter said, "Andy Ramos, the main character in Under the Baseball Moon, is fairly autobiographical. I wrote tons of songs and dreamed of making it big in the rock world from age 15 to 22. His father, though, is closer to who I am today in his approach to life and his view of the entertainment industry's customary habit of reining in and ‘branding the maverick’ of talented, rising stars whom they deem as being too far out creatively." Questioning the uniqueness of the characters in the novel, the interviewer commented to Ritter that in Under the Baseball Moon, "Glory Martinez is a handful. It seems like she stepped out of a Joyce Carol Oates novel. Can you elaborate on why she had such a tough upbringing and still comes across with charm and drive? She is one of the more intriguing characters I’ve come across in recent YA literature." Ritter replied that he sees her charm "as being hard-won through a conscious decision she made a few years before the book begins...I know from personal experience how hard it is to grow up happy and somewhat normal in a single parent home when that parent is an alcoholic. As you get older, though, you have a choice, and it can go one of two ways. Either you become your antagonistic, anti-social parent and repeat his mistakes or, by watching and suffering through his failures, you become the opposite. Of those two choices, Glory made the healthy one, which, as you say, is quite unusual in YA literature. But kids in Glory's situation do occasionally develop a desire to dream big, coupled with the drive to succeed, and I find this rare character far more fun and interesting to write about than the typical." During the 2006 Florida Council of Teachers of English Convention in Orlando, Florida, FCTE President, Dr. Virginia White, presented Ritter with the President's Award for "significant contribution to the teaching of English in the state of Florida" citing the literary value of his books and the positive impact they had on the teaching of literature in Florida schools. > The Desperado Who Stole Baseball Ritter's fifth novel, The Desperado Who Stole Baseball, set in the Wild West of the 1880s and written in the manner of a tall tale mixed with Mexican style magical realism, is a prequel to The Boy Who Saved Baseball and Book One of the Dillontown Trilogy. On his way from St. Louis to Dillontown to find his long-lost uncle, the playing-manager of a championship baseball team, twelve-year-old Jack Dillon meets Billy the Kid, who is looking for a fresh start in California. Upon his arrival, Jack learns that the Dillontown Nine have scheduled a game against the powerful Chicago White Stockings, with the town's fortune hanging in the balance. Again, Ritter's voice caused critics to react. In the Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, Elizabeth Bush described Ritter's authorial voice as having "all the charm of a well-spun tall tale with plenty of Twainian malarkey." Marilyn Taniguchi asserted in School Library Journal that "Ritter writes in an idiom-laden, mock-epic style full of bombast and bravado...Reminiscent of Sid Fleischman." Of significance is the Author's Note included in the paperback edition (Puffin 2010) revealing Ritter's inspiration. The "Desperado" of the title is not Billy the Kid, but a Major League Baseball owner, William Hulbert, who along with Albert Spalding and Cap Anson, added impetus to the movement to "steal" baseball from African American players, a little known fact in baseball lore, yet one Ritter believed showed a character even more nefarious: "Others would also tend to downplay baseball's racial divide, as personified by the management of these Chicago White Stockings (later to become the Chicago Cubs). I was not about to do that, having worked on the manuscript from early 2007 to June 2008, paralleling the launch and quixotic presidential quest of a mixed-race U.S. Senator and dedicated Chicago White Sox fan. And yes, as I note, Long John Dillon did stand up once and say, "For the first time in my life, I am proud to be a part of this land."—a sentiment I heard echoed across this beautiful nation repeatedly as I penned this tome. And in those moments I found hope and grace." Among critics, the book received virtually no comments alluding to the novel's racial thrust. Only Ian Chipman, reviewing the work in Booklist, noted that The Desperado Who Stole Baseball provided "a good child's eye introduction to baseball's segregated past." Fenway Fever Ritter's sixth novel, Fenway Fever, a book his publisher describes as "another magical novel that celebrates teamwork—and the innate power to heal that even the least among us is born with," is scheduled to be released on April 12, 2012, to coincide with the 100 year anniversary of Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts. Ritter is currently working on a utopian novel, 2020 Vision, premised on the changes American society must go through after a floodgate of top-secret disclosures occur upon the release of undisputed evidence of U.S. Government participation in the events of September 11, 2001. Bibliography NovelsChoosing Up Sides (2000)Over the Wall (2000)The Boy Who Saved Baseball (2003)Under the Baseball Moon (2006)The Desperado Who Stole Baseball (2009)Fenway Fever (2012) Contributions to Anthologies "Old School/Fu-Char Skool" in Big City Cool: Short Stories about Urban Youth, edited by M. Jerry Weiss and Helen S. Weiss, Persea Books, 2002. "My Life as a Reader in a Stolen Moment Talkin’ Blues" in Making the Match: The Right Book for the Right Reader at the Right Time, edited by Teri S. Lesesne, Stenhouse Publishers, 2003. "Baseball in Iraq" in Dreams and Visions: Fourteen Flights of Fancy, edited by M. Jerry Weiss and Helen S. Weiss, Starscape, 2006. "Dear Mr. John H. Ritter" in Dear Author: Letters of Hope, edited by Joan F. Kaywell, Philomel Books, 2007. "Baseball Crazy" in Baseball Crazy: Ten Short Stories that Cover All the Bases, edited by Nancy E. Mercado, Dial Books, 2008. "Tunnel Vision" in This Family Is Driving Me Crazy: Ten Stories about Surviving Your Family'' edited by M. Jerry Weiss and Helen S. Weiss, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2009. References External links John H. Ritter's official website The Novels of John H. Ritter: A Reader's Guide, prepared by Patty Campbell 1951 births Living people 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists American children's writers American male novelists People from San Pedro, Los Angeles University of California, San Diego alumni Writers from California 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers

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The al-Ahwaz theater was one of two major areas of operations during the Zanj Rebellion, the other being the regions of lower and central Iraq. Beginning in 869, Zanj armies repeatedly entered the province of al-Ahwaz (modern Khuzestan Province, Iran) and succeeded in scoring several victories against the defending forces of the Abbasid Caliphate. Over the course of the next decade, the rebels attacked and looted many of the cities in the region, including Suq al-Ahwaz (the provincial capital), 'Askar Mukram and Ramhurmuz. By the height of the rebellion in the mid-870s the Zanj were effectively in control of extensive portions of the province, appointing governors to the districts under their sway and collecting supplies from the local population. During this period, the Zanj in al-Ahwaz were usually commanded by 'Ali ibn Aban al-Muhallabi, a primary lieutenant of the overall Zanj leader 'Ali ibn Muhammad. In an effort to contain the Zanj, the Abbasid government in Samarra dispatched several commanders to the province to fight against the rebels. The caliphal armies were at times able to defeat the Zanj in battle, but they were unsuccessful in dislodging them from the province and frequently suffered severe losses themselves. The Abbasid war effort was further complicated after the Saffarid amir Ya'qub ibn al-Layth arrived in al-Ahwaz in 875 and attempted to assert his own authority over the region, at the expense of both the Zanj and the Abbasids. The Zanj presence in al-Ahwaz came to a sudden end in 881, when 'Ali ibn Aban was ordered to abandon the region and return to lower Iraq, where the remaining military events of the rebellion would take place. Initial operations The Zanj Rebellion began in early September 869, in the region of southern Iraq. The leader of the revolt was one 'Ali ibn Muhammad, who had previously led two failed movements against the Abbasid government in 863 and 868. 'Ali was able to quickly gather a major following, especially among the black slaves who had been employed to cultivate the lands in the area of the modern Shatt al-Arab. The rebels soon spread out through the districts around the city of Basra, and began taking control of the villages in the region. Due to their proximity to Basra, some of the border districts of al-Ahwaz were entered by the Zanj in the initial months of the revolt. The rebels' movements in the province at this stage, however, were restricted to the lands around the southern Dujayl River (the modern Karun). The Zanj secured peace agreements with some of the villages in the area; other settlements, however, resisted the rebels and were attacked as a result. First occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz For almost a year following the outbreak of the revolt, the rebels had mostly remained confined to the districts in the vicinity of Basra. In mid-870, however, the Zanj succeeded in overrunning al-Ubulla and receiving the submission of 'Abbadan, and the rebels sought to follow up these victories with further attacks. The Zanj leader 'Ali ibn Muhammad decided to expand to the northeast and make al-Ahwaz the target of his next campaign, and an army was ordered to proceed to the province. The Zanj troops that set out for al-Ahwaz were enthusiastic about their mission, and they were reinforced with slaves and weapons that had been confiscated from 'Abbadan. Their first target was Jubba, to the east of the Dujayl. The residents of the town offered no resistance and fled, allowing the Zanj to enter Jubba and pillage it. From there, they spread through the environs of Jubba, which were laid waste. The rebels then continued marching north, and at last arrived before the city of al-Ahwaz, otherwise known as Suq al-Ahwaz. News of the Zanj approach was met with great trepidation in the city. The military governor of al-Ahwaz at the time was Sa'id ibn Yaksin, who had a contingent of troops at his disposal. Sa'id, however, decided to withdraw from the city, taking his soldiers with him, and the residents of al-Ahwaz also fled. Consequently, when the Zanj army reached Suq al-Ahwaz they were able to enter and occupy the city, with almost no one offering resistance. The fiscal governor Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Mudabbir, who had remained in Suq al-Ahwaz with his pages and servants, was captured by the rebels, and his money, furnishings and slaves were seized. The Zanj occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz lasted only temporarily, and by the following year the Abbasids reestablished their military presence in the region. The occupation, however, succeeded in opening a new front in the war against the government. The Zanj would occupy Suq al-Ahwaz twice more, in 873 and again in 875, and after the latter occasion they would retain a hold over the city for several years. The capture of al-Ahwaz, together with that of al-Ubulla less than two months prior, also helped spread to fear among the residents of the surrounding regions; many people of Basra, for example, fled their city for safer areas after learning of the Zanj's victory. Arrival of Ibrahim ibn Sima In 871, the Zanj leader sent 'Ali ibn Aban to al-Ahwaz, ordering him to occupy the province and destroy a bridge spanning the Dujayl. Upon reaching the bridge, however, his troops were met by Ibrahim ibn Sima al-Turki, a government commander who had been returning to Iraq from Fars. Ibrahim attacked the rebels from several sides, killing a large number of them and forcing 'Ali to flee. Pursued by Ibrahim's cavalry, 'Ali attempted to reach Suq al-Ahwaz, but a foot wound hindered his movements and he eventually decided to retreat back to Jubba instead. As a result of his victory, Ibrahim was appointed to conduct the war against the Zanj in al-Ahwaz, and Sa'id ibn Yaksin was dismissed from his post. Ibrahim decided to pursue 'Ali and divided his forces into two, sending one contingent under his secretary Shahin and retaining the other for himself. Informed of their movements, 'Ali met Shahin's force and defeated it, killing Shahin and a large number of his men. He then immediately advanced against Ibrahim, reaching the latter's camp that same evening before the news of Shahin's defeat had reached him. Despite having far fewer troops, 'Ali fell upon Ibrahim's men and successfully routed them, forcing Ibrahim to withdraw in turn. After the battles against Shahin and Ibrahim, 'Ali remained encamped in Jubba until he was recalled by the Zanj leader in order to take part in the Zanj attack on Basra. Killing of Mansur ibn Ja'far After the successful capture of Basra in September 871, 'Ali ibn Aban was again dispatched to Jubba to fight against Mansur ibn Ja'far al-Khayyat, the military administrator of Basra and the Tigris districts. To reinforce 'Ali, the Zanj leader sent twelve barges laden with troops under the command of Abu al-Layth al-Isbahani, with orders to follow 'Ali's commands. Abu al-Layth, however, decided to attack Mansur on his own and went out to meet him without consulting 'Ali. In the resulting battle, Mansur defeated Abu al-Layth, killing many of his men and capturing his barges. After learning of Abu al-Layth's defeat, 'Ali also withdrew back to his camp, where he remained for about a month. He then set out to fight Mansur again, and sent scouts to gather information about him. Upon learning of a contingent led by one of Mansur's officers, 'Ali launched a night attack against it, killing the commander and most of his men and looting their camp. News of this raid reached Mansur, who decided to set forth himself, and 'Ali came out to meet him as well. The resulting battle ended in complete victory for 'Ali; Mansur's troops suffered significant casualties and eventually fled, abandoning him on the battlefield. Mansur himself attempted to flee, but was pursued by a Zanj soldier and killed while attempting to cross a canal. Following Mansur's death, Asghajun was appointed by the government to replace him. 'Ali remained in Jubba for a time, until a dispatch from the Zanj leader reached him to hasten back to Iraq, where Abu Ahmad ibn al-Mutawakkil (the future caliphal regent al-Muwaffaq) had arrived with a large army to attack the chief Zanj "city" of al-Mukhtarah. Second occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz, Ibn Muflih In 873, following the withdrawal of Abu Ahmad from southern Iraq, the Zanj leader ordered 'Ali ibn Aban to return to al-Ahwaz with most of his troops. Upon learning of the rebels' advance, Asghajun advanced from Suq al-Ahwaz against 'Ali with his own forces, and the two sides met in a desert. The battle went badly for the government army; Asghajun and many of his men were killed and others were taken prisoner. The Zanj then made their way to Suq al-Ahwaz and entered it on May 8, upon which they began pillaging and killed a number of its inhabitants. News of the fate of Suq al-Ahwaz reached the central government in Samarra, which responded by placing the general Musa ibn Bugha al-Kabir in charge of war against the Zanj. Musa sent 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muflih to al-Ahwaz to engage 'Ali. In his first encounter against the rebels, Ibn Muflih was defeated, but after regrouping his forces, he launched a second attack and inflicted a severe defeat upon the Zanj. Many of 'Ali's men were killed or captured, while 'Ali himself escaped with a few of his followers and fled to southern Iraq. After spending some time recovering in al-Mukhtarah, 'Ali was again sent out against Ibn Muflih, who had made camp at Hisn al-Mahdi on the Dujayl. He was engaged, however, by Ibrahim ibn Sima, who was then encamped at al-Badhaward, and was defeated twice by him. For his part, Ibn Muflih received word of 'Ali's movements and dispatched his lieutenant Tashtimur against him. Tashimur found that 'Ali had retreated into an area of dense thickets and reeds, so to force him out he ordered his troops to set fire to the vegetation. 'Ali was able to escape, but several of his men were captured by Tashtimur, who sent word of his victory to Ibn Muflih. Following his defeat, 'Ali made his way to the Nahr al-Sidrah, in the area of the Dujayl south of Suq al-Ahwaz, where he wrote to the Zanj leader asking for reinforcements. Thirteen barges with several contingents of Zanj soldiers were sent to him, upon which 'Ali decided to advance again against Ibn Muflih. The two armies met, but refrained from fighting for a day. That night, 'Ali took several of his most trusted troops and made his way to the rear of Ibn Muflih's camp, where he launched a surprise attack. The government army was defeated and Ibn Muflih retreated, abandoning four of his barges in the process. Ibn Muflih proceeded to al-Dawlab near Suq al-Ahwaz, where he reestablished his camp. Once he had recovered from his defeat, he sent Tashtimur to engage 'Ali, who was defeated and forced to retreat to the Nahr al-Sidrah. Ibn Muflih then set out with the rest of his forces, and succeeded in inflicting a major defeat on 'Ali, who lost ten of his barges during the battle. 'Ali was forced to retreat back to Iraq, and Ibn Muflih himself proceeded to Bayan. Abu al-Saj and the third occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz Ibn Muflih and Tashtimur were both killed in early 875 by Muhammad ibn Wasil, the rebel governor of Fars; at the same time, Musa ibn Bugha decided to resign his command of the operations against the Zanj and returned to Samarra. In response, the central government appointed Abu al-Saj as military governor of al-Ahwaz and tasked him with defeating the rebels there. Shortly after Abu al-Saj's arrival, 'Ali ibn Aban advanced into al-Ahwaz and proceeded to the Nahr al-Sidrah. There he fought against a government army and defeated it, killing its commander, a relative of Abu al-Saj's. The latter decided to withdraw to 'Askar Mukram, allowing the Zanj to advance to Suq al-Ahwaz. Upon entering the city, they proceeded to begin killing and capturing its residents, and pillaged and burned their homes. Following the sack of Suq al-Ahwaz, Abu al-Saj was dismissed from his post and was temporarily replaced with Ibrahim ibn Sima. Later that year, Masrur al-Balkhi was given overall command of the war against the rebels. Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah and Ahmad ibn Laythawayh A new development in the war emerged in late 875 when the Saffarid amir Ya'qub ibn al-Layth arrived in Ramhurmuz. Ya'qub had spent the last several years becoming one of the most powerful rulers in the Islamic east, having conquered the provinces of Sijistan, Kirman, Khurasan and Fars. He furthermore sought to expand into the core regions of the Abbasid Caliphate, a policy that would culminate in early 876 with the Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul in central Iraq. Although the battle ended in defeat for Ya'qub and forced him out of Iraq, he still sought to maintain his authority in al-Ahwaz, at the expense of both the Abbasid government and the Zanj. Ya'qub appointed Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah al-Kurdi as governor of the districts of al-Ahwaz. Muhammad, however, soon entered into correspondence with the Zanj leader and offered to defect to the rebels' side. The Zanj leader agreed to the offer, on the condition that Muhammad submit to 'Ali ibn Aban as the latter's deputy. With Muhammad now on his side, 'Ali decided to send an expedition under his brother al-Khalil to al-Sus, where Ahmad ibn Laythawayh, who had been appointed by Masrur al-Balkhi as the military governor of al-Ahwaz, was staying. Al-Khalil and Muhammad joined forces and headed toward the city, but Ibn Laythawayh intercepted them before they arrived and launched an attack. Many of the rebels were killed or captured, and the rest soon withdrew. Ibn Laythawayh then proceeded to Junday Sabur and established himself there. Upon learning of the defeat, 'Ali ibn Aban decided to assist Muhammad and departed from Suq al-Ahwaz with his troops. 'Ali and Muhammad's forces separately traveled along the Nahr Masruqan and eventually met up at 'Askar Mukram, where 'Ali and Muhammad discussed their plans. The two armies then split up again, with Muhammad heading toward Tustar to establish himself in that city, while 'Ali proceeded to a bridge on the road to Fars. While 'Ali was stationed at the bridge, he received word that, although Muhammad had entered Tustar, he was making the prayers there on behalf of the caliph and Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, instead of the Zanj leader. Considering this to be evidence of Muhammad's betrayal, 'Ali ordered his forces to return immediately to Suq al-Ahwaz and destroyed the bridge to prevent anyone from following him. After a night's march, the rebels entered 'Askar Mukram, which they attacked and plundered despite a prior agreement with the city. 'Ali arrived after his troops and found what they had done, but was too late to stop them, and ordered them to continue back to Suq al-Ahwaz. News of 'Ali's retreat reached Ahmad ibn Laythawayh, who had in the meantime returned to al-Sus. He decided to advance on Tustar and engaged Muhammad in combat. Muhammad was defeated and forced to escape, and Ibn Laythawayh established himself in Tustar. 'Ali now set out for Tustar with the intention of fighting Ibn Laythawayh. Along the way, he learned that Ibn Laythawayh was also heading in his direction, and the two armies met near the Nahr Masruqan. Ibn Laythawayh's cavalry gave him a massive advantage, and the battle turned into a complete rout, with only a few of the Zanj infantry standing firm. 'Ali, who had been wounded in the leg by an arrow, barely managed to escape by jumping into the Nahr Masruqan. He managed to reach Suq al-Ahwaz, but he decided not to remain there and instead returned to al-Mukhtarah to treat his wounds. After fully recovering from his injuries, 'Ali set out to return to al-Ahwaz. Having learned that Ibn Laythawayh was at 'Askar Mukram, he sent a large army under the command of al-Khalil and his nephew Abu Sahl Muhammad ibn Salih against him. The two leaders met Ibn Laythawayh's forces a farsakh outside the city and engaged him in battle. Ibn Laythawayh, however, executed a feigned retreat, and when the Zanj pursued him they were ambushed by a second regiment. With the rebels being routed, Ibn Laythawayh rejoined the battle, and the Zanj were compelled to make a full retreat. Once the battle was over, Ibn Laythawayh collected the heads of the slain rebels and headed for Tustar. Zanj-Saffarid conflict Shortly after the battle at 'Askar Mukram, Ibn Laythawayh learned that Ya'qub ibn al-Layth was advancing toward al-Ahwaz; feeling that his position was now untenable, he decided to quit the region and fled from Tustar. Ya'qub proceeded to Junday Sabur, forcing the agents of the central government to evacuate the district. After establishing himself in the city, he sent al-Hisn ibn al-'Anbar to Suq al-Ahwaz to serve as his governor there. Upon learning of al-Hisn's advance, 'Ali ibn Aban decided to abandon the city and set up camp along the Nahr al-Sidrah, allowing al-Hisn to occupy Suq al-Ahwaz without incident. 'Ali and al-Hisn began to launch raids against each other, inflicting casualties on both sides. This continued until 'Ali decided to attack al-Hisn at Suq al-Ahwaz. In a fierce battle, the rebels inflicted a serious defeat on al-Hisn; many of the Saffarid troops were killed and the mounts of the cavalry were captured. Al-Hisn fled to 'Askar Mukram, while the victorious Zanj set about plundering Suq al-Ahwaz. 'Ali then returned to the Nahr al-Sidrah, where he dispatched an expedition against a Kurdish leader loyal to Ya'qub who was stationed at Dawraq. This engagement also went well for the Zanj, who captured the Kurd and killed a number of his men. Following the defeats at the hands of the Zanj, Ya'qub ordered al-Hisn to refrain from engaging them in further combat and to restrict himself to Suq al-Ahwaz. He also wrote to 'Ali and sought a truce, on the condition that he be allowed to keep troops in the city. 'Ali responded by rejecting his proposal, unless he would be allowed to transfer food supplies from the city first. Ya'qub agreed to this and allowed 'Ali to remove his supplies, and the two sides ended hostilities with each other. Takin al-Bukhari Ya'qub died in Junday Sabur in 879, and in that same year Masrur al-Balkhi appointed Takin al-Bukhari as military governor of al-Ahwaz. Upon arriving in the province, Takin learned that 'Ali ibn Aban was proceeding toward Tustar with a large army, so he set off for that city as well. When he reached Tustar, he found that 'Ali had surrounded the city and that it was on the verge of surrender. Without spending any time to prepare, Takin ordered an attack and successfully routed the Zanj, forcing them to withdraw from Tustar. Shortly after the battle, Takin was informed that 'Ali had sent a contingent to the Fars bridge, and that it was in a poor state of discipline. He therefore advanced against their position and staged a night assault, which killed several rebel commanders and forced the rest to flee. Takin then continued along the Nahr Masruqan and eventually reached 'Ali's camp, but the latter decided not to fight and withdrew instead. At this point, 'Ali and Takin began corresponding with each other, and messages and courtesies were sent between the two. News of this reached Masrur al-Balkhi, which caused him to suspect Takin's loyalty. He therefore departed for al-Ahwaz and wrote to Takin, expressing approval of his conduct. Unsuspectingly, Takin agreed to meet with Masrur, but when he arrived at his camp he was disarmed and imprisoned. Upon learning that Takin was in custody, his troops began to disperse; several of them entered into the service of 'Ali ibn Aban, while others joined Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah. In order to prevent further defections, Masrur issued a guarantee of safe conduct for the troops that remained, whereupon they agreed to join his forces. Aghartmish With Takin now imprisoned, Aghartmish was appointed as military governor of al-Ahwaz in his place. With orders to fight against 'Ali ibn Aban, Aghartmish and other commanders marched until they reached Tustar, where they killed a number of Zanj prisoners that Takin had taken captive. They then continued south and eventually reached 'Askar Mukram. 'Ali, meanwhile, decided to set out against Aghartmish and marched north, with his brother al-Khalil commanding his vanguard. Due to the rebels' superior numbers, however, the government army refrained from fighting and cut a bridge to hinder 'Ali's advance. 'Ali then returned to Suq al-Ahwaz, leaving al-Khalil at Masruqan. At Suq al-Ahwaz, he received a message from al-Khalil that Aghartmish was again advancing toward him, so he departed to meet the government forces and ordered al-Khalil to join him. A battle took place between the two sides and ended with Aghartmish the victor. 'Ali withdrew to Suq al-Ahwaz, but he found that his reserve forces there had fled to the Nahr al-Sidrah, so he followed them and joined up with them there. 'Ali regrouped his troops and prepared to stage another attack against Aghartmish. The latter responded by drawing up his own forces and marched against the Zanj. 'Ali again put al-Khalil in his vanguard and instructed another commander, Bahbudh ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, to position himself in ambush. Al-Khalil then marched against Aghartmish and began an engagement with him. The government army gained an initial advantage during the battle, but when they were attacked by the ambushers and suffered defeat. One of the government commanders was taken prisoner, and 'Ali ordered him to be decapitated in retaliation for the deaths of the prisoners at Tustar. 'Ali then proceeded to Suq al-Ahwaz and sent the heads of the slain to al-Mukhtarah, where they were put on display, while Aghartmish and the remnants of his forces retreated back to Tustar. Fighting continued for a time between 'Ali and Aghartmish, with neither side clearly gaining the upper hand. When reinforcements arrived from al-Mukhtarah to bolster 'Ali's position, however, Aghartmish decided to seek a truce with 'Ali, which the latter accepted. 'Ali then proceeded to raid the nearby districts, and eventually arrived at Bayrudh, which he subdued and plundered. He sent the spoils to al-Mukhtarah and established himself in the village. Conflict between 'Ali ibn Aban and Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah Relations between 'Ali and Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah, the former governor for Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, had remained poor since the incident at Tustar. In an attempt to free himself from 'Ali, Muhammad wrote to Ankalay, the son of the Zanj leader, and asked that the district under his control be removed from 'Ali's jurisdiction and assigned directly to him. This deal angered 'Ali, and in retaliation he requested that Muhammad's tax revenues be transferred to him. When he received the Zanj leader's approval, he demanded the money from Muhammad, but the latter delayed payment. 'Ali used the delay as a pretext to attack Muhammad, and set out for Ramhurmuz where he way staying. Lacking the means to face 'Ali, Muhammad decided to flee, and Ramhurmuz was ransacked by 'Ali's troops. A panicked Muhammad decided to request a reconciliation with 'Ali, which the Zanj leader assented to. Muhammad then turned over his tax revenues to 'Ali, who in turn forwarded the money to al-Mukhtarah and agreed to keep his distance from the areas under Muhammad's control. Some time after this, Muhammad wrote to 'Ali, asking that he assist him in attacking a group of Kurds and offering that any loot received would go to the Zanj troops. 'Ali agreed and sent al-Khalil and Bahbudh to participate in the raid. The battle initially proceeded in favor of the Zanj, but when the Kurds counterattacked Muhammad's men suddenly deserted the field, forcing the Zanj to retreat. While they were in flight, they were attacked by another contingent of Muhammad's men, and lost many of their mounts and spoils in the fighting. When the surviving Zanj returned to 'Ali and reported what had happened, he immediately wrote to the Zanj leader about the incident. Terse negotiations then ensued between al-Mukhtarah, 'Ali and Muhammad, which ended with Muhammad agreeing to return the stolen mounts and send additional compensation. Once the situation with Muhammad had been resolved, 'Ali took no action for a while. Eventually he decided to attack the stronghold of Mattuth and marched against it. When he arrived, however, he saw that it had strong fortifications and numerous defenders, so he decided to make further preparations before assaulting it. He withdrew and began assembling ladders and tools for scaling walls; once this was completed, he ordered his army to again approach the city. As he drew near Mattuth this time, however, he was suddenly attacked by Masrur al-Balkhi, who had learned of 'Ali's plans. The sight of Masrur's cavalry caused 'Ali's men to abandon their equipment and flee, and 'Ali was forced to retreat. Zanj abandonment of al-Ahwaz The Abbasid government had launched a major offensive in late 879 against the Zanj in central Iraq; led by the prince Abu al-'Abbas (the future caliph al-Mu'tadid [r. 892–902]), the government army had succeeded in inflicting several major defeats against the Zanj in the regions of Wasit and the Batihah. In September 880 another army commanded by Abu al-'Abbas' father, the caliphal regent al-Muwaffaq, joined the fighting. The Zanj presence in central Iraq was soon all but eliminated; several towns were recovered by the government and the two rebel strongholds of al-Mani'ah and al-Mansurah were captured. The rebel forces in the region were gradually forced to withdraw and retreat closer to their capital of al-Mukhtarah. On January 7, 881, al-Muwaffaq set out from Wasit and advanced upon al-Ahwaz, taking the road to al-Sus. With the rebels' position in Iraq becoming increasingly precarious, and with al-Muwaffaq bearing down on 'Ali ibn Aban's position, the Zanj leader decided to recall 'Ali and have him return to al-Mukhtarah. He therefore wrote to 'Ali, ordering him to abandon his provisions and equipment and return to Iraq. 'Ali, meanwhile, had already learned of al-Muwaffaq's advance; upon receiving the Zanj leader's letter, he appointed a lieutenant in his place and departed from Suq al-Ahwaz. A similar order reached Bahbudh, who governed the villages between al-Ahwaz and Fars; he promptly withdrew and abandoned his supplies as well. The rebels made the journey back to al-Mukhtarah, plundering the villages they encountered along the way despite the fact that they had made peace with the Zanj. Many of 'Ali's men failed to join him and deserted, deciding to remain in the province while 'Ali returned to al-Mukhtarah. Al-Muwaffaq soon arrived at al-Sus, where he was soon joined by Masrur al-Balkhi, his governor of the province. While at al-Sus, he ordered that the supplies left behind by the Zanj be seized, and set about opening dams that the rebels had put up on the rivers and repairing the local roads. After three days he left al-Sus for Junday Sabur, where he ordered his men to search for fodder. After another three days he continued on to Tustar, and upon arriving there he sent officers throughout the district of al-Ahwaz to collect taxes, and arranged for the payment of Masrur's troops. He also sent a representative to Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah, who was still in the province, to negotiate a settlement with him. Al-Muwaffaq eventually departed from Tustar and proceeded to 'Askar Mukram, and from there he made his way to Suq al-Ahwaz. While there, he discovered that the Zanj had mined a nearby bridge which prevented supplies from reaching the city, so he ordered his men to restore the crossing. Once that was done, he remained in the city for several days in order to strengthen his forces. During this time, the Zanj who had deserted 'Ali wrote to him requesting a pardon; al-Muwaffaq granted this, and about one thousand of 'Ali's men were integrated into his army. Having reestablished the Abbasid government's authority in al-Ahwaz, al-Muwaffaq departed from Suq al-Ahwaz and made his way south. He and Abu al-'Abbas soon reached al-Mukhtarah in mid-February 881 and began besieging it, thereby initiating the final phase of the rebellion. Aftermath During the siege of al-Mukhtarah, which lasted from 881 to 883, no fighting appears to have taken place in al-Ahwaz; the province, however, did contribute to the Abbasid war effort, sending both supplies and volunteers to al-Muwaffaq. When al-Mukhtarah was finally captured in 883, some surviving rebels attempted to flee to al-Ahwaz; one fugitive who had wounded al-Muwaffaq during the siege, for example, was apprehended by the authorities in Ramhurmuz and sent to Abu al-'Abbas, who had him put to death. After the final defeat of the Zanj, al-Muwaffaq ordered that letters be sent out to the centers of the Muslim world announcing to the people of the districts of Basra, al-Ubulla, al-Ahwaz and Wasit that the rebellion was over and that it was now safe for them to return to their homes. Notes References Zanj Rebellion History of Khuzestan Province

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William Coddington (c. 1601 – 1 November 1678) was an early magistrate of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and later of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. He served as the judge of Portsmouth and Newport, governor of Portsmouth and Newport, deputy governor of the four-town colony, and then governor of the entire colony. Coddington was born and raised in Lincolnshire, England. He accompanied the Winthrop Fleet on its voyage to New England in 1630, becoming an early leader in Boston. There he built the first brick house and became heavily involved in the local government as an assistant magistrate, treasurer, and deputy. Coddington was a member of the Boston church under the Reverend John Cotton, and was caught up in the events of the Antinomian Controversy from 1636 to 1638. The Reverend John Wheelwright and dissident minister Anne Hutchinson were banished from the Massachusetts colony, and many of their supporters were also compelled to leave. Coddington was not asked to depart, but he felt that the outcome of the controversy was unjust and decided to join many of his fellow parishioners in exile. He was the lead signer of a compact to form a Christian-based government away from Massachusetts. He was encouraged by Roger Williams to settle on the Narragansett Bay. He and other supporters of Hutchinson bought Aquidneck Island from the Narragansetts. They settled there, establishing the town of Pocasset which was later named Portsmouth. Coddington was named the first "judge" of the colony, a Biblical term for governor. A division in the leadership of the town occurred within a year, and he left with several others to establish the town of Newport at the south end of the island. In a short time, the towns of Portsmouth and Newport united, and Coddington was made the governor of the island towns from 1640 to 1647. During this period, Roger Williams had gone to England to obtain a patent to bring under one government the four Narragansett towns of Providence, Warwick, Portsmouth, and Newport. This was done without the consent of the island towns and these two towns resisted joining the mainland towns until 1647. Coddington was elected president of the united colony in 1648, but he would not accept the position, and complaints against him prompted the presidency to go to Jeremy Clarke. Coddington was very unhappy with Williams' patent; he returned to England, where he was eventually able to obtain a commission separating the island from the mainland towns, and making him governor of the island for an indefinite period. He was initially welcomed as governor, but complaints from both the mainland towns and members of the island towns prompted Roger Williams, John Clarke, and William Dyer to go to England to have Coddington's commission revoked. They were successful, and Dyer returned with the news in 1653. However, disagreements kept the four towns from re-uniting until the following year. With the revocation of his commission, Coddington withdrew from public life, focusing on his mercantile interests, and becoming a member of the Religious Society of Friends. After nearly two decades away from politics, he was elected deputy governor in 1673, then governor the following year, serving two one-year terms. The relative calm of this period was shattered during his second year as governor of the colony when the King Philip's War erupted in June 1675. It became the most catastrophic event in Rhode Island's colonial history. He was not re-elected in 1676, but he was elected to a final term as governor of the colony in 1678 following the death of Governor Benedict Arnold. He died a few months into this term, and was buried in the Coddington Cemetery on Farewell Street in Newport. England and Massachusetts William Coddington was born in Lincolnshire, England, most likely the son of Robert and Margaret Coddington of Marston. His presumed father was a prosperous yeoman; the younger Coddington possessed a seal with the initials "R.C." when he was in Rhode Island, which were likely the initials of his father. The source of his education is not known, but it is apparent that he was well educated because of his correspondence, and from his considerable command of English law. As a young man, he married by about 1626 and had two sons baptized at St. Botolph's Church in Boston, Lincolnshire. Both died in infancy and were buried at the same church. His first wife was Mary, and speculation exists that she was Mary Burt, because Coddington once mentioned his "cousin Burt" in a letter. King Charles circumvented Parliament in 1626 by raising funds through the Forced Loan, and Coddington was one of many Puritans who resisted this royal loan; his name was recorded on a list for doing so the following winter. Coddington was elected as a Massachusetts Bay assistant (magistrate) on 18 March 1629/30 while still in England, and he sailed to New England the following month with the Winthrop Fleet. His first wife died during their first winter in Massachusetts, and he returned to England aboard the Lion in 1631, remaining there for two years. During this visit to England, he married Mary Moseley in Terling, Essex, and she went to New England with him in 1633. She was admitted to the Boston church that summer. Coddington was a leading merchant in Boston, and he built the first brick house there. He was elected an assistant every year from his arrival in New England until 1637. He was the colony's treasurer from 1634 to 1636, and a deputy for Boston in 1637. He was also a Boston selectman in 1634, and was on several committees overseeing land transactions in 1636 and 1637. Antinomian Controversy As a member of the Boston Church, Coddington was pleased when John Cotton arrived in the colony in 1633, as he was one of the most noted Puritan ministers of the time. The two men had been friends in England, and Cotton had arranged in a 1630 letter for a hogshead of meal to be sent to Coddington, who was at Naumkeg (Salem) at the time. Cotton became a minister of the Boston Church, joining minister John Wilson. In time, the Boston parishioners could sense a theological difference between Wilson and Cotton. Anne Hutchinson was a theologically astute midwife who had the ear of many of the colony's women, and she became outspoken in support of Cotton and condemned the theology of Wilson and most of the other ministers in the colony. Differing religious opinions within the colony eventually became public debates. The resulting religious tension erupted into what has traditionally been called the Antinomian Controversy, but has more recently been labelled the Free Grace Controversy. Many members of Boston's church disagreed with Wilson's emphasis on morality and his doctrine of "evidencing justification by sanctification", meaning that one demonstrates salvation by living a more holy life. Some of Wilson's opponents labeled his views as a covenant of works, while Hutchinson told her followers that Wilson lacked "the seal of the Spirit". Wilson's theological views were in accord with those of the other ministers in the colony except for Cotton, who stressed "the inevitability of God's will" (which he termed a covenant of grace) as opposed to preparation (works). All but about five of the Boston parishioners supported Hutchinson's views, and they had become accustomed to Cotton's doctrines. Some of them began disrupting Wilson's sermons, even finding excuses to leave when he got up to preach or pray. In May 1636, the Bostonians received a new ally when the Reverend John Wheelwright arrived from England and immediately aligned himself with Cotton, Hutchinson, and other so-called free grace advocates. Yet another boost came for those advocating the free grace theology during the same month when young aristocrat Henry Vane was elected governor of the colony. Vane was a strong supporter of Hutchinson, but he also had his own ideas about theology that were considered not only unorthodox, but even radical. Fast Day Sermon Coddington was a magistrate as the events of the controversy unfolded, elected by the freemen of the colony. Like many members of the Boston church, he sided squarely with the free grace advocates. By late 1636, the theological schism had become great enough that the General Court called for a day of fasting to help ease the colony's difficulties. During the appointed fast-day on Thursday, 19 January 1637, Wheelwright preached at the Boston church in the afternoon. To the Puritan clergy, his sermon was "censurable and incited mischief". The colony's ministers were offended by the sermon, while the free grace advocates were encouraged, and they became more vociferous in their opposition to the "legal" ministers. Governor Vane began challenging the doctrines of the colony's divines, and supporters of Hutchinson refused to serve during the Pequot War of 1637 because Wilson was the chaplain of the expedition. Ministers worried that the bold stand of Hutchinson and her supporters began to threaten the "Puritan's holy experiment". As early as March 1637, the political tide began to turn against the free grace advocates. Wheelwright was tried for contempt and sedition that month for his fast-day sermon, and he was convicted in a close vote but not yet sentenced. During the election of May 1637, Henry Vane was replaced as governor by John Winthrop. In addition, Coddington and all the other Boston magistrates who supported Hutchinson and Wheelwright were voted out of office by the colony's freemen, though Coddington was then immediately elected by the town of Boston as a deputy. By the summer of 1637, Vane sailed back to England, never to return. With his departure, the time was ripe for the orthodox party to deal with the remainder of their free grace rivals. The aggressive challenges of the free grace advocates left the colony in a state of dissension. Winthrop realized that "two so opposite parties could not contain in the same body, without apparent hazard of ruin to the whole"; he opted for a stern approach to the difficulties, supported by a majority of the colonists. The elections of October 1637 brought about even more change, with a large turnover of the Deputies to the General Court. In contrast to the remainder of the colony, Boston continued to be represented with strong free grace advocates, and Coddington continued as one of its three deputies. The trial The autumn court in 1637 convened on 2 November, and Wheelwright was sentenced to banishment and ordered to leave the colony within fourteen days. Several of Hutchinson and Wheelwright's other supporters were tried and given varied sentences. Following these preliminaries, it was Anne Hutchinson's turn to be tried. She was brought to trial on 7 November 1637, presided over by Governor Winthrop, on the charge of "traducing [slandering] the ministers", among other charges. One of the Boston deputies had been dismissed, so the town was only represented at the trial by Coddington and one other deputy. The trial lasted for two days, and Coddington likely coached Hutchinson on legal matters at the end of the first day. The first day went well for her, but she made the work much easier for her accusers during the second day. She addressed the court with her own judgment, claiming divine revelations as her source of inspiration, and she threatened the court with a curse, as well. The stunned reaction of the court turned into an immediate call for Hutchinson's conviction. Cotton attempted to come to her defense but was hounded by the magistrates until Winthrop called off the questioning. A vote was taken on a sentence of banishment; only Coddington and the other remaining deputy from Boston dissented. Winthrop then read the order: "Mrs. Hutchinson, the sentence of the court you hear is that you are banished from out of our jurisdiction as being a woman not fit for our society, and are to be imprisoned till the court shall send you away". Aftermath Coddington was very unhappy with the proceedings. He stood and asserted: I do not see any clear witness against her, and you know it is a rule of the court that no man may be a judge and an accuser too. I would entreat you to consider whether those things which you have alleged against her deserve such censure as you are about to pass, be it to banishment or imprisonment. I beseech you: do not speak so as to force things along, for I do not, for my own part, see any equity in the court in all your proceedings. Here is no law of God that she hath broken nor any law of the country that she hath broke, and therefore deserve no censure. Coddington's words were ignored, and the court wanted a sentence, but they could not proceed until some of the ministers spoke. Three of the ministers were sworn in, and each testified against Hutchinson. Winthrop moved to have her banished; in the ensuing tally, only Coddington and the other Boston deputy voted against conviction. Hutchinson challenged the sentence's legitimacy, saying, "I desire to know wherefore I am banished". Winthrop responded with finality: "The court knows wherefore and is satisfied". Within a week of Hutchinson's sentencing, additional supporters of hers were called into court and were disenfranchised. The constables were then sent from door to door throughout the colony's towns to disarm those who signed a petition in support of Wheelwright. Within ten days, these individuals were ordered to deliver "all such guns, pistols, swords, powder, shot, & match as they shall be owners of, or have in their custody, upon paine of ten pound[s] for every default". A great number of those who signed the petition recanted under the pressure and "acknowledged their error" in signing the petition when faced with losing their protection and, in some cases, their livelihood. Those who refused to recant suffered hardships and, in many cases, decided to leave the colony. Rhode Island Coddington was angry about the recent trials, considering them to be unjust, so he began making plans for his own future in consultation with others affected by the Court's decisions. He remained on good terms with Winthrop, and consulted with him about the possibility of leaving the Massachusetts colony in peace. Winthrop was encouraging and helped smooth the way with the other magistrates. The men were uncertain where to go, so they contacted Roger Williams; he suggested that they purchase land along the Narragansett Bay from the Narragansett Indians, near his settlement in Providence. On 7 March 1638, a group of men gathered at Coddington's home and drafted a compact. This group included several of the strongest supporters of Hutchinson and Wheelwright who had been disfranchised, disarmed, excommunicated, or banished, including John Coggeshall, William Dyer, William Aspinwall, John Porter, Philip Sherman, Henry Bull, and several members of the Hutchinson family. Some who were not directly involved in the events also asked to be included, such as Randall Holden and physician and theologian John Clarke. Altogether, a group of 23 individuals signed the instrument, sometimes called the Portsmouth Compact, which was intended to form a "Bodie Politick" based on Christian principles. Coddington's name appears first on the list of signers, and the signers elected him as their "Judge," using this Biblical name for their ruler or governor. Following through with Roger William's proposed land purchase, these exiles established their colony on Aquidneck Island (which they called Rhode Island). They initially named the settlement Pocasset but soon renamed it Portsmouth. The split Within a year of founding this settlement, there was dissension among the leaders. Coddington, three elders, and other inhabitants moved to the south end of the island and established the town of Newport. In 1640, the two towns of Portsmouth and Newport united, the name of the chief officer was changed to governor, and Coddington was elected to the position. The two island towns grew and prospered at a much greater rate than the mainland settlements of Providence Plantations and the newly established Shawomet (later Warwick). Roger Williams envisioned a union of all four settlements on the Narragansett Bay, so he went to England to obtain a patent bringing all four under one government, and he was successful in obtaining it on 14 March 1644. The corporate charter obtained by the Williams group was brought from England and read to representatives of the four towns later in 1644. Coddington was opposed to the Williams patent. As the chief magistrate of the island, he had a well-organized and thoroughly equipped government which had little in common, in his opinion, with the unorganized, discordant elements of Providence. Because of this, the island towns ignored the 1643/44 patent, and the General Assembly of the two towns officially named the island on 13 April 1644 Rhode Island. Coddington was so unhappy over uniting with the mainland towns that he wrote a letter to Governor John Winthrop in Massachusetts in August 1644, letting it be known that he would rather have an alliance with Massachusetts or Plymouth than with Providence. This did not happen, but Coddington did manage to resist union with Providence until 1647, when representatives of the four towns finally met and adopted the Williams Patent of 1643. This is also the year that Coddington's second wife Mary died in Newport. The General Court (later the General Assembly) met in Providence in May 1648, and Coddington was elected president of the entire colony. He did not attend the meeting, however, probably because he did not support the patent. Charges were subsequently brought against him, though the nature of them was not recorded, and he was replaced as governor by Jeremy Clarke. The 1643 patent created little more than a confederation of independent governments. In September 1648, Coddington made application for admission of the two island towns into the New England Confederation. The ensuing reply let him know that the island would have to submit to the Plymouth government to be considered. This was unacceptable to Coddington who wanted colonial independence for the two island towns. They had a well-organized government in which civil and religious liberty had been clearly defined and fully recognized, as did Providence, and these liberties would be lost in a government under Plymouth. Coddington commission Exasperated by the situation, Coddington decided to go to England and present his case to the Colonial Commissioners in London, leaving his farm and business interests in the hands of an agent. He arrived in England to find the country in the midst of a civil war, and he was delayed in getting the attention of the proper authorities. He eventually met with his old friend and associate from Boston Sir Harry Vane. Vane had helped Roger Williams obtain his patent, and he was now called upon to advise Coddington as to a course of action. Governor Josiah Winslow of the Plymouth Colony was also in London at the same time, urging Plymouth's claims to the two island towns. On 6 March 1650, Coddington presented his petition for an independent colonial government on Rhode Island, free from the claims of Plymouth and free from union with Providence. In April 1651, the Council of State of England gave Coddington the commission of a separate government for Rhode Island (i.e., Portsmouth and Newport) and for the smaller neighboring island of Conanicut (later Jamestown), with him as governor. Vane gave his consent to this, thus annulling the patent given to Roger Williams several years earlier. He thought that Coddington would be a wise and effective chief magistrate and permitted him to serve as governor for an indefinite period, subject to the will of Parliament. To complete the government, Coddington was to have a council of six men, elected by popular vote of the freemen. Coddington spent nearly three years in England, and he met and married Anne Brinley while there. She was the daughter of Thomas Brinley and sister of Francis Brinley, who settled in Newport in 1652 and built a large structure that later became the White Horse Tavern. In August 1651, Coddington returned to the island. Henry Bull of Newport said that he was welcomed upon his return from England, and that the majority of people accepted him as governor. With his new commission, Coddington once again unsuccessfully sought a place for Rhode Island in the New England Confederation, consisting of the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. Most writers and historians consider Coddington's efforts to be treasonous, particularly those writers who are sympathetic to the Providence and Warwick settlers, including Samuel G. Arnold. Historian Thomas Bicknell, on the other hand, takes a minority position by suggesting that Coddington's actions were totally justified, and he accuses Roger Williams of usurping Coddington's successful island government with the Patent of 1643. Bicknell asserts that Coddington had been the chief magistrate of a flourishing island of nearly 1,000 inhabitants, while the combined population of Providence and Warwick was about 200. In Bicknell's view, Roger Williams went to London in 1643, without advice or instructions, and returned in September 1644 with a patent for the colony, without the knowledge or consent of the island population. Regardless, the island government resisted the patent for several years until 1647, when they yielded to the patent and merged with the mainland government. Revocation of commission Criticism soon arose concerning Coddington. The venerable Dr. John Clarke voiced his opposition to the island governor, and he and William Dyer were sent to England as agents of the discontents to get the Coddington commission revoked. Simultaneously, the mainland towns of Providence and Warwick sent Roger Williams on a similar errand, and the three men sailed for England in November 1651. The men did not meet with the Council of State on New England until April 1652, however, because of recent hostilities between the English and the Dutch. Coddington was accused of taking sides with the Dutch on matters of colonial trade, and his commission was revoked for the island government in October 1652. Dyer was the messenger who returned to Rhode Island the following February, bringing the news that the colony would return to the Williams Patent of 1643/44. The reunion of the colony was to take place that spring, but the mainland commissioners refused to come to the island to meet, and the separation of mainland from island was extended for another year. During this interim period, John Sanford was elected as governor of the island towns, while Gregory Dexter became president of the mainland towns. The powerless Coddington withdrew from public life to tend to his business affairs. The four towns eventually united in 1654, with Nicholas Easton of Newport chosen as president. A general court of elections was then held in September 1654, and Roger Williams was elected president of the united colony, a position which he held for nearly three years. In time, Coddington briefly re-entered public life and became a Newport commissioner on the General Court of Trials. A committee was appointed to investigate his right to a seat, and they sent a letter to the Council of State in England asking for a full accounting of all complaints entered against him. The reply fully vindicated Coddington, and an investigation in Newport cleared him of all charges brought against him. He was finally able to accept the united government of the four towns, and he made the following oath in March 1656: "I William Coddington doe hereby submit to ye authoritie of His Highness in this Colonie as it is now united, and that with all my heart". Later career Sometime in the early 1660s, Coddington joined Governor Nicholas Easton and many other prominent citizens in becoming members of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers. In March 1665, he sent a paper to the Newport commissioners concerning Quaker matters. Coddington remained out of public office for most of the two decades following the demise of his commission to govern Aquidneck Island, but he was still considered one of the colony's leading citizens, and his name appears in the Royal Charter of 1663. He eventually returned to serving the colony in May 1673, when he was elected deputy governor under Governor Nicholas Easton. At the general election a year later, he was chosen as governor, with Easton's son John elected as deputy governor. Little of note occurred during this administration, other than the establishment of peace between England and the Dutch Republic, removing a large source of tension in the colonies. Also, the township of Kingston was established in the Narragansett country, which became incorporated as the seventh town of the colony. In May 1675, the same officers were elected in the colony and given the task of bringing the colony's weights and measures into conformity with English standards. A calm greeted this administration, but the storms of war had been brewing for years, even decades. In June 1675, the peace was shattered by an Indian massacre at Swansea which began King Philip's War, the most devastating event to visit the colony of Rhode Island prior to the American Revolution. The mainland settlements of Warwick and Pawtuxet were totally destroyed during the war, and much of Providence was ruined, as well. The island towns of Newport and Portsmouth were spared with the protection of a fleet of armed vessels. During the 1676 election, Walter Clarke was elected governor, and his administration saw the end of the war. Benedict Arnold was elected governor in 1677; he died a year later, and Coddington was elected to his final term as governor. He was in office only a few months, dying at the beginning of November in 1678. Death, family, and legacy Coddington died in office on 1 November 1678 and is buried in the Coddington Cemetery (Rhode Island Historic Cemetery, Newport No. 9) on Farewell Street in Newport, where several other colonial governors are also buried. His grave is marked with the original marker, as well as a taller monument erected on the 200th anniversary of the establishment of Newport. His oldest son William Coddington, Jr., born of his third wife, Ann Brinley Coddington, was the governor of the colony for two terms from 1683 to 1685. His son Nathaniel married Susanna Hutchinson, a daughter of Edward Hutchinson, and a granddaughter of William and Anne Hutchinson. His daughter Mary married Peleg Sanford, a colonial governor from 1680 to 1683, the son of earlier governor John Sanford with his second wife Bridget Hutchinson, and a grandson of William and Anne Hutchinson. His grandson William Coddington, the son of Nathaniel, married Content Arnold, the daughter of Benedict and Mary (Turner) Arnold, and granddaughter of Governor Benedict Arnold. A portrait often ascribed to Governor Coddington actually portrays this grandson, who was very active in colonial affairs but never a governor. Coddington was usually at odds with Roger Williams, who described him in a letter several years after the founding of Portsmouth (1638): "a worldly man, a selfish man, nothing for public, but all for himself and private." Rhode Island historian and Lieutenant Governor Samuel G. Arnold was highly critical of Coddington for obtaining a commission to govern Aquidneck Island separately from Providence and Warwick, yet he had this to say of him: "He was a man of vigorous intellect, of strong passions, earnest in whatever he understood, and self-reliant in all his actions." Historian Thomas Bicknell writes: "he rose to the achievement of a great personal and political victory, when foes became friends, his policy of statecraft vindicated, and Rhode Island Colony on Aquidneck assumed the position for which he had so stoutly contended and so shamefully suffered." Coddington Hall, an upperclassmen residence hall at the University of Rhode Island is named in his honor. A harbor, street, cemetery, and apartment complex in Newport bear his name, and the Coddington Brewery restaurant in Middletown, Rhode Island is named for him. See also List of colonial governors of Rhode Island List of lieutenant governors of Rhode Island List of early settlers of Rhode Island Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations Notes References Bibliography "Online sources" External links Chronological list of Rhode Island leaders Background on Coddington portrait (Brown University online portrait collection) Provides good background on history of the portrait, but mistakenly calls William Coddington III the son of William Coddington, Jr., when he was actually the son of Nathaniel Coddington, and grandson of Gov. Coddington. Coddington portrait Published paper refuting the portrait being of the governor Forced loan Published paper about Coddington's role in refusing the forced loan, 1627 1600s births 1678 deaths 17th-century Quakers American city founders Colonial governors of Rhode Island Converts to Quakerism Kingdom of England emigrants to Massachusetts Bay Colony People from colonial Boston Politicians from Newport, Rhode Island Burials at Coddington Cemetery

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A list of archaeological sites in County Cork, Ireland. Bantry Area Bantry Archaeology Coastal Promontory Fort, Dromclogh Franciscan Friary, Abbey extant 1466 suppressed 1542 Fulacht fiadh, Dromclogh, Holy Well, Beach 15th. August Iron Working Site, pre-1685 Ringfort, Ardhoolihane, Beach, Booltenagh, Bunbuttern West, Cappanaloha West, Clonee, Curraghavaddra, Dromtahineen, Lissakeemig, Mullagh, Rooska East Standing Stone, Beach, Dromclogh Bantry Area Townlands All in the parish of Kilmocomoge, most in the Barony of Bantry, some in the Baronies of West Carbery (West Division) one (Glanycarney) in East Carbery (East Division) Abbey, Ard na mBrathar ('monks' height). Burial ground, friary iron working site. Aghaghooheen, Achadh Ui Ghuithin (Guheen's field) Ahil Beg and More, Athchoill (regrown wood). Standing stone. Ahildotia, Athchoill Doite (burned regrown wood) Ardaturrish Beg and More, Ard na dTuras (height of the pilgrimage). Burial ground coastal promontory fort. Ardnacloghy, Ard na Cloiche (height of the stone) Ardnagashel, Ard na gCaiseal (height of the forts) Ardnageehy Beg and More, Ard na Gaoithe (windy height). Standing stone. Ardnamanagh, Ardrath, Ard Rath (high fort) Ards More East and West, Na hAird (the heights) Ardhoolihane, Ard Ui Uallachain (Houlichan's height) Ballylickey, Beal atha na Leice (mouth of the fording flagstone) Ballynamought, Baile na mBocht (town of the poor) Bantry Town, Beanntrai (people of Beannt) Barnagearagh, Ban na gCaorach (field of the sheep) Baurgorm, Barr Gorm (blue top) Beach Breeny Beg and More, Caher, Cathair (stone fort) Caherdaniel East and West, Cathair Dhomhnaill (Donal's fort) Cahermoanteen, Cathair an Mhointin (fort of the coarse moor) Cahermuckee, Cathair an Mhuici (fort of the swineherd) Cahernacrin, Cathair an Achrainn (fort of the strife) Cahergullane, Cathair an Ghallain (fort of the standing stone) Cappaboy Beg and More, Ceapach Buidhe (yellow tillage plot) Cappanaboul, Ceapach na bPoll (plot of the pits) Cappanabrick, Ceapach na mBroch (field of the badgers) Cappanaloha East and West, Ceapacn na Luaithre (plot of the ashes) Cappanavar, Ceapach na bhFear (field of the men) Carran, Carn (monumental heap of stones) Carriganass, Carrig an Easa (rock of the waterfall) Carrigboy, Carrig Buidhe (yellow rock) Carrignagat, Carrig na gCat (rock of the cat|squirrels?) Chapel Island and Little, Clashduff, Clais Dhubh (dark hollow) Clonee, Cluain Fhia ( meadow of the deer) Cloonygorman, Cluain Ui Ghormain (Gorman's meadow) Close, Clos (enclosure) Cooleenlamane, Cuilin Lomanach (bare remote place) Coomacroobeg, Cum an Chrubaigh (field of the hoofed animal) Coomanore North and South, Cum an Iubhair (valley of the yew tree) Coomclogh, Cum Cloch (valley of the stones) Coomleagh East and West, Cum na Lia (valley of the boulders) Coorloum Easr North and West, Cuar Lom (bare bend) Corrycomane, Cuar an Choimeaid (bend of the storage) Corryleary, Cuar Ui Laoghaire (O'Leary's bend) Coumaclavlig, Cum an Chnaimharlaigh (valley of the skeleton) Cousane, Cuasan (cavern) Crossogue, Crosog, (little cross) Crowkingle, Cullenagh, Cuillenagh ( place of holly) Curraglass, Currach Glas (green bog) Currakeal, Currach Caol (narrow bog) Curramore, Currach More (large bog) Dereenathirigh, Dereenkealig, Daoire an Chaolaigh (grove of the saplings) Dereenclooig, Dereengranagh, Dereenograne, Derryclogher, Derrycreigh, Derryarkane, Doire Urcan (grove of the bonhams/piglets) Derryduff Beg and More, Doire Dubh (dark oak wood) Derryfada, Doire Fada (long oak wood) Derryginagh East Middleand West, Doire Grianach (sunny grove) Derrynafinchin, Doire na Fuinnseann (grove of the ash trees) Derrynakilla, Doire na Cille (grove of the burial ground) Deryvahalla, Doire Machalla (oak grove of the echoes) Dromacapull, Drom an Chapaill (ridge of the horse) Dromaclarig, Drom an Chlaraigh (ridge of the plateau) Dromacoosane, Drom an Chuasain (ridge of the littlecave) Dromanassa, Drom an Eise (ridge of the path) Drombrow, Drom Bro (ridge of thequern stone) Dromclogh East and West, dRom Cloch (ridge of the stones) Dromdoneen and East and West, Dromdoneen East, Drom an Duinin (ridge of the little fort) Dromdaniel, Drom Ui Dhomhnaill, (O'Donnell's ridge) Dromduff East and west, Drom Duff (black ridge) Dromgariff, Drom Garbh (rough ridge) Dromkeal. Drom Caol (narrow ridge) Dromleigh North and South, Drom Liath (grey ridge) Dromloughlin, Drom Ui Lochlainn (O'Loughlin's ridge) Dromnafinshin, drom na Fuinnseann (ridge of the ash trees) Dromsullivan North and south, Drom Ui Shuilleabhain (O'Sullivan's ridge) Dunamark and Mill Lot, Dun na mBarc (fortress of the ships) Dunbittern East and West, Farranfada, Fearann Fada (long land) Garranboy Island, Garran Buidhe (yellow thicket) Gearagh, Gaorthai (wooden glens), Gaorthadh (wooded glen or stream) Glanareagh, Glanbannin Lower and Upper, Glanlough, Gleann an Lougha (glen of the lake) Gortacloona, Gort na Cluana (meadow field) Gortagarry, Gort an Gharrai (field of the garden) Gortloughra, Gort Luachra (field of the rushes) Gortnacowly, Gort an Chabhlaigh (field of the ruin) Gortroe, Gort Ruadh (red field) Gouree Beg and More, Guaire (sandbank) Gurraghy, Garraithe (gardens) Gurteenroe, Goirtin Ruadh (little red field) Glanycarney, Geann Ui Chearnai (Kearney's glen) Hog Island, Hollyhill, Horse Island, Illane, Oilean (island) Illauncrevveen Inchiclogh, Inse na gCloch (low stony meadow) Inchagoum, Inse na nGamhna (low meadow of the calves) Inchinarihen, Inse an Oirchinn (low meadow of the end) Inchiroe, Inse Ruadha (brown pasture|riverside) Iskanafeelna, Easc na Faoilinne (lady's esker) Kealaine, Caol na nOigheann (marsh of the river sources) Kealcoum, Caol Cam (winding marshy stream) Kealkill, Caol Choill (narrow wood) Keilnascarta, Cill na Scairte (church of the shrubbery) Kilmore, Kilnaknappoge, Cill na gCnopog (church of the hillocks) Kilnaruane, Cill na Rómhán (church of the Romans) Kinathfineen, Cill Naomh Fhianniain (St. Finnian's church) Kippaghingergill, Ceapach Inghir Ghil (plot of the bright grazing) Knockanecosduff, Cnocan na gCos nDubh (hillock of the maidenhair) Knocknamuck, Cnon na Muc (hill of the pigs) Lackeragh, Leaca Riabhach (striped hillside) Lacadane, Leaca Bhan (white hillside ?) Laharan East and West, Leath Fhearainn (section of the hill brow) Lararanshermeen, Letterlicky East Middle and West, Leitir na Leace (hillside of the flagstone) Lisheen, Lisin (little fort) Loughdeeveen, Leaca Diomhaoin (barren hillside) Lousy Castle Island, Maugha, Macha (cattle field) Maughanaclea, Macha na gClai (field of the fences) Maughanasilly, Macha na Saili (field of the willows|sallies) Maularaha, Meall an Reithe ( knoll of the ram) Maulavanig, Meall an Mhanaigh (the monk's knoll) Maulinward, Meall an Bhaird ( the poet's knoll) Mill Big and Little, Meall Beag (little knob) Mileencoola, Millin na gCuaille (knob of the posts) Newtown, Parkana, Pairceanna (fields) Rabbit Island, Raheen and Beg and More, Raithin (little fort) Rangaroe, Reaangai Rua (red ridges) Reenaadisert, Rinn an Disirt (point of the hermitage) Reenaknock, Rinn na gCnoc (point of the hills) Reenavanny, Rinn an Mhanaigh (monk's point) Reerour East and West, Rinn Reamhar (broad point) Reenydonagan, Rinn Ui Dhoinragain (Donegan's point) Scartbaun, Seafield, Shanaknock, Seana Chnoc (old hill) Shandrum Beg and More, Sean Drum (old ridge) Shanvallybeg, Sheskin, Seisceann (marsh) Shronagreehy, Sron na Gaoithe (windy promontory) Skahanagh and Beg Lower More, Sceitheanach (white thorn area) Slip, Sliop (opening) Snave, Snamh (ford|swim) Tooreen and South, Tuairin (grassland) Town Lots, Trawnahaha, Tra na hAithbhe Trawnamaddree, Trian na Madrai (area of the dogs) Bere island Battery, Ardaragh West, Cloonaghlin West Circular Enclosure, Greenane Hut Site, Ardaragh West Martello Tower, Ardaragh West, Cloonaghlin West (also Telegraph Station) Promontory Fort Ringfort, Cloonaghlin West, Greenane Signal Tower, Derrycreeveen Standing Stone, Greenane Wedge Tomb, Ardaragh West Cape Clear Cape Clear Townlands An tArd Ghort Baile Iarthach Theas (Ballyieragh) Baile Iarthach Thuaidh Cill Leice Forabhain (Killickaforavane) Comalan (Comillane) Cnocan na mBairneach (Knockannamurnagh) Cnocan an Choimthigh (Knockanacohig) Coinlin (Keenleen) Crathach Thiar (Croha West) Crathach Thoir (Croha East) Creathuna (Carhoona) Gleann Iarthach (Glen West) Gleann Meanach Gleann Oirtheach Gort na Lobhar (Gortnalour) Lios O Moine (Lissamona) All in Clear Island civil parish Barony of West carbery (East Division) Cape Clear Archaeology Boulder Burial, Gort na Lobhar (Gortnalour) Burial Ground, Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh), Cill Leire Forabhain (Comillane), also Children's Burial Ground, Lios O Moine (Lissamona) Celtic Art Stone with later cross inscription Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD, Crathach Thiar (Croha West) Church, Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh) in ruins 1693 Cross Slab, Lios O Moine (Lissamona), Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh) Cup Mark Stone, Cill Leire Forabhain (Comillane) now in Cape Clear Museum Fulach Fiadh (Cooking Pit), Gort na Lobhar (Gortnalour), Cnocan na mBairneach (Knockannamurnagh) Holy Well, Cill Leire Forabhain (Comillane), Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh) visited on St. Kieran's day 5 March Medieval post 1200 AD O'Driscoll Castle Passage Tomb 4000 - 2200 BC, Cill Leire Forabhain (Comilane) found 1880 Promontory Fort Celtic Iron Age 600B, C. - 400 AD at Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh), Cnocan na mBairneach (Knockannamurnagh) Ringfort, Lios O Moine (Lissamona) Signal Tower, Gleann Iarthach (Glen West) burned early 19th century Stone Pair, Cill Leire Forabhain (Comillane), Neolithic 4000 - 2200 BC Tower House and Bawn, Baile Iarthach (Ballyieragh) O'Driscoll Dursey Island Dursey Island Archaeology Ballaun Stones, Killowen, Ballynacallagh Castle Site, Ballynacallagh O'Sullivan garrison 1602 Cup Marked Stone, Ballynacallagh Graveyarg/Ruined Church, Ballynacallagh Hut Site, Killowen Radial Stone Enclosure, Maughanaclea Signal Tower, Tilickatina (see towers on Bere Island, Kilcrohane, Mizen Peninsula and Cape Clear) Dursey Island Townlands Ballynacallagh Killowen Maughanaclea Tilickatina Mizen Head Peninsula Altar, Wedge Tomb Bronze Age 2200 BC-600 BC Arderrawinny, Portal Tomb 4000 - 2200 BC Ardintenant, O'Mahony Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Arduslough, Wedge Tomb Bronze Age 2200 BC-600 BC Ballybane West, Rock Art Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC Barnatonicane, Church Graveyard and Ballaun Medieval post 1200 AD Castle Island, Shell Midden, O'Mahony Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Castlepoint, Promontory Fort Celtic Iron Age 600 b.c. - 400 AD, O'Mahony Medieval Castle Corradarrigan, Boulder Burial, Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC Coosheen, Pillar Stone in Children's Graveyard Early Christian 400-1200 AD Croagh Bay, Church and Children's Burial Ground early Christian 400- 1200 AD Dunlough, Coastal Promontory Fort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD, Three O'Mahony Castles Medieval post 1200 AD, Dunbeacon, Stone Circle Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC, Two standing stones nearby Dunmanus, Boulder Burial Bronze Age 2200-600 BC, O'Mahony Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Dooneen, Promontory Fort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Kilangle, Church Early Christian 400 - 1200 AD Kilbrown, Church Well Bullaun Kilcoe, McCarthy Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Leamcon, Medieval Castle Lissacaha, Ringfort Celtic Iron Age 600BC - 400 AD Lisheen, Boulder Burial Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC Lissagriffin, Kilmoe Church, Graveyard and Bullaun Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Meenvane, Ringfort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Mount Gabriel, Copper Mines Bronze Age 2200 BC - 600 BC Murrahin North, Stone Alignment Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC Rathooragh, Ringfort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Rathruane, Ringfort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Rossbrin, O'Mahony Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Skeagh, Passage Tomb 4000 - 2200 BC Toormore, wedge Tomb Bronze Age 2200 - 600 BC West Skeam (Island), Church and Graveyard Early Christian 400 - 1200 AD Whitehall, O'Driscoll Castle Medieval post 1200 AD Sheep's Head Peninsula Durrus Archaeology Boulder Burial, Ballycomane Burial Ground, Brahalish, Clashadoo, Coolcoulaghta, Dunbeacon, Kilvenogue, Cairn, Coolcoulaghta, Moulinward Castle, Dunbeacon Church, Moulinward (In repair 1639 ruins 1699) Fulacht Fiadha (Cooking Pit), Dunbeacon, Celtic Iron Age 600 BC-400 AD Graveyard, Moulinward Holy Well, Dunbeacon Mill Stone, Brahalish Promontory Fort, Coolcoulaghta (Celtic Iron Age 600 BC-400 AD) Ring forts, Ballycomane, Brahalish, Clonee, Drumtahaneen, Dunbeacon, Gortyalassa, Kealties, Rushineska, Celtic Iron Age 600 BC-400 AD Shell Midden, Dunbeacon Standing Stones (Gallauns), Ballycomane, Coolcoulaghta (Stone Pair Bronze Age 2200 BC-600 BC, Kealties, Parkana Stone Row, Moulinward, Bronze Age 2200 BC-600 BC Stone Circle, Dunbeacon (Bronze Age 2200 BC-600 BC) Tower House (medieval post 1200 AD), Rossmore (O'Mahony|McCarthy?) Durrus Townlands Ahagouna Ath Gamhna, 'Ford of the calves', in Clashadoo townland Ardogeena (152 acres) Ard na Gaoine, 'height of the flint stones'. On the east side is Lisdromaloghera (Lios Drom Luachra) fort of the rushy ridge. Ballycomane (1349 acres) Baile an Chumain 'town of the little valley'. Part of it is Ballinwillin (Baile an Mhuilinn) place of the mill. Boulder burial, ringfort and standing stone pair. Boolteenagh (148 acres) Buailtenach, 'summer pasture'. The high land at the south is called Knockboolteenagh (cnoc buailtineach) hill of the little boolies. Site of a possible souterrain, at the north side is a ringfort. Brahalish (784 acres) Breach Lios, 'spotted forts' or Braichlis (place of malt or fermented grain). On the west side is Brahalish Fort and the east Cummer Fort. In 1659 census written Bracklisse. Burial ground children, mill stone ringforts. Location of Brahalish Hoard of gold ornaments currently in the British Museum. Carrigboy (116 acres) Carraig Buidhe, 'yellow rock'. Location of Durrus village. The high road from here is built over land known as Carrig Cannon. Curraghavaddra (195 acres) Currach an Mhadra, 'the bog of the dog'. On the west side is a ringfort. Clonee (409 acres) Cluain Fhia, 'meadow of the deer' or Aodh's meadow. In the cente is Clonee ringfort. Clashadoo (749 acres) Clasa Dubha, 'dark hollows'. Burial ground last burial 1930s. To the north on high boggy ground is Coolnaheorna or Coornaheorna leading to the 'Cumar', and beyond to Loch na Fola (lake of the blood), the stream on the western end has a deep hole formerly known as Poul Nora Poll Nora (nora's hole). Coolcoulaghta (1148 acres) Cul Cabhlachta, 'remote place of the ruins' or 'cul cuallachta', nook of the tribe or assemblage. Location of boulder burial, burial ground at Kileen Coolcoulaghta Church contains 1847 famine victims, cairn, coastal promontory fort, fulachta fiadh, ringfort, standing stone, a standing stone pair. Coomkeen (915 acres) Cum Caoin, 'gentle valley'. Possible massrock, on the south side is Screathan na Muice (stoney slope of the pig). Crottees (490 acres) Cruiteanna, 'humpy ridges' Dromreagh (842 acres) Drom Riabhach, 'striped/grey ridge', on the north side is Coill Breach (wolf wood). Possible souterrain, standing stone. Dromataniheen (97 acres) Drom a'tSeannaichin (ridge of the little fox). Ringfort on the south side. Dromreague (92 acres) Drom Reidh, 'even ridge' Dunmanus Dun Manus, 'fort of Manus' Durrus Dubh Ros, 'dark wooded promontory' Gearhameen (646 acres) Gaortha min, 'small wooded glen' On the east side is Coolnalong Castle seat of the McCarthy Muclaghs later the property of Lord Bandon. Gurteen (127 acres) Goirtin 'small field' Kealties (614 acres) Caolta, 'narrow strip of land/or marshes marshy streams'. On the south side is Ros na Bruighne (headland of strife), written Glinkelty (Gleann Caolta) on 17th century map of Petty. Standing stone and possible ringforts. Kiloveenoge Cill Ui Mhionoig', 'Minogue's church, or Cill Oighe Mhineog church of the virgin Mineog. Child burial ground, on the east side is a former Protestant Church built 1860 or the west side is the site of an old church and burial grounds.. Lissareemig (78 acres) Lios a'Riamaigh (fort of victory). Ringfort in centre. Mannions Island Large and Small Moulivarde Meall an Bhaird, 'the bard's knoll' Mullagh (173 acres) ''''Mullagh, 'summit'. Possible souterrain on the west side is Lissavully Fort (lios a'Mhullaigh) fort of the summit. Murreagh (199 acres) Muirioch, 'seaside marsh'. Location of disused grain store also used as a refuge for children in 1847. Disused slate quarry south end also standing stone. Parkana Pairceanna, 'fields' Rooska West 298 acres) East (295 acres) Riasca, 'marshes'. Disused lead mines on western side ringforts in West and East. Rossmore (310 acres) Ros Mor 'large copse or large promontory'. Location of Rossmore Castle in ruins former O'Mahony tower house and location of former slate quarry Rusheenasiska (84 acres) Ruisin an Uisce, 'little copse of the water' Teadagh ( 107 acres) Taodach, 'rugged land' or Teideach 'flat topped hill' Tullig Tullach, 'mound' Kilcrohane Archaeology Ardahill, Ardintenant, Caher, Caheragh, Derrycluvane, Drumnea, Faunmore, Gortalassa, Gortaneish, Killoveenogue, Knockroe, Raferigeen, Letter East, Rossnacaheragh, Tullig Ringfort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Aughaleigue, Gouladoo, Laherandota, Letter East, Holy well Ballytransna, Kilcrohane, Cashel Ardaneig, Caher, Farranamanagh, Gortnakilla, Killonoveenogue, Letter West, Kilcrohane, Burial Ground, Caherurlagh, Holed Stone for healing Dooneen, Galladoo, Keelovenogue, Promontory Fort Celtic Iron Age 600 BC - 400 AD Dromnea, Bardic School Medieval post 1200 AD, Ornamental Tower erected Lord Bandon, Holy Well (tober na nduanairidhe well of the poets), possible fulach fiadh Farranmanagh, Stone Row Bronze Age, Children's Burial Ground, Souterrain, Tower house (O'Daly), Gallaun (standing stone Gouladoo, Holy Well Letter West, Children's Burial Ground Kilcrohane, Souterrain Signal Towers, Tooreen Kilcrohane Townlands Ahileague, Achadh na Liag (field of the boulders or flagstones|rocking-stone) Ardahill, Ard Athchoill (High new wood| possible connection to St. Eochaile) Ardanenig, (Ard an Aonaigh (height of the fair or assembly place) Ballieragh, (608 acres), Baile Iartharach (western townland), sometimes termed West Ballyroon. In the centre is Faill Bheag (small cliff) Ballyruin, (118 acres), Baile Ui Tuain (Ruane's townland) or Baile a'Ruadhain (place of the moorland). Here lie the ruins of the house occupied by the poet Angus na n-Aor O Dalaigh in 1610. Ballyroon Mountain (468 acres), Macha Damh (field of the bardic assemblies). On the west side is Doo LOugh Dubh Loch (black lake) and the ruins of a signal tower Ballintra, Baile na dTra (townland of the strands) Caher, (258 acres) Cathair (stone fort), in the centre is Bawnacaheragh Fort Badhun na Cathrach (enclosure of the fort) at the south and east sides are disused burial grounds and the east are the remains of an old schoolhouse which in the early 19th. century had 200 plus pupils Caher Mountain (222 acres), Slaibh na Cathrach (mountain of the stone fort), on the west side is Tooreenacaheragh Tuairin na Cathrach (little green or bleach yard of the fort) Cahergal, (125 acres), Cathair Gheal (white fort), the side of the caher is on the north side Caherurlagh, (31 acres), Cathair Iolrach (eagle fort) or Cathair Urlaidhe (stone fort of the skirmish) or Cathair Urlach (stone fort of long coarse grass), site of holed stone and rindfort Caherurlagh Mountain North (28 acres) South (24 acres), Sliabh Cathair Urlaidhe (mountain of the stone fort of conflict), on the west side is Cookturtaun Lough Cul a'Tortain (back of the hillock) Clash, (97 acres) Clais (hollow) Carrivaleen, Cathair an Mhillin (stone fort of the knoll) Cora, subdivision of Ballyruin Derrycluvane, Doire Clumhanta (remote oak grove) Dooneen, Duinin (little fort) Doonour, Dub Amhair (fort of music) Dromnea, Drom an Fhiaidh (ridge of the deer) Eskeraha, (332 acres) Eascracha (glacier ridge) or Eisc Ratha (marsh of the fort), site of ringfort Fahane, Faithchean (small green plot) Farranamanagh, Lower, Upper, Fearann na Mannach (monk's land) Fawnmore, Fan Mor (big slope) Foilbeag, Galladoo, Gabhla Dubha (dark forks|black hill shoulders) Gearhies, Gaorthai (wooded glens) Glanalin, Gleann na Linn (glen of the pools) Glenruin, Gleann Ruadhain (glen of the sparrowhawk) Gortnalassa, Gort an Leasa (fort field) Gortaneish, Gort an Ois (field of the fawn) Gortnakilla, Gort na Cille (field of the church) Gurtfahane, Gort Fahane (field of the thistle) Gortavallig, (314 acres), Gort an Bhealaigh (roadside field), location of disused copper mines and slate quarries on the west side Kilcrohane, Cill Crochain (Crohane's church) Killeen, Cillin (little church) Knockeens, Cnoichini (small hills) Knockroe, Cnoc Ruadh (red hills) Laherndotia, (69 acres), Leath Fhearann Doite (burned settlement side), also known as Mid Ballyroon, location of holy wells on the east side and on the south side is Tobernockphuca Tobar Cnoc a'Phuca (well of the pooka's hill) Laharndota Mountain (33 acres), Sliabh Leath- Fhearann Doighte (mountain of the half burned townland), on the south side is Laharndota Lough Letter East (259 acres), Lower (50 acres), Mountain (238 acres), West (117 acres), Leitir (wet hillside), on the south side is Toberanorane Tobar an Fhuarain (well of the cold spring) and Letter Lough, on the north east is Loughaunnabrickeen Lochaan a'Bhricin (little lake of the trout) Moulnaskeha, Meall na Sceithe (knoll of the bush) Raffrigeen, Rath Aimhirgin (aimhirgin's fort) Reennacoppul, Rinn na gCapall (horses point) Rhea or Reagh, (221 acres) (mountain flat or plateau) Rhearour, Rinn Reamhar (broad point) Rosskerrig, Ros na gCaorach (wooded promontory of the sheep) Rossnacaheragh, Ros na cathrach (copse of the fort) Tooreen, (355 acres) Tuairin (grassland|little drying or bleaching place) or sheepwalk. On the west side is Lough Akeen Loch a'Chinn, lake of the promontory, the extreme point is Ros Caorthach (headland of the round masses) or Sheeps Head. The Paddock Tullig, Tullach (mound) References Sources Bruno O'Donoghue, Parish Histories and Placenames of West Cork, 1986, The Kerryman Archaeological Inventory of County Cork, Volume 1: West Cork, The Stationery Office, Dublin 1992 External links Guide To Irish Archaeological Sites, google.com UCC's Archaeological Survey Unit, ucc.ie Archaeology and Forestry in Ireland, heritagecouncil.ie Archaeological Theses UCC, google.com IrishMegaliths.org Townland Database, http://www.thecore.com/seanruad/ Various sources about archaeology in Cork (From the National Library of Ireland's Sources database), sources.nli.ie Archaeological

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The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (), is an independent island country near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country's population of 58,413 people (at the 2018 World Bank Census) is spread out over five islands and 29 coral atolls, comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The capital and largest city is Majuro. It has the largest portion of its territory composed of water of any sovereign state, at 97.87%. The islands share maritime boundaries with Wake Island to the north, Kiribati to the southeast, Nauru to the south, and Federated States of Micronesia to the west. About 52.3% of Marshall Islanders (27,797 at the 2011 Census) live on Majuro. In 2016, 73.3% of the population were defined as being "urban". The UN also indicates a population density of , and its projected 2020 population is 59,190. Micronesian colonists reached the Marshall Islands using canoes circa 2nd millennium BC, with interisland navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. They eventually settled there. Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, starting with Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer in the service of Spain, Juan Sebastián Elcano and Miguel de Saavedra. Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar reported sighting an atoll in August 1526. Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed. The islands derive their name from John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as "" (Gifts from God). Spain claimed the islands in 1592, and the European powers recognized its sovereignty over the islands in 1874. They had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528. Later, Spain sold some of the islands to the German Empire in 1885, and they became part of German New Guinea that year, run by the trading companies doing business in the islands, particularly the Jaluit Company. In World War I, the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which, in 1920, the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Seas Mandate. During World War II, the United States took control of the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in 1944. Nuclear testing began on Bikini Atoll in 1946 and concluded in 1958. The U.S. government formed the Congress of Micronesia in 1965, a plan for increased self-governance of Pacific islands. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in May 1979 provided independence to the Marshall Islands, whose constitution and president (Amata Kabua) were formally recognized by the US. Full sovereignty or self-government was achieved in a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Marshall Islands has been a member of the Pacific Community (SPC) since 1983 and a United Nations member state since 1991. Politically, the Marshall Islands is a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency in free association with the United States, with the U.S. providing defense, subsidies, and access to U.S.-based agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission and the United States Postal Service. With few natural resources, the islands' wealth is based on a service economy, as well as fishing and agriculture; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands' gross domestic product but most financial aid from the Compact of Free Association expires in 2023. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency. In 2018, it also announced plans for a new cryptocurrency to be used as legal tender. The majority of the citizens of the Republic of Marshall Islands, formed in 1982, are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines, and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, which is one of the Oceanic languages, and English. Almost the entire population of the islands practices some religion: three-quarters of the country follows either the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God. History Evidence suggests that around 3,000 years ago successive waves of human migrants from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific Ocean, populating its many small islands. The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC. Little is known of the islands' early history. Marshall Islanders, among the many great Oceanic voyagers, designed stick charts to map ocean swells and navigate between the islands. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1526, and the archipelago came to be known as "Los Pintados" ("The Painted (Ones)", possibly referring to the indigenous people first found there), "Las Hermanas" ("The Sisters") and "Los Jardines" ("The Gardens") within the Spanish Empire. It first fell within the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and was then administered by Madrid, through the Captaincy General of the Philippines, upon the independence of Latin America and the dissolution of New Spain starting in 1821. American whaling ships visited the islands in the 19th century. The first on record was the Awashonks in 1835 and last was the Andrews Hicks in 1905. The islands were only formally possessed by Spain for much of their colonial history, and on European maps were grouped with the Caroline Islands which today make up Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia, or alternatively the "Nuevas Filipinas" ("New Philippines"). The islands were mostly left to their own affairs except for short-lived religious missions (documented in 1668 and 1731) during the 16th and 17th centuries. They were largely ignored by European powers except for cartographic demarcation treaties between the Iberian Empires (Portugal and Castilian Spain) in 1529, 1750 and 1777. The archipelago corresponding to the present-day country was independently named by Krusenstern, after British explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton with two ships of the First Fleet, and started to establish German and British trading posts, which were not formally contested by Spain. The Marshall Islands were formally claimed by Spain in 1874 through its capital in the East Indies, Manila. This marked the start of several strategic moves by the German Empire during the 1870s and 80s to annex them (claiming them to be "by chance unoccupied"). This policy culminated in a tense naval episode in 1885, which did not degenerate into a conflict due to the poor readiness of Spain's naval forces and the unwillingness for open military action from the German side. Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain reached an agreement with Germany in 1885: the 1885 Hispano-German Protocol of Rome. This accord established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit (Joló) and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration, rendered tacitly effective by the wording in the 1885 Protocol, which demarcated an area subject to Spanish sovereignty (0-11ºN, 133-164ºE) omitting the Eastern Carolines, that is, the Marshall and Gilbert archipelagos, where most of the German trading posts were located. The disputes were rendered moot after the selling of the whole Caroline archipelago to Germany 13 years later. At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the Marshall Islands. The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, Jaluit. On January 31, 1944 American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on February 3, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls. In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. From 1946 to 1958, it served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls. The world's first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1 (local date) in 1952, by the United States. Nuclear testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after residents were evacuated. Over the years, 67 weapon tests were conducted, including the 15-megaton Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test, which produced significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958. Over the years, just one of over 60 islands was cleaned by the U.S. government, and the inhabitants are still waiting for the 2 billion dollars in compensation assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. Many of the islanders and their descendants still live in exile, as the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation. A significant radar installation was constructed on Kwajalein atoll. On May 1, 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts. There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded. The United Democratic Party, running on a reform platform, won the 1999 parliamentary election, taking control of the presidency and cabinet. The islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986. Trusteeship was ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 of December 22, 1990. Until 1999 the islanders received US$180M for continued American use of Kwajalein atoll, US$250M in compensation for nuclear testing, and US$600M in other payments under the compact. Despite the constitution, the government was largely controlled by Iroij. It was not until 1999, following political corruption allegations, that the aristocratic government was overthrown, with Imata Kabua replaced by the commoner Kessai Note. The Runit Dome was built on Runit Island to deposit U.S.-produced radioactive soil and debris, including lethal amounts of plutonium. There are ongoing concerns about deterioration of the waste site and a potential radioactive spill. In January 2020, David Kabua, son of founding president Amata Kabua, was elected as the new President of the Marshall Islands. His predecessor Hilda Heine lost the position after a vote. Geography The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia, north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the disputed U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it also lays claim. The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset). The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about of ocean but only about of land mass. Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls. The country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five individual islands situated in about of the Pacific. The largest atoll with a land area of is Kwajalein. It surrounds a lagoon. Twenty-four of the atolls and islands are inhabited. The remaining atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions, lack of rain, or nuclear contamination. The uninhabited atolls are: Ailinginae Atoll Bikar (Bikaar) Atoll Bikini Atoll Bokak Atoll Erikub Atoll Jemo Island Nadikdik Atoll Rongerik Atoll Toke Atoll Ujelang Atoll The average altitude above sea level for the entire country is . Shark sanctuary In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from . In protected waters, all shark fishing is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone. Territorial claim on Wake Island The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island. While Wake island has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Ānen Kio (new orthography) or Enen-kio (old orthography). Climate The climate has a relatively dry season from December to April and a wet season from May to November. Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region, and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines. Population has outstripped the supply of fresh water, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains. Climate change Climate change is a big threat to the Marshall Islands, with typhoons becoming stronger and sea levels rising. The sea around Pacific islands has risen 7mm a year since 1993, which is more than twice the rate of the worldwide average. In Kwajalein, there is a high risk of permanent flooding; when sea levels rise to 1 meter, 37% of buildings will be permanently flooded in that scenario. In Ebeye, the risk of sea level rise is even higher, with 50% of buildings being permanently flooded in the same scenario. With 1 meter sea level rise parts of the Majuro atoll will be permanently flooded and other parts are having a high risk of flooding especially the eastern part of the atoll would be significantly at risk. With 2 meter sea level rise all the buildings of Majuro will be permanently flooded or would be at a high risk to be flooded. The per capita Co2 emissions were 2.56t in 2020. The government of Marshall Islands pledged to be net zero in 2050, with a decrease of 32% decrease of GHGs in 2025, 45% decrease in 2030 and a 58% decrease in 2035 all compared to 2010 levels. Fauna Crabs include hermit crabs, and coconut crabs. Birds Most birds found in the Marshall Islands, with the exception of those few introduced by man, are either sea birds or a migratory species. There are about 70 species of birds, including 31 seabirds. 15 of these species actually nest locally. Sea birds include the black noddy and the white tern. The only land bird is the house sparrow, introduced by humans. Marine There are about 300 species of fish, 250 of which are reef fish. Turtles: green turtles, hawksbill, Leatherback sea turtles, and Olive ridley sea turtles. Sharks: There are at least 22 shark species including: Blue shark, Silky shark, Bigeye thresher shark, Pelagic thresher shark, Oceanic whitetip shark, and Tawny nurse shark. Arthropods Scorpions: dwarf wood scorpion, and Common house scorpion. Pseudoscorpions are occasionally found. Spiders: Two: a scytodes, Dictis striatipes; and Jaluiticola a genus of jumping spiders endemic to the Marshall Islands. Its only species is Jaluiticola hesslei. Amphipod: One – Talorchestia spinipalma. Orthoptera: cockroaches, American cockroaches, short-horned grasshopper, crickets. Demographics Historical population figures for the Marshall Islands are unknown. In 1862, the population of the Islands was estimated at 10,000. In 1960, the population of the Islands was approximately 15,000. The 2011 Census counted 53,158 island residents. Over two-thirds of the residents of the Marshall Islands live in the capital city, Majuro, and the secondary urban center, Ebeye (located in Kwajalein Atoll). This figures excludes Marshall Islands natives who have relocated elsewhere; the Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there. Approximately 4,300 Marshall Islands natives relocated to Springdale, Arkansas in the United States; this figure represents the largest population concentration of Marshall Islands natives outside their island home. Most residents of the Marshall Islands are Marshallese. Marshallese people are of Micronesian origin and are believed to have migrated from Asia to the Marshall Islands several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry (mainly Japanese). About one-half of the nation's population lives in Majuro and Ebeye. The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese. Both languages are widely spoken. Religion Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands, with 51.5% of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2%; the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4%; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3%. Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2%; Baptist, 1.0%; Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9%; Full Gospel, 0.7%; and the Baháʼí Faith, 0.6%. Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population. Islam is also present through Ahmadiyya Muslim Community which is based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012. Health During the Castle Bravo test of the first deployable thermonuclear bomb, a miscalculation resulted in the explosion being over twice as large as predicted. The nuclear fallout spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik Atolls. These islands were not evacuated before the explosion. Many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from radiation burns and radioactive dusting, suffering the similar fates as the Japanese fishermen aboard the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, but have received little, if any, compensation from the federal government. Government The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its 1979 Constitution. Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI's unicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs. In January 2016, senator Hilda Heine was elected by Parliament as the first female president of the Marshall Islands; previous president Casten Nemra lost office after serving two weeks in a vote of no confidence. Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve paramount chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP. The following senators are in the legislative body: Ailinglaplap Atoll – Christopher Loeak (AKA), Alfred Alfred, Jr. (IND) Ailuk Atoll – Maynard Alfred (UDP) Arno Atoll – Mike Halferty (KEA), Jejwadrik H. Anton (IND) Aur Atoll – Hilda C. Heine (AKA) Ebon Atoll – John M. Silk (UDP) Enewetak Atoll – Jack J. Ading (UPP) Jabat Island – Kessai H. Note (UDP) Jaluit Atoll – Casten Nemra (IND), Daisy Alik Momotaro (IND) Kili Island – Eldon H. Note (UDP) Kwajalein Atoll – Michael Kabua (AKA), David R. Paul (KEA), Alvin T. Jacklick (KEA) Lae Atoll – Thomas Heine (AKA) Lib Island – Jerakoj Jerry Bejang (AKA) Likiep Atoll – Leander Leander, Jr. (IND) Majuro Atoll – Sherwood M. Tibon (KEA), Anthony Muller (KEA), Brenson S. Wase (UDP), David Kramer (KEA), Kalani Kaneko (KEA) Maloelap Atoll – Bruce Bilimon (IND) Mejit Island – Dennis Momotaro (AKA) Mili Atoll – Wilbur Heine (AKA) Namdrik Atoll – Wise Zackhras (IND) Namu Atoll – Tony Aiseia (AKA) Rongelap Atoll – Kenneth A. Kedi (IND) Ujae Atoll – Atbi Riklon (IND) Utirik Atoll – Amenta Mathew (KEA) Wotho Atoll – David Kabua (AKA) Wotje Atoll – Litokwa Tomeing (UPP) Foreign affairs and defense The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It gives the islanders (the Marshallese) the right to emigrate to the United States without any visa. But as aliens they can be placed in removal proceedings if convicted of certain criminal offenses. The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/3. In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions. On April 28, 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island-flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by Germany's Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons. The ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon. Tensions escalated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi-led coalition attacks in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials have said that they would review U.S. defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as "inappropriate". It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty. In March 2017, at the 34th regular session of the UN Human Rights Council, Vanuatu made a joint statement on behalf of the Marshall Islands and some other Pacific nations raising human rights violations in the Western New Guinea, which has been occupied by Indonesia since 1963, and requested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report. Indonesia rejected allegations. Since 1991 the Republic of Marshall Islands Sea Patrol, a division of Marshall Islands Police, has operated the 160 ton patrol vessel RMIS Lomor. Lomor is one of 22 Pacific Forum patrol vessels Australia provided to smaller nations in the Pacific Forum. While some other nations' missions for their vessels include sovereignty, protection, the terms of the Compact of Free Association restrict Lomor to civilian missions, like fishery protection and search and rescue. In 2021, the governments of Australia and Japan decided to fund two major law enforcement developments of the Marshall Islands. In February 2021, the Marshall Islands announced it would be formally withdrawing from the Pacific Islands Forum in a joint statement with Kiribati, Nauru, and the Federated States of Micronesia after a dispute regarding Henry Puna's election as the Forum's secretary-general. Culture Although the ancient skills are now in decline, the Marshallese were once able navigators, using the stars and stick-and-shell charts. Sports Major sports played in the Marshall Islands include volleyball, basketball (primarily by men), baseball, soccer and a number of water sports. The Marshall Islands has been represented at the Olympics at all games since the 2008 Beijing Olympics. In the 2020 Tokyo Olympics the Marshall Islands were represented by two swimmers. Association football The Marshall Islands have a small club league, including Kobeer as the most successful club. One tournament was held by Play Soccer Make Peace. There is a small Football Association on the island of Majuro. The sport of association football in its growth is new to the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands does not have a national football team presently. The Marshall Islands is the only sovereign country in the world that does not have a record of a national football match. Marshall Islands Baseball / Softball Federation Softball and baseball are held under one sports federation in the Marshall Islands. The President is Jeimata Nokko Kabua. Both sports are growing at a fast pace with hundreds of Marshallese people behind the Marshall Islands Baseball / Softball Federation. The Marshall Islands achieved a silver medal in the Micronesian Games in 2012, as well as medals in the SPG Games. Economy The islands have few natural resources, and their imports far exceed exports. According to the CIA, the value of exports in 2013 was approximately $53.7 million while estimated imports were $133.7 million. Agricultural products include coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, fruits, pigs and chickens. Industry is made of the production of copra and craft items, tuna processing and tourism. The GDP in 2016 was an estimated $180 million, with a real growth rate of 1.7%. The GDP per capita was $3,300. The International Monetary Fund reported in mid-2016 that the economy of the Republic had expanded by about 0.5 percent in the Fiscal Year 2015 thanks to an improved fisheries sector. A surplus of 3% of GDP was recorded "owing to record-high fishing license fees. Growth is expected to rise to about 1.5 percent and inflation to about 0.5 percent in FY2016, as the effects of the drought in earlier 2016 are offset by the resumption of infrastructure projects." In 2018, the Republic of Marshall Islands passed the Sovereign Currency Act, which made it the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "Sovereign". Shipping The Marshall Islands plays a vital role in the international shipping industry as a flag of convenience for commercial vessels. The Marshallese registry began operations in 1990, and is managed through a joint venture with International Registries, Inc., a US-based corporation that has offices in major shipping centers worldwide. As of 2017, the Marshallese ship registry was the second largest in the world, after that of Panama. Unlike some flag countries, there is no requirement that a Marshallese flag vessel be owned by a Marshallese individual or corporation. Following the 2015 seizure of the MV Maersk Tigris, the United States announced that its treaty obligation to defend the Marshall Islands did not extend to foreign-owned Marshallese flag vessels at sea. As a result of ship-to-ship transfers by Marshallese flag tanker vessels, the Marshall Islands have statistically been one of the largest importers of crude oil from the United States, despite the fact that the islands have no oil refining capacity. Labor In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization, which means its labor laws will comply with international benchmarks. This may affect business conditions in the islands. Taxation The income tax has two brackets, with rates of 8% and 12%. The corporate tax is 3% of revenue. Foreign assistance United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US$57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts. The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll. Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base. Agriculture Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms. The most important commercial crop is copra, followed by coconut, breadfruit, pandanus, banana, taro and arrowroot. The livestock consists primarily of pigs and chickens. Industry Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra. Fishing Majuro is the world's busiest tuna transshipment port, with 704 transshipments totaling 444,393 tons in 2015. Majuro is also a tuna processing center; the Pan Pacific Foods plant exports processed tuna to a number of countries, primarily the United States under the Bumble Bee brand. Fishing license fees, primarily for tuna, provide noteworthy income for the government. In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business. Energy On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts). In 2009, a 57 kW solar power plant was installed, the largest in the Pacific at the time, including New Zealand. It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self-sufficient. Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity. In 2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity use. Education The Ministry of Education is the education agency of the islands. Marshall Islands Public School System operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands. In the 1994–1995 school year the country had 103 elementary schools and 13 secondary schools. There were 27 private elementary schools and one private high school. Christian groups operated most of the private schools. Historically the Marshallese population was taught in English first with Marshallese instruction coming later, but this was reversed in the 1990s to keep the islands' cultural heritage and so children could write in Marshallese. Now English language instruction begins in grade 3. Christine McMurray and Roy Smith wrote in Diseases of Globalization: Socioeconomic Transition and Health that this could potentially weaken the children's English skills. There are two tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands, the College of the Marshall Islands and the University of the South Pacific. Transportation The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips. Airlines include United Airlines, Nauru Airlines, Air Marshall Islands, and Asia Pacific Airlines. Media and communications The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations. AM stations are 1098 5 kW V7AB Majuro (Radio Marshalls, national coverage) and 1224 AFN Kwajalein (both public radio) as well as 1557 Micronesia Heatwave. The FM stations are 97.9 V7AD Majuro, V7AA 96.3 FM Uliga and 104.1 V7AA Majuro (Baptist religious). BBC World is broadcast on 98.5 FM Majuro. The most recent station is Power 103.5 which started broadcasting in 2016. AFRTS stations include 99.9 AFN Kwajalein (country), 101.1 AFN (adult rock) and 102.1 AFN (hot AC). There is one broadcast television station, MBC-TV operated by the state. Cable TV is available. On cable TV, most programs are shown two weeks later than in North America but news in real time can be viewed on CNN, CNBC and BBC. American Forces Radio and Television also provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll. The Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) provides telephone, cable TV (MHTV), FAX, cellular and Internet services. The Authority is a private corporation with significant ownership by the national government. Newspapers Loan Ran Kein, a Marshallese language paper, was published from 1953 to 1954. The current national newspaper is a bilingual (Marshallese and English) weekly, The Marshall Islands Journal. It has been published since 1980. See also Outline of the Marshall Islands Index of Marshall Islands–related articles List of islands of the Marshall Islands Pacific Proving Grounds List of island countries The Plutonium Files Visa policy of the Marshall Islands Notes References Bibliography Further reading Hein, J. R., F. L. Wong, and D. L. Mosier (2007). Bathymetry of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Vicinity. Miscellaneous Field Studies; Map-MF-2324. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Woodard, Colin (2000). Ocean's End: Travels Through Endangered Seas. New York: Basic Books. (Contains extended account of sea-level rise threat and the legacy of U.S. Atomic testing.) External links Government Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Washington, DC official government site Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Marshall Islands. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Country Profile from New Internationalist Marshall Islands from UCB Libraries GovPubs Marshall Islands from the BBC News News media Marshall Islands Journal Weekly independent national newspaper Other Digital Micronesia – Marshalls by Dirk HR Spennemann, Associate Professor in Cultural Heritage Management Plants & Environments of the Marshall Islands Book turned website by Dr. Mark Merlin of the University of Hawaii Atomic Testing Information Pictures of victims of U.S. nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands on Nuclear Files.org "Kenner hearing: Marshall Islands-flagged rig in Gulf oil spill was reviewed in February" NOAA's National Weather Service – Marshall Islands Canoes of the Marshall Islands Alele Museum – Museum of the Marshall Islands WUTMI – Women United Together Marshall Islands Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean Associated states of the United States Countries in Micronesia Island countries Current member states of the United Nations Republics Small Island Developing States Former colonies in Oceania Former German colonies Former Japanese colonies Former Spanish colonies German New Guinea South Seas Mandate Spanish East Indies Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands World War II sites States and territories established in 1986 1986 establishments in Oceania English-speaking countries and territories Countries in Oceania

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W.E. (stylised W./E.) is a 2011 British historical romantic drama film written and directed by Madonna and starring Abbie Cornish, Andrea Riseborough, Oscar Isaac, Richard Coyle, and James D'Arcy. The screenplay was co-written by Alek Keshishian, who previously worked with Madonna on her 1991 documentary Truth or Dare and two of her music videos. Although the film was panned by critics and was a box office bomb, it received an Academy Award nomination for Best Costume Design. This marked Isaac's and Cornish's second role together since Sucker Punch. The film tells the story of two women separated by over six decades. In 1998, lonely New Yorker Wally Winthrop is obsessed with King Edward VIII's abdication of the British throne so he could marry American Wallis Simpson. But Wally's research, including several visits to Sotheby's auction of the Windsor estate, reveals that the couple's life together was not as perfect as she thought. Traveling back and forth in time, W.E. intertwines Wally's journey of discovery in New York with the story of Wallis and Edward from the early days of their romance to the unraveling of their lives over the following decades. Plot Wally Winthrop is a young American housewife living in New York City in 1998. Although she is neglected, abused, and left sexually frustrated by William, her workaholic psychiatrist husband, she is comforted by the love story of Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson. Wally travels to the Sotheby's auction of the Windsor estate, which showcases items used by Wallis and Edward in their lifetime and evokes their relationship. In 1930, Edward throws a party at his new home at Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great Park and meets Wallis through Lady Furness (his mistress). They are attracted to each other (despite Wallis' marriage to Ernest Simpson), and become lovers while Lady Furness is abroad. At Sotheby's Wally is interrupted by a guard, Evgeni, who is interested in her. Edward and Wallis continue their affair while touring Europe, where he gives her jewels and adopts the initials W.E. By the end of 1934, Edward is obsessed with Wallis. He introduces her to his parents, King George V and Queen Mary, but she is criticized by Edward's sister-in-law Elizabeth. A distraught Wallis wants to end the relationship, but Edward pacifies her. In New York, William refuses to conceive a child with Wally and she turns to in vitro fertilisation. Attracted to Evgeni, she goes on a date with him. Wally asks Evgeni about Edward and Wallis' story, pondering her relationship with William. After attending the auction at Sotheby's and spending ten thousand dollars, Wally returns home to a drunken William and they fight. The National Government refuses to recognise Edward and Wallis' relationship because she is a divorcée. On the night of December 11, 1936, Edward announces by radio to the nation and the Empire that he is abdicating the throne in favour of his brother Bertie: "I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as King, as I would wish to do, without the help and support of the woman I love." Wallis, who has fled to Villa Lou Viei near Cannes, hears the speech and reconciles with Edward. Evgeni desperately tries to phone Wally. Racing to her apartment, he finds that she has been injured by William and brings her to his home in Brooklyn. As she recovers, Wally finds new hope with Evgeni and the courage to divorce William. Reading a series of letters in billionaire Mohamed Al-Fayed's collection, Wally realises that Wallis was trapped in her relationship with Edward for the rest of her life. In an imaginary dialogue with Wallis, they discuss the similarity of their lives; in the end, only Wally finds happiness. Abandoning her fascination with Wallis and Edward's relationship, Wally learns from her doctor that she is finally pregnant. Cast Abbie Cornish as Wally Winthrop Andrea Riseborough as Wallis Simpson James D'Arcy as King Edward VIII Oscar Isaac as Evgeni Richard Coyle as William Winthrop David Harbour as Ernest Simpson James Fox as King George V Judy Parfitt as Queen Mary Haluk Bilginer as Mohamed Al-Fayed Geoffrey Palmer as Stanley Baldwin Natalie Dormer as Queen Elizabeth Laurence Fox as King George VI ("Bertie") Douglas Reith as Lord Brownlow Katie McGrath as Thelma, Lady Furness Production Development Madonna had written the script for W.E. with director Alek Keshishian. Her husband Guy Ritchie helped her with the script and screenplay, advising her to meet with actors Mark Strong and Toby Kebbell (who had major roles in Ritchie's last film, RocknRolla). Madonna began writing W.E. after she finished directing Filth and Wisdom (2008). She had the idea for W.E. before Filth and Wisdom, but directed the latter because she felt that she lacked the experience to direct a big-budget film. Madonna described W.E. as a much bigger story: There are more characters, and three of them basically changed the course of British history. King Edward VIII abdicated the throne to be with an American woman, Wallis Simpson, and that's part of my story, so I've had to do an enormous amount of research and interview people. So I have an enormous responsibility to that, and then I have a responsibility to the actual auction, which really happened. Then there's the new story, the point of view, which is this girl who has this obsession and is going to the auctions and stuff. So it's a much more layered, complicated piece than Filth and Wisdom. After the writing began, Madonna realised that she needed help due to the breadth of the subject. She enlisted Keshishian, who was well-acquainted with Madonna after directing 1991 documentary Truth or Dare and two of her music videos. The writing process was dynamic, with Madonna and Keshishian emailing developed scripts, telephoning, and writing on each other's laptops. Although W.E. was initially reported as a musical about the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Madonna said that the main story was not about them. It was about Wally Winthrop: a young, married New Yorker in 1998 who is obsessed with what she thought was the ultimate love story—Edward's abdication of the royal throne because of his love for Simpson. Simpson's character was a spiritual guide for Winthrop in the film. Its timeline ranges from pre-World War II England (1936–37) to 1998 New York City, and the storyline interweaves the two eras. Madonna decided to use the 1998 Sotheby's auction of Edward and Simpson's estate as a pivot point. Inspiration Madonna was inspired to direct the film by the controversial lives of Edward and Simpson. She said that if she brought up King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson at a dinner party or other social gathering, "It's like throwing a Molotov cocktail into the room. Everyone erupts into an argument about who they were. I mean, they were very controversial – and continue to be. So, of course, I'm very attracted to that." Madonna studied the history of the abdication, and tried to understand what led Edward to give up the throne. The singer spent two years researching Simpson's life and writing the script. She wallpapered an empty room in her house with pictures from auction catalogues and photographs of the Duke and Duchess at different ages. "I was sitting in a room that was completely and utterly inundated with their images so I could soak up their energy. I was trying to understand the nature of their love story and trying to figure out for myself if there is such a thing as perfect love," she said. Uninterested in a biopic about Simpson, Madonna created a modern-day story about Wally Winthrop to provide a point of view: "We can all read the same history book and have a different point of view. So it was important for me to not present the story and say, 'This is the one and only story,' but to say, 'This story moved me and inspired me.' That's how the two love stories were created." One of the first characters Madonna developed for the film was Evgeni, a Russian immigrant living in Brooklyn and working in Manhattan. The character was inspired by Eugene Hütz, who played the lead role in Filth and Wisdom. Another motivation for the project was Edward and Simpson, who became the subject of media scrutiny and public vilification and were ostracised by the royal family. Madonna, interested in the cult of celebrity, found that many of the rumors surrounding Simpson's life were unfounded and wanted to portray Simpson as a human being with imperfections and a vulnerable side. "The message of the film is to realise that in the end happiness lies in your own head and that we are in fact in charge of our destiny," she said. Casting Madonna began work casting W.E. after returning from Africa, where she had been on vacation. She remembered finding the casting difficult, since many refused to sign for a particular role. Madonna contrasted the process of film casting with recording a new album, where she can easily choose people with whom she wants to work. Abbie Cornish was signed to play Wally Winthrop, while King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson were played by James D'Arcy and Andrea Riseborough. Evgeni was played by Oscar Isaac and Wally's husband, William, was played by Richard Coyle. Vera Farmiga was initially signed for the role of Simpson, but withdrew when she became pregnant. The singer saw Riseborough as a young Margaret Thatcher in the BBC film, The Long Walk to Finchley, and wanted her to play Simpson: "I was looking for a certain quality: something fragile, androgynous and yet feminine in a really old-fashioned way. When I saw Andrea, I knew immediately she was the one". Cornish said about her role as Winthrop, "Madonna is a strong, independent woman who doesn't need a man to define her – and that's admirable. She's studied every aspect of what happened with Wallis Simpson and Edward VIII [...] It's a fascinating insight into class and romance. Madonna's created a contemporary woman—who I will play—called Wally, who is fascinated by what happened to Mrs. Simpson." Madonna's daughter Lourdes was offered a part, but the singer decided against the idea. However, she later allowed Lourdes to appear in the film as a young Wally Winthrop. Ewan McGregor was offered the role of King Edward VIII, but he was replaced by James D'Arcy. Producer David Parfitt and casting director Nina Gold left W.E., with sources reporting that they had "creative differences" with Madonna and found that she struggled to "collaborate and delegate". Margo Stilley was signed to play Lady Thelma Furness but left the project, citing "artistic differences" with Madonna: "I had the role, but we had artistic differences. She (Madonna) is really something. I wish the cast luck because they are all really talented." She was replaced by Katie McGrath. Judy Parfitt was signed to play Queen Mary, and Geoffrey Palmer was cast as Stanley Baldwin. Real-life father and son James and Laurence Fox were signed as King George V and his son, Bertie (Edward's younger brother). The BBC reported that members of the London Welsh Center expressed an interest in appearing in a scene in which Edward is shocked by the living conditions in Welsh mining villages. A spokesperson for the centre, which was contacted by the film's casting agency, said: "I've had about 15 phone calls this morning, and yesterday was bedlam because everybody wants to be in a film with Madonna." The centre said that Welsh speakers were needed as extras in scenes of Edward's visits to the South Wales valleys in the 1930s. Natalie Dormer was cast as the young Queen Elizabeth (Queen Mother). Dormer said about the role, "This country tends to remember the Queen Mother as a rather wrinkly 97-year-old, but I am playing her when she was quite an enchanting, engaging twenty- and thirty-something [...] She was quite a savage and savvy game player." Dormer's assessment of the role was noted by royal historian Hugo Vickers, who was asked by Madonna to advise her about the characteristics of members of the royal family and confirmed that Madonna depicted the Queen Mother as an unfavorable influence on the relationship between Edward VIII and Simpson. Filming Wanting W.E. to be as authentic as possible, Madonna wanted to film in locations where the royal family live. She moved to the United Kingdom, since the film would take six months to shoot. Its budget was £11 million ($ million). Filming began on July 5, 2010; locations included London and the home counties, with trips to New York and France. Scenes were filmed on the top two floors of the Abingdon Pub, followed by scenes at Club Quarters in Trafalgar Square. Filming was also done at Stoke Park, Buckinghamshire. The production moved to France, where Madonna shot scenes with D'Arcy and Riseborough on Palm Beach in Marseille on July 29, 2010, and in Villefranche-sur-Mer on July 30. Scenes were filmed with Cornish at the Le Meurice hotel. While shooting with Riseborough, Madonna and her team asked Cartier to create copies of Simpson's extensive gem collection for the film. A bracelet slipped off Riseborough's wrist and was lost in the Mediterranean Sea, and Madonna ordered an immediate replacement. Designer Arianne Phillips described filming which included Simpson's original jewelry: We were able to use archival pieces from Van Cleef & Arpels, which came with a revolving door of security guards. The jewelry schedule was very complicated, because pieces had to go from Switzerland to Paris, and the shooting schedule was changing constantly. It was really a house of cards. There were a couple of times we got caught, scenes got moved up, and lucky for me, Madonna was able to make available her personal jewelry. When you see Wallis spraying the flowers with perfume, her black and white pearl and diamond Bulgari earrings are Madonna's. Filming moved to New York in September, where Madonna shot scenes in Brooklyn. D'Arcy had to dance a ballet in one scene; he did not know ballet, and Madonna asked him to learn the steps. According to D'Arcy, the scene was "this extraordinary beautiful dance with lifts and twirls and I can't do that, but you do because she [Madonna] somehow makes the impossible possible and it gives you amazing self-esteem when you do these things." Madonna also asked him to learn the bagpipes in six weeks and to ride horses. Costumes After finishing the script and starting work on casting and production, Madonna realised that the film's budget would be high. Simpson's character had about 80 costume changes, with dresses by designers such as Balenciaga, Christian Dior, Madeleine Vionnet, and Elsa Schiaparelli. Most of her actual dresses were in museums (and unobtainable by Madonna), but many of the couture houses offered to recreate the dresses for her. When she asked for a Michael O'Connor wedding dress (on display at the National Museum of Costume in Scotland) for a scene with Riseborough, museum general manager Margaret Roberts said that they were happy to send Madonna the dress: "Our Marriage in the Movies exhibition is packed with fabulous gowns that tell a story not only about the history of the period they represent, but also of Hollywood glamour and style [...] This is a dress that was made for the movies, so when we received the request from Madonna's production company, we were only too happy to oblige." Other fashion designers who worked on the film included John Galliano and Issa, who provided clothes; Pierre Cartier supplied the jewels, and Stephen Jones the hats. Madonna enlisted costume designer Arianne Phillips to create the film's dresses. The costumes included vintage pieces; others were remade based on patterns obtained from the museum, and the rest were freshly made. In a November 2011 interview with W magazine, Philips said that she "started doing research in 2009, a year before [W.E.] began filming ... To me, Wallis Simpson was a style icon, but I didn’t know she was a couture client well before she met Edward. She was also a hungry whore for jewelry. Edward gave Wallis jewelry to make her feel royal. My first task was figuring out how to re-create those famous gifts." Madonna sent a box of her research to Phillips so the designer could get a head start on the project. The singer understood the attention to detail needed to create the costumes, drawing from her own clothing which included couture. Phillips researched the clothing on display at the fashion departments of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute in New York, the Musée de la mode et du textile in Paris, and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. She then went to Los Angeles, where retailer Doris Raymond of The Way We Wore boutique opened her library of 1930s couture. There Phillips watched old newsreels from the University of California archives. When filming began, the designer moved into Madonna's guesthouse in London to watch the newsreels together and scrutinise the dresses. Phillips contacted designers such as Cartier and Van Cleef & Arpels to replicate a cross bracelet and ten other pieces. For the gowns, undergarments, and dresses needed for Simpson's 60 costume changes in the film, Phillips scoured the archives of Vionnet and Schiaparelli and redesigned Simpson's clothing. Riseborough's first dress in the film was a re-creation of a dress owned by Simpson. Phillips accessorized one dress with an organza skirt and a diamond-bow brooch at the neck, and obtained duplicates of others from the Cos Prop costume store in London. Some of the pieces that the duchess actually ordered I thought were hideous. Those wouldn’t work for the movie, so we modified and invented. Wallis wasn’t pretty; she was handsome, at best. In England, it was noted over and over how unattractive she was. But Wallis was a lot of fun—very entertaining. She had a freedom to her that was definitely reflected in her clothes; the duchess was all about presentation. And that became her refuge, and her prison. According to Phillips, Edward's choice of clothes was specific and he rebelled against what his father dictated as the protocol for dress; he wore navy-blue tails (instead of black) as formal wear. The designer saw his original clothing at the National Museum of Costume. To re-create the look, Phillips contacted the luxury goods company Alfred Dunhill, which understood the bespoke tailoring available in London's Savile Row. Dunhill provided Phillips with a tailor and fabrics from the mills which had created Edward's original fabrics. Phillips tailored the baggy look of the 1930s suits to make them appealing to a contemporary audience. All the costumes were hand-made, with a total of 60 costumes created for Simpson and 30 for Edward. Music and soundtrack Polish composer Abel Korzeniowski composed the film's music. Madonna had heard Korzeniowski's work on the soundtrack of the 2009 drama film, A Single Man. The singer remembered being "struck by the score's 'bittersweet' qualities, this melancholic, romantic, sweeping emotional kind of heartbreaking beauty." She asked A Single Man director, fashion designer Tom Ford, about Korzeniowski and decided to sign him to compose W.E.s score. Madonna had incorporated parts of A Single Man score into the screenplay and rough cut of W.E. The score features strings, electric guitar, harp, viola and piano, and the combination of instruments was used to bridge the film's two time periods. Korzeniowski and conductor Terry Davies recorded a 60-piece orchestra at London's Abbey Road Studios in April 2011, concentrating on the characters' emotional states; he was not very concerned with differentiating the film's time periods. The composer said in a Variety interview that for the scenes featuring Simpson, he tried to make the score more modern than for those with Winthrop. Madonna wanted Korzeniowski to keep the score simple and direct, thinking that as a classically trained musician he would overcomplicate the score. "It is not the type of score where you go through crazy harmonic changes and modulations," said the composer. "This was one of the very precise notes I got from Madonna, that I was not supposed to over-think this music." The score was inspired by the film's irrational love, which Korzeniowski said could be "just an illusion". He wanted the music to reflect the film's powerful and conflicting emotions through the melodies, which alternated between despair and sorrow and hope and joy. Madonna contributed "Masterpiece", a new song produced by William Orbit which she co-wrote with Julie Frost and Jimmy Harry, to the soundtrack. In the song, she sings about the pain of being in love with someone who is a great work of art: "If you were the Mona Lisa/ You'd be hanging in the Louvre/ Everyone would come to see you/ You'd be impossible to move." A Billboard writer described "Masterpiece" as a "slowed-down, moody ballad" which was "simple, direct and reminiscent of her sound in the 1990s". Its lyrics echo the film's love story: "And I'm right by your side/ Like a thief in the night/ I stand in front of a masterpiece/ And I can't tell you why it hurts so much to be in love with a masterpiece." The song plays over W.E. end credits and was later included on Madonna's album, MDNA. The soundtrack was released digitally through Interscope Records on January 31, 2012. Promotion and release In February 2011, Madonna held a private screening of the film's trailer at the Berlin International Film Festival. The screening, which included a question-and-answer session with the singer, was intended to sell the film to distributors. Its rights were sold to Optimum Releasing for the UK market, the Weinstein Company for the United States release, and Village Roadshow for Australia and New Zealand. Weinstein promoted the film as Madonna's first full-length directorial film; the company considered the 81-minute Filth and Wisdom (her previous film) a short film. Although Madonna hoped to premiere the film at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, it was not ready in time. W.E. was shown at the Venice Film Festival on September 1, 2011, with Madonna and the principal cast attending the premiere. The film was also shown at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival that month. Stills from W.E. were published in the September 2011 issue of Vanity Fair magazine. In the film poster, D'Arcy carried Riseborough on his back in a romantic pose. David Wharton of Cinema Blend said that although the poster was "artfully" done, "It's the sort of thing the movie industry does all the time on their posters, just like the 'floating heads' trope or the 'looking through somebody's legs' pose [...] but I'm a sucker for a well-done movie poster, and this just seems lazy." A second poster was released, featuring Riseborough and D'Arcy as Wallis and Edward about to kiss on a beach. In January 2012, Madonna appeared on two television shows and talked about the film. She first appeared on ABC's Nightline, where she chatted with host Cynthia McFadden about W.E. Madonna then appeared on The Graham Norton Show with D'Arcy and Riseborough. The film premiered on January 11, 2012, in the UK and on January 23 in the US. The Weinstein Company announced in June 2011 that it planned to release W.E. in New York and Los Angeles on December 9, 2011, expanding to additional markets during the month before a wide mid-January release. After the film's screenings at the Venice and Toronto film festivals, Weinstein decided to cut its running time by about ten minutes. Its planned release was changed to a limited, one-week run beginning on December 9, 2011, before a worldwide release on February 3, 2012. Reception Critical response After its premiere at the Venice Film Festival, W.E. divided critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 12% from 113 reviews, and an average rating of 4.24/10. The critical consensus reads; "W.E. exhibits director Madonna's keen eye for striking style, but this shallow biopic is too enamored with aesthetics to offer any insight into its subject." It has a Metacritic score of 36 out of 100, indicating generally-unfavorable reviews. According to Steve Pond of Reuters, W.E. probably would not help in "turning Madonna's faltering movie career". Kyle Buchanan of New York wondered if W.E. would be a front-runner at the Golden Raspberry Awards. David Gritten of The Daily Telegraph gave the film three stars and a mixed review: "W.E. is a bold and confident story about an American woman's obsession with the Windsors". Gritten praised Riseborough and Cornish's performances, but thought that the film looked like a commercial for expensive items and fashion and appealed only to younger women. Xan Brooks of The Guardian gave the film one star, describing it as "a primped and simpering folly, the turkey that dreamed it was a peacock." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film resembled a documentary about a woman on a shopping expedition, and found Wally and Evgeni's affair particularly dreary. Oliver Lyttelton of IndieWire also criticized the film, saying that "the use of music is horrible" and "We've never looked forward to Madonna going back on tour more, if only because it means that we'll know, for certain, that she won't be using that time to direct another movie." Although Mark Adams of Screen Daily singled out Riseborough's performance as a highlight, he found the film disappointing overall. Leslie Felperin of Variety was also disappointed in the film, writing that it was "burdened with risible dialogue and weak performances". More attention was paid to the costumes than to the story, which she felt had much potential. Colin Kennedy of Metro called the film "disastrous", and its "judicious casting and handsome design [were] marred by a callow director's shaky shot selection". Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy described the film as "impeccably turned out with exquisite costume design", but felt that it was "barely enough to disguise its wildly inconsistent tone, chop-change visual style and snoozy performances." Dan Carrier of Camden New Journal gave the film one star out of five, calling W.E. "a horrible film to watch" and saying that Madonna "should never be allowed to go anywhere near a director’s camera again." Diego Costa of Slant Magazine gave the film three out of four stars. He called W.E. "a shameless visual pleasure" and a "perfectly fine piece of oneiric cinema", praising Madonna's direction and Korzeniowski's music. Damon Wise of Empire gave the film three out of five stars and noted the harsh criticism of Madonna: "A lot has been said about Madonna and her new film — about how bad and inept it is, as if it's somehow worse than 99 percent of the other movies released on a weekly basis. That's right: up there with Showgirls. Let's give the director a break here." He praised Riseborough's performance and said, "In the short term, this will see W.E. dismissed as a vanity project but, in the long term, history may well find it to be a fascinating comment on 20th-century celebrity from the ultimate insider." Box office Globally, the film was a commercial failure. In the United Kingdom, W.E. opened in 172 cinemas and grossed £183,000 (including advance screenings). Despite its limited release, it was the week's 14th-top-grossing films and peaked at number 20 in its first week of UK DVD sales. Accolades At the 69th Golden Globe Awards, W.E. won Best Original Song for "Masterpiece" and Korzeniowski was nominated for Best Original Score. Although "Masterpiece" was shortlisted for the Best Original Song award at the 84th Academy Awards, it was not considered; according to Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences rules, a song is eligible only if it appears no later than the start of the final credits and "Masterpiece" is played more than one minute into the credits. Arianne Phillips received an award for Excellence in Period Film at the 14th Annual Costume Designers Guild Awards and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Costume Design. Production credits Madonna – director, screenplay, producer, song composer Alek Keshishian – screenplay Kris Thykier – producer Colin Vaines – co-producer Sara Zambreno – co-producer Scott Franklin – executive producer Donna Gigliotti – executive producer Harvey Weinstein – executive producer Hagen Bogdanski – director of photography Abel Korzeniowski – music composer Elaine Grainger – casting Lucinda Syson – casting Martin Childs – production design Huw Arthur – art direction Mark Raggett – supervising art director Celia Bobak – set decoration Arianne Phillips – costume design Jenny Shircore – make-up and hair designer Production credits from Madonna.com and The Weinstein Company References External links 2011 films 2011 romantic drama films British films British romantic drama films Cultural depictions of George V Cultural depictions of George VI Cultural depictions of the Edward VIII abdication crisis English-language films French-language films Films directed by Madonna (entertainer) Films set in England British films set in New York City Films set in the 1910s Films set in the 1920s Films set in the 1930s Films set in the 1940s Films set in the 1970s Films set in 1998 Films shot in Buckinghamshire Films shot in England Films shot in France Films shot in Italy Films shot in London Films shot in New York City British historical romance films Russian-language films

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Rex Wayne Tillerson (born March 23, 1952) is an American engineer and energy executive who served as the 69th U.S. secretary of state from February 1, 2017, to March 31, 2018, under President Donald Trump. Prior to joining the Trump administration, Tillerson was chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of ExxonMobil, holding that position from 2006 until 2017. Tillerson began his career as a civil engineer with Exxon in 1975 after graduating with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from the University of Texas at Austin. By 1989 he had become general manager of the Exxon USA central production division. In 1995 he became president of Exxon Yemen Inc. and Esso Exploration and Production Khorat Inc. In 2006 Tillerson was elected chair and chief executive of Exxon, the world's sixth-largest company by revenue. Tillerson retired from Exxon effective January 1, 2017. Tillerson is a long-time volunteer with the Boy Scouts of America and earned the rank of Eagle Scout. From 2010 to 2012, he was the national president of the Boy Scouts, its highest non-executive position. He is a long-time contributor to Republican campaigns, but did not donate to Donald Trump's presidential campaign. In 2014, Tillerson, who had made business deals on behalf of Exxon with Russia, opposed the sanctions against Russia. He has previously been the director of the joint United States-Russia oil company Exxon Neftegas. Tillerson became Secretary of State on February 1, 2017. An unconventional choice for the role, Tillerson's tenure was characterized by a lack of visibility in comparison to his predecessors in the traditionally high-profile position of Secretary of State. During Tillerson's tenure, new applications to work for the Foreign Service fell by 50 percent, and four of the six career ambassadors as well as 14 of the 33 career ministers, equivalent to military four- and three-star generals, departed. After their relationship deteriorated, Trump dismissed Tillerson in March 2018, making his tenure one of the shortest in recent history but not as short as Lawrence Eagleburger under President George W. Bush and Edmund Muskie under President Carter. Tillerson was replaced by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) director Mike Pompeo. Early life Tillerson was born on March 23, 1952, in Wichita Falls, Texas, the son of Patty Sue (née Patton) and Bobby Joe Tillerson, and named after Rex Allen and John Wayne, two Hollywood actors famous for playing cowboys. He was raised in Vernon, Texas; Stillwater, Oklahoma; and Huntsville, Texas. He has two sisters, Rae Ann Hamilton, a physician who resides in Abilene, Texas, and Jo Lynn Peters, a high school educator. Tillerson's father was an executive of the Boy Scouts of America organization, and this led to his family's move to Huntsville. Tillerson himself has been active in the Boy Scouts for most of his life, and in his youth he earned the rank of Eagle Scout. At age 14, he began to work as a busboy in the student union building at Oklahoma State University. Two years later, in 1968, he became a janitor working in one of the engineering buildings at the university. On weekends, he worked picking cotton. Tillerson graduated from Huntsville High School in 1970. He was a section leader for the percussion section of his high school band, in which he played the kettle drums and snare drum, and he earned spots in the all-district and all-region bands during his senior year. Tillerson received a college scholarship from the University of Texas Longhorn Band. He received a bachelor of science degree in civil engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1975. During his time at UT Austin, he was involved with the Tejas Club (an all-male secret society) and the marching band. Business career Exxon Tillerson joined Exxon Company USA in 1975 as a production engineer. In 1989, Tillerson became general manager of the central production division of Exxon USA. In 1995, he became president of Exxon Yemen Inc. and Esso Exploration and Production Khorat Inc. In 1998, he became a vice president of Exxon Ventures (CIS) and president of Exxon Neftegas Limited with responsibility for Exxon's holdings in Russia and the Caspian Sea. He then entered Exxon into the Sakhalin-I consortium with Rosneft. In 1999, with the merger of Exxon and Mobil, he was named executive vice president of ExxonMobil Development Company. In 2004, he became president and director of ExxonMobil. Upon this appointment Tillerson's replacement of Lee Raymond as CEO of Exxon Mobil was implied. His major competitor was Ed Galante, another Exxon executive. On January 1, 2006, Tillerson was elected chairman and CEO, following the retirement of Lee Raymond. At the time, Exxon had 80,000 employees, did business in nearly 200 countries, and had an annual revenue of nearly $400billion. Under Tillerson's leadership, ExxonMobil cooperated closely with Saudi Arabia, the world's largest oil exporter and a longtime U.S. ally; Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. From 2003 to 2005, a European subsidiary of ExxonMobil, Infineum, operated in the Middle East providing sales to Iran, Sudan and Syria. ExxonMobil said they followed all legal framework and that such sales were minuscule compared to their annual revenue of $371billion at the time. In 2009, ExxonMobil acquired XTO Energy, a major natural gas producer, for $31billion in stock. Michael Corkery of the Wall Street Journal wrote that "Tillerson's legacy rides on the XTO Deal." Tillerson approved Exxon negotiating a multibillion-dollar deal with the government of Iraqi Kurdistan, despite opposition from President Barack Obama and Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, both of whom argued it would increase regional instability. Tillerson lobbied against Rule 1504 of the Dodd–Frank reform and protections, which would have required Exxon to disclose payments to foreign governments. In 2017, Congress voted to overturn Rule 1504 one hour before Tillerson was confirmed as Secretary of State. On January 4, 2017, The Financial Times reported that Tillerson would cut his ExxonMobil ties if he became Secretary of State. Walter Shaub, the director of the United States Office of Government Ethics, said he was proud of the ethics agreement developed for Tillerson, who was now "free of financial conflicts of interest. His ethics agreement serves as a sterling model for what we'd like to see with other nominees." Ties with Russia As the CEO of ExxonMobil, Tillerson has ties with President Vladimir Putin of Russia. They have been associates since Tillerson represented Exxon's interests in Russia, the world's largest producer of crude oil, during Russian President Boris Yeltsin's tenure. Tillerson was responsible for the development of a partnership between Exxon and state-owned oil company Rosneft and the ultimately unsuccessful attempt to acquire a stake in Yukos, owned by Mikhail Khodorkovsky, before the firm was nationalized after Khodorkovsky's arrest. John Hamre, the president and CEO of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, of which Tillerson is a board member, says Tillerson "has had more interactive time with Vladimir Putin than probably any other American, with the exception of Dr. Henry Kissinger". Tillerson was a friend of Igor Sechin, the executive chairman of Rosneft, the Russian state oil company, and leader of the Kremlin's Siloviki (security/military) faction, who has been described as "Russia's second-most powerful person" after Putin. Exxon owns a dacha next door to Sechin's and Tillerson would often visit him there. Tillerson led Sechin on a tour of New York City, dining on caviar with him and Putin at the Per Se restaurant. In 2006, Exxon avoided making any government concessions in its Sakhalin-I oil field after Royal Dutch Shell was forced to sell half of its ownership in Sakhalin-II by the Russian government. In August 2011, Putin attended a ceremony in Sochi where Tillerson and Sechin signed an agreement between ExxonMobil and Rosneft to drill the East-Prinovozemelsky field in the Arctic Ocean valued at up to $300billion. The Rosneft deal also gave the state-owned oil company a 30% stake in Exxon owned assets in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, Canada, and West Texas. The company began drilling in the Kara Sea in the summer of 2014, and a round of sanctions against Russia introduced in September that year due to the Russo-Ukrainian War was to have brought the project to a halt in mid-September. Nevertheless, the company was granted a reprieve that stretched the window to work until October 10, which enabled it to discover a major field with about 750 million barrels of new oil for Russia. In July 2017, the U.S. Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control fined ExxonMobil $2million for violating sanctions in its dealings with Sechin, leading the company to sue the government. In 2013, Tillerson was awarded the Order of Friendship by Putin for his contribution to developing cooperation in the energy sector. In June 2017, Tillerson said Trump had asked him to "stabilize the relationship (with Russia) and build trust". Compensation In 2012, Tillerson's compensation package was $40.5million. It was $28.1million in 2013, $33.1million in 2014, and $27.2million in 2015. In late 2016, Tillerson held $54million of Exxon stock, and had a right to deferred stock worth approximately $180million over the next ten years. Tillerson is estimated to be worth at least $300million. When he left Exxon, Tillerson was four months away from retirement, at which time he would have been entitled to a $180million retirement package. He owns two ranches in Texas, where his wife, Renda, raises cutting horses. On January 3, 2017, ExxonMobil announced they had reached an agreement with Tillerson "to sever all ties with the company to comply with conflict-of-interest requirements associated with his nomination as secretary of state". Wayne Tracker alias While CEO of ExxonMobil, Tillerson used an alias email address "Wayne Tracker" for eight years and sent thousands of messages. In response to a subpoena issued by the New York State Attorney General's Office (part of a state investigation into whether Exxon had misled investors and the public about climate change), Exxon produced about 60 emails associated with the "Wayne Tracker" account, but did not inform investigators that they were Tillerson's. ExxonMobil said the account was "used for everyday business" needs such as "secure and expedited communications" between Tillerson and top company executives. Tillerson's use of the alias became publicly known in March 2017, after New York State Attorney General Eric Schneiderman wrote in a letter to a judge that Tillerson had used the "Wayne Tracker" email for at least seven years. Later that month, Exxon revealed that emails from the alias account from September 2014 to September 2015 were missing; a further search recovered some emails, but none between September 5, 2014, and November 28, 2014. An attorney for Exxon said a "unique issue" limited to that account led to emails being automatically deleted. Other affiliations Tillerson is a trustee of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and the American Petroleum Institute. He is also a member of the Business Roundtable. In 2013, he became a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He was a member of the executive committee of The Business Council for 2011 and 2012. Tillerson is a long-time volunteer with the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), and from 2010 to 2012 was their national president, its highest non-executive position. Tillerson is a Distinguished Eagle Scout, and his father was a BSA executive. Tillerson is a long-time supporter of the BSA and has said, "I think the highlight of my youth and adolescent years were my achievements in Scouting." In 2009, Tillerson was inducted into the Eagle Scout Hall of Fame of the Greater New York Councils. Ray L. Hunt, a close friend and the Chairman of Hunt Consolidated, told the Dallas Morning News, "To understand Rex Tillerson, you need to understand Scouting." After the end of his term as BSA president, he remained on the organization's National Executive Board. There he played a significant role in the board's 2013 decision to rescind the long-standing ban on openly gay youth as members. According to Center for Strategic and International Studies president John Hamre, Tillerson was instrumental in the change and "a key leader in helping the group come to a consensus". On July 9, 2017, Tillerson received the Dewhurst Award from the World Petroleum Council in recognition for "outstanding contribution to the oil and gas industry" during his 41 years at Exxon Mobil. Secretary of State (2017–2018) Nomination and confirmation Tillerson was first recommended to president-elect Trump for the secretary of state role by former-secretary of state Condoleezza Rice, during her meeting with Trump in late November 2016. Rice's recommendation of Tillerson to Trump was backed up by former-secretary of defense Robert Gates, three days later. Media speculation that he was being considered for the position began on December 5, 2016. On December 9, transition officials reported that Tillerson was the top candidate for the position, surpassing contenders such as Mitt Romney and David Petraeus. His nomination was reportedly advocated by Steve Bannon and Jared Kushner. On January 20, 2017, shortly after being sworn in as President of the United States, Trump formally sent his nomination of Tillerson as Secretary of State to the United States Senate. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee approved Tillerson's nomination 11–10, a strict party line vote, on January 23, 2017. The Senate confirmed Tillerson as Secretary of State on February 1, 2017. The Senate voted 56 to 43, with all 52 Republicans in support of his nomination as well as three Democrats and one independent. He was sworn in on the same day by Vice President Mike Pence. The number of votes against Tillerson's confirmation was unusual for a Secretary of State, as the previous record for votes against a nominee for Secretary of State had been fourteen. Tenure On February 15, 2017, Tillerson embarked on his first overseas trip as Secretary of State to Bonn, Germany, meeting with foreign ministers from the G20. In Bonn, Tillerson had meetings with Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov of Russia and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson of the United Kingdom, as well as his counterparts from Italy, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. Tillerson urged Russia to withdraw from eastern Ukraine, saying "the United States will consider working with Russia when we can find areas of practical cooperation that will benefit the American people. Where we do not see eye to eye, the United States will stand up for the interests and values of America and her allies. As we search for new common ground, we expect Russia to honor its commitment to the Minsk agreements and work to de-escalate the violence in Ukraine." Tillerson also reaffirmed U.S. commitment to defending South Korea and Japan. Tillerson made his first visit to Mexico on February 23, 2017, traveling with Secretary of Homeland Security John F. Kelly. When meeting with Secretary of Foreign Affairs Luis Videgaray Caso of Mexico, Tillerson acknowledged differences between the U.S. and Mexico on views of border security, but also acknowledged the need for cooperation in addressing migration, as well as arms trafficking. Tillerson recused himself from TransCanada's application for a presidential permit for the proposed Keystone XL pipeline. Before the inauguration, Tillerson selected Elliott Abrams to be the U.S. deputy secretary of state. In February 2017, they held an interview with President Trump in the Oval Office. There, Tillerson contradicted the President's criticism of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, advising Trump of Exxon's success in refusing a bribe demand by Yemen's oil minister. The next day, Fox News criticized Abrams, and Tillerson soon told Abrams he would not be nominated. In mid-March 2017, Tillerson made his first trip to Asia, traveling to Japan, South Korea, and China. Tillerson remarked that diplomatic efforts in the past twenty years to stop North Korea's nuclear development had "failed". Tillerson also stated the United States may need to take preemptive action, remarking "Certainly, we do not want things to get to a military conflict... but obviously, if North Korea takes actions that threatens the South Korean forces or our own forces, then that would be met with an appropriate response. If they elevate the threat of their weapons program to a level that we believe that requires action, that option is on the table." On March 30, 2017, Tillerson met with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey. Turkey has criticized the United States over its support for Syrian Kurds. In May, protestors and Erdoğan's bodyguards clashed outside of the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. Tillerson said the incident was "outrageous" and that the Trump administration has expressed "dismay" over it. He said the administration would await the outcome of an investigation before taking further action. In mid-April 2017, Tillerson made his first trip to Russia as Secretary of State, meeting with Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and President Vladimir Putin. At a news conference, Tillerson remarked that Russian–U.S. relations were at a "low point". Tillerson also warned Russia of the risk of "becoming irrelevant in the Middle East" by continuing to support Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. In May 2017, Tillerson joined Trump on the President's first overseas trip, to Saudi Arabia. In June 2017, Tillerson excluded Myanmar, Iraq, and Afghanistan from the list of countries that employ child soldiers in that year's Trafficking in Persons Report, rejecting the unanimous recommendations of staff. Staff then circulated a memo in their Dissent Channel alleging that Tillerson's decision was in violation of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act. In late November 2017, the topic garnered national attention when the Department of State defended Tillerson's actions in the wake of an anonymous complaint by an official to the department's inspector general and the distribution of supporting documents to the inspector general and to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. President Trump's 2018 United States federal budget sought to reduce the Department of State's budget by 31%. Tillerson froze most hiring and sought to remove 2,000 career diplomats by offering them $25,000 buyouts. In June 2017, Tillerson told graduates of the Rangel and the Pickering Foreign Affairs Fellowships that their offers to join the United States Foreign Service were rescinded and they needed to repay the $85,000 scholarships or agree to work in temporary positions. Tillerson reversed that decision and allowed the graduates to become full Foreign Service Officers after being asked to do so by 31 members of Congress. Applications to take the Foreign Service entrance exam dropped fifty percent that year. Tillerson and his staff fired career ambassadors Patrick F. Kennedy and Kristie Kenney, and attempted to remove Linda Thomas-Greenfield, who then retired. Tillerson selected Margaret Peterlin to be his chief of staff. Tillerson is reported to have relied heavily on Peterlin, as well as his chief of policy, Brian Hook. Tillerson attempted to centralize much decision making under the Policy Planning Staff. Tillerson initiated the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review, focusing on the Department of State's organizational structure. He contracted for management consulting from Deloitte and hired Insigniam to conduct a "listening tour" survey for $1million. Tillerson attempted to reduce inefficiencies within the Department of State, though it was described as a "botched reorganization" that created a hollowed out and dysfunctional department, reportedly leading to micromanaging and poor morale among career diplomats. He was praised for setting the right tone for diplomats. In November 2017, Tillerson said that recent Rohingya persecution in Myanmar was ethnic cleansing. Tillerson made a concerted effort to respond to the Department of State's backlog of Freedom of Information Act requests that reached into Secretary Hillary Clinton's tenure, assigning mid level diplomats from every bureau to perform document review beside unpaid interns. By the end of November 2017, 10 of the top 44 political positions in the Department of State had been filled. A large number of Senior Foreign Service officers had resigned under Tillerson, with the number of career ambassadors and ministers dropping more than 50%, from 39 to 19, and the number of minister-counselors dropping 18% to 369. On March 13, 2018, Tillerson commented on the nerve gas poisoning in the United Kingdom of a former Russian spy and his daughter, calling it a "really egregious act" that clearly "came from Russia". Tillerson's assessment of Trump In October 2017, news reports surfaced regarding a deteriorating relationship between Tillerson and Trump. According to reports, in a July 20 meeting, Trump allegedly suggested a tenfold increase in the U.S. nuclear arsenal, which would cost trillions and take centuries, these reports were denied by White House officials and by Trump after which individuals familiar with the meeting told journalists that Tillerson either called Trump a "moron" or a "fucking moron". Additionally, there were well-sourced reports of Tillerson offering to resign his office as Secretary of State, only to be discouraged from doing so by Vice President Mike Pence; however, these were officially denied both by Tillerson and by the White House. Furthermore, on October 1, Trump directly contradicted, via a public tweet, Tillerson's policy of negotiation with North Korea; this move was widely panned by experts, who thought such a public undermining of the U.S.'s chief diplomat would weaken his ability to negotiate. On October 10, after Tillerson's alleged "moron" comment was reported in the media, Trump challenged Tillerson to "IQ tests", and three days later Senator Bob Corker from Tennessee, the chair of the influential Senate Foreign Relations Committee who had become a vocal Trump critic around that time, remarked that Trump was "publicly castrating" Tillerson. Tillerson was reportedly angered by the political speech President Trump delivered at the 2017 National Scout Jamboree. After leaving the Trump administration, Tillerson spoke to Bob Schieffer about his tenure: "It was challenging for me coming from the disciplined, highly process-oriented Exxon Mobil corporation... to go to work for a man who is pretty undisciplined, doesn't like to read, doesn't read briefing reports, doesn't like to get into the details of a lot of things, but rather just kind of says, 'This is what I believe. Speaking to members and staffers of the House Foreign Affairs Committee in May 2019, Tillerson said he and Trump "shared a common goal: to secure and advance America's place in the world and to promote and protect American values", but he noted they do not share the same "value system". Asked to describe Trump's values, he replied, "I cannot." In May 2019, Tillerson privately discussed with members of Congress his frustration that during his tenure Trump's son-in-law and senior advisor Jared Kushner conducted discussions with foreign dignitaries without advising the Department of State. In one instance, Tillerson entered a Washington restaurant and was asked by the owner if he wanted to meet with the Mexican foreign minister, who was dining with Kushner in the back of the restaurant; Tillerson was unaware the foreign minister was in Washington. Dismissal According to the White House, Trump communicated with Tillerson on March9 and told him he would be replaced. Tillerson cut short a visit to Africa and returned to the United States on March 12. On March 13, Trump announced via a public tweet that Tillerson was out. A spokesman for Tillerson, Steve Goldstein, the under secretary of state for public diplomacy, was quoted by The Washington Post that Tillerson did not know why he had been fired by Trump and only found out about his firing when he read Trump's tweet on the morning of March 13; Goldstein, who was generally perceived within the White House as being anti-Trump, was fired by the White House later that day, reportedly for contradicting the official account of Tillerson's dismissal. A senior Trump administration official cited "upcoming North Korea talks and various trade negotiations" as the reason for replacing Tillerson. Trump later told reporters his differences with Tillerson came down to personal chemistry and disagreements on policy, adding that he and CIA director Mike Pompeo "have a very similar thought process". The New York Times reported that Lebanese-American businessman George Nader turned Trump's major fundraiser Elliott Broidy "into an instrument of influence at the White House for the rulers of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates... High on the agenda of the two men... was pushing the White House to remove Secretary of State Rex W. Tillerson." UAE and Saudi Arabia lobbied Trump to fire Tillerson for not supporting the blockade of Qatar during the Qatar diplomatic crisis. Robert Malley, former top Middle East adviser to President Barack Obama, said that "senior Qatari officials with whom I spoke were convincedor at least acted as if they were convincedthat Saudi Arabia and the UAE had been planning a military attack on their country that was halted as a result" of Tillerson's intervention. John Sullivan, the deputy secretary of state, served as acting secretary until March 31, when Tillerson formally left office. Trump proposed Mike Pompeo (with whom Trump had a much more positive relationship) as Tillerson's successor and Gina Haspel as the new CIA director. Haspel was confirmed on May 17, 2018, making her the first female CIA director. Tillerson's total time in office was 423 days, making him the shortest-serving secretary of state since Lawrence Eagleburger (1992–93). The last time a president's first appointee to the position served for less time was in 1898, when John Sherman left office after 413 days. Tillerson is also the only secretary of state since at least 1945 to have been fired. In December 2018, President Trump called Tillerson "dumb as a rock" and "lazy as hell" after Tillerson held a speech where he described Trump as "pretty undisciplined". Tillerson said Trump "doesn't like to read, doesn't read briefing reports, doesn't like to get into the details of a lot of things". Trump made similar remarks again in May 2019 after Tillerson reportedly said Trump had been out-maneuvered in a meeting with Vladimir Putin. Trump had previously lauded Tillerson, describing him as a "one of the truly great business leaders of the world" and a "world class player and dealmaker". Assessments of tenure In March 2017, Robert Jervis of Columbia University wrote that Tillerson "had little impact on the Trump administration so far" and that his influence would continue to wane. That same month, William Inboden of the University of Texas at Austin defended Tillerson, saying he deserves more time. Daniel W. Drezner of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University was highly critical of Tillerson, calling him an "unmitigated disaster", and "the most incompetent Secretary of State in modern history". Elliot Cohen of Johns Hopkins University said Tillerson might be one of the weakest secretaries of state in American history. Elizabeth Saunders of George Washington University said Tillerson's tenure had damaged the Department of State "for a generation" and decreased America's ability to respond to major crisis. Political positions In October 2017, Politico reported that Tillerson's major foreign policy positions include "urging the United States to stay in the Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Paris climate accord, taking a hard line on Russia, advocating negotiations and dialogue to defuse the mounting crisis with North Korea, advocating for continued U.S. adherence to the Iran nuclear deal, taking a neutral position in the dispute between Qatar and Saudi Arabia, and reassuring jittery allies, from South Korea and Japan to our NATO partners, that America still has their back". Russia and Saudi Arabia In 2014, Tillerson expressed opposition to the sanctions against Russia in response to the annexation of Crimea at an Exxon shareholder meeting. He told the meeting "We do not support sanctions, generally, because we don't find them to be effective unless they are very well implemented comprehensively and that's a very hard thing to do." In 2016, Tillerson said the U.S. should have deployed military units to neighboring states next to Russia in a more "muscular" response. In 2017, Tillerson said Russia's annexation of Crimea was illegal. He also compared China's controversial island-building in the South China Sea to Russia's annexation of Crimea. During his Secretary of State confirmation hearings, Marco Rubio asked Tillerson if he would label Saudi Arabia as a "human rights violator". Tillerson declined to do so, saying: "When you designate someone or label someone, is that the most effective way to have progress be able to be made in Saudi Arabia or any other country?" He supported the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. Climate change and carbon tax Tillerson announced in 2009 that ExxonMobil favored a carbon tax as "the most efficient means of reflecting the cost of carbon in all economic decisionsfrom investments made by companies to fuel their requirements to the product choices made by consumers". In October 2016, less than two months before his nomination as Secretary of State, he reaffirmed that ExxonMobil believed a carbon tax would be "the best policy of those being considered. Replacing the hodge-podge of current, largely ineffective regulations with a revenue-neutral carbon tax would ensure a uniform and predictable cost of carbon across the economy... allow market forces to drive solutions... maximize transparency, reduce administrative complexity, promote global participation and easily adjust" to new knowledge in climate science and in the policy consequences of various courses of action. An article in The New York Times suggested that ExxonMobil's embrace of a carbon tax in October 2009 may have simply been an effort to avoid cap and trade legislation that was then being considered by the U.S. Congress as an alternative method of carbon pricing. A Time magazine article in December 2016 asserted that since Tillerson announced his company's preference for a carbon tax, ExxonMobil "has not made a carbon tax a focus of its massive lobbying efforts and has supported a number of candidates and organizations that oppose measures to tackle the [climate change] issue". In 2010, Tillerson said that while he acknowledged humans were affecting the climate through greenhouse gas emissions to some degree, it was not yet clear "to what extent and therefore what can you do about it". At the 2020 Argus Americas Crude Summit, Tillerson further expressed doubt that humans could do anything to combat climate change. In 2012, Tillerson stated concerning climate change that "there are much more pressing priorities that we as aas a human being, race, and society need to deal with... you'd save millions upon millions of lives by making fossil fuels more available" to the world's poor, and that "It's an engineering problem and there will be an engineering solution." In 2016, Tillerson stated, "The world is going to have to continue using fossil fuels, whether they like it or not." Support for the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) In 2013, Tillerson outlined his support for the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), stating at the Global Security Forum: "One of the most promising developments on this front is the ongoing effort for the Trans-Pacific Partnership... The 11 nations that have been working to lower trade barriers and end protectionist policies under this partnership are a diverse mix of developed and developing economies. But all of them understand the value of open markets to growth and progress for every nation." Free trade Speaking in March 2007 at a Council on Foreign Relations event, Tillerson said: Government regulation In 2012, in an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Tillerson expressed his impatience with government regulation, saying "there are a thousand ways you can be told 'no' in this country." Education In September 2013, Tillerson wrote an op-ed piece in The Wall Street Journal defending Common Core. Republican campaign fundraising and donations According to the Center for Responsive Politics, Tillerson has made tens of thousands of dollars of political donations to Republican groups and candidates. According to Federal Election Commission (FEC) records, he gave a total of $468,970 in contributions to Republican candidates and committees from 2000 to 2016. He has contributed to the political campaigns of George W. Bush, as well as Mitt Romney in 2012, and Mitch McConnell. He did not donate to Donald Trump's campaign. He donated to Jeb Bush's campaign during the 2016 Republican primaries. Personal life Tillerson has been married twice. He divorced Jamie Lee Henry, his first wife, with whom he has twin boys. In 1986, Tillerson married Renda St. Clair, who has a son from her previous marriage. Tillerson also has a son, born in 1988, with St. Clair. Tillerson's twin sons are engineers and hold their bachelor's degrees from the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. In 2006, Tillerson was named a Distinguished Engineering Graduate. Tillerson resides in Bartonville, Texas. Following his appointment as Secretary of State, Tillerson bought a home in Kalorama, Washington, D.C. He is a Congregationalist who holds a membership in the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches, a mainline Reformed denomination. He and his wife donated between $5,000 and $10,000 to the denomination's The Congregationalist Magazine in 2012. On February 20, 2014, news outlets reported that Tillerson and his wife had joined opponents of a proposed water tower that could lead to fracking-related traffic near their homes. Plaintiffs included former U.S. House of Representatives Majority Leader Dick Armey and his wife. The Tillersons dropped out of the lawsuit after a judge dismissed their claim in November 2014. In 2015, Tillerson was named as the 25th-most-powerful person in the world by Forbes. On May 16, 2018, Tillerson gave a graduation speech at Virginia Military Institute. In an apparent rebuke of President Trump, Tillerson warned that there is "a growing crisis in ethics and integrity". "If our leaders seek to conceal the truth or we as people become accepting of alternative realities that are no longer grounded in facts, then we as American citizens are on a pathway to relinquishing our freedom." See also List of U.S. secretaries of state List of foreign ministers in 2017 List of people and organizations named in the Paradise Papers References Further reading External links Secretary of State biography Rex Tillerson at Forbes Secretary of State Archive |- |- 1952 births 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century Congregationalists 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American diplomats 21st-century American politicians 21st-century Congregationalists American businesspeople in the oil industry American chairpersons of corporations American chief executives of energy companies American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies American civil engineers American Congregationalists American diplomats Businesspeople from Texas Directors of ExxonMobil ExxonMobil people Living people Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering National Executive Board of the Boy Scouts of America members People from Wichita Falls, Texas Petroleum politics Texas Republicans Trump administration cabinet members United States Secretaries of State Cockrell School of Engineering alumni People from Kalorama (Washington, D.C.) Presidents of the Boy Scouts of America People named in the Paradise Papers

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SM Mall of Asia, also abbreviated as SM MoA, or simply Mall of Asia or MoA, is a large shopping mall in the Philippines, located at Bay City, Pasay, Philippines, within the SM Central Business Park, a reclaimed area within the Manila Bay, and the southern end of the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA). Owned and developed by SM Prime Holdings, the largest mall chain owner and developer in the Philippines, it has a land area of , a gross floor area of approximately , and offers of floor area space for conventions and social functions. The area attracts a daily average foot traffic of about 200,000 people. The mall is currently the largest shopping mall in the Philippines and the third in the world. When it opened in 2006 it was the largest shopping mall in the Philippines until SM City North EDSA was redeveloped in 2008, and was relegated to third place by the expansion of SM Megamall from 2011 to 2015 when SM Seaside City Cebu opened to the public before returning to this spot in 2017. Following the mall's opening in 2006, it caused several smaller shopping malls nearby to close, such as the Pearl Plaza and the Uniwide Coastal Mall, both located in Tambo, Parañaque City. However, this is changing with the rise of other malls and similar structures such as the Ayala Malls Manila Bay. Construction Plans for SM Mall of Asia began in 1995, with construction originally slated to begin in January 1996; it was marketed to become the largest shopping mall in the world upon completion. The mall is the centerpiece project of SM Prime Holdings at the SM Central Business Park, where five one-story buildings serve as the company's corporate offices, while the sixth building is being occupied by TeleTech Holdings, Inc. as their flagship site in the country. The SM Mall of Asia's design team includes Arquitectonica as the projects design architect and Architect Robert Carag Ong, Architect of Record, and GHT Services as the complex's project managers. SM tapped two separate construction firms for the construction of the mall: Hilmarc's Construction Corp. for the South Parking Building, Main Mall, and Entertainment Mall; and Monolith Construction Development Corp. for the North Parking Building. The mall would have opened before Christmas Day of 2005 but had been delayed due to hitches in the delivery of construction materials. Frequent rains in the last quarter of 2005 also delayed the turnover of mall space to tenants. Due to these circumstances, SM Prime decided to move the opening date to March 3, 2006. On February 27, 2006, local newspaper Manila Standard Today reported that a team of Pasay city engineers found huge cracks underneath the structure, which was causing the structure to vibrate. When questioned about the inspection, the Pasay city engineering department denied making any statement regarding defects in the Mall of Asia. Engineer Edwin Javaluyas, Pasay city engineering officer, in his letter to SM Prime Holdings Inc., said he never stated that the city hall's engineering department inspected the Mall of Asia on February 23, 2006. SM Prime, however, decided to move the opening to May 21 of that year. Jeffrey Lim, corporate information officer of SM Prime Holdings, emphasized that a rescheduling of the mall's opening was made to give the company an opportunity to allow more tenants to open shops and denied that the change was due to structural defects. The mall was officially inaugurated by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo with a special screening of Everest in the San Miguel Coca-Cola IMAX Theater. The movie was shown three days after Philippine tri-athlete Leo Oracion reached the treacherous mountain's summit. Layout The Mall of Asia consists of four buildings interconnected by walkways and elevated pathways: the Main Mall, the Entertainment Mall, and the North and South Wing Parking Buildings. The Main Mall includes numerous shopping and dining establishments and the food court. The Entertainment Mall is a two-story complex, most of which is open-air, and also features some shopping and dining businesses. The Entertainment Mall also hosts the Music Hall, an events hall (formerly open-air, now airconditioned) facing Manila Bay. As of late 2021, majority of the area has been renovated with addition of airconditioning. Due to the mall's size, all buildings have concierge desks, assisting local information within the area. The mall's 5,000 parking spaces are divided across two, six-story parking buildings conveniently designated the North and South Parking Buildings, which have been covered with a solar rooftop. The South Parking Building houses the mall's official The SM Store, while the mall's supermarket, the SM Hypermarket is located at the North Parking Building. Since 2016, these parking buildings are equipped with elevators and escalators, which allow fast access to parking levels. Since its opening in 2006, visitors to the mall have been welcomed by large steel framed globe on a roundabout at the southern tip of Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), known as the MOA Globe. In 2009, the globe was turned into Globamaze, an LED display. Features The mall includes branches of all of the standard anchor stores found in most of the SM Supermalls. The first-ever branch of Taste Asia, one of the SM Supermalls' food court brands, is located right outside the mall's supermarket, the sprawling SM Hypermarket. The mall's open-air Music Hall directly facing the Manila Bay has also held numerous events, contests, and concerts since the mall's opening in 2006. The mall also provides office space. Dell International Services, a subsidiary of Dell, Inc. once occupied a area at the second floor of the North Parking Building of the mall. Eventually, in 2015, Teleperformance took over that space until 2019, as the company moved its operations to the MOA Annex Building. Currently, the site has been replaced by the mall anchor Cyberzone for IT-related shops, one of the biggest Cyberzones in the country since the opening of SM North EDSA. MoA Food Hall Opened on February 12, 2020, the new Food Hall is located in the 3rd Level, adjacent across SM Skating at the main mall. The new Food Hall replaced the former SM Food Court, located at the second floor, adjacent to the skating rink which features budget to upscale dining choices. SM Cinema The mall features a total of 16 cinemas with 11 regular cinemas (including Center Stage Cinema), three Director's Club Cinemas, one Event Cinema, and one IMAX Theater. It originally featured a total of 10 cinemas, with six regular cinemas, Director's Club Cinema for intimate screenings (30 La-Z-Boy seats), Premier Cinema, CenterStage which can use for live musical concerts and theatrical performances, and an IMAX theater. IMAX One of the mall's main attractions is the first ever and the largest IMAX theater in the country. The San Miguel-Coca-Cola IMAX Theatre is one of the world's biggest IMAX screens in 3D including 2D screenings. It was originally a traditional film projector that uses its 15/70 mm film format, IMAX GT (Grand Theatre). The IMAX Theater was closed on October 11, 2013, for digital conversion, and re-opened on October 30, 2013, along with the release of Thor: The Dark World. On November 6, 2014, the old traditional 70mm IMAX projector was used for Christopher Nolan's Interstellar. In July 2017, the main lobby was temporarily closed for renovation (where the XD Cinema is going to be demolished), and its lobby was temporarily moved at the second floor in front of Cinemas 7 and 8, the main lobby re-opened on December 11, 2018, upon the launch of Event Cinema and the Asian premiere screening of Aquaman where its star Jason Momoa has arrived in the country; however, its temporary lobby is closed being used as offices for cinema personnel and as an emergency fire exit. On August 18, 2019, the IMAX Theater was closed for renovation and re-opened on October 29, 2019, with updated interiors and high-end spectator seats with comfortable Paragon 918 chairs from world-class spectator seats manufacturer Ferco Seating. Expansion and redevelopment Additional cinemas were opened in the mall since 2016. Two digital theaters (C7 and C8) were opened at the north side of the entertainment mall in December 2016. The Event Cinema was opened on December 12, 2018, and located at the newly renovated IMAX theater lobby, which can be used for birthday parties, corporate events, and seminars, and it can house up to 45 people. Half of the original cinema area (including Cinemas 4–6, Director's Club and Premier Cinema) was closed on August 22, 2018, after the celebration of the 2nd Pista ng Pelikulang Pilipino and were demolished for renovation as part of the mall expansion, New Cinemas 1-5 re-opened on soft opening in December 2019 along with the limited-early release of Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, while the other remaining cinemas, the three Director's Club Cinemas equipped with Dolby Atmos and laser projector were re-opened on its grand re-launch on January 22, 2020, at the former space of Premier Cinema. Cinemas 9–11, which are former Cinemas 1-3 remained in temporary operations after the re-opening of the renovated theaters. The former space of the Director's Club Cinema is now occupied by SM's Surplus Shop. Mall expansion and redevelopments The SM Mall of Asia is undergoing an ₱ 1.5 Billion expansion project since 2014, featuring new expansion areas for retail establishments and new indoor and outdoor amenities, including a football field and the installation of roof solar panels at the mall. Main Mall complex A new 2-level expansion will be built at the top of the main mall which is now currently undergoing construction and is expected to be fully complete by 2023. The expansion wings will connect to the mall carpark buildings. The new expansion will feature a football pitch with grandstand, botanical gardens, and parks at the mall's 4th level roofdeck plus all-new shops and restaurants at the mall's third, and fourth levels. It will be built in phases. The first phase will feature the new Olympic-sized Ice Skating Rink and a Food Hall (replacing the old Foodcourt) on the 3rd Floor along with more new shops and restaurants. Both of the new features, the mall's ice skating rink and most recently, the MoA Food Hall, were completed in 2017 and February 2020 respectively. As of 2022, half of the expanded Main Atrium has been completed, which will soon connect to the rest of the mall. A new wing connecting The Galeon Museum and the north side of Entertainment Mall was opened which features restaurants in the ground floor and the new Cinemas 7 and 8 in the 2nd floor. The estimated Gross Floor Area of the expansion project would be , upon full completion. SM Skating Rink The mall features the Philippines' first Olympic-sized ice skating rink which is located on the third level of the mall's main building. It covers an area of and has a spectators area which can seat up to 200 people and accommodate up to 300 people. An older ice skating rink was one of the main features of the SM Mall of Asia at the time of its inauguration in 2006, which was situated at the ground level of the mall's main building. Its opening followed the closure of the old skating rink at the SM Megamall which was built in 1992. On 2014, the skating rink made a comeback and eventually opened at the SM Megamall, and during the mall's renovation works, the skating rink was temporarily moved from 2014–2017 to the open area lot between the SMX Convention Center and the MOA Arena, which is currently occupied by MOA Square, which notably houses IKEA Pasay City. The new skating rink, located at the 3rd floor, was opened in 2017. Several ice skating competitions have been held at the mall's ice skating rink such as the Skate Asia 2007, the first time an international competition at that scale was held in the Philippines. The ice hockey competition of the 2019 Southeast Asian Games was also held in the venue. The Galeón museum The Galeón is a dome-shaped museum that will feature the history of the Galleon Trade, which in 250 years, the Philippines and Mexico played major roles during the period. The main attraction will be the Galleon ship which is used for trading. The grand opening has been delayed for some time and the entrance to the museum is now occupied by various restaurants. Former features The Exploreum The Exploreum was a science and technology museum within the main SM Mall of Asia shopping mall complex. A joint venture between SM Prime Holdings and United-States-based Leisure Entertainment Consultancy (LEC), it opened in 2007 as the SM Science Discovery Center. It featured a digital planetarium and a wide range of technology and science-themed exhibits. At the time of its opening, the two-level science center covered an area of . It also featured the Digistar Planetarium housed within a tall dome which was designed by Evans & Sutherland. In 2009, it was renamed into Nido Fortified Science Discovery Center as SM Prime Holdings partnered with Nido Fortified, a brand of Nestlé. In 2014, Nido Fortified Science Discovery Center was rebranded to The Exploreum, Which features 118 new interactive exhibits and over 100 non-interactive exhibits in eight major interactive galleries namely the Natural World, Human Adventure, Zoom, Connect, Cyberville, Space Camp, the Living Earth, and Science Park. Exploreum was closed in 2017 due to unknown reasons and the former area has been closed as a part of the mall expansion. Decathlon, a sports store, occupies a part of the former area. XD Cinema The XD Cinema was a 4D theater located at the IMAX lobby at the ground floor, opened on November 25, 2014, on soft opening equipped with strategically located 48 pneumatic controlled seats that highlight the immersive nature of the theater while maintaining an exclusive ambiance to delight the audience, it has enormous in-theatre effects including snow, wind, water, scent, fog, and strobe/lightings. It also has leg tickler, motion seats, seat vibrators, and seat impactors to add a breathtaking fourth dimension experience. The first local film to be shown in this theater is Feng Shui 2 starring Kris Aquino and Coco Martin. The XD Cinema was closed in April 2017 for ongoing renovation works of the IMAX lobby. It has since been permanently closed, with no plans for its return. Premier Cinema Premier Cinema was closed on August 22, 2018, for renovation works and was now occupied by three Director's Club Cinemas. SM Central Business Park The SM Central Business Park is a mixed-use area located within the surrounding areas of SM Mall of Asia, and is owned and developed by SM Prime Holdings. The complex serves as one of Henry Sy's vision to build a landmark within Metro Manila, and currently features events venues, mixed-use buildings, office towers, hotels, residential condominiums, and transport hubs. Sporting and event venues Mall of Asia Arena The Mall of Asia Arena is an indoor arena within the SM Mall of Asia complex which has a seating capacity of 16,000 and a full house capacity of 20,000, which opened to the public on June 16, 2012. The arena is the alternative venue of the Philippine Basketball Association and the main venue of the University Athletic Association of the Philippines. Concert Grounds The Mall of Asia concert grounds, also called the Mall of Asia parking grounds when there is no event, are public spaces located west of the E-com Center buildings that are used to hold mass gatherings, primarily concerts. When there is no event, the venue is used as a parking lot to accommodate employees of the E-com Center buildings, as well as mall guests. The concert grounds comprise two complex blocks: one that can accommodate about 30,000 persons, and another that will bring the capacity to about 80,000. The venue was the site of the Close-Up Forever Summer concert deaths that occurred in May 2016. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines which led cinemas to be closed since March 2020, SM Cinema opened up a drive-in cinema at this venue on September 9, 2020. It is the second drive-in-cinema in the country after SM City Pampanga. SMX Convention Center Manila The SMX Convention Center (formerly Maitrade Expo and Convention Center) (Project Name: MAITrade) is the Philippines' largest privately run exhibition and convention center. The 46,647-square meter building will have three floors and basement parking with a total leasable area of 19,800 square meters featuring large exhibition areas and function rooms. The convention center can fit approximately 6,000 people. The groundbreaking was held on March 23, 2006. The project was completed and inaugurated on November 5, 2007. It is used as an alternate with the nearby state-run Philippine International Convention Center and World Trade Center Metro Manila located in the CCP Complex. The building is composed of three floors and a basement parking with a total leasable area of square meters. The Architect, Arch. Jose Siao Ling, designed the structure maximizing the use of space, giving exhibitors flexibility, and options in terms of their specific area requirements. The exhibition area at the ground level will have a floor area of , which can be divided into four halls. Commercial shops will be located along the perimeter. A bridgeway on the second level will connect SMX Convention Center to the mall's south parking building and S Maison. The third level will have a total floor area of , which can be divided into six halls for functions and conventions, along with nine meeting rooms. Esplanade An esplanade was constructed at the back of the mall where it served as the observation center for the First World Pyro Olympics in December 2005. The second World Pyro Olympics were held at the SM Mall of Asia's boardwalk area in early January, 2007. The Esplanade was also the venue for Lovapalooza 2, wherein more than 5,300 couples kissed for 10 seconds on February 10, 2007, breaking Hungary's 4,445 in the Guinness World Records. Also, an events venue named One Esplanade was constructed here. One Esplanade is usually used for product launches, parties, and other events. SM By the Bay Amusement Park is an amusement park situated along Manila Bay that opened to the public in 2011. The park currently has over 17 rides including the Mall of Asia Eye, which is also known as The Eye Of Asia, a tall ferris wheel which opened on December 18, 2011. It has 36 air-conditioned gondolas, each able to carry up to six persons, giving a maximum capacity of 216 passengers. The Area also houses food stalls and offers a direct view to the Manila Bay. Archdiocesan Shrine of Jesus The Way, The Truth, and The Life The Archdiocesan Shrine of Jesus The Way, The Truth, and The Life is a Roman Catholic Church belonging to the Archdiocese of Manila located along Coral Way. It features a romanesque architecture. Dedicated to Jesus, it was envisioned by Pope John Paul II when he visited the Philippines in 1995 for the World Youth Day. It was consecrated and dedicated on July 9, 1999, by Manila Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin with Apostolic Nuncio of the Philippines Archbishop Antonio Franco, Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal, and the archbishops and bishops of the Philippines. Casa Ibarra MOA The Casa Ibarra MOA is an events venue located along Coral Way and the Coral Way Parking Lot. The building is owned by Ibarra's Party Venues, a events venues owner and a catering services company. Retail Buildings LUXE Duty Free Mall of Asia The LUXE Duty Free Mall of Asia is a duty-free shop located along J. W. Diokno Boulevard and across the planned Six E-com Center. The shopping complex was formerly the SMDC Showroom Building, which was completed in 2011 before renovation works began in late 2016. The mall is currently operated by Duty Free Philippines Corporation (DFPC) and opened its doors in late 2018, which were graced by Tourism Secretary Bernadette Romulo-Puyat, SMDC Chairman and CEO Henry Sy Jr., and other high-ranking officials. The upscale shopping complex a total floor area of , and features high-end foreign retail brands in cosmetics, confectioneries, fashion, fragrance, and wines, such as Bally, Bobbi Brown Cosmetics, Coach New York, Chanel, Clarins, Dior, Estée Lauder, Kate Spade New York, Lancôme, Laneige, Michael Kors, MAC Cosmetics, MCM Worldwide, Tom Ford, Shiseido and other luxury brands. Mixed-Use Buildings Mall of Asia Arena Annex Building The Mall of Asia Annex (MAAX) Building is a 12-storey office building, located across the Mall of Asia Arena. The 12-floor building has 6-level multi parking spaces capable of storing 1,400 cars, shops, restaurants, and SM Supermarket, which opened on March 24, 2019 and is located at the ground floor. The building also houses The Food Village, a food court complex featuring Filipino and international dining areas. The building's office tenants within the building's 3 upper floors are SM Prime, the Philippine Skating Union, and Teleperformance. MoA Square MoA Square is an expansion building to SM Mall of Asia that houses IKEA Pasay City and unique home living stores and concepts. Costing , it is located between the SMX Convention Center and Mall of Asia Arena and features an in-house contact center, an e-commerce facility, a cafe, a warehouse, and additional parking spaces. The construction for the building began in September 2018 and topped off in 2020. It opened on November 24, 2021. First in the Philippines, IKEA Pasay City has a floor space of , making it IKEA's largest store in the world, beating the company's Seoul branch in South Korea, near the KTX Gwangmyeong station with of floor space, and serves as the complex's biggest tenant since the mall's opening in 2006. The branch was expected to open in 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The branch opened on November 25, 2021. The opening of IKEA made SM Mall of Asia the largest mall in the Philippines, last time being in 2008. National University Mall of Asia The National University Mall of Asia, also known as NU MOA or NUMA is the satellite campus of the Manila-based university, also owned mostly by SM Investments, located along Coral Way. The campus occupies the Mall of Asia Arena Annex (MAAX) Building 2, a 7-storey building located beside Microtel by Windham Mall of Asia and is directly connected to the SMX Convention Center Manila. The campus also features various shops within the ground floor, a 3-level parking spaces and that can accommodate approximately 720 cars and a gross leasable area of . The building opened on September 17, 2019, hosting the NU Senior High School and the NU College of Dentistry, which offers courses such as the Doctor of Dental Medicine, Dental Hygiene and Dental Laboratory Technology. The campus also offers courses, ranging from Bachelor of Business Administration majoring in Financial and Entrepreneurial Management, Bachelor of Science in both Medical and Information Technology, and Bachelor of Science in Psychology. Oceanaire Luxurious Residences The Oceanaire Luxurious Residences is a 15-storey two tower development owned by Zhongfa Development, Inc. located along Sunrise Drive, which was completed during the 4th quarter of 2015. The condominium is also occupied by the Golden Phoenix Hotel Manila, a 281-room 4-star hotel, making the complex the second hotel to open in the area, and features a bar and a spa, located within the amenity area of the building. Hotels Microtel by Windham Mall of Asia The Microtel by Windham Mall of Asia is a 150-room hotel located along Coral Way, and beside Conrad Manila. The hotel opened in 2010 and serves as the first hotel in the complex, before the opening of the Conrad Manila in June 2016, and features the Millie's All-day dining restaurant, a function room with a maximum capacity of up to 200 persons, and a roofdeck swimming pool. Conrad Manila The Mall of Asia Complex also host the Conrad Manila, a 347-room hotel located between the SMX Convention Center and the Esplanade. The hotel serves as the complex's premier class hotel. Its podium houses the S Maison, a 2-storey retail area and the Dessert Museum, a candy-themed art exhibition. The S Maison is considered by SM Prime Holdings a separate mall from the main SM Mall of Asia shopping mall complex as the mall targets the upper income levels, and is designated as the 62nd SM Supermall in the Philippines. Hotel 101 Manila The Hotel 101 Manila is a 518-room 3-star hotel located within EDSA Extension. Groundbreaking began on June 2012, and was opened in July 2016. The opening of the hotel was graced by then Secretary of Tourism Wanda Tulfo Teo and other officials. The hotel is owned by Hotel of Asia, Inc., a subsidiary of the DoubleDragon Properties and serves as Hotel 101's first and flagship hotel in the country, featuring a swimming pool and jacuzzi, located at the 2nd floor. Tryp by Windham Manila The Tryp Manila, owned by Windham, is located beside The Esplanade, and across the Three Ecom Center. The hotel is completed in 2018 serves as the third hotel located in the complex owned by SM Prime Holdings, after Conrad Manila and Microtel by Windham Mall of Asia, but offers lower rates and features 191 rooms and 3 restaurants, namely the Milagritos, the Encaramada pool bar, and the Beberitos lobby lounge. Lanson Place Mall of Asia The Lanson Place Mall of Asia is a hotel and service suite building located across the Galeon complex and the One Ecom Center, and sits on the westernmost area of the Concert Grounds. It serves as the first Lanson Place in the country and features 250 hotel rooms and 150 serviced suites units, featuring a sleek and contemporary architectural style. The building serves as the fourth hotel owned by SM in the complex and also features a rooftop swimming pool, an al-fresco center on the ground floor, a fitness center, an all-day dining restaurant, and a ballroom that can accommodate 800 people. The building is currently topped off in August 2021, and is expected to be completed and open its doors in 2022. Office buildings The SM Mall of Asia complex hosts the SM Corporate Offices, the NexGen Tower, the Philflex Bay Center, the SM Retail HQ tower, and the E-com Center, an office building complex which houses mainly business process outsourcing, cruising companies, and shipping firms. The buildings are designed by international firm Arquitectonica and Architect Felix Lim. It is divided into five smaller, different towers, namely: One E-Com Center, Two E-Com Center, Three E-Com Center, Four E-Com Center, and Five E-Com Center. The sixth tower, the Six E-com Center, is currently being planned, located in an open parking lot between the SM Mall of Asia North Wing Building and the Five Ecom Center. The buildings are connected to the main mall via elevated pedestrian bridgeway on the second level, and all buildings also features an open-air podium with dining areas located in the fourth floor of each building. The groundbreaking for the first building, the One E-Com Center began in March 2006. The building was completed in the first week of October 2007. Its first occupant, Fitness First opened its doors on October 12, 2007, other occupants include APL, Charlex International Corporation, CMA CGM, Conduent, Damco Philippines Inc., EXL Service, Highlands Prime Inc., and MegaLink, Inc.. The Two E-com Center is a 15-storey twin tower complex with prism-like building designs. Completed in 2011, The building primarily houses SM Development Corporation, Anscor Swire Ship Management Corporation, Belle Corporation, Ben Line Agencies Philippines, Inc., Concentrix, Klaveness Maritime Agency Incorporated, MicroSourcing, OOCL, TTEC, and other outsourcing and shipping companies. In 2018, the Three E-Com Center was launched and opened. The Three E-Com Center consists of two 15-storey semi-circular towers while the Four E-Com Center consists of three 15-storey towers with a crystal-like architectural designs. Occupants of the Three E-com Center includes Bangkok Bank, Prime Metro BMD Corporation, Alorica, and Amazon. Alorica by the Bay and Amazon occupies multiple floors within the towers. The Four E-Com Center began construction 2016 was topped-off in 2019, and was initially planned to open in 2020, however, due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the country, the building's opening was delayed and is expected to be completed within 2021. The Five E-Com Center opened in 2015 and features a stacked building design. The tower houses contact centers and non-contact center tenants such as Altisource Business Solutions, Grieg Philippines Inc., Harte Hanks Philippines, Inc., Kuehne + Nagel, Inc., Pernod Ricard Philippines, Inc., Telstra, Tupperware Brands,, PTT Petroleum, Royal Caribbean Group, Vestas, VXI, Xiamen Airlines and TeleTech. Residential condominiums The Mall of Asia has four residential condominium properties owned by SM Development Corporation (SMDC), SM Prime's residential development subsidiary, which include the Sea Residences, a six-tower complex; the Shell Residences, a four-tower complex; the Shore Residences, which has 3 separate residential condominium complexes, named Shore with 3 towers, Shore 2 with another 3 towers, and Shore 3 with 6 towers; the S Residences, a three-tower complex; and the Sail Residences, a four-tower development. The buildings were based on modern resort-themed architectural designs. In August 2021, SMDC unveiled a new residential project within the complex, the ICE Tower, an 844 unit residential-office (RESO) development, located across the EDSA Extension. The new residential development is expected to be completed within 2023–2024. Transportation The mall features a 20-seater tram service providing connectivity within the mall complex, and also features a transport terminal, providing transportation services to nearby areas in Metro Manila, and nearby Cavite and Batangas provinces. A bus stop is also located at the Globe Rotunda, fronting the Main Mall where city buses stop. Adjacent to the convention center is the MetroStar Ferry Terminal ferry service to Cavite City. The terminal also serves as a passenger port to SM's tourism estate, the Hamilo Coast, in Nasugbu, Batangas. In 2007, Philippine Export-Import Credit Agency (PhilEXIM) inaugurated the ferry project between Cavite City and SM Mall of Asia. PhilEXIM President Virgilio R. Angelo stated that it guaranteed the loan of Metrostar Ferry, Inc. (Metrostar) for the government's Manila Bay Transport Project. Angelo stated that the ferry service would also open in the Cavite City-Luneta Boardwalk-Del Pan Bridge waterway. A ferry service is also inaugurated connecting SM Mall of Asia to the Bataan province. A ferry service which will bring passengers to and from the upcoming Sangley Airport is being proposed. Incidents and accidents SM Mall of Asia Main Mall September 15, 2013: An 11-year-old boy was hurt when the ceiling of a mall's portion was damaged. The mall management said the damage of a portion of the mall's South Arcade ceiling was "due to rains and strong winds." March 30, 2014: A robbery and shootout occurred when the Martilyo Gang, a local criminal group specializing in robbing stores by smashing and stealing valuables using hammers, robbed a jewelry store using pipe wrenches instead of hammers in the department store on the first floor. One suspect was arrested during the incident. October 2, 2018: A ceiling at the second level of the main mall fell down in the midst of heavy rain on Tuesday afternoon, causing rainwater to runoff in front of a beauty shop. This was posted on Facebook through video by Cherry Mae Bernas. No one was hurt during the incident. Concert grounds May 22, 2016: Five people died after taking alleged illegal drugs during a rave dance party organized by Close-Up entitled Forever Summer, which was headlined by Belgian DJ duo Dimitri Vegas and Like Mike at the concert grounds. December 8, 2018: Some unruly concertgoers forced the cancellation of the Coke Studios Christmas Concert at the mall's concert grounds the previous night. Coca-Cola in a statement said there was "pushing, jumping on the barricades and throwing bottles" by "portions" that threatened the safety of the entire crowd at the concert. Police on the next day said some 50 people were attended to by rescuers either for fainting or sustaining bruises. The concert would be rescheduled for the next year. SM By the Bay October 10, 2014: A fire broke out at the MOA Eye at the mall's Amusement Park at around 10:07 am, the fire happened at least seven minutes, 36 air-conditioned gondolas were damaged in the incident, after the incident, the MOA Eye remains closed for at least seven days. November 12, 2020: A cargo vessel was stranded at the mall's bayside area due to the strong winds brought by Typhoon Ulysses, according to Pasay Mayor Imelda Calixto-Rubiano. It also became a tourist attraction with people taking pictures of the said event. February 12, 2022: A Dream Twister ride from the mall's amusement park has an electrical malfunction, no one was reported hurt or injured in the happened incident. Events Prior to Kapuso Countdown to 2021: The GMA New Year Special (2020–2021), GMA Network held its countdown television special aired every New Year's Eve at the mall's bayside area from Celebrate to '08: The GMA New Year Countdown Special (2007–2008) to Kapuso Countdown to 2020: The GMA New Year Special (2019–2020). The Grand Mascot Parade was held every New Year's Day. The Philippine International Pyromusical Competition was held every year at the mall's bayside area since 2010 (except for the 10th edition in 2019, which happened in SM City Clark, in supporting the Manila Bay Rehabilitation Program by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources), which was known as World Pyro Olympics since 2005. In September 2019, LIGA2: KONTRABIDA, a Mobile Legends: Bang Bang event was hosted at Music Hall with Nadine Lustre as ambassador. References External links Shopping malls in Metro Manila SM Prime Shopping malls established in 2006

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The following is a list of notable deaths in October 2010. Entries for each day are listed alphabetically by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent country of citizenship (if applicable), reason for notability, cause of death (if known), and reference. October 2010 1 Georgy Arbatov, 87, Russian political scientist. Dezső Bundzsák, 82, Hungarian football player and coach. Ian Buxton, 72, English footballer and cricketer, natural causes. Charles Caruana, 77, Gibraltarian Roman Catholic bishop of Gibraltar (1998–2010), complications from a fall. Bobby Craig, 75, Scottish footballer. Audouin Dollfus, 85, French astronomer. Marshall Flaum, 85, American Emmy Award-winning director (The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau), complications from hip surgery. Kilian Hennessy, 103, Irish patriarch of the Hennessy cognac company. Gerard Labuda, 93, Polish historian. Michel Mathieu, 66, French diplomat, cancer. David Aldrich Nelson, 78, American jurist, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. William W. Norton, 85, American screenwriter (Gator, Brannigan), heart attack. William C. Patrick III, 84, American scientist, expert on germs, bladder cancer. Pamela Rooks, Indian film director and screenwriter. Mikhail Roshchin, 77, Russian playwright. Phillips Talbot, 95, American diplomat, Ambassador to Greece (1965–1969), President of the Asia Society (1970–1981). Lan Wright, 87, British science fiction writer. 2 David M. Bailey, 44, American singer-songwriter, glioblastoma. Brenda Cowling, 85, British actress. Maurice Foster, 77, Canadian politician, MP for Algoma (1968–1993), pulmonary fibrosis. Robert Goodnough, 92, American abstract expressionist painter, pneumonia. Stephen Griew, 82, Canadian gerontologist. Ruby Heafner, 86, American baseball player. Art Jarvinen, 54, American composer, teacher and musician (The California EAR Unit). *Kwa Geok Choo, 89, Singaporean lawyer, wife of Lee Kuan Yew, mother of Lee Hsien Loong. Sam Lesser, 95, British journalist. Gillian Lowndes, 74, British ceramicist. 3 Maury Allen, 78, American sportswriter (The New York Post), lymphoma. João Costa, 90, Portuguese Olympic fencer. Philippa Foot, 90, British philosopher. Sir Louis Le Bailly, 95, British admiral, Director-General of Intelligence. Claude Lefort, 86, French philosopher. Ben Mondor, 85, American baseball executive (Pawtucket Red Sox). Eddie Platt, 88, American saxophonist. Abraham Sarmiento, 88, Filipino jurist, Supreme Court Associate Justice (1987–1991). Dianne Whalen, 59, Canadian politician, Newfoundland and Labrador MHA for Conception Bay East and Bell Island (2003–2010), cancer. Ed Wilson, 65, Brazilian singer-songwriter, founder of Renato e Seus Blue Caps, cancer. 4 William Birenbaum, 87, American educator (Antioch College), heart failure. Maurice Broomfield, 94, British photographer. Henrique de Senna Fernandes, 86, Macanese author. Gordon Lewis, 86, British aeronautical engineer. Rajan Mehra, 76, Indian cricket umpire. Reinhard Oehme, 82, German-born American particle physicist. (body found on this date) Peter Warr, 72, British racing driver and Formula One team principal (Lotus), heart attack. Brian Williams, 54, British fantasy illustrator Sir Norman Wisdom, 95, British comedian and actor, after long illness. 5 Yakov Alpert, 99, Soviet-born American physicist. Roy Axe, 73, British car designer (Talbot Horizon, Rover 800), cancer. Roy Ward Baker, 93, British film director (A Night To Remember). Jack Berntsen, 69, Norwegian folk singer. Stan Bisset, 98, Australian rugby union player and World War II veteran. Alba Bouwer, 90, South African writer (Afrikaans children's literature), natural causes. Bernard Clavel, 87, French writer, natural causes. Mary Leona Gage, 71, American pageant queen, stripped of Miss USA (1957) title, heart failure. Karel Hardeman, 96, Dutch Olympic rower. Josephine Drivinski Hunsinger, 95, American politician. Member of the Michigan House of Representatives for District 1 (1973-1976). Moss Keane, 62, Irish rugby union player, bowel cancer. Jānis Klovāns, 75, Latvian chess master. Steve Lee, 47, Swiss musician (Gotthard), motorcycle accident. Julio Parise Loro, 90, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, Vicar Apostolic of Napo (1978–96). Karen McCarthy, 63, American politician, U.S. Representative from Missouri (1995–2005), Alzheimer's disease. Børge Raahauge Nielsen, 90, Danish Olympic bronze medal-winning (1948) rower. William Shakespeare, 61, Australian glam rock singer, heart attack. 6 Norman Christie, 85, Scottish football player and manager (Montrose F.C.). Jean Debuf, 86, French weightlifter, Olympic bronze medalist (1956). Don Goodsir, 73, Australian educator, author, and environmentalist. Ivor Hale, 88, English cricketer. Antonie Kamerling, 44, Dutch actor and singer, suicide. Ralph Kercheval, 98, American football player. Gran Naniwa, 33, Japanese professional wrestler, myocardial blockage. Colette Renard, 85, French singer and actress, after long illness. Henry Sommerville, 82, Australian Olympic fencer. Piet Wijn, 81, Dutch comics creator. 7 Ashab-ul-Haq, Bangladeshi politician. Metring David, 90, Filipino actress and comedian. Gail Dolgin, 65, American documentary filmmaker (Daughter from Danang), breast cancer. Rhys Isaac, 72, Australian historian, cancer. Kristin Johannsen, 52, American author, educator and environmentalist. Ljupčo Jordanovski, 57, Macedonian seismologist and politician, Acting President (2004). Chuck Leo, 76, American football player (Boston Patriots). Ian Morris, 53, New Zealand musician (Th' Dudes) and record producer. Milka Planinc, 85, Yugoslavian politician, Prime Minister (1982–1986). Guy Rouleau, 87, Canadian politician. A. Venkatachalam, 55, Indian politician, stabbed. 8 Frank Bourgholtzer, 90, American television reporter, first full-time NBC News White House correspondent. S. S. Chandran, 69, Indian comic actor and politician, member of the Rajya Sabha (2001–2007), heart attack. Jim Fuchs, 82, American shot putter, Olympic bronze medalist (1948, 1952). Nils Hallberg, 89, Swedish actor. John Huchra, 61, American astronomer, heart attack. Ryō Ikebe, 92, Japanese actor (Gorath), blood poisoning. Reg King, 65, British singer (The Action), cancer. Simbara Maki, 71, Ivorian Olympic hurdler. Malcolm Mencer Martin, 89, Austrian-British pediatric endocrinologist, injuries sustained after being hit by car. Sue Miles, 66, British counter-culture activist and restaurateur. David F. Musto, 74, American drug control expert, heart attack. Maurice Neligan, 73, Irish surgeon, performed Ireland's first heart transplant. Linda Norgrove, 36, British aid worker and hostage, killed during rescue attempt. Mohammad Omar, Afghan politician, Governor of Kunduz Province, bomb blast. Pleasant Tap, 23, American thoroughbred racehorse, euthanized due to laminitis. Melvin Lane Powers, 68, American real estate developer, acquitted of murdering his uncle. Karl Prantl, 86, Austrian sculptor, stroke. Neil Richardson, 80, English composer, arranger and conductor. Dale Roberts, 70, American baseball player (New York Yankees). Albertina Walker, 81, American gospel music singer (The Caravans), respiratory failure. 9 Maurice Allais, 99, French economist, winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1988). Mashallah Amin Sorour, 79, Iranian cyclist. Edmund Chong Ket Wah, 54, Malaysian politician, Member of Parliament (since 2004), motorcycle accident. Les Fell, 89, English footballer (Charlton Athletic, Crystal Palace). Aleksandr Matveyev, 84, Russian linguist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, natural causes. Isaia Rasila, 42, Fijian rugby player. Zecharia Sitchin, 90, Azerbaijani-born American author. 10 Louis F. Bantle, 81, American chairman of U.S. Tobacco Company, lung cancer and emphysema. Reinhold Brinkmann, 76, German musicologist. Solomon Burke, 70, American R&B singer-songwriter ("Everybody Needs Somebody to Love"), natural causes. Ger Feeney, Irish Gaelic footballer. Les Gibbard, 64, New Zealand-born British political cartoonist, during routine operation. John Graysmark, 75, British production designer and art director (Ragtime). *Hwang Jang-yop, 87, North Korean politician and defector, apparent heart attack. Éric Joisel, 53, French wet-folding origami artist, lung cancer. Richard Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, 4th Baron Acton, 69, British politician. David H. McNerney, 79, American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient, lung cancer. Adán Martín Menis, 66, Spanish politician, President of the Canary Islands (2003–2007). Rex Rabanye, 66, jazz, fusion and soulful pop musician. Franz Xaver Schwarzenböck, 87, German Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of München und Freising (1972–1998). Solly Sherman, 93, American football player (Chicago Bears). A. Edison Stairs, 85, Canadian businessman and politician, New Brunswick MLA (1960–1978) and Minister of Finance (1974–1976), natural causes. Walter Staley, 77, American Olympic bronze medal-winning (1952) equestrian. Alison Stephens, 40, British classical mandolinist, cervical cancer. Dame Joan Sutherland, 83, Australian dramatic coloratura soprano. Richard S. Van Wagoner, 64, American historian of Mormonism and Utah. Frank Verpillat, 63, French director and inventor. 11 Tomislav Franjković, 79, Croatian Olympic silver medal-winning (1956) water polo player. Bill Harsha, 89, American politician, U.S. Representative from Ohio (1961–1981). Janet MacLachlan, 77, American actress (Archie Bunker's Place, Sounder), cardiovascular complications. Richard Morefield, 81, American embassy worker, hostage during Iran Hostage Crisis. Marian P. Opala, 89, American jurist, Associate Justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court (1978–2010), stroke. Claire Rayner, 79, British author. Georges Rutaganda, 51, Rwandan Hutu paramilitary leader, convicted war criminal, after long illness. Robert Tishman, 94, American real estate developer (Tishman Speyer). Donald H. Tuck, 87, Australian science fiction bibliographer. Ian Turner, 85, American Olympic gold medal-winning (1948) rower. 12 Abul Hasnat Md. Abdul Hai, Bangladeshi politician. Manuel Alexandre, 92, Spanish actor, cancer. Jorge Ardila Serrano, 85, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Girardot (1988–2001). Austin Ardill, 93, British politician, member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland for Carrick. Challenger, 51, Bangladeshi actor. Michael Galloway, 85, American actor. Michel Hugo, 79, French-born American cinematographer (Dynasty, Melrose Place, Mission: Impossible), lung cancer. Angelo Infanti, 71, Italian actor, cardiac arrest. Lionel W. McKenzie, 91, American economist. Dick Miles, 85, American table tennis player, natural causes. Woody Peoples, 67, American football player (San Francisco 49ers, Philadelphia Eagles). Pepín, 78, Spanish footballer. Belva Plain, 95, American novelist (Evergreen). 13 Juan Carlos Arteche, 53, Spanish footballer, cancer. Eddie Baily, 85, English footballer (Tottenham Hotspur). General Johnson, 69, American musician and record producer (Chairmen of the Board), complications of lung cancer. Vernon Biever, 87, American photographer. Khoisan X, 55, South African political activist, stroke. Mary Malcolm, 92, British BBC announcer and television personality. Marzieh, 86, Iranian singer, cancer. Sol Steinmetz, 80, Hungarian-born American lexicographer and linguist, pneumonia. 14 Malcolm Allison, 83, English footballer (West Ham United) and manager (Manchester City, Crystal Palace), after long illness. Glenn J. Ames, 55, American historian, cancer. Carla Del Poggio, 84, Italian actress. Louis Henkin, 92, American international human rights law expert and academic (Columbia Law School). Alain Le Bussy, 63, Belgian science fiction author, complications following throat surgery. Simon MacCorkindale, 58, British actor (Falcon Crest, Death on the Nile, Manimal, Casualty), bowel cancer. Benoît Mandelbrot, 85, Polish-born American mathematician, pioneer of the study of fractals, pancreatic cancer. Constance Reid, 92, American mathematics author and biographer. Hermann Scheer, 66, German politician, member of the Bundestag (1980–2010) and Right Livelihood Award laureate (1999), after short illness. Larry Siegfried, 71, American basketball player (Boston Celtics), heart attack. 15 Jim Dougal, 65, Northern Irish journalist (BBC News, RTÉ, UTV). Mildred Fay Jefferson, 84, American pro-life activist, first black woman to graduate from Harvard Medical School. N. Paul Kenworthy, 85, American cinematographer (The Living Desert, The Vanishing Prairie), thyroid cancer. Georges Mathé, 88, French oncologist and immunologist, bone marrow transplant pioneer. Vera Rózsa, 93, Hungarian voice teacher. Johnny Sheffield, 79, American actor (Tarzan Finds a Son!, Bomba, the Jungle Boy, Knute Rockne All American), heart attack. 16 Barbara Billingsley, 94, American actress, polymyalgia (Leave It to Beaver, Airplane!, Muppet Babies). Alfredo Bini, 83, Italian film producer. Jack Butterfield, 91, Canadian-born American sports administrator, President of the American Hockey League (1969–1994). Chao-Li Chi, 83, Chinese-born American actor (Falcon Crest). Giannis Dalianidis, 86, Greek film director and screenwriter (Oi Thalassies oi Hadres, O katergaris), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Eyedea, 28, American rapper and musician (Eyedea & Abilities). Friedrich Katz, 83, Austrian anthropologist and historian, cancer. Masud Husain Khan, 91, Indian linguist. Ioannis Ladas, 90, Greek army officer, member of the 1967–1974 military junta. Betty S. Murphy, 77, American lawyer, first woman to chair the National Labor Relations Board, pneumonia. Aldo Maria Lazzarín Stella, 83, Italian-born Chilean Roman Catholic prelate, Vicar Apostolic of Aysén (1989–1998). Valmy Thomas, 81, Puerto Rican baseball player. Leigh Van Valen, 75, American evolutionary biologist (Red Queen's Hypothesis), respiratory infection. 17 Åsmund Apeland, 80, Norwegian politician. Jake Dunlap, 85, Canadian football player (Ottawa Rough Riders), cancer. John Baird Finlay, 81, Canadian politician, MP for Oxford (1993–2004). *Emmanuel Lê Phong Thuân, 79, Vietnamese Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Cân Tho (since 1990). Joe Lis, 64, American baseball player, prostate cancer. Freddy Schuman, 85, American baseball fan (New York Yankees), heart attack. Michael Tabor, 63, American Black Panther Party member, complications from a stroke. Dennis Taylor, 56, American saxophonist, heart attack. 18 Luc Agbala, 63, Togo football player and referee. Marion Brown, 79, American jazz saxophonist. Consuelo Crespi, 82, American-born Italian countess, fashion model and editor, stroke. David Fontana, 75, British psychologist and parapsychologist, pancreatic cancer. Margaret Gwenver, 84, American actress (Guiding Light). Hans Hägele, 70, German footballer, suicide by jumping from bridge. Mel Hopkins, 75, Welsh footballer (Tottenham Hotspur, Brighton & Hove Albion). Yertward Mazamanian, 85, American hippie. Peng Chong, 95, Chinese politician, former National Committee member. Billy Raimondi, 97, American baseball player Doug Wilson, 90, British Olympic athlete. Ken Wriedt, 83, Australian politician, Senator for Tasmania (1967–1980), Leader of the Tasmanian Opposition (1982–1986). 19 Tom Bosley, 83, American actor (Happy Days, Father Dowling Mysteries), heart failure. Craig Charron, 42, American ice hockey player, stomach cancer. Graham Crowden, 87, Scottish actor (If...., A Very Peculiar Practice, Waiting For God). André Mahé, 90, French road bicycle racer. Paul Steven Miller, 49, American disability rights leader, cancer. John Waterlow, 94, British physiologist. 20 Jean Asfar, 92, Egyptian Olympic fencer. Francisco Batistela, 79, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Bom Jesus da Lapa (1990–2009). Otey Clark, 95, American baseball player (Boston Red Sox). W. Cary Edwards, 66, American politician, New Jersey State Assemblyman (1978–1982) and Attorney General (1986–1989), cancer. Herbert Enderton, 74, American mathematician and logician, leukemia. Mariano Ferreyra, 23, Argentine left-wing militant, shot. Bob Guccione, 79, American photographer and founder of Penthouse, lung cancer. Eva Ibbotson, 85, Austrian-born British novelist (Journey to the River Sea, The Secret of Platform 13). Coleman Jacoby, 95, American television comedy writer, pancreatic cancer. D. Geraint James, 88, Welsh doctor. Bill Jennings, 85, American baseball player (St. Louis Browns). Robert Katz, 77, American writer, complications from cancer surgery. Max Kohnstamm, 96, Dutch historian and diplomat. Farooq Leghari, 70, Pakistani politician, President (1993–1997), heart complications. Sir George Mallet, 87, Saint Lucian politician, Governor-General (1996–1997), cancer. Eduard Novák, 63, Czech ice hockey player, Olympic silver (1976) and bronze (1972) medalist. Jenny Oropeza, 53, American politician, California State Assemblywoman (2000–2006) and State Senator (since 2006), after long illness. Robert Paynter, 82, British cinematographer (Michael Jackson's Thriller). Harvey Phillips, 80, American tuba player, Parkinson's disease. Gilbert Planté, 69, French Olympic footballer. Julian Roberts, 80, British librarian. Tony Roig, 81, American baseball player (Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators), after long illness. Parthasarathy Sharma, 62, Indian Test cricketer (1974–1977), cancer. Tikhon Stepanov, 47, Russian Orthodox prelate, Bishop of Arkhangelsk and Kholmogory (since 1996), heart attack. Ari Up, 48, German-born British punk musician (The Slits), cancer. Wendall Woodbury, 68, American television journalist and host (WGAL-TV), lymphoma. 21 Antonio Alatorre, 88, Mexican philologist. Mustapha Anane, 60, Algerian footballer, after long illness. A. Ayyappan, 61, Indian poet. José Carbajal, 66, Uruguayan singer, guitarist, and composer (Los Olimareños), cardiac arrest. Sir Leslie Froggatt, 90, British-born Australian business executive, CEO of Shell Australia (1969–1980), complications from Parkinson's disease. Kjell Landmark, 80, Norwegian poet and politician, cancer. James F. Neal, 81, American jurist, prosecuted Watergate figures, cancer. Howard Harry Rosenbrock, 89, British electrical engineer and scientist. Loki Schmidt, 91, German environmentalist, wife of Helmut Schmidt, illness after a fall and complications of a broken foot. Natasha Spender, 91, British musician and writer, widow of Stephen Spender. 22 Alex Anderson, 90, American cartoonist, created characters for The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show and Crusader Rabbit. Donald A. Andrews, 69, Canadian correctional psychologist and criminologist. Rune Blomqvist, 85, Swedish Olympic sprint canoer. Arthur M. Brazier, 89, American pastor and civil rights activist. Alí Chumacero, 92, Mexican writer and poet, pneumonia. Bill Henderson, 86, Northern Irish politician and newspaper proprietor. Helen Hunley, 90, Canadian politician, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta (1985–1991). Anne McDonald, 49, Australian disability rights activist, heart attack. Franz Raschid, 56, German footballer, pancreatic cancer. Eio Sakata, 90, Japanese professional Go player, aortic aneurysm. Denis Simpson, 59, Canadian actor (Polka Dot Door) and singer, brain hemorrhage. Kjell Stormoen, 89, Norwegian actor and theater director. René Villiger, 79, Swiss painter, cancer. 23 Ralph Belknap Baldwin, 98, American planetary scientist. Vince Banonis, 89, American football player (Chicago Cardinals, Detroit Lions). Ior Bock, 68, Finnish actor and tour guide, stabbing. George Cain, 66, American author, kidney failure. Fran Crippen, 26, American swimmer, heart attack. Leo Cullum, 68, American cartoonist (The New Yorker), cancer. Robert Fitzpatrick, 73, American manager and actor, lung disease. S. Neil Fujita, 89, American graphic designer, complications of a stroke. Princess Irmingard of Bavaria, 87, German noblewoman. Donald Leifert, 59, American science fiction actor. Chhewang Nima, 43, Nepalese mountaineer and guide, avalanche. Michael Porter, 59, American wrestling announcer. Stanley Tanger, 87, American businessman, founder of Tanger Factory Outlet Centers. David Thompson, 48, British-born Barbadian politician, Prime Minister (since 2008), pancreatic cancer. Tom Winslow, 69, American folk musician, complications from a stroke. 24 Ralph Anderson, 86, American architect, kidney cancer. Les Anthony, 88, Welsh rugby union player. Bob Courtney, 87, British-born South African broadcaster and actor. Mike Esposito, 83, American comic book artist (Spider-Man, The Flash, Wonder Woman). Georges Frêche, 72, French politician, cardiac arrest. Fritz Grösche, 69, German footballer and coach, cancer. Linda Hargrove, 61, American singer-songwriter. Andy Holmes, 51, British Olympic gold (1984, 1988) and bronze (1988) medal-winning rower, leptospirosis. Franciszek Jarecki, 79, Polish-born American jet pilot and defector. Lamont Johnson, 88, American actor and television director (The Twilight Zone, The Execution of Private Slovik), heart failure. Alex Oakley, 84, Canadian Olympic race walker. Pan Jin-yu, 96, Taiwanese last speaker of the Pazeh language. Ignacio Ramírez de Haro, 15th Count of Bornos, 92, Spanish noble, 15th Count of Bornos, Grandee of Spain, legionella. Burton B. Roberts, 88, American judge, New York Supreme Court Justice (1973–1998), respiratory failure. Willie Rutherford, 65, Australian soccer player. Sylvia Sleigh, 94, American painter, complications of a stroke. Jack Stackpoole, 93, Australian cricketer. David Stahl, 60, American conductor, lymphoma. Joseph Stein, 98, American playwright (Fiddler on the Roof, Zorba). 25 Hans Arnold, 85, Swiss-born Swedish artist. Sonny Ates, 75, American racecar driver. Lisa Blount, 53, American actress (An Officer and a Gentleman) and film producer (The Accountant). Sonia Burgess, 63, British immigration lawyer. Jeff Carter, 82, Australian photographer and author. Richard T. Gill, 82, American opera singer, heart failure. Douglas Hooper, 83, English psychotherapist, traffic collision. Gregory Isaacs, 59, Jamaican reggae singer, lung cancer. Andreas Maurer, 91, Austrian politician, Landeshauptmann of Lower Austria (1966–1981). Vesna Parun, 88, Croatian writer. Ada Polak, 96, Norwegian art historian. Rudy Rufer, 84, American baseball player (New York Giants). Roy Skinner, 80, American college basketball coach (Vanderbilt), respiratory failure. 26 Jaroslava Komárková, 83, Czech Olympic athlete. Glen Little, 84, American circus performer ("Frosty the Clown"). Mbah Maridjan, 83, Indonesian spiritual guardian of Mount Merapi (1982–2010), pyroclastic flow from Mount Merapi. Ricardo Montez, 87, Gibraltarian character actor. Paul the Octopus, 2, British-born World Cup oracle octopus (Sea Life Centre in Oberhausen, Germany), natural causes. James Phelps, 78, American gospel and R&B singer, complications of diabetes. Ana María Romero de Campero, 67, Bolivian journalist and politician, President of the Senate of Bolivia (2010), colorectal cancer. Romeu Tuma, 79, Brazilian politician, Senator (1995–2010), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Ray Watson, 87, Australian judge. 27 Mary Emma Allison, 93, American co-creator of Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF. Denise Borino-Quinn, 46, American actress (The Sopranos), liver cancer. Gene Fodge, 79, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs). William Griffiths, 88, British Olympic silver medal-winning (1948) field hockey player. Chris Gulker, 59, American photographer, programmer and writer, brain cancer. Néstor Kirchner, 60, Argentine politician, President (2003–2007), First Gentleman (since 2007), Secretary General of UNASUR (2010), heart attack. Paul Kolton, 87, American chairman of the American Stock Exchange (1972–1977), lymphoma. Luigi Macaluso, 62, Italian businessman, President and Chairman of the Sowind Group, heart attack. Owen B. Pickett, 80, American politician, U.S. Representative from Virginia (1987–2001). *Saqr bin Mohammad al-Qassimi, 92, Emirati ruler of Ras al-Khaimah (since 1948). Hall W. Thompson, 87, American developer of a country club that did not admit black members. James Wall, 92, American actor (Captain Kangaroo) and stage manager, after short illness. 28 Isabella Abbott, 91, American ethnobotanist, first native Hawaiian to receive a doctorate in science. Ibrahim Ahmad Abd al-Sattar Muhammad, 54, Iraqi general, Armed Forces Chief of Staff (1999–2003), cancer. Harry Baldwin, 90, English footballer. Jack Brokensha, 84, Australian jazz musician, composer and arranger. Jesús Mateo Calderón Barrueto, 90, Peruvian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Puno (1972–1998). Robert Dickie, 46, British champion boxer, heart attack. Robert Ellenstein, 87, American character actor. Erling Fløtten, 72, Norwegian politician. Watts Humphrey, 83, American software engineer. Gerard Kelly, 51, British actor (City Lights), brain aneurysm. Liang Congjie, 78, Chinese environmentalist (Friends of Nature), lung infection. James MacArthur, 72, American actor (Hawaii Five-O, Swiss Family Robinson), natural causes. Jonathan Motzfeldt, 72, Greenlandic politician, Prime Minister (1979–1991; 1997–2002), brain hemorrhage. Paddy Mullins, 91, Irish racehorse trainer. Maurice Murphy, 75, British musician (London Symphony Orchestra). Ehud Netzer, 76, Israeli archaeologist, discovered tomb of Herod the Great, injuries from a fall. Walter Payton, 68, American jazz bassist and sousaphonist, complications from a stroke. Anna Prieto Sandoval, 76, American tribal leader (Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation), Native American gaming enterprises pioneer, diabetes. Jean Schmit, 79, Luxembourgian Olympic cyclist. John Sekula, 41, American guitarist (Mushroomhead). 29 Gerhard Beyer, 69, German Olympic sports shooter. Marcelino Camacho, 92, Spanish trade unionist. Ronnie Clayton, 76, English footballer (Blackburn Rovers). Geoffrey Crawley, 83, British photographer and editor, debunked Cottingley Fairies mystery. Mervyn Haisman, 82, British writer (Doctor Who). George Hickenlooper, 47, American documentary filmmaker, accidental drug overdose. Yisrael Katz, 82, Israeli public servant and government minister. Antonio Mariscal, 95, Mexican Olympic diver. Bärbel Mohr, 46, German author. Bernard de Nonancourt, 90, French businessman and member of the French Resistance, owner of Laurent-Perrier. Karlo Sakandelidze, 82, Georgian actor. Takeshi Shudo, 61, Japanese writer, creator of Pokémon, subarachnoid hemorrhage. 30 Randall Dale Adams, 61, American anti–death penalty activist, brain tumor. Douglas Argent, 89, British television producer and director (Fawlty Towers). Vladimir Arsenyev, 62, Russian Africanist, ethnographer, and exhibition curator. John Benson, 67, Scottish footballer and manager, after short illness. Romano Bonagura, 80, Italian bobsledder, Olympic silver medalist (1964). Leopoldo Alfredo Bravo, 50, Argentine diplomat, ambassador to Russia, cancer. Édouard Carpentier, 84, French-born Canadian professional wrestler. Ina Clare, 77, British actress (EastEnders). Meta Elste-Neumann, 91, American gymnast, Olympic bronze medalist (1948), cancer. Arthur Bernard Lewis, 84, American television producer and writer (Dallas), complications from pneumonia. Ananías Maidana, 87, Paraguayan teacher and politician, prostate cancer. Harry Mulisch, 83, Dutch writer (The Assault, The Discovery of Heaven), cancer. Nachi Nozawa, 72, Japanese voice actor, lung cancer. Clyde Summers, 91, American academic, complications of a stroke. Mateus Feliciano Augusto Tomás, 52, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Namibe (since 2009). Howard Van Hyning, 74, American percussionist (New York City Opera), myocardial infarction. 31 Michel d'Aillières, 86, French politician. Evelyn Baghtcheban, 81–82, Turkish-Persian opera singer. Manfred Bock, 69, German Olympic decathlete, heart attack. Max Barandun, 68, Swiss Olympic sprinter. Roger Holloway, 76, British Anglican priest. Dick Loepfe, 88, American football player (Chicago Cardinals). Maurice Lucas, 58, American basketball player (Portland Trail Blazers, Phoenix Suns, Los Angeles Lakers), bladder cancer. John Selfridge, 83, American mathematician. János Simon, 81, Hungarian basketball player, EuroBasket winner (1955). Ted Sorensen, 82, American lawyer, White House counsel (1961–1964), stroke. Artie Wilson, 90, American baseball player (New York Giants, Birmingham Black Barons), Alzheimer's disease. References 2010-10 10

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A students' union, also known by many other names, is a student organization present in many colleges, universities, and high schools. In higher education, the students' union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. In the United States, student union often only refers to a physical building owned by the university with the purpose of providing services for students without a governing body. This building is also referred to as a student activity center, although the Association of College Unions International (largely US-based) has hundreds of campus organizational members. Outside the US, student union and students' union more often refer to a representative body, as distinct from a student activity centre building. Purpose Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, and implementation of the group might vary. Universally, the purpose of students' union or student government is to represent fellow students in some fashion. In some cases, students' unions are run by students, independent of the educational facility. The purpose of these organizations is to represent students both within the institution and externally, including on local and national issues. Students' unions are also responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Depending on the organization's makeup, students can get involved in the union by becoming active in a committee, by attending councils and general meetings, volunteering within a group, service or club run by the union, or by becoming an elected officer. Some students' unions are politicized bodies, and often serve as a training ground for aspiring politicians. Students' unions generally have similar aims irrespective of the extent of politicization, usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, and services. Some students' unions often officially recognize and allocate an annual budget to other organizations on campus. In some institutions, postgraduate students are within the general students' unions, whereas in others they have their own postgraduate representative body. In some cases, graduate students lack formal representation in student government. Variations depending on country As mentioned before universally the purpose of students' union or student government is to represent fellow students. Many times students' unions usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, and services. Simple variations on just the name include the name differences between the United States (student government) and other countries (students' union or student association). Depending on the country there are different methods of representation compulsory education to Higher education or tertiary. Asia and Oceania Australia In Australia, all universities have one or more student organizations. Australian student unions typically provide such services as eateries, small retail outlets (e.g., news agencies), student media (e.g., campus newspapers), advocacy, and support for a variety of social, arts, political, recreational, special interest and sporting clubs and societies. Most also operate specialized support services for female, LGBT, international and indigenous students. Many expressed concerns over the introduction of voluntary student unionism (VSU) in 2006. In 2011, the Government passed legislation to allow universities to charge students a compulsory service fee to fund amenities such as sporting facilities, childcare and counselling, as well as student media and "advocating students’ interests". The National Union of Students of Australia represents most undergraduate students' unions at a national level; the Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations is the umbrella organisation for postgraduate students' unions. Azerbaijan Azerbaijan Students Union (ASU) was established by students from Baku on 15 September 2008. ASU is an organization which was established on basis of international experience and it was the first student organization which united students irrespective of gender, race, creed, nationality. During its action period ASU has formed stable structure, presented new suggestions about student policy to appropriate bodies, made close relations with international and regional student organizations, prepared new action plan according to the universities-students-companies' relations in Azerbaijan. ASU considered international relations very important. For the first time ASU's delegates were participants of the First Asia IAESTE Forum in Shanghai during 12–15 November 2009. After that forum ASU established close relations with IAESTE which is one of the biggest student exchange organizations. As a result of relations on 21 January 2010 ASU was accepted a member of IAESTE. The union gained right to represent Azerbaijan students in IAESTE. That membership was the union's first success on international level. During 20–27 January Azerbaijan Students Union was accepted as associative member of IAESTE in 64th Annual Conference in Thailand. Azerbaijan Students Union has been a full member of European Students' Union until 2015. China In China, the student body is usually referred to as 学生会 () or 学生联合会 (). Membership in different universities has different functions. Some universities may give the membership a task of recording the students' attendance and the complex grades. Student associations of Chinese universities are mostly under the leadership of Communist Youth League of China, which to a large extent limit its function as an organization purely belonging to students themselves. Hong Kong All universities in Hong Kong have students' unions. Most of these students' unions are members of the Hong Kong Federation of Students. Many secondary schools also have students' unions or the equivalent. Students' unions are called student council and students' association in some secondary schools. Students' unions in secondary schools and universities are elected democratically and universally by the student population, and the cabinet winning a simple majority becomes the new students' union of the year. Students' union maintain quite a hierarchical structure. India India has developed a complex tradition of student politics dating from the era of Indian National Congress movement domination. Student unions are organised both within universities, like the Student Council of IISc and across universities, All India Students Federation (AISF) is the oldest student organisation in India founded on August 12, 1936. AISF is the only students organisation in the country which was actively involved in the Indian freedom struggle, but affiliated with political parties, as in the case of Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad, Muslim Students Federation, Students Federation of India]], National Students Union of India etc. who compete in elections to control posts in universities and colleges. Examples of activist unions include the Jawaharlal Nehru University Students' Union, Delhi University Students Union, Udai pratap college students Union Swaero Student Union. Recently few school administrations had also started including the student government system as co-curricular activities in one form or another. There is one of a kind, non-political independent architectural students body, National Association of Students of Architecture. Indonesia In Indonesia, every university, college and higher education school has a student union. The official student union in junior and senior high school is usually called Organisasi Siswa Intra Sekolah (Intra-School Student Organization, abbreviated as OSIS), is formed by the school. A general election to choose the leader is usually held every year. OSIS organizes the school's extracurricular activities such as music shows and art gallery (pentas seni/pensi). The student union in universities is commonly called Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa (Student Executive Board, abbreviated as BEM), though the official name could be vary between universities or faculties. Most of BEMs are affiliated with several national unions, such as All-Indonesia BEM (BEM SI) or BEM Nusantara (BEMNUS). Japan In Japan, the student body is called 学生自治会 (gakusei-jichi-kai). In Japanese, the word 学生自治会 (gakusei-jichi-kai) means students' self-government-organizations. The student body in Japan promotes extracurricular activities. Usually, a cultural association, 文化会 (bunka-kai), and a sports association, 体育会 (taiiku-kai), are included within a student body as autonomous organizations. A student belongs to one or more students' organizations, and he or she does extracurricular activities through these students' organizations. However, the extracurricular activities of universities and colleges have been declining since the 1990s. There is no nationwide student union in Japan that participates in university administration or university management. Malaysia Malaysia has 20 public universities. Each of them has one students' representative council (), the highest student body of such university as stipulated in the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 (AUKU).The registered students of the University, other than external students, shall together constitute a body to be known as the Students’ Union of the University, and the Union shall elect a Students’ Representative Council. (Article 48 Section 1-2, Universities and University Colleges Act)A general election is held every year, usually in November (With the exception of University of Malaya in July), to elect representatives to MPP. The percentage of voter turn-outs are usually high (70 to 95 percent) largely due to enforcements from the universities' management which, at the same time, acts as the Election Committee. Amendments on the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 in 2019 allows students to be fully in-charge of the Election Committee. Every year, the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education would set meetings and arrange programmes with all MPPs. Nevertheless, each MPP has their own autonomous right to govern their own membership. The size of MPP differs from each university, from as little as 12 to as many as 50, which may include non-associate members from student leaders representing their respective student body. All MPP members are part-time and unpaid officers. In 2011, Universiti Sains Malaysia established Students' Consultative Assembly (), the first student parliament established and the oldest of its kind in Malaysia, to involve participation of more student leaders in decision and policy making as well as to establish a legislative branch in its Students' Union system instead of having the only executive branch. A university student parliament is composed of MPP members and other elected or appointed student leaders representing their respective student body, along with the presence of the management's and students' representative as observers. In 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia revived the Students' Parliament () as the legislative branch in its Students' Union system which was left dormant since its last meeting at 2013 and the next meeting since its revival was held in April 2021. As at May 2021, 8 public universities in Malaysia had their student parliament established. However, there were several disputes regarding the autonomy of the MPP, since executive decisions were depending upon the advice of the Students' Affairs Department (), especially among several students' rights activists, who insists that the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 (AUKU) to be abolished and replaced with a new act to 'revive' students' autonomy on administration as in the 1960s'. New Zealand Students associations have a strong history in New Zealand of involvement in political causes, notably the Halt All Racist Tours campaign during the 1981 Springbok Tour. All universities, and most polytechnics and colleges of education have a students association. Since the economic reforms of the 1990s and the introduction of user pays in tertiary education, students associations and the national body have shifted their focus to challenging inequities in the student loan scheme and high levels of student debt. Part-time work alongside the introduction of internal assessment and the change of semester structure has been attributed to the declining involvement in extracurricular activities and a shift in focus of the student movement from mass protest to lobbying. Previous to 1998 membership of Students' Associations (pep) was compulsory at all public Tertiary Education providers (universities, polytechnics and colleges of education). In 1997 the centre-right National party proposed the Voluntary Student Membership amendment to the Education act which would have made membership of Students' Associations voluntary at all Tertiary Education Providers. However the National Party relied on support from the centrist New Zealand First party to pass legislation. The New Zealand First party preferred that Tertiary Students themselves choose whether their provider should be voluntary or compulsory and pushed through a compromise to the amendment that allowed for a Compulsory Vs Voluntary referendum to be held at every public Tertiary Education Provider. The amendment also allowed for subsequent referendums which could not be held until at least two years had passed since the previous referendum and only if a petition was signed by 10% of the student populace. The first wave of referendums were held in 1999, in which several Polytechnics and two Universities (the University of Waikato and the University of Auckland) elected to become voluntary. In 2002 a second referendum was held at the University of Waikato and students choose to return to compulsory student membership. Similar referendums at Auckland University in 2001, 2003 and 2005 have all elected to retain voluntary student membership. Most of New Zealand Tertiary students' associations are confederated under the New Zealand Union of Students' Associations. Philippines In the Philippines, student unions are referred to as "student government" and "student council." They are vital organizations for student representation and advancing the struggle of the people for their democratic rights and freedoms. At the primary and secondary level, student unions are referred to as pupil government handled by the Department of Education under their Student Government Program. Meanwhile, at the tertiary level, private and state colleges and universities have their own student councils. A university may further be subdivided into colleges with their own specializations (e.g., College of Law, College of Medicine, College of Arts and Sciences, etc.); in this case, the highest student representation will usually be referred to as the university student council while the student representation of these colleges will be called college student council(s). Aside from student unions, students are further represented in the through the student regent (e.g., UP Office of the Student Regent for the students of the University of the Philippines System). The student regent is a consequence of tireless and continuous struggle of the students to be represented in the highest policy-making body of their respective universities such as the school board where the student regent has voting powers, among others. Student regents are very common for universities with campuses in different locations and most especially in state universities and colleges. On the other hand, these student unions are also connected throughout the country via an alliance or network such as the National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP), which serves as a nationwide alliance of student councils/governments/unions committed to the advancement of the students' democratic rights and welfare since its establishment in 1957. Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, each state university has several Students' unions with formal links to respective faculties. Inter University Students' Federation is the umbrella organization of 14 unions of university students. However, most of these have political affiliations and function as proxies of these political factions. Many unions take an active political role within the university and in the country as a whole. This frequently lead to much clashes between rival students' unions or the authorities. Taiwan In Taiwan, the student body is called 學生會 () or 學生自治會 (), these groups are often known as student association and students' union, or less commonly a student government. The law requires all universities and high schools should have a Student Association. Many universities student association in Taiwan are members of the National Students' Union of Taiwan (). Myanmar The role of students' unions in Myanmar were attached with Politics. From 1920, the students' union were outcoming and tried to get the Interdependence of Nation. There were many students boycotts in Myanmar: 1920, 1936, 1962, 1974-75-76, 1988, 1996, 2007 and recently 2015 March. Most of them were connected with political issues. Africa In South Africa student representative councils are the executive and plenary body of student governance and charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups, and represents students' interests when dealing with the administration. In several instances representatives of these bodies are members of the university's Senate. In 2012 the first student union, after 42 years of suppression, was founded. Students from Al Mimona Ebem Alharth school public school in Tripoli-Libya successfully established the union and promoted for other schools around the country to do the same. The founder Alaa Amed received local media attention for this achievement. While higher education and student activism might vary depending on the country the National Association of Nigerian Students' is an organization with well over 50 university union across the nation. Tunisia has many students unions including the Union Générale des Étudiants de Tunisie founded in 1952, and Union Générale Tunisienne des Étudiants founded in 1985. Europe While each students' union varies by countries the European Students' Union is an umbrella organization of 45 national unions of students from 36 European countries. Armenia The Armenian National Students Association was established in September 2003 and represents 90 thousand students across Armenia. It is a member of the European Students' Union. Denmark In Denmark the higher education system comprises two parallel sectors: universities and university colleges of applied sciences (e.g. nursing and engineering schools or teachers' colleges). Universities are characterised by scientific research and the highest education based thereon. University colleges of applied sciences are oriented towards working life and base their operations on the high vocational skill requirements set by it. These vocational institutions offer 3-4 year 'professional bachelor's degrees'. Besides that there are a number of art schools. Universities belong under the Ministry of Science, University Colleges belong under the Ministry of Education, and the Art Schools belong under the Ministry of Culture. There are 12 universities at the moment, but in 2006 there is a major merger process going on to make fewer, bigger institutions. The student unions at universities (and some of the art schools' student unions) are generally members of the National Union of Students in Denmark which represents these students on the national level. Every university has a student union (In Danish, Studenterråd). Membership is not mandatory. The student unions are funded by the university and the Ministry of Science on the basis of the percentage of votes received every year at the university election. The student union is autonomous, its internal life organized by its by-laws. The student unions are responsible for all representation of the students and elect the student members of different administrative organs. They usually coordinate and finance the activities of smaller, more specialized student organizations. For the financing of their activities, some student unions exact a membership fee and/or engage in different businesses. In the Ministry of Culture institutions there are also local student organisations. In the Ministry of Education institutions, The student activities are very much related to a student division of the Labor Union in the different areas. For instance, the teachers' students are organised in the national labor union for teachers and so forth. The Upper-Secondary schools (In Danish, Gymnasier), It is in Denmark a law that there has to be a student council at the Upper-Secondary schools. The student councils are organized in the following organisations: Finland France The central organization of the French higher education system means that local university bodies have restricted decision-making power. As a consequence, student unions are generally established at national level with local sections in most universities. The largest national student unions have a strong political identity and their actions are generally restricted to the defense of their vision of higher education rather than being focused on the particular interests of the membership of a single university. Union membership is regarded as an essentially political decision, without any particular advantage for students. The strength of unions is often measured by their effectiveness in national protests rather than by membership figures. The National Union of Students of France is the oldest French student union created in 1907. It laid the modern foundations of student unionism in France in 1946 when it adopted the Charter of Grenoble. There are also class-struggle student unions such as the Solidaires Étudiant-e-s (formed in January 2013 through the fusion of the former organizations SUD Étudiant and Féderation syndicale étudiante (FSE)) which refuse to cooperate with the universities' direction and work to organize students. In the grandes écoles, the premium league in the French higher education system, students are generally members of the official Student Office (Bureau des étudiants or Bureau des élèves) in charge of the organization of social activities and sports events. The constitutions of these societies, which work in close partnership with the school administration, usually prevent union members from running for executive positions in order to keep the school independent from political groups liable to harm the school's prestige. High school students' union The first high school organizations appear sporadically with social movements since the mid-1960s. Modern French high school unionism appeared after the Devaquet Law Project which had sparked a mass mobilization of high school and university students in November and December 1986 : In 1987 the Independent and Democratic Lycee Federation was founded. This organization was the first to claim syndicalism. It is the oldest French high school students union still in operation. Others high school students unions referring to syndicalism will follow: in 1994, the national high school students' union was created after the social movement against the professional integration contract bill. In 2009, the general high school students' union and then in 2016, the national high school student movement, were born out of a split with the national high school student union. Germany In Germany the actual form of student representation depends strongly on the federal state. In most states there is a General Students' Committee () at every university. It is the executive organ of the parliaments and councils of all faculties. Greece In Greece every university department has its corresponding student union (in Greek: Σύλλογος Φοιτητών) and all students belonging to the department have the right to register as members. The main objective of a student union is to solve students' problems that can either be related to academic life or have a general political and social nature. Furthermore, student unions organize and support numerous activities such as political debates, demonstrations, university occupations, educational lectures, cultural and artistic events, conferences and so on. The structure of a student union is rather simple and comprises two bodies: The General Students' Assembly (Greece) and the board of directors. The general assembly consists of all student-members of the union. It takes place on a regular basis and is the only decision-making body. During the general assembly, many topics of student interest are discussed and the decisions are taken after open vote. The board of directors makes sure that the decisions of the general assembly will be materialized. Moreover, the members of the board of directors, among which is the union's president, participate in various university administrative bodies as representatives of all students in the union. Every year in early spring the student elections take place nationwide, during which students vote for their representatives. All student unions in Greece are members of the "National Student Union of Greece" (ΕΦΕΕ - Εθνική Φοιτητική Ένωση Ελλάδας). Ireland Most of Ireland's universities and colleges have students' unions which were established to represent the students in the context of internal college issues and on wider student related issues and also a means of solidarity with other movements globally. An ongoing campaign of virtually every students' union in Ireland is to prevent the reintroduction of tuition fees which were abolished in 1995. Most, but not all, of the students' unions are affiliated with the Union of Students in Ireland. Notably, two of the seven university students' unions are not members. The students' unions are operated in accordance with the rules set down in their constitution which invariable enumerates a strong democratic and inclusive procedure for the governance on the union. Some Students' Unions run retail businesses in the interests of its students and run referendums, such as on whether or not to support same-sex marriage or abortion. All Universities and Institutes of Technologies in the Republic of Ireland have Students' Unions. National Union of Students-Union of Students in Ireland (NUS-USI), the student movement in Northern Ireland was formed in 1972 by bilateral agreement between the National Union of Students of the United Kingdom (NUS) and the Union of Students in Ireland (USI), to address the particular problems of representing students in Northern Ireland. Netherlands There are several students' unions in The Netherlands which act as labor unions for students. The largest ones are VSSD in Delft and ASVA Studentenunie in Amsterdam. These students' unions are all members of LSVb, the national students' union. There's also a similar organization called ISO (Interstedelijk Studenten Overleg), which consists of several formal participation organizations, as well as ASVA Studentenunie and VSSD. Both ISO and LSVb are members of European Students' Union. Lastly, the Netherlands has an (unofficial) student union for its students that study abroad: Netherlands Worldwide Students or simply NEWS. The Netherlands is also home to an unusual case of student representation in which a local political party completely run by student gained seats during local town hall elections, STIP. Norway In Norway, every university is instructed and required by law to have a student union elected by the students at the university. Additionally, Norwegian law requires two students to be appointed as members of the board of directors for all universities. The goal for every student union is to act as the official voice of the students towards the university's administration and rector, informing them on the students' perspectives on most issues at the institution, either academic or administrative. They often additionally seek to improve their school environment through encouraging social, cultural and other extracurricular events in the local community. Each student union in Norway is governed by a board of directors that is elected directly from the Student Council. In addition, most upper secondary schools in Norway are affiliated with the School Student Union of Norway. Portugal In Portugal, every university, polytechnic institute and any other higher education schools has their own students' unions. Union organizations are generally aimed to organize and promote extracurricular activities such as sports and culture events, parties, and academic festivities. At the same time, they also act as "labour unions for students" promoting and defending the students' points of view and rights, and dealing with the teaching institutions and the State's education agencies policies. The oldest union of Portugal is the Associação Académica de Coimbra (founded in 1887) which belongs to the students of the University of Coimbra. The biggest students' union is Associação dos Estudantes do Instituto Superior Técnico (AEIST). Sweden At Swedish universities, students' unions are responsible for representing the students in evaluation of the education and decision-making within the universities. Not Swedish universities are affiliated with the Swedish National Union of Students. The union normally holds about one-third of the votes within every decision-making body and thus holds a great deal of power. The unions are usually governed by a general assembly of elected representatives. Students' unions generally provide counselling services to its members and publishes their own magazines or newspapers. Large universities often have several students' unions, where the smaller students' unions only provide basic services. Larger students' unions often own and run their own facilities at the university such as shops, restaurants and night clubs. United Kingdom The United Kingdom has a long history of student unionism at a local and national level. The oldest students' union in Britain (as distinct from a primarily social union society) was the Student Representative Council formed at the University of Edinburgh in 1884. Most bodies are termed unions, however there exist a number of guilds and students' associations. Students' association is a popular term in Scotland, as historically there were separate men's and women's unions focused on societies and entertainment with representation to the university carried out by separate students' representative councils. Most students' unions in the UK are affiliated to the National Union of Students, although there exist other national representative bodies, such the National Postgraduate Committee, the Coalition of Higher Education Students in Scotland and the Aldwych Group, the association of students' unions of members of the Russell Group. National Union of Students-Union of Students in Ireland (NUS-USI), the student movement in Northern Ireland was formed in 1972 by bilateral agreement between the National Union of Students of the United Kingdom (NUS) and the Union of Students in Ireland (USI), to address the particular problems of representing students in Northern Ireland. Under the Education Act 1994, the role and purpose of students' unions is defined as being "promoting the general interests of its members as students". This has limited the ability of students' unions to campaign on issues not directly related to their members as students, such as Apartheid and the 1984–85 miners' strike. The Americas Canada In Canada, the existence of a college or university students' union and the membership of those who attend the institutions is mandatory across Canada under various provincial statutes. Included in Canadian students' tuition fees is anywhere from an additional $10–$500 fee to pay for the services of the union for either undergraduate or graduate support. The money raised from dues is used to support, programs, services, advocacy, salaries, part-time staff costs, overhead costs and a variety of other general costs. Student elections typically happen prior to the end of the previous educational year as the membership elect their unions' executives for the following year. The current largest undergraduate student union in Canada is the York Federation of Students, at the York University, with around 60,000 members. Most students' unions are charged by their membership to protect their best interests at the university, municipal, provincial and federal government levels. Advocating for support from the provincial government for areas such as lower tuition fees, support for sexual and gender based violence, and financial support, as well as creating position papers and providing research to support various causes. Many students' unions in Canada are members of one of the national student organizations, the Canadian Alliance of Student Associations (CASA) or the Canadian Federation of Students (CFS). Those that belong to the CFS at the national level also belong to the CFS at the provincial level. Those that do not belong to the CFS may belong to a provincial student organization like the New Brunswick Student Alliance, the Ontario Undergraduate Student Alliance (OUSA), the College Student Alliance, StudentsNS (formerly known as ANSSA), the Alliance of British Columbia Students, the Council of Alberta University Students, or the Alberta Students Executive Council. In Quebec, the provincial student organizations are the Quebec Federation of University Students (Fédération étudiante universitaire du Québec or FEUQ) for university students, college students are represented by the Fédération étudiante collégiale du Québec or FECQ, while the Association pour une solidarité syndicale étudiante or ASSE includes students from both the undergraduate and graduate levels of education. Different provinces have different rules governing student unions. In British Columbia under section 27.1 of the University Act, student unions may only raise or rescind mandatory student union fees through a democratic referendum of the membership. Once fees are passed through this mechanism, the board of governors of the respective institutions are then required to remit those fees to the student union, and may only interfere in the internal affairs of the student union if it fails to complete annual audits of its finances, giving these student unions strong autonomy over their institutions. In Ontario, the autonomy of student unions is set by standards outlined by each institution, giving university administrators a broader scope of powers over the finances of student unions. Ontario educational institutions may only revoke collecting fees on behalf of the students' union if they are in contravention of the Corporations Act of Ontario. Other provinces have governing acts specific to the institutions, such as The University of Manitoba Students' Union Act. Students' Unions in Canada typically offer a variety of services such as LGBTQ2+ groups, Women's Centre's, Food Banks, Bicycle Repair Shops, Campus First Aid teams, Walksafe programs, Peer Support groups and Racialized Student Support, among other offerings and independent student groups. Unions also generally offer health and dental plans, termly bus passes at costs negotiated with the local transit authority, and other student assistance programs. Funding options are also a part of many student unions' including endowment funds, funding for student clubs and for orientation. Students' unions are also programmers for the beginning of term events such as Welcome Week, Frost Week and other events throughout the term that provide social connections and wellness for students. Advocacy is also a main portion of what a students' union does including connecting with the university or College to advocate for changes to programs, co-op, and affordability. They also advocate for housing and tenant rights, safety, quality of education, academic rights, transportation concerns, accessibility, diversity and equity and health and wellness. Mexico In Mexico, students unions are mostly predominant in universities. Mexican universities have an elected student committee each year, but the faculties or schools within the universities have also their own union. This practice is also extended to other levels of education, such as high and junior high school, but to a lesser extent. An example of this is the Sociedad de Alumnos de HPA Mexico. Jesuit student groups played an important role in Mexico's history, particularly in opposing the imposition of socialist education in Mexico in the 1930s. Leaders from the Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Católicos (UNEC) had long-term importance in Mexico's political history, since a number of them helped form the conservative National Action Party (Mexico). United States In the United States, these groups are often known as student government, associated students, student senate, or less commonly a students' union. In the U.S., the phrase "student union" often refers to a "student activity center" (also known as a "student center" or "student commons"), a building with dining halls, game rooms, lounges, student offices, and other spaces for student activities. At institutions with large graduate, medical school, and individual "college" populations, there are often student governments that serve those specific constituencies. Brazil The Brazilian Society This society has existed since 2003 and now has 190 members, where only one third are Brazilian. The other two thirds are people who are just interested in Brazilian politics, famous parties and culture. This is one of the societies that students may join if they so wish. The society has social events and it hosts lectures. They also have a Brazilian discussion group on a weekly basis in order to discuss current events. Middle East Israel The National Union of Israeli Students (NUIS) is the sole organization that represents over 300,000 students of 61 higher education institutes and vocational schools in Israel. We believe that the young age group of Israel, comprising almost half of the Israel's population, is the living force of society. NUIS was established in 1934, before establishment the state of Israel. The Student Union's main activity is to widespread and include a variety of activities portraying its worldview regarding the students’ role, responsibilities and benefits within the Israeli society. The union is composed of professional departments enacting the decisions made for, and with the student community, in addition to local student unions in each of the higher education institutes. The central role of the union is to protect the student's status and rights, while strengthening its social purpose as the leading organization driving lively activities among the students. See also Student activism Student voice Student government political party Student court Governance in higher education Student centre Voluntary student unionism Student Bill of Rights Student council Students Community Blog Page Notes References

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Anthony Burns (31 May 1834 – 17 July 1862) was an African American man who escaped from slavery in Virginia in 1854. His capture and trial in Boston, and transport back to Virginia, generated wide-scale public outrage in the North and, ultimately, increased opposition to slavery by Northerners. Burns was born enslaved in Stafford County, Virginia. As a young man, he became a Baptist and a "slave preacher" at the Falmouth Union Church in Falmouth, Virginia. He was frequently hired out by his master and learned to read and write in his various assignments. In 1853, he escaped from slavery and reached the free state of Boston, Massachusetts, where he started working. The following year, he was captured under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and tried in court in Boston. The Fugitive Slave Act was despised and fiercely resisted in Boston, and Burns's case attracted national publicity, including large demonstrations, protests, attacks, and violence. Federal troops were used in the city to ensure Burns was transported without interference to a ship sailing to Virginia post-trial. Burns was eventually ransomed from slavery, with his freedom purchased by Boston sympathizers. Afterward, he was educated at Oberlin Collegiate Institute and became a Baptist preacher. He was called to a position in Upper Canada (Ontario), where an estimated 30,000 refugee African Americans, both enslaved and free, had fled to, to gain or retain their freedom. He lived and worked there until his death. Early life Anthony Burns was born enslaved in Stafford County, Virginia on May 31, 1834. His mother was enslaved by John Suttle, who died shortly after Anthony’s birth. His mother was a cook for the Suttle family and had 13 children in total, with Anthony being her youngest. His father was rumored to be a free man and supervisor for a quarry in Virginia, who later died from stone dust inhalation. After John Suttle died, his widowed wife took over his estate and sold Burns’s older siblings in order to prevent bankruptcy. Eventually, Burns’s mother was sold. Anthony did not see her for two years, when Mrs. Suttle went to collect the revenue from her being hired out as a laborer. When Anthony was 6, Mrs. Suttle died. Her property, including the boy, was inherited by her eldest son, Charles F. Suttle. In order to repay the family’s existing debts, Charles mortgaged his slaves and continued his mother’s financial practices to prevent further bankruptcy. During this time, Burns began his earliest tasks while enslaved. Burns looked after his niece so that his sister was available for labor, and stayed at the House of Horton where his sister lived and worked. Here, Burns was introduced to education by the children who lived there; they taught Burns the alphabet in exchange for small services. At the age of 7, Burns was hired out to three single women (referred to as maidens in the historic text) to work for $15 a year. His jobs included running necessary errands and collecting their weekly supply of cornmeal from the nearby mill. It was during this time that Burns was first exposed to religion. At the age of 8, Burns went to work for $25 a year and was again offered a chance to learn. In this job, the children taught Burns how to spell through their own spelling worksheets from school; in return, Anthony performed antics for their entertainment. Burns worked in this capacity for two years and left due to poor treatment. Burns was next leased by William Brent. Brent was the husband of a rich young woman, and lived off her wealth, including the labor of numerous slaves. His wife was extremely kind to Anthony and he stayed there for two years, earning Suttle a total of $100. Under Brent’s supervision, Anthony learned about a land up North where black people were not enslaved. He began dreaming of his escape and freedom. Anthony refused to remain under Brent’s employment for a third year, although Suttle was satisfied with this position. Suttle humored Burns’s wishes to find his own employment, since he knew it was worth more to have a willing slave than many reluctant slaves. Anthony entered the hiring ground to find a new master under a lease hire arrangement. Eventually, Suttle entered negotiations with Foote, who wanted Anthony to work in his saw-mill for $75 a year. Anthony was 12–13 years old at this time, and did not want to remain enslaved. In his new capacity, Anthony continued his education with Foote’s daughter, but otherwise dealt with many cruelties. Foote and his wife proved to be Anthony’s severest owners, and beat even their youngest slaves without sympathy. Some 2–3 months into his service, Anthony mangled his hand in the wheel after Foote turned it on without prior warning. Anthony was discharged because of the injury and was returned to live with Suttle as he recovered. While recovering from the injury to his hand, Anthony had a religious awakening, that superseded other experiences. Simultaneously, Millerism was introduced to his small county in Virginia, and Burns was excited by the religious fervor that spread like wildfire. Suttle refused his request to be baptized, saying that Anthony would turn to sin if he joined the Church. However, after Anthony returned to his employment under Foote, Suttle gave Anthony permission to get baptized. Suttle took Anthony to the Baptist Church in Falmouth, which accepted everyone in its congregation. During mass (communion), the free whites and enslaved blacks were separated by a partition. Two years later, Anthony was given the chance to preach to a group of church members and appointed as a preacher at this church. Anthony used this new position to preach exclusively to assemblies of enslaved persons, although Virginia nominally required all-black congregations to be supervised by a white minister. According to Anthony, if a law officer discovered the blacks in their meeting, any enslaved persons who did not escape would be put into cages and given 39 lashes the following day. Additionally, Anthony performed marriages and funerals for enslaved persons as a preacher. As previously mentioned, Anthony returned to Foote’s employment after his hand healed. He finished his year of service and was hired by a new master in Falmouth, Virginia, where his church was located. His new master loaned Burns to a merchant for six months of his year of service. Burns was treated horribly by that man, so refused to remain with the lessee after his year of service was completed. For the next year, Anthony moved to Fredericksburg, Virginia, where he worked under a tavern-keeper. He earned $100 for his master by this service. A year later, Anthony went to work in an apothecary in the same city. He met a fortune teller who promised him freedom within the next few months. A short time later, Suttle hired William Brent (Anthony’s former master) to manage hiring out his slaves for fees each year. Brent moved Anthony to Richmond, Virginia, at the end of his year of service. The young man was excited to work in a city with ships that sailed down the James River and then through the Chesapeake Bay to the North. In Richmond, Brent hired Anthony out to his brother-in-law, whom Anthony did not get along with. By this time, Anthony was skilled at reading and writing, especially compared to other slaves. With his knowledge, he set up a makeshift school to teach slaves of all ages how to read and write; this was kept secret from their masters in Richmond. At the end of his year of service with Brent’s brother-in-law, Burns was employed by a man named Millspaugh. Millspaugh quickly realized that he did not have enough work for Anthony to earn a profit on him, so he set Anthony out into the city to work small jobs and earn money for him. Although they originally set up a daily meeting, they changed it to meet up once every two weeks since Anthony only made a small sum, if any, each day. In his job search, Anthony was pushed to escape by the sailors and freemen he worked with. The only thing holding him back was a sense of religious duty towards his owner, but he justified his escape with the Epistle to Philemon and eliminated any religious qualms he had with leaving. In one of their biweekly meetings, Anthony gave Millspaugh $25 as his earnings that month, and after being presented with such a large sum, his master required Anthony to visit him daily. Anthony refused and walked out on his master without his consent, thus making his escape much more pressing than it would have been if he had had two weeks to plan and execute it. Anthony devised a plan with a sailor friend he met during his work on a vessel in the harbor, and one morning in early February 1854, Anthony boarded the vessel that would take him to the North. Flight from slavery and capture Anthony Burns left Richmond, Virginia one early February morning in 1854. His friend stowed him away in a small compartment on the ship, and Anthony immediately fell asleep after days of anxious and long nights. Upon waking up, the ship was already miles out of the harbor and on its way to Norfolk, Virginia before heading to Boston, Massachusetts. On the journey, Burns was stuck in the same position and in the same compartment without room for movement for a little over three weeks. In that time, he suffered from dehydration, starvation, and extreme sea sickness. His friend brought him food and water every 3–4 days, and it was just enough for Anthony to survive the trip to Boston. The vessel reached Boston in late February or early March (the exact date is unknown), and Burns immediately began seeking new employment. At first, Anthony found a job as a cook on a ship, but was dismissed after one week since he could not make his bread rise. Next, Burns found employment under Collin Pitts, a colored man, in a clothing store on Brattle Street. However, Anthony only enjoyed one month of freedom in this capacity before being arrested. While in Boston, Anthony sent a letter to his enslaved brother in Richmond and revealed his new home in Boston. His brother’s owner discovered the letter and conveyed the news of Burns’ escape to Suttle. Suttle went to a courthouse in Alexandria County, where the judge ruled that Suttle had enough proof that he owned Burns and could issue a warrant for his arrest under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. The warrant was issued on May 24, 1854 and stated that the United States Marshal of Massachusetts was required to arrest Anthony Burns and bring him before Judge Edward G. Loring to stand trial. On that same day, Asa O. Butman, an infamous slave hunter, was charged with the execution of the warrant. On May 24, 1854, Butman scouted out Burns in the clothing store before arresting him. His goal was to make a peaceful arrest in order to not incite mob violence and have the mob rescue Burns before he could be returned to the South. After Burns and Pitts closed down their store, they walked separate ways to go home. While walking, Butman stopped Burns at the corner of the Court and Hanover street intersection and arrested him under the guise of a jewel store robbery. Burns, knowing he was innocent of that crime, complied with Butman and peacefully walked with him to the courthouse. At the courthouse, Burns expected to be confronted by the jewelry store owner, but was instead met with a United States Marshal. In this moment, Burns knew he had been caught under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Trial By the first day of the trial, the prosecutors had succeeded in keeping the trial hidden from the public. However, Richard Henry Dana Jr. was passing by the courthouse an hour before the initial examination and heard about the proceedings of the day. Immediately, Dana entered the courthouse to talk to Burns and offer him his professional help. Initially Burns declined, citing it would be of no use, but reluctantly agreed due to Dana’s insistence. In the initial hearing, the plaintiff (Charles Suttle) put William Brent on the stand to further verify Burns’ identity along with Suttle’s testimony. Brent was also asked to recall his conversation with Burns and Suttle the previous night right after Burns’ arrest, but Dana intervened on behalf of Burns and got the evidence thrown out for the time being. At the end of the hearing, commissioner Loring agreed to push further proceedings back to May 27, but they were again delayed until the 29th due to Burns’ late appointment of counsel. In an interview, Theodore Parker, witness to the trial, cited that Burns's hesitancy to accept counsel came from fear over how well Brent and Suttle knew him. During the duration of the trial, Burns was kept in a jury-room under constant surveillance of armed guards. In this time, the guards tried to provoke and trick Anthony into slipping up and admitting to his status as a slave, but Burns evaded their tactics. The closest Burns came to self-admission was at the provocation of Suttle, who was outraged the public saw him as a harsh and abusive master to Anthony. Suttle asked Anthony to write a letter proving the contrary, but Leonard Grimes, a Boston clergyman and abolitionist, had Burns destroy the letter after seeing it as evidence to be used against him in the trial. The final examination began on May 29, 1854. Armed soldiers lined the windows of the courthouse and prevented all officials and citizens from entering the courtroom. Even Dana, Burns’ senior counsel, couldn’t enter the courtroom until late into the examination. Thus, Charles Ellis, Burns’ junior counsel, was forced to begin the examination by arguing that it was unfit to continue while Suttle’s counsel carried firearms, but Loring rejected this sentiment. During the plaintiff’s argument, Loring approved their request to present the conversation between Suttle and Burns as evidence from the night of his arrest. As their final piece of evidence, they admitted the book that contained the Virginia court’s ruling in favor of Suttle. When Burns’ counsel presented their defense, they focused on proving that Suttle’s timeline was off and they lacked sufficient evidence to show Burns was the slave who had run away. They brought in William Jones, a colored man who testified that he had met Anthony on the first day of March and described his relationship to Anthony through their time together in Boston. In addition, the counsel knew that the commissioner would be hesitant to accept the testimony of a colored man, so they called up 7 other witnesses to validate his story. As one of the witnesses, the counsel called up James Whittemore, a city council member of Boston. Whittemore testified that he had seen Burns in Boston around March 8, and identified him by his scars as proof. In Loring’s final decision, he admitted that he thought the Fugitive Slave Act was a disgrace, but his job was to uphold the law. Loring stated that Suttle produced sufficient evidence to prove the fugitive slave Suttle described matched Anthony’s appearance, thus he ruled in favor of Suttle. It has been estimated the government's cost of capturing and conducting Burns through the trial was upwards of $40,000 (). Riot at the Courthouse Among the citizens interested in Burns’ trial was the Committee of Vigilance, which was founded after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. The goal of the group was to prevent the execution of the Act for fugitives in Burns’ position. It was effective due to the diversity of its ranks, ranging from people of every socioeconomic status and race. In Burns’ case, the committee debated between two courses of actions: attacking the courthouse to forcibly rescue Anthony, and creating a crowd when they removed Burns from the courthouse to act as an immovable barrier. Between these two propositions, the committee ruled to go forth with the second and more peaceful plan, and additionally posted men at the courthouse to make sure the officials did not try to move Burns without their knowledge. Although the committee itself agreed to go ahead with the peaceful plan, a faction of men planned to rescue Burns from the courthouse themselves. On Friday evening, May 26, the entire committee dispersed from their meeting in Faneuil Hall at around 9 p.m., when the men planned to hold their assault. By that time in the evening, they had gathered at least 25 men, all armed with various weapons such as, revolvers and axes. The crowd picked up members from the committee meeting as they made their way to the courthouse, and began their attack by breaking down the doors with axes and wooden construction beams. After breaking into the courthouse, a fight broke out between the guards and rioters, and resulted in the death of one of the guards, James Batchelder. The riot did not get far after the police arrived as back-up, resulting in the arrest of many abolitionists. However, it is highly unlikely the attack would have been successful in rescuing Anthony since he was held in an extremely secure room in the top floor of the courthouse. A grand jury indicted three of those involved in the attack at the courthouse. After an acquittal of one man and several hung juries in trials for the others, the federal government dropped the charges. After the riot, President Franklin Pierce sent the United States Marines to Boston to aid the police in preventing further violence. Following the riot, the entire city of Boston was excited and awaiting the next phase of the trial. Once Loring’s decision was announced in favor of Suttle, the abolitionists began their preparations for Burns’ movement. Aftermath Following the trial, the Marshal was tasked with successfully moving Burns from the courthouse without interference from the crowd in Boston. The mayor of Boston was responsible for maintaining a peaceful crowd. With this news, the citizens of Boston set up interviews and tried to persuade the mayor to join their side of the cause and free Burns. Initially, the crowd succeeded in convincing the mayor to only implement one military company to guard the courthouse the day Burns was moved. Just like Loring, the mayor was against the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but did not feel as strongly about upholding it. Despite the mayor’s orders, the Marshal felt as if one company would not be enough to maintain order while Burns was moved, and pushed the mayor to call in more troops. The Marshal used the power of his position to force the mayor to reverse his original decision in the same day, and the mayor ended up implementing an entire brigade for the day of Burns’ transfer. While the mayor was planning for crowd control, the Marshal put together a band of 125 unreputable citizens of Boston to help move Burns. The Marshal swore these men in and armed them with various weapons, such as pistols and cutlasses. From the date of Loring’s decision until his departure on June 2, Burns was kept in the same jury room he was in during the trial. Throughout this time, Burns’ friends began making plans to purchase his freedom and no matter how much money they offered, Suttle refused to negotiate as long as Burns was under his service.At 2 p.m. on June 2, 1854, Burns was escorted from the courthouse by the Marshal and his men. The military brigade lined the streets to keep the crowd at bay and prevent anyone from interfering with their procession. Along their route, citizens left symbols to indicate the funeral of Burns’ liberty and freedom. One man suspended a black coffin and others draped their windows to show Burns they stood with him. At one point in their route, the guards made an unexpected turn into a road lined with spectators. The officers ran at them with bayonets and beat their way through the line of bystanders. One man, William Ela, was beaten with muskets down on the pavement, cut in the face, and put into confinement. Eventually, the officers and Burns reached the wharf where the vessel headed to Virginia was scheduled to depart from Boston. At 3:20 p.m., Suttle, Brent, and Burns left Boston for Virginia. As a result of Burns’ trial, Boston passed the most progressive liberty law the nation had seen up until 1854. The law stated that slave claimants were not allowed to be on state property, fugitive slaves were required to have a trial by jury, and slave claimants had to produce two credible and unbiased witnesses to prove the evidence in their case. Burns’ trial was the last rendition hearing for a fugitive slave in Massachusetts. Additionally, Loring suffered severe consequences at the hands of abolitionists in Boston. Harvard University refused to re-hire Loring in his faculty position in their school, and the Massachusetts legislature voted to remove Loring from his state position as a Probate Judge, but the governor never approved the removal. However, in 1857, a new governor was elected to the position and signed Loring’s removal address. This action prompted severe anger from politicians in Washington, D.C., and President James Buchanan appointed Loring to the Federal Court of Claims when a position opened up. Freedom and later life After leaving Massachusetts, Burns spent four months in a Richmond jail where he was prohibited from being in contact with other slaves. In November, Suttle sold Burns to David McDaniel for $905 and McDaniel brought Burns to his plantation in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. As an owner, McDaniel was firm and strong businessman, who constantly sold and traded his slaves. He had as few as 75 slaves on his plantation and as many as 150 slaves at other times. Burns was employed to be McDaniel’s coachman and stable-keeper, which was a relatively light workload compared to that of other slaves on the plantations. Instead of lodging with the other slaves, Burns received an office and ate meals in his master’s house. Due to this level of respect, Burns vowed never to run away from McDaniel as long as he was his master. In addition to Burns’s level of care as a slave, Burns attended church twice while serving four months under McDaniel. Burns even held illegal religious meetings for his fellow slaves. Although discovered by McDaniel, the master did not punish Burns as he would have another slave. The overseer on the plantation resented Burns getting such special treatment, and threatened him with a pistol during one of their quarrels. Burns reported only to McDaniel as his supervisor and recognized only his orders. During these months of enslavement, Burns failed to notify his Northern friends of his location in the South. One afternoon, Burns drove his mistress to a neighbor’s house. In the outing, a neighbor recognized Burns as the slave who had caused commotion with his trial in the North. A young lady overheard the neighbor recalling the story, and repeated it in a letter to her sister in Massachusetts. Her sister, after receiving the letter, told the story to her social circle, including Reverend Stockwell, who told Leonard Grimes. He was a known abolitionist who had spent his life helping fugitive slaves escape from Washington, D.C. Later he built the Church of Fugitive Slaves in Boston. Stockwell wrote to McDaniel to begin negotiations for Burns’s purchase, and McDaniel responded, saying he would sell Burns for $1300. In the two weeks before they left for Baltimore to meet McDaniel and Burns, Grimes collected sufficient funds for Burns’s purchase, while Stockwell covered the expenses for their journey. Grimes departed by himself after Stockwell failed to show up. McDaniel knew he was going against public sentiment in North Carolina by selling Burns to the Northerners, so he swore Anthony to secrecy. On their train to Norfolk, a confidant of McDaniel spread the rumor that the fugitive slave notorious from Boston was on board the train. Many passengers and even the conductor were outraged. The latter said he would not have let Burns onboard if he had known who he was. McDaniel held firm and kept the crowd at bay in their journey. When they arrived in Norfolk, Burns boarded their ship to Baltimore before McDaniel did. There he encountered another curious, unruly crowd. When McDaniel arrived, the crowd's anger was directed at him. Some men tried to buy Burns for more money than Grimes was paying for his freedom. McDaniel refused but compromised with the crowd by agreeing to sell Burns if the purchasers never arrived. In Baltimore, Burns and McDaniel met Grimes at Barnum’s Hotel. They arrived two hours after Grimes, and immediately begun negotiations. The payment was delayed after McDaniel demanded cash instead of the cheque Grimes produced. Eventually, the cash was exchanged, and Anthony’s freedom was purchased. Upon leaving the hotel, Grimes and Burns met Stockwell at the entrance. He accompanied the men to the train station. Burns spent his first night as a free man in Philadelphia. Anthony Burns reached Boston in early March, where he was met with a public celebration of his freedom. Eventually, Burns enrolled at Oberlin College with a scholarship. He entered a seminary in Cincinnati to continue religious studies. After briefly preaching in Indianapolis, in 1860 Burns moved to St. Catharine's, Ontario, Canada in 1860 to accept a call from Zion Baptist Church. Thousands of African Americans had migrated to Canada as refugees from slavery in the antebellum years, establishing communities in Ontario. Burns died from tuberculosis on July 17, 1862. See also Slavery in Massachusetts, Henry David Thoreau's reaction to the Burns trial References Bibliography Barker, Gordon S. Imperfect Revolution: Anthony Burns and the Landscape of Race in Antebellum America, Kent State University Press, 2011 "Anthony Burns Biography (1834–1862)." A&E Television Networks. 2007. <http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9232120> "Anthony Burns (1834–1862)", Black Abolitionist Archive, University of Detroit Mercy. <http://image.udmercy.edu/BAA/Anthony_Burns.html> Stewart, James Brewer. Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery, revised edition. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996. Tuttleton, James W. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Twayne Publishers, pp. 34–36 Joseph Meredith Toner Collection. (1854). Boston slave riot, and trial of Anthony Burns: containing the report of Faneuil Hall meeting, the murder of Batchelder, Theodore Parker’s lesson for the day, speeches of counsel on both sides, corrected by themselves, verbatim report of Judge Loring’s decision, and, a detailed account of the embarkation. Boston: Fetridge and Company. [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <https://tile.loc.gov/storageservices/service/ll/llst/019/019.pdf>          Linder, Douglas O. (2019). The (Fugitive Slave) Trials of Anthony Burns: An Account. Famous Trials. Retrieved from <https://www.famous-trials.com/anthonyburns/2425-the-fugitive-slave-trials-of-anthony-burns-an-account>       Von Frank, Albert J. (1998). The Trials of Anthony Burns: Freedom and Slavery in Emerson’s Boston. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. Bowditch, William Ingersoll. (1854). The Rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston, Massachusetts: Robert F. Wallcut. Retrieved from <https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Rendition_of_Anthony_ Burns/0jFcAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0> Barker, Gordon S. (2010). The Imperfect Revolution: Anthony Burns and the Landscape of Race in America. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. Retrieved from <https://oaks.kent.edu/abolitionism/imperfect-revolution-anthony-burns-and-landscape-race-antebellum-america>         Stevens, Charles Emery. (1856). Anthony Burns: A History. John P. Jewett and Company.     Espiritu, A. (2020, February 7). Anthony Burns (1834-1862). Retrieved from <https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/burns-anthony-1834-1862/>              Linder, Douglas O. (2019). Orders of President Franklin Pierce in the Anthony Burns Affair (1854). Famous Trials. Retrieved from <https://www.famous-trials.com/anthonyburns/2407-orders-of-president-franklin-pierce-in-the-anthony-burns-affair-1854>    Linder, Douglas O. (2019). Warrant for the Arrest of Anthony Burns. Famous Trials. Retrieved from <https://www.famous-trials.com/anthonyburns/2404-warrant-for-the-arrest-of-anthony-burns> Further reading PBS Resource Bank: People and Events: Anthony Burns captured, 1854 Ronica Roth (2003): "The Trial of Anthony Burns", in Humanities, May/June 2003, Volume 24/Number 3. Virginia Hamilton, Anthony Burns: The Defeat and Triumph of a Fugitive Slave Gordon S. Barker, The Imperfect Revolution: Anthony Burns and the Landscape of Race in Antebellum America Henry David Thoreau (July 4, 1854): "Slavery in Massachusetts" Walt Whitman, "A Boston Ballad" External links Anthony Burns at Virginia Memory 19th-century American slaves African-American Baptist ministers Baptist ministers from the United States Oberlin College alumni 1834 births 1862 deaths African-American history in Boston Abolitionism in the United States Law articles needing an infobox 1854 in Massachusetts Canadian Baptists People from Stafford County, Virginia American emigrants to pre-Confederation Ontario Immigrants to the Province of Canada Baptists from Virginia Fugitive American slaves Pro-fugitive slave riots and civil disorder in the United States Origins of the American Civil War Fugitive American slaves that reached Canada 19th-century American clergy Tuberculosis deaths in Ontario 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis

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This article deals with the Wisconsin state affiliate established in 1897 of the Social Democratic Party of America and its successor, the Socialist Party of America. For the current party affiliated with the Socialist Party USA, see Socialist Party of Wisconsin. The Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin (SDPW) was established in 1897 as the Wisconsin state affiliate of the Chicago faction of the Social Democratic Party of America. When that organization merged in 1901 to form a political party known as the Socialist Party of America, the Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin became the state affiliate of that organization, retaining its original name. The party was responsible for electing the first socialist member of the United States Congress and was the governing party in the city of Milwaukee for many years, electing several long-time mayors. Historical background Socialism was by no means new to Wisconsin, a fair percentage of the émigrés from Germany in the dozen years prior to the Civil War, the so-called "Forty-Eighters," had been exposed to radical ideas and been participants in a continent-wide battle against absolutist monarchy. Milwaukee was, among other things, an enclave of German-American radicalism, with some 24% of the city German born in 1895. it was there that the American Socialist movement sank deep roots. The first socialist newspaper in Wisconsin appeared in Milwaukee in November 1875, a small sheet called Der Sozialist. The paper had a Lassallean political orientation and survived for only about one year. The first English-language paper appeared the next year, when a weekly called Social Democrat saw print. As with Der Sozialist, this paper proved to be short-lived. Chicago radical publisher Paul Grottkau came to Milwaukee in 1886, bringing with him his newspaper, the German-language tri-weekly the Arbeiter Zeitung (Workers News). This publication continued without interruption, although undergoing a name change to the Volks Zeitung (Peoples' News), until it was sold in January 1893 to a young school teacher named Victor L. Berger and transformed into the Wisconsin Vorwärts ('Wisconsin Forward'). Berger assumed the role of both editor and publisher of the publication, and his emergence in this capacity marked a turning point in the history of the socialist movement in the state. Berger grew his paper by attempting to de-emphasize revolutionary change in favor of incremental reform, and made a conscious effort to forge alliances with the trade union movement of his city and state. The minimum program which Berger espoused included such things as the municipal ownership of public utilities, the national ownership of mines, abolition of child labor, establishment of income and inheritance taxation, and establishment of state standards for working conditions as well as old age pensions and insurance against sickness. Additional political demands included abolition of the United States Senate and the veto power of the executive branch, and the elimination of the standing army and restrictions upon immigration. Berger's consistent advocacy of this "constructive" program began to be felt and by the end of the 1890s the Milwaukee Federated Trades Council was won over to support of the practical immediate demands espoused by Berger. In 1901 The Social Democratic Herald, the official organ of the Chicago-based Social Democratic Party of America, moved its office to Milwaukee. This paper would continue as the English-language voice of socialism in Wisconsin through September 1913. Early organizations Behind Milwaukee's socialist press, there was an evolving political organization. Between 1874 and 1876 there was a Milwaukee branch of the International Workingmen's Association — the so-called "First International" in which Karl Marx played no small role. Many of the members of this pioneering group, which met at a place called Casino Hall, would go on to become leading members of the Social-Democratic Party during the decade of the 1890s. The 1877 election saw the first explicitly socialist campaign in Wisconsin, when leaflets touting a so-called "Social Democratic Ticket" were circulated among the workers of Milwaukee. The direct forerunners of the Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin Included the German language Sozialistischer Verein, in which Victor Berger played a leading role, and a small English-language group styling itself as the "Fabian Society," in which Frederic Heath was the most active participant. Berger's group was part of the turner movement — a network of social and gymnastic organizations established in America by emigrants from Germany. On October 9, 1893, with a city election in Milwaukee less than a month away, members of the Sozialistischer Verein and Fabian Society gathered with individuals associated with the Socialist Labor Party of America, the People's Party ("Populists"), and unaffiliated trade unionists to decide upon a common plan of action. A committee of 15 was elected, who managed to hammer out the differing views of the various participating organizations into a coherent platform behind a set of nominees called the "Cooperative Ticket." The alliance of reformers and radicals had no great delusions of their prospects of success, but instead sought to make their united effort at the polls a cause for building the organized strength of the working class. This alliance lasted until the summer of 1894, when the Populists severed themselves from the socialist movement by banning admission of Victor Berger and two dozen socialists as delegates to their state convention. Relations between the socialists and the Populists continued to sour over the next several years, with Berger declaring at the time of the November 1896 elections that socialists should support the Populists at the polls only until a national political party was established for the working class. Berger and his co-thinkers had not long to wait for such an organization. On January 2, 1897, trade union organizer and orator Eugene V. Debs announced in an open letter that he was severing himself from the increasingly conservative People's Party, owing to his conversion to Socialism. Berger had been instrumental in winning Debs to the socialist cause, visiting him with books in hand during the time of his incarceration in Woodstock Jail in Chicago in 1895, and he wrote to Debs exploring the formation of a new explicitly socialist political party. This would take shape later that same year as the Social Democracy of America, from which Berger and Debs would split in 1898 to form the electorally-oriented Social Democratic Party. Establishment On July 7, 1898, Eugene Debs made his first public speech on behalf of the Social Democracy at a meeting held at West Side Turner Hall in Milwaukee before a large and enthusiastic audience. Two nights later, Milwaukee saw the establishment of Branch 1 of the Social Democracy of America, with Debs again on hand to provide a keynote address to the session. Between 75 and 100 of the city's residents, including many German-American immigrants, turned out to help establish the new organization. From the earliest days, left wing opposition existed to the new organization in the form of the Socialist Labor Party, which sought to debate Debs and the Social Democracy on the nature of Socialism. One historian of this interlude has intimated that such a desire for debate was natural, characterizing party leader Daniel DeLeon of the SLP and Victor Berger of the Social Democracy as "the sages behind two opposing schools of socialism." Debs had planned to stay in Wisconsin helping to establish the Social Democracy in other cities around the state, but he was ultimately called away to the West Virginia coal fields to help organize striking miners then engaged in a heated economic battle with mine-owners. Berger and Heath, the two leading figures in the Wisconsin movement, sought to expand the size and influence of their movement among Wisconsinites by establishing a daily newspaper, which they hoped to launch on New Year's Day, 1898. In a surprising move intended to unite the warring factions of American socialism, an offer was made to Daniel DeLeon to come to Wisconsin from New York City in order to edit the new paper. There is no evidence that DeLeon ever answered this proposal, which seems to have been made in good faith. The idea for an English daily was ultimately abandoned at this time. The first city convention of the Social Democratics in Milwaukee was held on February 1, 1898, and included substantial representation from the Milwaukee Federated Trades Council and individual unions. An initial slate of four candidates was put forward by the organization to run in the Milwaukee municipal election which followed on April 5. Those nominated were the first of many subsequent Socialist candidates to be bound to the party program through the submission of signed-but-undated "blank resignations," which were entrusted to the party organization to be dated and submitted if the elected candidate were to ever lose the party's trust. The electoral platform guiding these candidates has been described by one historian as one of "detailed reformism," including calls for city-owned utilities, public works projects, free textbooks for schoolchildren, and the development of recreation areas in poor sections of the city of Milwaukee. The Social Democratic candidate for mayor, machinist Robert Meister, ultimately received 2400 votes, trailing the 26,000 ballots received by the Democratic Party's victorious nominee and the 18,000 votes for his Republican opponent. The Social Democratic campaign was taken statewide for the first time in the fall of 1898, with a platform calling for establishment of a progressive income tax and a new property tax to replace the current system of taxation, universal suffrage for all literate adults, establishment of the initiative and referendum, abolition of the veto power of the governor, abolition of the Wisconsin State Senate, and prohibition of child labor and night work for women. This set of substantial reforms was not met with favorably by the electorate as the Social Democratic ticket generated results no better than the Milwaukee mayoral effort, polling a mere 2,544 votes in a statewide race. Development The Social-Democratic Party was buoyed to some extent by an onslaught against the Socialist Labor Party, an ideological battle lead nationally by the Appeal to Reason, a large circulation weekly based in the rural town of Girard, Kansas. The Appeal's 1898 onslaught was followed by a split of the SLP over the question of trade union tactics in the following year. Dissatisfied former member of the SLP in Milwaukee bolted for the Social-Democratic Party, swelling its ranks and reducing the physical and rhetorical volume of its left wing opponents. In 1900 dissident former members of the SLP and the Chicago-based Social Democratic Party managed to patch up their differences long enough to run a joint ticket for the presidency, headed by Eugene Debs for President and Job Harriman of California for Vice-President. Although the SDP leadership remained leery of the former SLP members, organizational unity eventually followed, formalized by a convention in Indianapolis which was gaveled to order on July 29, 1901. The Socialist Party of America was thereby born. Electoral victories The Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin broke through electorally in 1904, first winning office in the Milwaukee city election in April. That successful campaign saw nearly 20,000 votes cast for the SDP, with ten party members elected as city aldermen and another four as city supervisors. In addition, two party members won positions as justices and two more as constables. Among those elected to office for the first time as incoming aldermen were pioneer English-speaking socialist Frederic Heath and future Mayor Emil Seidel. Newspaper editor Victor Berger finished third in his bid to become Mayor of Milwaukee, but he nonetheless recorded a respectable 15,343 votes (27.2% of those cast) in a three-cornered race. Success continued in November 1904 when the party saw five of its candidates elected to the Wisconsin State Assembly and one other elected to the Wisconsin State Senate. That election also saw the first Congressional campaign of the party's patriarch, Victor Berger, when he stood for election in Wisconsin's 5th Congressional District, centered in Milwaukee. During this campaign the SDP refined its electoral tactics, dividing the distribution of campaign literature in the urban center of Milwaukee on a carefully planned block-by-block basis and managing to distribute 100,000 pieces of campaign literature, hitting every dwelling in the city, in a 24-hour period. An efficient political machine to rival those of the so-called "old parties" was thereby developed — a factor not to be underestimated in any assessment of the organization's electoral success. The SDP scored its biggest electoral triumph to date in the spring of 1910 when Emil Seidel was elected as Mayor of Milwaukee. One key factor behind socialist success in this race was a breakthrough by the SDP among working class Polish-American voters, who had traditionally supported candidates of the Democratic Party. Seidel's victory capped a decade of steady SDP growth in Milwaukee mayoral elections, in which the party's candidates had seen the number of socialist votes cast grow by a factor of 8 between the election of 1900 and the end of the decade. In the fall 1920 election, the Socialist Party of Wisconsin elected 3 State Senators and another 9 of its members to the Wisconsin Assembly. This was topped in the 1922 election, which saw the return of Victor Berger to Congress, while 2 party members were elected to the State Senate and another 10 were sent to the Assembly. The party did not run a candidate for U.S. Senate in 1922, avoiding a race which was handily won by popular progressive Republican Robert M. La Follette, Sr. over his Democratic challenger by a margin of nearly 5-to-1. Sewer Socialists The SDPW was the center of what was derisively termed "Sewer Socialism" within the socialist movement: an element which favored democratic socialism over Orthodox Marxism, deemphasizing social theory and revolutionary rhetoric, in favor of honest government and efforts to improve public health. The Sewer Socialists fought to clean up what they saw as "the dirty and polluted legacy of the Industrial Revolution," cleaning up neighborhoods and factories with new sanitation systems, city-owned water and power systems, and improved education. Successor organizations In December 1972, when in convention a majority of the Socialist Party voted to change the name of the organization to Social Democrats, USA so as to better work within the Democratic Party, a secessionist Wisconsin contingent was influential in the formation of a new organization dedicated to the traditional vision of independent political action, the Socialist Party, USA. Prominent members Oscar Ameringer Louis A. Arnold Allan L. Benson Meta Berger Victor L. Berger Winfield R. Gaylord Frederic Heath Daniel Hoan W. A. Jacobs Ralph Korngold Leo Krzycki Isador Ladoff George Lippert Edmund T. Melms George A. Nelson Paul Porter Emil Seidel A.M. Simons Elizabeth H. Thomas Carl D. Thompson Frank Zeidler Party Press Milwaukee Milwaukee Arbeiter Zeitung [Milwaukee Workers’ Newspaper] (1886–1893) — Tri-weekly, published previously in Chicago. Wisconsin Vorwärts [Wisconsin Forward] (1893–??) — Edited by Victor Berger. Die Wahrheit [The Truth] (1893–1910) — Edited by Victor Berger. Social Democratic Herald (1901–Sep. 1913) — Weekly, published previously in Terre Haute and Chicago. The Vanguard (1900s) — Monthly theoretical magazine. Milwaukee Leader (Dec. 1911–1940s) Wisconsin Comrade (1914–May 1916) — Monthly members’ bulletin. The Coming Nation (June 1916–March 1917) See also Socialist Party of Missouri Socialist Party of North Dakota Socialist Party of Oklahoma Socialist Party of Oregon Socialist Party of Washington Footnotes Publications Louis A. Arnold, Men of Wisconsin: They Have Silenced the Voice of Freedom But Votes Speak Louder than Words: Let Your Answer Be Victor L. Berger for US Senator (Socialist Ticket). Milwaukee: Louis A. Arnold, n.d. (1918). Victor L. Berger, "A 'Dissolved' Trust," The Vanguard, vol. 5, no. 10, whole no. 54. Milwaukee: Social-Democratic Publishing Co., 1907. Berger's Broadsides. Milwaukee: Social-Democratic Publishing Co., 1912. Voice and Pen of Victor L. Berger: Congressional Speeches and Editorials. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Leader, 1929. Winfield R. Gaylord, County Option: Where Labor Stands at Present on the Liquor Question: Address Delivered in the Debate on County Option in the Wisconsin Legislature, March 31st, 1909. Milwaukee: Social-Democratic Publishing Co., n.d. (1909). Daniel W. Hoan, Inaugural Address of Daniel W. Hoan, Mayor of Milwaukee: Delivered to the Common Council of Milwaukee, Wis., April 16, 1918. Milwaukee: n.p., n.d. (1918). Ralph Korngold, Brain Jolters. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Social-Democratic Publishing Co., n.d. (c. 1914). Paul Porter, Which Way for the Socialist Party? Milwaukee: State Executive Board, Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1937. Emil Seidel, Which Must Go? America or Private Ownership of Railroads? Milwaukee: Socialist Party of Wisconsin, n.d. (c. 1920). Norman Thomas, Collective Security and War. Milwaukee: Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1938. Carl D. Thompson, Ferdinand Rehfeld, and Max Grass (eds.), Milwaukee Municipal Campaign Book 1912, Social-Democratic Party. Milwaukee: County Central Committee of the Social-Democratic Party, Milwaukee County, Wis., 1912. R.W. Tucker, The Debs Caucus: A Party Within a Party. Milwaukee: Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1970. Some Anti-Socialist Voices of the Press on Victor L. Berger, Representative of the Fifth Wisconsin District, and his Work in Congress. Milwaukee: Social-Democratic Publishing Co., n.d. (c. 1912). Socialist Party of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Socialist Platform, 1918," Milwaukee Leader, vol. 7, no. 337 (Aug. 31, 1918), pg. 8. Further reading Elmer A. Beck, The Sewer Socialists: A History of the Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1897-1940. In Two Volumes. Fennimore, WI: Westburg Associates, 1982. Edward A. Benoit, III, A Democracy of Its Own: Milwaukee's Socialisms, Difference and Pragmatism. MA thesis. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2009. Nichali M Ciaccio, Because It Had to Be: the Milwaukee Leader, Socialism and the First World War. MA thesis. 2011. Winfield R. Gaylord, "The Legislative Program of the Social-Democratic (Socialist) Party in the Wisconsin Legislative Session of 1909," American Political Science Review, vol. 3, no. 2 (May 1909), pp. 226-230. In JSTOR Rosalind Margaret Drosen, The History of Socialism in Milwaukee, 1910-1930. BA thesis. University of Wisconsin, 1931. Elizabeth A. Joswiak, '''The City for the People': Milwaukee Municipal Recreation and the Socialists, 1890-1917. PhD dissertation. University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997. Arnold Kaltinick, Socialist Municipal Administration in Four American Cities (Milwaukee, Schenectady, New Castle, Pennsylvania, and Conneaut, Ohio), 1910-1916. PhD dissertation. New York University, 1982. James J. Lorence, "'Dynamite for the Brain': The Growth and Decline of Socialism in Central and Lakeshore Wisconsin, 1910-1920," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 66, no. 4 (Summer, 1983), pp. 250–273. in JSTOR John McCarthy, "Dreaming of a Decentralized Metropolis: City Planning in Socialist Milwaukee," Michigan Historical Review, vol. 32, no. 1 (Spring 2006), pp. 33–57. Sally M. Miller, Victor Berger and the Promise of Constructive Socialism, 1910-1920. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973. Frederick I. Olson, The Milwaukee Socialists, 1897-1941. PhD dissertation. Harvard University, 1952. Frederick I. Olson, "The Socialist Party and the Union in Milwaukee, 1900-1912," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 44, no. 2 (Winter 1960/61), pp. 110–116. In JSTOR William J. Reece, "'Partisans of the Proletariat': The Socialist Working Class and the Milwaukee Schools, 1890-1920," History of Education Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 1 (Spring 1981), pp. 3–50. In JSTOR. Robert C. Reinders, "Daniel W. Hoan and the Milwaukee Socialist Party during the First World War," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 36, no. 1 (Autumn 1952), pp. 48–55. In JSTOR Kevin D. Smith, "From Socialism to Racism: The Politics of Class and Identity in Postwar Milwaukee," Michigan Historical Review, vol. 29, no. 1 (Spring 2003), pp. 71–95. In JSTOR Kenneth Neil Teitelbaum, Schooling for 'Good Rebels': Socialist Education for Children in the United States, 1900-1920 (Curriculum: New York City, Rochester, New York; Milwaukee, Wisconsin). PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1985. Marvin Wachman, Social-Democratic Party of Wisconsin, 1897-1910. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1945. Frank P. Zeidler, Ninety Years of Democratic Socialism: A Brief History of the Socialist Party USA.'' Milwaukee: Socialist Party USA, 1991. SDPW average paid memberships {| class="wikitable" border="3" |- ! Year ! Average Paid Membership ! Exempt Members ! National SPA Membership |- ! align="center" | 1901 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 4,759 paid (of 7,629) |- ! align="center" | 1902 | align="center" | 370 | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 9,949 |- ! align="center" | 1903 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 15,975 |- ! align="center" | 1904 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 20,763 |- ! align="center" | 1905 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 23,327 |- ! align="center" | 1906 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 26,784 |- ! align="center" | 1907 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 29,270 |- ! align="center" | 1908 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 41,751 |- ! align="center" | 1909 | align="center" | 1,831 | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 41,470 |- ! align="center" | 1910 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 58,011 |- ! align="center" | 1911 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 84,716 |- ! align="center" | 1912 | align="center" | | align="center" | n/a | align="center" | 118,045 |- ! align="center" | 1913 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 95,957 |- ! align="center" | 1914 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 93,579 |- ! align="center" | 1915 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 79,374 |- ! align="center" | 1916 | align="center" | 3,092 | align="center" | | align="center" | 83,284 |- ! align="center" | 1917 | align="center" | 3,694 | align="center" | | align="center" | 80,379 |- ! align="center" | 1918 | align="center" | 5,160 (first 6 mos.) | align="center" | | align="center" | 82,344 |- ! align="center" | 1919 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 104,822 |- ! align="center" | 1920 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 26,766 |- ! align="center" | 1921 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 13,484 |- ! align="center" | 1922 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 11,019 |- ! align="center" | 1923 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 10,662 |- ! align="center" | 1924 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 10,125 |- ! align="center" | 1925 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 8,558 |- ! align="center" | 1926 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 8,392 |- ! align="center" | 1927 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 7,425 |- ! align="center" | 1928 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 7,793 |- ! align="center" | 1929 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 9,560 |- ! align="center" | 1930 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 9,736 |- ! align="center" | 1931 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 10,389 |- ! align="center" | 1932 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 16,863 |- ! align="center" | 1933 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 18,548 |- ! align="center" | 1934 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 20,951 |- ! align="center" | 1935 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 19,121 |- ! align="center" | 1936 | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | 11,922 |- |} Sources: Carl D. Thompson, "The Rising Tide of Socialism," The Socialist (Columbus, OH), Aug. 12, 1911, pg. 2; St. Louis Labor, Feb. 22, 1902, pg. 5; "Dues Paid Last Year," The Worker, March 22, 1903, pg. 4; Socialist Party Official Bulletin and successors, Executive Secretary state-by-state membership summaries, January issues;"Socialist Party Official Membership Series,' (1932). Report to 1937 Convention, cited in "Socialist Party of America Annual Membership Figures," Early American Marxism website. Adoloph Germer, Report of Executive Secretary to the National Executive Committee: Chicago, Illinois — Aug. 8, 1918, pp. 5-6. "Exempt" members denote those receiving special dispensation from the state office due to unemployment starting 1913. 1909 figure from Socialist Party Official Bulletin, April 1910, pg. 10. External links "Socialist Party Papers, 1897-1980s, finding aid," Milwaukee County Historical Society, Collection Mss-0770. Political history of Wisconsin Organizations disestablished in 1972 Political parties established in 1897 1897 establishments in Wisconsin Political parties in Wisconsin Wisconsin

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William Steinitz (born Wilhelm Steinitz; May 14, 1836 – August 12, 1900) was an Austrian and later American chess player, and the first official World Chess Champion, from 1886 to 1894. He was also a highly influential writer and chess theoretician. When discussing chess history from the 1850s onwards, commentators have debated whether Steinitz could be effectively considered the champion from an earlier time, perhaps as early as 1866. Steinitz lost his title to Emanuel Lasker in 1894, and lost a rematch in 1896–97. Statistical rating systems give Steinitz a rather low ranking among world champions, mainly because he took several long breaks from competitive play. However, an analysis based on one of these rating systems shows that he was one of the most dominant players in the history of the game. Steinitz was unbeaten in match play for 32 years, from 1862 to 1894. Although Steinitz became "world number one" by winning in the all-out attacking style that was common in the 1860s, he unveiled in 1873 a new style of play, and demonstrated that it was superior to the previous style. His new style was controversial and some even branded it as "cowardly", but many of Steinitz's games showed that it could also set up attacks as ferocious as those of the old school. Steinitz was also a prolific writer on chess, and defended his new ideas vigorously. The debate was so bitter and sometimes abusive that it became known as the "Ink War". By the early 1890s, Steinitz's approach was widely accepted, and the next generation of top players acknowledged their debt to him, most notably his successor as world champion, Emanuel Lasker. Traditional accounts of Steinitz's character depict him as ill-tempered and aggressive, but more recent research shows that he had long and friendly relationships with some players and chess organizations. Most notably from 1888 to 1889 he co-operated with the American Chess Congress in a project to define rules governing the conduct of future world championships. Steinitz was unskilled at managing money, and lived in poverty all his life. Early life Steinitz was born on May 14, 1836, in the Jewish ghetto of Prague (now capital of the Czech Republic; then in Bohemia, a part of the Austrian Empire). The youngest of a tailor's thirteen sons to survive, he learned to play chess at age 12. He began playing serious chess in his twenties, after leaving Prague in 1857 to study mathematics in Vienna, at the Vienna Polytechnic. Steinitz spent two years at the university. Chess career (through 1881) Steinitz improved rapidly in chess during the late 1850s, progressing from third place in the 1859 Vienna City championship to first in 1861, with a score of 30/31. During this period he was nicknamed "the Austrian Morphy". This achievement meant that he had become the strongest player in Austria. International debut Steinitz was then sent to represent Austria in the London 1862 chess tournament. He placed sixth, but his win over Augustus Mongredien was awarded the tournament's brilliancy prize. He immediately challenged the fifth-placed contestant, the strong veteran Italian Master Serafino Dubois, to a match, which Steinitz won (five wins, one draw, three losses). This encouraged him to turn professional, and he took up residence in London. In 1862–63 Steinitz scored a crushing win in a match with Joseph Henry Blackburne, who went on to be one of the world's top ten for 20 years, but who had only started playing chess two years earlier. Steinitz then beat some leading UK players in matches: Frederic Deacon and the aforementioned Mongredien in 1863 followed by Valentine Green in 1864. This charge up the rankings had a price: in March 1863 Steinitz apologized in a letter to Ignác Kolisch for not repaying a loan, because while Steinitz had been beating Blackburne, Daniel Harrwitz had "taken over" all of Steinitz's clients at the London Chess Club, who had provided Steinitz's main source of income. Match against Anderssen These successes established Steinitz as one of the world's top players, and he was able to arrange a match in 1866 in London against Adolf Anderssen, who was regarded as the world's strongest active player because he had won the 1851 and 1862 London International Tournaments and his one superior, Paul Morphy, had retired from competitive chess. Steinitz won with eight wins and six losses (there were no draws), but it was a hard fight; after 12 games the scores were level at 6–6, then Steinitz won the last two games. As a result of this match victory, Steinitz was generally regarded as the world's best player. The prize money for this match was £100 to the winner (Steinitz) and £20 for the loser (Anderssen). The winner's prize was a large sum by the standards of the times, equivalent to about £57,500 in 2007's money. Continued match play success In the years following his victory over Anderssen, Steinitz beat Henry Bird in 1866 (seven wins, five losses, five draws). He also comfortably beat Johannes Zukertort in 1872 (seven wins, four draws, one loss; Zukertort had proved himself one of the elite by beating Anderssen by a large margin in 1871). Gradually improves tournament results It took longer for Steinitz to reach the top in tournament play. In the next few years he took: third place at Paris 1867 behind Ignatz Kolisch and Simon Winawer; and second place at Dundee (1867; Gustav Neumann won), and Baden-Baden 1870 chess tournament; behind Anderssen but ahead of Blackburne, Louis Paulsen and other strong players. His first victory in a strong tournament was London 1872, ahead of Blackburne and Zukertort; and the first tournament in which Steinitz finished ahead of Anderssen was the Vienna 1873 chess tournament, when Anderssen was 55 years old. Changes style, introduces positional school All of Steinitz's successes up to 1872 were achieved in the attack-at-all-costs "Romantic" style exemplified by Anderssen. But in the Vienna 1873 chess tournament, Steinitz unveiled a new "positional" style of play which was to become the basis of modern chess. He tied for first place with Blackburne, ahead of Anderssen, Samuel Rosenthal, Paulsen and Henry Bird, and won the play-off against Blackburne. Steinitz made a shaky start, but won his last 14 games in the main tournament (including 2–0 results over Paulsen, Anderssen, and Blackburne) plus the two play-off games – this was the start of a 25-game winning streak in serious competition. Hiatus from competitive chess Between 1873 and 1882 Steinitz played no tournaments and only one match (a 7–0 win against Blackburne in 1876). His other games during this period were in simultaneous and blindfold exhibitions, which contributed an important part of a professional chess-player's income in those days (for example in 1887 Blackburne was paid 9 guineas for two simultaneous exhibitions and a blindfold exhibition hosted by the Teesside Chess Association; this was equivalent to about £4,800 at 2007 values). Chess journalist Instead, Steinitz concentrated on his work as a chess journalist, notably for The Field, which was Britain's leading sports magazine. Some of Steinitz's commentaries aroused heated debates, notably from Zukertort and Leopold Hoffer in The Chess Monthly (which they founded in 1879). This "Ink War" escalated sharply in 1881, when Steinitz mercilessly criticized Hoffer's annotations of games in the 1881 Berlin Congress (won by Blackburne ahead of Zukertort). Steinitz was eager to settle the analytical debates by a second match against Zukertort, whose unwillingness to play provoked scornful comments from Steinitz. In mid-1882 James Mason, a consistently strong player, challenged Steinitz to a match, and accused Steinitz of cowardice when Steinitz insisted the issue with Zukertort should be settled first. Steinitz responded by inviting Mason to name a sufficiently high stake for a match, at least £150 per player (equivalent to about £73,000 in 2007's money), but Mason was unwilling to stake more than £100. Mason later agreed to play a match with Zukertort for a stake of £100 per player, but soon "postponed" that match, writing that "circumstances having arisen that make it highly inconvenient for me to proceed ..." Rivalry with Zukertort Steinitz's long lay-off caused some commentators to suggest that Zukertort, who had scored some notable tournament victories, should be regarded as the world chess champion. As an example, The Chess Player's Chronicle in July 1883 opined that 'Steinitz was, at one time, fairly entitled to the position of champion...He has just taken an inferior place to Zukertort, in a tournament, and for the time being Zukertort, in the opinion of some, becomes champion'. Comeback success Steinitz returned to serious competitive chess in the Vienna 1882 chess tournament, which has been described as the strongest chess tournament of all time at that point. Despite a shaky start he took equal first place with Szymon Winawer, ahead of James Mason, Zukertort, George Henry Mackenzie, Blackburne, Berthold Englisch, Paulsen and Mikhail Chigorin, and drew the play-off match. Visits US Steinitz visited the US, mainly the Philadelphia area, from December 1882 to May 1883. He was given an enthusiastic reception. Steinitz played several exhibitions, many casual games, and a match for stakes of £50 with a wealthy amateur. He also won three more serious matches with two New World professionals, Alexander Sellman (Steinitz won both) and the Cuban champion Celso Golmayo Zúpide. The match with Golmayo was abandoned when Steinitz was leading (eight wins, one draw, one loss). His hosts even arranged a visit to New Orleans, where Paul Morphy lived. Return to London Later in 1883, Steinitz took second place in the extremely strong London 1883 chess tournament behind Zukertort, who made a brilliant start, faded at the end but finished three points ahead. Steinitz finished 2½ points ahead of the third-placed competitor, Blackburne. Zukertort's victory again led some commentators to suggest that Zukertort should be regarded as the world chess champion, while others said the issue could only be resolved by a match between Steinitz and Zukertort. Settles in United States In 1883, shortly after the London tournament, Steinitz decided to leave England and moved to New York, where he lived for the rest of his life. This did not end the "Ink War": his enemies persuaded some of the American press to publish anti-Steinitz articles, and in 1885 Steinitz founded the International Chess Magazine, which he edited until 1895. In his magazine he chronicled the lengthy negotiations for a match with Zukertort. He also managed to find supporters in other sections of the American press including Turf, Field and Farm and the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, both of which reported Steinitz's offer to forgo all fees, expenses or share in the stake and make the match "a benefit performance, solely for Mr Zukertort's pecuniary profit". World Championship match Eventually it was agreed that in 1886 Steinitz and Zukertort would play a match in New York, St. Louis and New Orleans, and that the victor would be the player who first won 10 games. At Steinitz's insistence the contract said it would be "for the Championship of the World". After the five games played in New York, Zukertort led by 4–1, but in the end Steinitz won decisively by 12½–7½ (ten wins, five draws, five losses). The collapse by Zukertort, who won only one of the last 15 games, has been described as "perhaps the most thoroughgoing reversal of fortune in the history of world championship play." Though not yet officially an American citizen, Steinitz wanted the United States flag to be placed next to him during the match. He became a US citizen on November 23, 1888, having resided for five years in New York, and changed his first name from Wilhelm to William. In 1887 the American Chess Congress started work on drawing up regulations for the future conduct of world championship contests. Steinitz actively supported this endeavor, as he thought he was becoming too old to remain world champion – he wrote in his own magazine "I know I am not fit to be the champion, and I am not likely to bear that title for ever". Defeats Chigorin In 1888 the Havana Chess Club offered to sponsor a match between Steinitz and whomever he would select as a worthy opponent. Steinitz nominated the Russian Mikhail Chigorin, on the condition that the invitation should not be presented as a challenge from him. There is some doubt about whether this was intended to be a match for the world championship: both Steinitz's letters and the publicity material just before the match conspicuously avoided the phrase. The proposed match was to have a maximum of 20 games, and Steinitz had said that fixed-length matches were unsuitable for world championship contests because the first player to take the lead could then play for draws; and Steinitz was at the same time supporting the American Chess Congress's world championship project. Whatever the status of the match, it was played in Havana in January to February 1889, and won by Steinitz (ten wins, one draw, six losses). New York 1889 tournament The American Chess Congress's final proposal was that the winner of a tournament to be held in New York in 1889 should be regarded as world champion for the time being, but must be prepared to face a challenge from the second or third placed competitor within a month. Steinitz wrote that he would not play in the tournament and would not challenge the winner unless the second and third placed competitors failed to do so. The tournament was duly played, but the outcome was not quite as planned: Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss tied for first place; their play-off resulted in four draws, and Weiss then wanted to get back to his work for the Rothschild Bank, conceding the title to Chigorin. However, the third prize-winner Isidor Gunsberg was prepared to play for the title. The match was played in New York in 1890 and ended in a 10½–8½ victory for Steinitz. The American Chess Congress's experiment was not repeated, and Steinitz's last three matches were private arrangements between the players. Wins rematch against Chigorin In 1891 the Saint Petersburg Chess Society and the Havana Chess Club offered to organize another Steinitz–Chigorin match for the world championship. Steinitz played against Chigorin in Havana in 1892, and won narrowly (ten wins, five draws, eight losses). German Dr. Siegbert Tarrasch turned down an opportunity in 1892 to challenge Steinitz in a world championship match, because of the demands of his medical practice. Loses title to Lasker Around this time Steinitz publicly spoke of retiring, but changed his mind when Emanuel Lasker, 32 years younger and comparatively untested at the top level, challenged him. Lasker had been earlier that year refused a non-title challenge by fellow German, Dr. Siegbert Tarrasch, who was at the time the world's most dominant tournament player. Initially, Lasker wanted to play for $5,000 a side, and a match was agreed at stakes of $3,000 a side, but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money, and the final figure was $2,000 each, which was less than for some of Steinitz's earlier matches (the final combined stake of $4,000 would be worth about $114,000 at 2016 values). Although this was publicly praised as an act of sportsmanship on Steinitz's part, Steinitz may have desperately needed the money. The match was played in 1894, at venues in New York, Philadelphia and Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The 32-year age difference between the combatants was the largest in the history of world championship play, and remains so today. Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt, so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game. Steinitz responded by winning the second, and was able to maintain the balance until the sixth. However, Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the 11th, and Steinitz asked for a one-week rest. When the match resumed, Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games. Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th, and Steinitz was unable to compensate for his losses in the middle of the match. Hence Lasker won with ten wins, five losses and four draws. Some commentators thought Steinitz's habit of playing "experimental" moves in serious competition was a major factor in his downfall. Increased tournament activity After losing the title, Steinitz played in tournaments more frequently than he had previously. He won at New York 1894, and was fifth at Hastings 1895 (winning the first brilliancy prize for his game with Curt von Bardeleben). At Saint Petersburg 1895, a super-strong four player, multi-round-robin event, with Lasker, Chigorin and Pillsbury, he took second place behind Lasker. Later his results began to decline: 6th in Nuremberg 1896, 5th in Cologne 1898, 10th in London 1899. In early 1896, Steinitz defeated the Russian Emanuel Schiffers in a match (winning 6 games, drawing 1, losing 4). Rematch with Lasker In November, 1896 to January, 1897 Steinitz played a return match with Lasker in Moscow, but won only 2 games, drawing 5, and losing 10. This was the last world chess championship match for eleven years. Shortly after the match, Steinitz had a mental breakdown and was confined for 40 days in a Moscow sanatorium, where he played chess with the inmates. Questions: The beginning of Steinitz's reign There is a long-running debate among chess writers about whether Steinitz's reign as World Chess Champion began in 1866, when he beat Anderssen, or in 1886, when he beat Zukertort. In April 1894 the British Chess Magazine described Steinitz as holding "the chess championship of the world for 28 years". However, there is no evidence that he claimed the title for himself in 1866, although in the 1880s he claimed to have been the champion since his win over Anderssen. It has been suggested that Steinitz could not make such a claim while Paul Morphy was alive. Morphy had defeated Anderssen by a far wider margin, 8–3, in 1858, but retired from chess competition soon after he returned to the US in 1859, and died in 1884. The 1886 Steinitz vs. Zukertort match was the first that was explicitly described as being for the World Championship, but Howard Staunton and Paul Morphy had been unofficially described as "World Chess Champion" around the middle of the 19th century. In fact one of the organizers of the 1851 London International tournament had said the contest was for "the baton of the World's Chess Champion", and in mid-1840s Ludwig Bledow wrote a letter to Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa suggesting they should organize a world championship tournament in Germany. Some commentators described Steinitz as "the champion" in the years following his 1872 match victory against Zukertort. In the late 1870s and early 1880s some regarded Steinitz as the champion and others supported Johannes Zukertort, and the 1886 match was not regarded as creating the title of World Champion, but as resolving conflicting claims to the title. On the other hand George Alcock MacDonnell hailed Joseph Blackburne as "World Champion" for his win in the 1881 Berlin Tournament, George Henry Mackenzie as having "won the Chess Championship of the World" in 1887, and Isidore Gunsberg as "among the champions of the world" following his win at "Bradford Place" in 1888. However, Steinitz regarded G.A. MacDonnell as "one of my bitterest and most untruthful persecutors". Personal life Steinitz lived with Caroline Golder (born 1846) in the 1860s, and their only daughter Flora was born in 1866. Flora died in 1888 at the age of 21, and Caroline died in 1892. He married his second wife a few years later, and had two children by her. In 1897 he dedicated a pamphlet to the memory of his first wife and their daughter. In February 1897, the New York Times prematurely reported his death in a New York mental asylum. Some authors claim that he contracted syphilis, which may have been a cause of the mental breakdowns he suffered in his last years. In the months prior to his death, he spent some time in institutions as a result of his failing mental health. His chess activities had not yielded any great financial rewards, and he died a pauper in the Manhattan State Hospital (Wards Island) on August 12, 1900, of a heart attack. Steinitz is buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, New York. His second wife and their two young children were still alive at the time of his death. Assessment The book of the Hastings 1895 chess tournament, written collectively by the players, described Steinitz as follows: Mr. Steinitz stands high as a theoretician and as a writer; he has a powerful pen, and when he chooses can use expressive English. He evidently strives to be fair to friends and foes alike, but appears sometimes to fail to see that after all he is much like many others in this respect. Possessed of a fine intellect, and extremely fond of the game, he is apt to lose sight of all other considerations, people and business alike. Chess is his very life and soul, the one thing for which he lives. Influence on the game Steinitz's play up to and including 1872 was similar to that of his contemporaries: sharp, aggressive, and full of sacrificial play. This was the style in which he became "world number one" by beating Adolf Anderssen in 1866 and confirmed his position by beating Zukertort in 1872 and winning the 1872 London International tournament (Zukertort had claimed the rank of number two by beating Anderssen in 1871). In 1873, however, Steinitz's play suddenly changed, giving priority to what is now called the positional elements in chess: pawn structure, space, outposts for knights, the advantage of the two bishops, etc. Although Steinitz often accepted unnecessarily difficult defensive positions in order to demonstrate the superiority of his theories, he also showed that his methods could provide a platform for crushing attacks. Steinitz's successor as world champion, Emanuel Lasker, summed up the new style as: "In the beginning of the game ignore the search for combinations, abstain from violent moves, aim for small advantages, accumulate them, and only after having attained these ends search for the combination – and then with all the power of will and intellect, because then the combination must exist, however deeply hidden." Although Steinitz's play changed abruptly, he said he had been thinking along such lines for some years: Some of the games which I saw Paulsen play during the London Congress of 1862 gave a still stronger start to the modification of my own opinions, which has since developed, and I began to recognize that Chess genius is not confined to the more or less deep and brilliant finishing strokes after the original balance of power and position has been overthrown, but that it also requires the exercise of still more extraordinary powers, though perhaps of a different kind to maintain that balance or respectively to disturb it at the proper time in one's own favor. During his nine-year layoff from tournament play (1873–1882) and later in his career, Steinitz used his chess writings to present his theories – while in the UK he wrote for The Field; in 1885 after moving to New York he founded the "International Chess Magazine", of which he was the chief editor; and in 1889 he edited the book of the great New York 1889 tournament (won by Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss), in which he did not compete as the tournament was designed to produce his successor as World Champion. Many other writers found his new approach incomprehensible, boring or even cowardly; for example Adolf Anderssen said, "Kolisch is a highwayman and points the pistol at your breast. Steinitz is a pick-pocket, he steals a pawn and wins a game with it." But when he contested the first World Championship match in 1886 against Johannes Zukertort, it became evident that Steinitz was playing on another level. Although Zukertort was at least Steinitz's equal in spectacular attacking play, Steinitz often outmaneuvered him fairly simply by the use of positional principles. By the time of his match in 1890–91 against Gunsberg, some commentators showed an understanding of and appreciation for Steinitz's theories. Shortly before the 1894 match with Emanuel Lasker, even the New York Times, which had earlier published attacks on his play and character, paid tribute to his playing record, the importance of his theories, and his sportsmanship in agreeing to the most difficult match of his career despite his previous intention of retiring. By the end of his career, Steinitz was more highly esteemed as a theoretician than as a player. The comments about him in the book of the Hastings 1895 chess tournament focus on his theories and writings, and Emanuel Lasker was more explicit: "He was a thinker worthy of a seat in the halls of a University. A player, as the world believed he was, he was not; his studious temperament made that impossible; and thus he was conquered by a player ..." As a result of his play and writings Steinitz, along with Paul Morphy, is considered by many chess commentators to be the founder of modern chess. Lasker, who took the championship from Steinitz, wrote, "I who vanquished him must see to it that his great achievement, his theories should find justice, and I must avenge the wrongs he suffered." Vladimir Kramnik emphasizes Steinitz's importance as a pioneer in the field of chess theory: "Steinitz was the first to realise that chess, despite being a complicated game, obeys some common principles. ... But as often happens the first time is just a try. ... I can't say he was the founder of a chess theory. He was an experimenter and pointed out that chess obeys laws that should be considered." Writings Steinitz was the main chess correspondent of The Field (in London) from 1873 to 1882, and used this to present his ideas about chess strategy. In 1885 he founded the International Chess Magazine in New York and edited it until 1891. In addition to game commentaries and blow-by-blow accounts of the negotiations leading to his 1886 match with Johann Zukertort and of the American Chess Congress's world championship project, he wrote a long series of articles about Paul Morphy, who had died in 1884. He wrote the book of the 1889 New York tournament, in which he annotated all 432 of the games, and in 1889 he published a textbook, The Modern Chess Instructor. Steinitz also allegedly wrote a pamphlet entitled Capital, Labor, and Charity while confined at River Crest Sanitarium in New York during the final months of his life. Playing strength and style Statistical rating systems are unkind to Steinitz. "Warriors of the Mind" gives him a ranking of 47th, below several obscure Soviet grandmasters; Chessmetrics places him only 15th on its all-time list. Chessmetrics penalizes players who play infrequently; opportunities for competitive chess were infrequent in Steinitz's best years, and Steinitz had a few long absences from competitive play (1873–1876, 1876–1882, 1883–1886, 1886–1889). However, in 2005 Chessmetrics' author, Jeff Sonas, wrote an article which examined various ways of comparing the strength of "world number one" players, using data provided by Chessmetrics, and found that: Steinitz was further ahead of his contemporaries in the 1870s than Bobby Fischer was in his peak period (1970–1972); that Steinitz had the third-highest total number of years as the world's top player, behind Emanuel Lasker and Garry Kasparov; and that Steinitz placed 7th in a comparison of how long players were ranked in the world's top three. Between his victory over Anderssen (1866) and his loss to Emanuel Lasker (1894), Steinitz won all his "normal" matches, sometimes by wide margins; and his worst tournament performance in that 28-year period was third place in Paris (1867). (He also lost two handicap matches and a match by telegraph in 1890 against Mikhail Chigorin, where Chigorin was allowed to choose the openings in both games and won both.) Initially Steinitz played in the all-out attacking style of contemporaries like Anderssen, and then changed to the positional style with which he dominated competitive chess in the 1870s and 1880s. Max Euwe wrote, "Steinitz aimed at positions with clear-cut features, to which his theory was best applicable." However, he retained his capacity for brilliant attacks right to the end of his career; for example in the 1895 Hastings tournament (when he was 59) he beat von Bardeleben in a spectacular game in which in the closing stages Steinitz deliberately exposed all his pieces to attack simultaneously (except his king, of course). His most significant weaknesses were his habits of playing "experimental" moves and getting into unnecessarily difficult defensive positions in top-class competitive games. Personality "Traditional" accounts of Steinitz describe him as having a sharp tongue and violent temper, perhaps partly because of his short stature (barely five feet) and congenital lameness. He admitted that "Like the Duke of Parma, I always hold the sword in one hand and the olive branch in the other", and under severe provocation he could become abusive in published articles. He was aware of his own tendencies and said early in his career, "Nothing would induce me to take charge of a chess column ...Because I should be so fair in dispensing blame as well as praise that I should be sure to give offence and make enemies." When he embarked on chess journalism, his brutally frank review of Wormald's The Chess Openings in 1875 proved him right on both counts. His personal correspondence, his own articles and some third-party articles, however, show that he had long and friendly relationships with many people and groups in the chess world, including Ignác Kolisch (one of his earliest sponsors), Mikhail Chigorin, Harry Nelson Pillsbury, Bernhard Horwitz, Amos Burn and the Cuban and Russian chess communities. He even co-operated with the American Chess Congress in its project to regulate future contests for the world title that he had earned. Steinitz strove to be objective in his writings about chess competitions and games, for example he attributed to sheer bad luck a poor tournament score by Henry Edward Bird, whom he considered no friend of his, and was generous in his praise of great play by even his bitter enemies. He could poke fun at some of his own rhetoric, for example "I remarked that I would rather die in America than live in England. ... I added that I would rather lose a match in America than win one in England. But after having carefully considered the subject in all its bearings, I have come to the conclusion that I neither mean to die yet nor to lose the match." At a joint simultaneous display in Russia around the time of the 1895–96 Saint Petersburg tournament, Emanuel Lasker and Steinitz formed an impromptu comedy double act. Although he had a strong sense of honour about repaying debts, Steinitz was poor at managing his finances: he let a competitor "poach" many of his clients in 1862–63, offered to play the 1886 world title match against Johannes Zukertort for free, and died in poverty in 1900, leaving his widow to survive by running a small shop. Competitive record Tournament results Sources: Match results Sources: Notable games Steinitz vs. Augustus Mongredien, London 1862. Awarded the at the 1862 London International Tournament. Adolf Anderssen vs. Steinitz; 13th match game, London 1866. Emanuel Lasker regarded this well-prepared attack as a precursor of the positional approach that Steinitz later advocated. Johannes Zukertort vs. Steinitz, WCH (9th game of the match) 1886, Queen's Gambit Declined: Vienna. Quiet Variation (D37), . Steinitz exchanges his powerful centre to create two weak hanging pawns on White's queenside and creates strong pressure against them. Zukertort eventually tries to slug his way out of trouble, but Steinitz wins with a sharp counterattack. Steinitz vs. Mikhail Chigorin, Havana WCH 1892 (16th game of the match), Ruy Lopez, . Steinitz weakens Chigorin's pawns, gains superior mobility then forces a pawn promotion with the aid of a little combination. Steinitz vs. Mikhail Chigorin, Havana WCH 1892 (4th game of the match), Spanish Game: General (C65), 1–0. Positional preparation creates the opportunity for a swift attack leading to mate on the 29th move. Steinitz vs. Curt von Bardeleben, Hastings 1895, Italian Game: Classical Variation. Greco Gambit Traditional Line (C54), 1–0. A great attacking combination in the old 1860s style. After White's 22nd move, all the white pieces are but Black is lost. The game won the first brilliancy prize of the tournament. See also Steinitz Variation Steinitz Memorial, a blitz chess tournament held from May 15 to May 17, 2020 in honor of Wilhelm Steinitz. List of Jewish chess players References Further reading The Games of Wilhelm Steinitz, ed. Pickard & Son 1995. A collection of 1,022 Steinitz's games with annotations. Steinitz, primo campione del mondo, Jakov Nejstadt, ed. Prisma 2000. From Steinitz to Fischer, ed. Sahovski Informator, Belgrade 1976. Steinitz Chess Champion by Landsberger, McFarland pub. Steinitz Papers by Soltis, McFarland pub. The Games of Wilhelm Steinitz, first world chess champion by Sid Pickard (in Algebraic notation) , Pickard & Son publishers in 1995. External links “Steinitz versus God” by Edward Winter Steinitz biography Chesscorner bio Jewish Encyclopedia bio World Chess Championship Pre-FIDE Events – details of World Championship matches from Steinitz's era 1836 births 1900 deaths American chess players American Ashkenazi Jews Austrian chess players Austro-Hungarian Jews Austro-Hungarian emigrants to the United States British chess players Burials at the Cemetery of the Evergreens Chess theoreticians Chess writers Czech chess players Bohemian Jews Jewish American sportspeople Jewish chess players Sportspeople from Prague TU Wien alumni World chess champions 19th-century chess players

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Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (, ; ; Ottoman Turkish: ; 1506 – 11 October 1579) was an Ottoman statesman most notable for being the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. Born in Ottoman Herzegovina into an Orthodox Christian Serbian family, Mehmed was abducted at an early age as part of the Ottoman devşirme system of forcibly recruiting Christian boys to be raised to serve as a janissary. He rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, eventually holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543–1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546–1551), Governor-General of Rumelia (1551–1555), Third Vizier (1555–1561), Second Vizier (1561–1565), and as Grand Vizier (1565–1579, for a total of 14 years, three months, 17 days) under three sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was assassinated in 1579, ending his near 15-years of service to several Sultans, as sole legal representative in the administration of state affairs. Although Sokullu was Muslim, he remembered his Serbian Orthodox roots and his family. He persuaded the Sultan to restore the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć as a "gesture of reconciliation". He appointed members of his family (both Muslim and Christian) to important positions in Ottoman Empire, including Makarije Sokolović, Ferhad Pasha Sokolović, Sinan-beg Boljanić, Sokolluzade Lala Mehmed Pasha and Lala Mustafa Pasha. Biography Early years Sokollu's birth name was probably Bajica, and he was of ethnic Serb origin. He was said to be born into a modest shepherd family, adherent to the Serbian Orthodox Church, in or near Sokolovići (tr. Sokol) in the vicinity of modern-day Rudo. "Sokollu" is a demonym, derived from his place of birth, whereas the suffix -lu means "from" in Turkish. His father was named Dimitrije. He had two brothers and a sister, who married the older brother of Hüseyin Pasha Boljanić, as well as at least one uncle. However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative. The second is the matter of Mehmed's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there. Other sources suggest that his uncle converted to Islam early. Though Sokollu had embraced Islam, he remembered his family and Serbian Orthodox roots. He would appoint his relatives (both Muslim and Christian) to important positions, including Makarije Sokolović, Ferhad Pasha Sokolović, Sinan-beg Boljanić, Sokolluzade Lala Mehmed Pasha and Lala Mustafa Pasha. Janissary education He was renamed Mehmed and, first in Edirne and then in Constantinople, received a thorough Ottoman indoctrination as a recruit, first as an apprentice Janissary (in Turkish Acemi Oğlan); then in the Enderun or palace school in Topkapı Palace. As proclaimed in Baghdad on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven retainers of the Imperial Treasurer Iskender Çelebi. Upon Iskender's death, Mehmed returned to Constantinople. In addition to Turkish, he spoke Serbian, Persian, Arabic, Venetian-Italian and Latin language. Early career Mehmed in 1541 first became an Imperial Chamberlain and then the head of the Sultan's squires. In these positions he became very close to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and learned from him. As a soldier, Mehmed excelled at the Battle of Mohács and the first Siege of Vienna. In 1546 the Kapudan Pasha Hayreddin Barbarossa died and Mehmed was appointed his successor. In this capacity he was present at the naval expedition against Trablus (present-day Tripoli in Libya). During his five years in this position, Mehmed Pasha greatly strengthened the arsenal of the naval fleet. Mehmed became Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumelia in 1551, headquartered in Sofia. While he was visiting the area of his birth, his mother recognized him by the birthmark on his face and embraced her child for the first time in more than thirty years. After the death of John Zápolya, king of Hungary as an Ottoman vassal, in 1540, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor looked to annex Zápolya's lands (the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom). The Hungarian diet had elected infant John Sigismund Zápolya, the son of Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon, as King of Hungary, which broke the Treaty of Nagyvárad, and Ferdinand I invaded Hungary. Queen Isabella struggled to rule Hungary for her son. Frater George Martinuzzi, appointed by John as regent, opposed her (he would later be created a Cardinal as reward for his accomplishments in this conflict). Ferdinand I sent mercenary leader (condottiero) Bartolomeo Castoldo with more than 7,000 mercenaries who beat a contingent led by Péter Petrovics, killing more than 2,500 of them, near Csanád. The Sultan immediately ordered Sokollu Mehmed Pasha to move into Hungary, so he assembled an army of 90,000 soldiers and fifty-four cannons and also summoned the pashas of Smederevo, Vidin and Nicopolis. When his forces reached Slankamen in Syrmia, George Martinuzzi begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, arguing that it had remained in the possession of the Sultan. Mehmed rejected negotiation proposals, led Ottoman forces into Transylvania and soon captured 16 cities, including Bečej, Becskerek, Csanád and Lippa. In this campaign, Sokollu won over to his side local Serb-manned garrisons by pointing out to his common ethnicity with them. Martinuzzi responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania, mustering one soldier from every household. Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege to Temesvár on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed demanded surrender, but the city's commander, István Losonci, replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia. Mehmed besieged the city until 28 October but could not seize it. Retreating to Belgrade, he initiated peace negotiations with the Monk-Viceroy. Martinuzzi was assassinated on 17 December 1551, and peace talks ended. Sokollu Mehmed renewed his military campaign in 1552, seizing Temesvár (see Siege of Temesvár (1552)), Hollókő, Buják, Rétság, Balassagyarmat, the whole of Banat and Szolnok. Sokollu Mehmed's forces then joined with those of Ahmet Pasha advancing towards Eger. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid but could not take the city itself. In 1532, Sultan Suleiman had declared war on Safavid Persia following two decades of peace after the climactic Battle of Chaldiran, when the Persian Shah Tahmasp wanted to take advantage of the Sultan's preoccupation with Hungary and started making armed incursions into Ottoman territory. Sokollu Mehmed was dispatched to spend the winter of 1553/1554 in Tokat to take charge of the final stages of the war against Persia. In June 1554, Mehmed Pasha and the Rumelian troops joined the Sultan's army and took part in the Safavid Campaign (1554–55). Vizier Third Vizier Impressed by Sokollu Mehmed's skills, the Sultan made him the Third Vizier in 1555 and he was given a place in the Imperial Council (Divan). His position as Governor-General of Rumelia was given to a Herzegovinian Janissary agha, Pertev Pasha, an old companion of Mehmed's from when they had both served under Iskender Çelebi. Almost immediately Sokollu Mehmed had to quell a rebellion around Salonica, led by Mustafa Bey, who pretended to be the Sultan's late son Mustafa. Sokollu Mehmed took 4,000 horsemen and 3,000 janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa Bey was hanged. Mehmed's brother, Topuzli-Makarije, became a monk of the Serb Chilandar Monastery on Mount Athos. Makarije Sokolović paid a visit to his brother's palace in Constantinople in 1557, where the two brothers discussed the possibility of re-establishing the autocephaly of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Later that same year, Sokollu Mehmed issued an edict (firman) declaring the restoration of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć, with Makarije Sokolović as Serbian Patriarch Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. When the former Grand Vizier Ahmet Pasha was deposed and hanged, he was replaced by Rüstem Pasha, who had numerous enemies. One of them was Lala Mustafa, who instigated the Sultan's third son, Bayezid, then Beylerbey of Karaman, to raise a rebellion against his brother and heir-apparent Selim. Sokollu Mehmed mustered an army and went to Konya, where he decisively defeated Bayezid's forces in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Sokollu Mehmed remained in Asia and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah handed over Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed. Second Vizier In 1561, Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha died and was succeeded by the Second Vizier, Semiz Ali Pasha. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in turn became Second Vizier, while Pertev Pasha became Third Vizier. On 17 August 1562, Sokollu Mehmed married Sultan Suleiman's granddaughter – Prince Selim's daughter – Ismihan Sultan (some sources read her name as Esma Han Sultan) . Mehmed spent the following years in peace, governing and administrating the realm. In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, became Viceroy of the Eyalet of Bosnia. Grand Vizier In June 1565, Grand Vizier Semiz Ali Pasha died. Sultan Suleiman had much confidence in Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and promoted him to this position. War with the Habsburgs In late 1565 and early 1566, tensions between the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Sultan Suleiman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by Telli Hasan Pasha restored to him. When negotiations failed, Maximilian declared war and Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ordered his nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey of Bosnia, to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa and Dvor na Uni. The Sultan immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire, and Sokollu Mehmed began the preparations for the army's advance. The Grand Vizier went ahead, preparing for the arrival of the Sultan, who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade. Passing through Zemun, one part of the army crossed Varaždin and struck Egar before proceeding towards Vienna. Nikola Šubić Zrinski (Miklós Zrínyi) had defeated the sanjakbey Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son, and capturing 17,000 ducats. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, and he dispatched Sokollu Mehmed's forces to besiege Szigetvár, while Suleiman remained in Harsang. The commander of Buda, Arslan Pasha, lost the cities of Várpalota, Veszprém and Tata. The Sultan sent a platoon of fifteen troopers to bring him Arslan Pasha's head, but Arslan had already left his forces three days earlier and was on his way to the Sultan. The Sultan showed Sokollu Mehmed a letter in which Arslan had insulted him, and on 3 August, when Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen, Sokollu Mehmed criticized Arslan for his conduct, accused him of treason and stripped him of his post, giving it instead to his nephew Sokollu Mustafa Bey. The Sultan arrived with Sokollu Mehmed's sons, Kurt Bey and Hasan Bey, at Pécs. Finally, the large Ottoman force, which numbered between 100,000 and 300,000 soldiers and 300 cannons, laid siege to Szigetvár. The Battle of Szigetvár was an Ottoman victory, with heavy losses on both sides. Both commanders died during the battle: while Zrinsky was killed in the final charge, Suleiman the Magnificent died in his tent from natural causes, before the Turks achieved victory. According to Robert William Fraser, more than 10,000 large cannonballs where shot into the fortress during the siege. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed, and announced that Suleiman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár, while he would be acting on the Sultan's behalf. Sokollu Mehmed rewarded those involved in the capture of Szigetvár and increased the soldiers' wages. He sent a part of the army to capture Babócsa. The Tartars, however, spread the news of the Sultan's death, and Sokollu Mustafa Bey wrote to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim marched immediately towards Srem. Upon his arrival in Vukovar, Sokollu Mehmed wrote him that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim returned to Belgrade, and Mehmed ordered the army to march towards the town. Forty days after the Sultan's death, in October 1566, the army set out for Belgrade. At the fourth stop on the way to Belgrade, forty-eight days after Suleiman's death, Sokollu Mehmed announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Sokollu Mehmed had Suleiman's body embalmed and ordered the army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the army arrived in Sremska Mitrovica. Mehmed reminded Selim to send gifts to the viziers, pashas and the army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Sokollu Mehmed went to Belgrade and swore allegiance to Selim II as his Sultan, and Selim confirmed him as his Grand Vizier. Expecting a mutiny among the military in the capital, Sokollu Mehmed had Suleiman's body sent to Constantinople to restore order amongst the janissaries and other officials, who now demanded more compensation for their past efforts. In Belgrade, Sultan Selim II called a council, as even some of his closest officials were openly mocking him. Sokollu Mehmed assured him that he would manage everything effectively, and distributed gifts to the troops, rewarding them handsomely to regain their loyalty. On the fifth day of their stay in Belgrade, the Sultan, Sokollu Mehmed and the army departed for Constantinople. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked, and Sokollu Mehmed and Ahmed Pasha had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Sokollu Mehmed convinced the Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the janissaries. The next morning, each janissary was given standard pay of 40 ducats and an additional 20 ducats as an accession bonus. Soon, the other branches of the military, the sipahis and mercenaries, demanded higher wages as well. Mehmed arrested and replaced their aghas at once, finally stopping all dissent. Two years after Selim's accession, on 17 February 1568, Sokollu Mehmed succeeded in concluding at Edirne a peace treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the Emperor agreed to pay an annual "honorary present" of 30,000 ducats. Expedition to Sumatra One of Sokollu's greatest responsibilities was planning an Ottoman invasion of Sumatra in 1567. Historical records from the time show that Sokollu played an active role in the strategic execution of the invasion and that he was extremely detailed in the logistics. Later on, Sokollu would also participate in the expedition as a commander. According to these historical records, between November and December 1567 Sokollu and his expedition took sail to Aceh with fifteen fully armed war galleys and two transport galleys. Upon a seemingly friendly arrival to Aceh, the sultan of Sumatra requested that all the members of the expedition follow his orders. The sultan later offered his loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and forged a bond of mutual understanding between Istanbul and Aceh. Expedition to Yemen Immediately after the expedition to Sumatra, the Ottoman Empire suffered a major rebellion from one of their most important settlements. An uprising led by Zaydi Imam in Yemen created substantial uncertainty in the region which Sokollu had to give imminent priority before taking any further action in Aceh. While the insurrection in Yemen started in the summer of 1567, it was not taking seriously by the Ottoman regime until later in the year, when most of the major cities in the region came under fire by the rebellious factions. It is believed that the cause of the dissatisfaction in Yemen was the intensified Ottoman involvement in the region as a prelude for an expansion in the Indian Ocean. The unhappiness in the Ottoman Yemen also went back to the rule of Governor Mahmud Pasha, a compatriot of Sokollu, who managed to produce large economic gains in the region at the expense of the wellbeing of the population. After Mahmud's wrongdoings in Yemen had been revealed, Sokollu decided to appoint Koja Sinan, who was assigned the responsibilities to appease the turmoils in Yemen. Suez Canal Although the rebellions in Yemen once again forced Sokollu to postpone any further military action in Sumatra and the Indian Ocean, it also opened the possibility to promote one of his favorite projects: and attempt to build a canal from the Mediterranean to Suez. He instructed the governor of Egypt to send architects engineers to assess the possibility of this canal, with the purpose of allowing a better connection from Muslims attempting to visit the Holy Cities. Sokollu also was concerned about Muslims from the northeast, Crimea and Anatolia, who had to cross the Black Sea in order to visit the Holy Cities. Thus, he took actions for the construction of an open canal between the Don and the Volga in the north. Wars with Russia, Venice and the Holy League Mehmed Pasha had little success against Russia, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival presaged the disaster to come. A plan had been devised at Constantinople for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of janissaries and cavalry was sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers. A Russian army of 15,000 men attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection, and the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm. Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar. Although the government was weakening, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 he dispatched Sinan Pasha to conquer Arabia. Sinan Pasha solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca upon finishing his military campaign in Hejaz and Yemen. In 1571–1572, on the order Mehmed's wife Ismihan Sultan (or Esma Han Sultan), the famous architect Mimar Sinan built the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque, which an authoritative guide to Constantinople states to be "The most beautiful of the smaller mosques in Istanbul, a minor masterpiece by Sinan". During the rule of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier, the Ottoman navy and army took Cyprus in 1571 from Venice. The administration of Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab Ahmed Pasha. The invasion of Cyprus led to the formation of a so-called Holy League, comprising the Pope, Spain with Naples and Sicily, the Republic of Venice, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Knights of Malta. On 7 October 1571, the coalition's fleet under the command of Don Juan of Austria decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet under Müezzinzade Ali Pasha in the Battle of Lepanto. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha immediately ensured that Piyale Pasha and Uluç Ali Reis, the new Grand Admiral, were provided with all the necessary means and resources to rebuild the Empire's shattered fleet. By July 1572 the Ottoman fleet already numbered 250 fully equipped warships "including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean". It is reported in Turkish chronicles that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had said to the Venetian Ambassador "By conquering Cyprus we have cut off one of your arms; at Lepanto by defeating our navy you have only shaved off our beard. However, you know that a cut-off arm cannot be replaced but shaved-off beard grows thicker." Indeed, the Holy League ships had to retire to ports and Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean was restored. The new Ottoman Navy that started a naval expedition in summer of 1573 under Uluç Ali Reis found no rivals in the Mediterranean and ravaged the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy and in 1574 it captured Tunis from the Hafsids, who for some time had been supported by Spanish troops, thus restoring Ottoman domination in the Western Mediterranean. On 3 March 1573, the Venetian Republic signed a new peace treaty with the Ottomans under Mehmed Pasha, thereby bringing the Holy League to an end, accepting the loss of Cyprus and increasing the tribute payments. He also extended for eight more years the peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire and maintained good relations with France, Poland-Lithuania and Russia. He was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans. Final years Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's wealth reached its peak around 1573, when the value of his personal property (cash, goods, accounts, objects) amounted to 18 million ducats. Mehmed received the standard Grand Vizier's wage of 20 ducats every day. His wealth increased greatly through gifts and taxes of Ottoman officials: anyone who became a vizier had to pay Mehmed Pasha 50,000-60,000 ducats, and every Governor-General had to pay 15,000-20,000 or even sometimes 30,000-40,000 ducats upon ascending to the office. The provincial governor of Egypt at Cairo alone dispatched 100,000 ducats to the Grand Vizier every year. On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha installed his nephew Antonije Sokolović, then the Metropolitan of Hum, as the new Eastern Orthodox Archbishop of Ohrid. On 23 October the same year, upon the death of Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Patriarch. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another one of Mehmed's nephews, Gerasim Sokolović. When Sultan Selim II died, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha again kept this secret until Selim's oldest son Murad arrived from his governor's post in Manisa. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha acknowledged the new Sultan, Murad III, and remained Grand Vizier, but now he had to cope with the rising political influence of the palace women, first with Sultan's mother Nurbanu Sultan and then his wife, of Albanian origin, Safiye Sultan. Murad III gradually soured on Sokollu Mehmed's overwhelming power within the Empire, and the Grand Vizier's influence declined. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was involved in the succession disputes of the Polish Crown in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures. Sokollu Mehmed signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venice, Florence, Spain, England and Switzerland. He also managed to force a number of European states to pay tribute: Austria paid 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia 7,000; Moldavia 3,000. Eventually, even Venice had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 gold ducats. Mehmed was initially known to be opposed to the war with Persia, which began in 1578, but was overruled upon eventually, amongst the reasons being the constant urgings by Sokollu Mehmed to take advantage of the Ottomans neighboring rival. Sultan Murad III time afterwards, began to limit his Grand Vizier's powers by slowly removing his allies from high offices. The state secretary Feridun, an old companion of Sokollu mehmed's since the siege of Szigetvár, was sent to Belgrade, away from Constantinople. Mehmed's faithful Arab friend, the Governor-General of Cyprus, was lynched by mutinous soldiers. Mehmed's greatest rivals, Hamid Efendi and Piyale Pasha, arranged the execution of the Grand Vizier's Greek protege, Michael Kantakouzenos. On 10 October 1578, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's nephew and Governor-General of Budin, was assassinated. On the anniversary of this day, on 10 October 1579, Sokollu Mehmed had his servant Hasan Bey read to him about the Battle of Kosovo. On 11 October 1579, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was assassinated. Ending his near 15-year rule serving as the sultan sole legal representative in the administration of state affairs. There are some who claim that the assassin was a janissary in disguise in employment of Safiye Sultan, the wife of Murad III. Also, some sources claim that Sokollu Mehmed was a target of Hashshashin agent, as he was opposed to war with Persia where this order was stationed, which was not in their interest, although this is a very controversial claim as this order was destroyed by Mongols long time before. He is buried at his complex, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Külliyesi at the back of Eyüp Mosque, in Istanbul, at the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Türbe built by famous architect Mimar Sinan for him c. 1572. His wife Ismihan (or Esma Han) is buried near him and in the little garden of the Türbe are buried the family and descendants of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. After his death Sultan Murad III changed grand vezirs ten times in sixteen years. These frequent changes in government were part of the general instability in the Ottoman government that followed the death of Sokollu Mehmet Pasha, evidence of a decline in the empire that he had at its pinnacle while he was in office. Heritage and legacy Sokollu Mehmed Pasha has left numerous architecturally well known buildings in Constantinople and throughout Ottoman territories. Foundations of his buildings are spread over Edirne, Halep, Medina, Bečkerek, Belgrade and alongside Bosnia, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca and Constantinople alone contained a number of his mosques. The Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque and the complex built at Kadirga district of İstanbul by architect Mimar Sinan is considered to be the most beautiful of the smaller mosques in İstanbul. It is known for its unusually fine ordering of medrese over the entry stairs, its lofty elegant interior, the first hooded fountain, ogival arches of the arcades, and especially, the fine and well preserved Iznik tiles. His most renowned endowment is the eleven-arched Višegrad bridge in his hometown of Višegrad. The construction and history of the bridge is the topic of the novel The Bridge on the Drina (Serbian: Na Drini ćuprija - На Дрини ћуприја), written by Nobel laureate Ivo Andrić, a Yugoslav novelist His life also interested the Yugoslav writer Meša Selimović. There were numerous Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian legends about the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed Paşa built the bridge in his son's name. Another is the tale of its architect Rade, which is described in "Bridge on the Drina". Sokollu Mehmed Pasha is often credited as the mastermind of the Ottoman Empire's last great push into the Indian Ocean. Aside from his political achievements, Sokollu was also very interested in the arts and sciences, which led to several important contributions. For example, he often funded paintings by renowned Veronese artists as well as imported glassware from Italian artisans. He also worked together with prominent Ottoman geographers and historians of his time, including Feridun Ahmed Beg, Sipahazade Mahmed, and Kutbeddin Mekki. Other elements of his architectural legacy include: The Azapkapi Mosque, built by Sinan in 1577–1578 in the Azapkapi district of İstanbul, is considered most important Ottoman monument in Galata. The Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Kulliyesi, built by Sinan in ca. 1572 in the Eyub district of İstanbul, is a complex including a medrese, a school and his tomb The Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Complex built in 1549 and extended at 1569, both times by Sinan. Located on the main highway between the two Ottoman capitals of İstanbul and Edirne, at Luleburgaz, it is a complex of caravanserai, bathhouse, mosque, madrasah, a school, market streets and later, private apartments for Sultan's use. Complexes built at Havsa, a city on the Istanbul-Edirne highway and in Payas, in southern Turkey near Antakya. Bridges at Alpullu, Luleburgaz and Corlu, built by Sinan The bridge at Arslanagića Most in Trebinje Vizier's bridge in Podgorica The bridge on Žepa and the Goat's Bridge (Kozija ćuprija) in Sarajevo Public bathhouses in Havsa, Yesildirek (İstanbul), Edirne and Luleburgaz public bathhouses, built by Sinan The Black Mosque in Sofia, built by Mimar Sinan during the years when Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was governor of Rumelia and later converted into a church in the 19th century A Road of four paces and a castle between Višegrad and Sarajevo, on Glasinac. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remains, which is known as the Mehmed Sokolović's han. A mosque, maktab and musafirhana (guest house) in his native village of Sokolovići Personal life On 17 August 1562, Sokollu Mehmed married Princess Ismihan Sultan, who was the daughter of Price Selim and granddaughter of Sultan Suleiman. Some sources often refer to her with the alternative pronunciation Esma Han Sultan. Ismihan was also a member of a royal family in Venice, which made her a very influential person in the Mediterranean. The connections that Mehmed gained through his marriage with Ismihan lasted for years and proved to be a valuable piece to his success as a politician, even during the war between Venice and the Ottomans in the 1570s. [15] Mehmed spent the following years in peace, governing and administrating the realm. Mehmed's nephew, Sokolu Mustafa Bey, was also a prominent politician, who became Viceroy of the Eyalet of Bosnia in 1564. It is said that Sokollu learned many lessons and refined his expansionist strategies under the influence of Seydi Reis. One of the most important pieces of knowledge that was passed on to Sokollu was that the Ottoman Empire was an all-time high across the region. See also Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque List of Ottoman Grand Viziers References Sources The Sokollu Family Clan and the Politics of Vizierial Households in the Second Half of Sixteenth Century by Uros Dakic, Central European University, Budapest, 2012 A Forgetten Brigehead between Rome, Venice, and the Ottoman Empire: Cattaro and the Balkan Missions in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries by Antal Molnár, 2014 Bibliography R. Samardžić, Mehmed Sokolović, t. 1–2, Łódź 1982 External links Photos of Sokollu Mehmet Pasa Mosque at Kadirga, Constantinople A lecture about Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (in Serbian) 1506 births 1579 deaths 16th-century Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire Pashas People of the Ottoman Empire of Serbian descent Converts to Islam from Eastern Orthodoxy Former Serbian Orthodox Christians Bosnia and Herzegovina soldiers Ottoman period in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina Muslims Slavs of the Ottoman Empire Devşirme Suleiman the Magnificent Grand Viziers of Suleiman the Magnificent Kapudan Pashas Ottoman governors of Rumelia Janissaries Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian Wars Assassinations in the Ottoman Empire People from Višegrad Ottoman Serbia Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Rainbow Gatherings are temporary, loosely knit communities of people, who congregate in remote forests around the world for one or more weeks at a time with the stated intention of living a shared ideology of peace, harmony, freedom, and respect. In the original invitation, spread throughout the United States in 1971, the "Rainbow Family Tribe" referred to themselves as "brothers & sisters, children of God", "Families of life on Earth", "Friends of Nature & of all People" and "Children of Humankind". All races, nations, politicians, etc. were invited in the desire that there could be peace among all people. The goal was to create what they believed was a more satisfying culture — free from consumerism, capitalism, and mass media — one that would be non-hierarchical, that would further world peace, and serve as a model for reforms to mainstream society. However, the values actually exhibited by the group have at times varied quite a bit from this ideal, with recent decades showing increasing levels of crime at the events, and some organizers stating the core principles have been modified, and become more mainstream, in an effort to attract more people. Influenced by 1960s counterculture and the non-commercial rock festivals of the early 1970s, Rainbow is a "revitalization movement" with many philosophies and practices that have roots in the historic utopian traditions of the mid–19th century. The first Rainbow Gathering was held in Colorado, U.S. in 1972 and was attended by more than 20,000 people. In the 1980s, gatherings started to form outside of North America as autonomous, but connected events around the world. Media coverage of Rainbow Gatherings has been unfavorable since the 1980s when journalists started to describe Rainbow Family members in terms such as "aging hippies", "grown-up flower children", or "middle-aged white folks". In the 2000s, the media focus shifted to the increase in crime in the local communities closest to Gatherings, ranging from petty crimes like retail theft to violent assaults and serious traffic charges, such as driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Despite the movement's environmentalist and pacifist aspirations, Gatherings, which are typically held in national forests and other ecologically sensitive areas, are portrayed by media as having a deleterious impact on the local environment and participants have thus developed a reputation for excessive drug and alcohol use, disruptive and criminal activity, and for their cultural appropriation and misrepresentation of Native American traditions and beliefs. This has resulted in increased police presence at Gatherings and a poor reception from community members and business owners in nearby towns and reservations. In the U.S., these issues are also contributing factors to the decline in attendance at regional and national Gatherings. Background Rainbow Gatherings and the Rainbow Family of Living Light (usually abbreviated to "Rainbow Family") claim to express utopian impulses, bohemianism, hipster and hippie culture. The gatherings have roots clearly traceable to the counterculture of the 1960s. Rainbow Gatherings have their own jargon, which helps to create a sense of community and express their thoughts on society and social justice. In particular, mainstream society is commonly referred to and viewed as "Babylon", a term from the Christian New Testament connoting the participants' widely held belief that modern lifestyles and systems of government are unhealthy, unsustainable, exploitative and out of harmony with the natural systems of the planet. History The original Rainbow Gathering was in 1972, and since then gatherings have been held annually in the United States from July 1 through 7 every year on National Forest land. Throughout the year, regional and international gatherings are held in the United States and in many other places around the world. The first Rainbow Gathering of the Tribes, a four-day event in Colorado in the United States in July 1972, was organized by youth counterculture "tribes" based in Northern California and the Pacific Northwest. Twenty thousand people faced police roadblocks, threatened civil disobedience, and were allowed onto National Forest land. This was intended to be a one-time event; however, a second gathering in Wyoming the following year materialized, at which point an annual event was declared. The length of the gatherings has since expanded beyond the original four-day span, as have the number and frequency of the gatherings. Although groups from California and the Northwest region of the U.S. were heavily involved in the first Rainbow Gathering, the U.S. Southeast was strongly represented as well. At least 2,600 people from throughout that region attended and provided support for the 1972 Rainbow Gathering of the Tribes on Strawberry Lake, above Granby, Colorado. There was also strong representation from other regions of the U.S. In 2017, the United States gathering was held near the Malheur National Forest in eastern Oregon. Between 10,000 and 18,000 attended the multi-day event, near Flagtail Meadow, with the largest crowds expected on July 4. The 50th Annual Rainbow Gathering takes place in Taos County, New Mexico, in July, 2021. Social aspects Non-commercialism As Michael Niman notes, "Rainbow Gatherings, as a matter of principle, are free and non-commercial." Using money to buy or sell anything at Rainbow Gatherings is taboo. There are no paid organizers, although there are volunteers ("focalizers") who are crucial to setting up the gathering site. Participants are expected to contribute money, labor, and/or material. All labor is voluntary and never formally compensated; conversely, there is no monetary cost or prior obligation required to attend a Rainbow Gathering. Aside from taking up collections (the "Magic Hat" in Rainbow parlance) for essential items purchased from the local community, there is little or no exchange of currency internally at a Gathering. The primary principle is that necessities should be freely shared, while luxuries can be traded. A designated trading area is a feature at most U.S. Gatherings. It is called "trading circle" if it is circular and "barter lane" if it is linear. Frequently traded items include items such as sweets (often referred to as "zuzus"), books, zines, crystals, rocks, gems, and handcrafts. In some rare cases people may even trade marijuana or smoking pipes (usually when no police are in the area). Snickers bars have emerged as a semi-standardized unit of exchange at some gatherings. Non-membership There are no official leaders, no formal structure, no official spokespersons, and no membership. Some rainbow family participants make the claim that the family is the "largest non-organization of non-members in the world". In addition to referring to itself as a non-organization, the Rainbow Family of Living Light's "non-members" also playfully call the movement a "disorganization". However, there is a changing network of "focalizers" who take responsibility for passing on Rainbow information year-round, and serve as contacts if listed in the Rainbow Guide. Consensus process Gatherings are loosely maintained by open, free form counsel circles consisting of any "non-members" who wish to be part of a conversation, which use consensus process for making decisions. According to the Mini-manual, "Recognized Rainbow guidelines come from only one source, a main Counsel circle at the annual gatherings." Talking circles are also a feature of rainbow gatherings. Each participant in the circle talks in turn while all others present listen in silence. A ritual talking stick, feather or other object is passed around the circle to allow everyone the opportunity to speak without being interrupted; this is a custom borrowed from Indigenous peoples of North America. Creativity and spirituality One of the central features of the annual U.S. gathering is silent meditation on the morning of the Fourth of July, with attendees gathering in a circle in the Main Meadow. At approximately noon the assembly begins a collective "Om" which is ended with whooping and a celebration. A parade of children comes from the Kiddie Village, singing and dancing into the middle of the circle. Many spiritual traditions are represented, often with their own kitchen, from Hare Krishnas to Orthodox Jews to several denominations of Christianity and many others. Spiritually, there is a strong tradition of Cultural appropriation, with the largely white attendees performing their ideas of Indigenous ceremonies, African drumming, Rastafari, Eastern religions, Neopaganism, and freethought. New Age beliefs are prevalent. Many members express a desire to find "higher self-awareness", to become one with nature and their fellow humans, or connect to a universal consciousness. Native American leaders of several tribes have spoken out against the Rainbows' misappropriation of their religious ceremonies as well as their trespassing onto Native sacred sites. Creative events may include variety shows, campfire singing, fire-juggling, and large or small art projects. At one gathering, a cable car was rigged to carry groups of four quickly across a meadow. Faerie Camp was "alive with hundreds of bells and oddly illuminated objects." Musicians and music pervade all Gatherings, at kitchens, on the trails, and at campfires. Gathering logistics The Rainbow Family has governed Gatherings of up to 30,000 people. Regional Rainbow gatherings can attract as many as 5,000. The U.S. annual rainbow gathering occurs around July 1-7th, but people come up to a month earlier to help set up (this is known as "Seed Camp") and remain on-site up to a month later to participate in cleanup and to perform site restorations. Although each event is more or less anarchic, practical guidelines have been reached through the consensus process and are documented in a "Mini-manual". Items that are strongly discouraged, by some, at gatherings include firearms, alcohol, tobacco, and pets. Other items that tend to be discouraged include radios, tape players, sound amplifiers, and power tools. Camps and kitchens Camps and kitchens are the basic community units of the Gathering. Camps may be based on regional, spiritual, or even dietary commonalities. For example, Kid Village attracts attendees with children, Tea Time specializes in serving herbal teas, Jesus Camp has a Christian foundation. Some kitchens such as the Turtle Soup Kitchen serve predominantly vegetarian meals. Lovin' Ovens is a kitchen that craft ovens out of metal drums, clay, and mud in the area and will cook food such as pizza (meat, vegetarian, and vegan) and different types of bread and snacks. Nic@Nite is a camp that focuses on the sharing of tobacco and tobacco-related products. Not all camps are kitchens, but all kitchens are camps. In addition to feeding passers-by, kitchens send food to the one or two large communal, predominantly vegetarian meals served daily in the main meadow. Water and sanitation Drinking water is filtered at gatherings, both by small pump filters and large gravity-feed devices. Attendees are encouraged also to boil drinking water. Water is often tapped at a source (such as a spring or stream) and runs hundreds of yards to main kitchens in the gathering via plastic hosing. Sanitation has historically been a major concern at Rainbow Gatherings. Human waste is deposited in latrine trenches (typically referred to as 'shitters') and treated with lime and ash from campfires. New latrines are dug and filled in daily. However sanitation may still be inadequate: the 1987 gathering in North Carolina experienced a large outbreak of highly contagious shigellosis (a.k.a. dysentery), and a smaller outbreak occurred in association with a 2018 gathering in Poland. C.A.L.M. C.A.L.M., or the Center for Alternative Living Medicine, is the primary group of doctors at Rainbow Gatherings who assist people with health and wellness and take responsibility for medical emergencies and sanitation of those who attend these large gatherings. It is an all volunteer, non-hierarchical group encompassing both mainstream, conventional medicine and alternative medicine, such as naturopathic healing modalities. It is common to find physicians working with herbalists, EMTs helping massage therapists and naturopaths coordinating with Registered Nurses on patient care. C.A.L.M. works closely with Shanti Sena, as they are often the first on the scene in a crisis. There is usually one main C.A.L.M. camp near the inner part of the gatherings and smaller first aid stations set up around the Gatherings. Even those without medical experience are encouraged to help with things such as procuring water and cooking for the healers, who are often too busy to attend main circle or visit other kitchens. In case of any emergency, CALM can be contacted on FRS Channel 3 (no tones, 462.6125 MHz UHF) and other site-specific radio frequencies. Shanti Sena Within the Rainbow Gathering, security, conflict resolution, and emergency situations are handled by Shanti Sena ("peace army"), which includes anyone who is capable of helping at that time. Shanti Sena also sometimes act as liaisons to observers and law enforcement officers who patrol the Rainbow Gathering, often tracking the movements of police and park rangers through the gathering, and overseeing the interactions between officers and people attending the gathering to ensure that neither group instigates or takes part in illegal or inflammatory confrontations. This type of interference with police operations resulted in numerous arrests in the 1987 gathering in North Carolina, with state, federal and local officers being assaulted, blocked from patrol areas and threatened. The Shanti Sena at the '87 gathering were characterized by local, state, and federal officers as a criminal gang and were suspected to have collaborated in the assault on an Asheville Citizen-Times reporter. Several gathering members who reported they had been expelled from the gathering called the Shanti Sena "gestapo" and thugs. In some particularly serious situations, Shanti Sena have collaborated with law enforcement (although without violating the Gathering's principle of consensus). For example, a gathering regular and wanted murder suspect, Joseph Geibel, was peacefully approached by Shanti Sena and transferred to police custody at the 1998 gathering. The phrase is also used as a call for aid. If individuals find themselves in a dispute, they can shout "Shanti Sena". Everyone within earshot is expected to then approach the scene calmly, deescalate where possible, and eventually reach a consensus agreement to settle the dispute. Difficulties and criticisms Difficulties include: The often unacknowledged class and power structures of the Rainbow community and its events. The phenomenon of "Drainbows"—individuals who are perceived to not give sufficiently of their labor or other resources for the common good, but rather are only consuming the social benefits a Rainbow gathering offers (a classic cooperation problem). Relationships with both the Forest Service as well as local communities and other stakeholders in National Forest lands (both commercial interests as well as local environmentalists, who are often concerned about Gathering impacts). The Spring Council of the Rainbow Family does not inform the U.S. Forest Service of the gathering location until a few days prior to the event. Damage to forest lands, campgrounds and facilities, with human waste, trash and other mess such as abandoned vehicles. Occasionally the site selection process does not run smoothly resulting in a split gathering (1993); or in very low attendance either due to a dispute over the legitimacy of the site (2015) or in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. In recent years, there have been increasing reports of drifters and vagrants who attach themselves to gatherings where they engage in hard drug use, sexual assault, theft and violence. In 2014, Heber City, Utah police arrested Leilani Novak-Garcia, known as "Hitler", who repeatedly stabbed a man at the annual gathering after he tried to stop her honking her car horn. Ms. Garcia pleaded no contest to the charges and served 300 days in jail. Jose Antonio Ramos, who was identified in 1985 and again in 2004 as the primary suspect in the Disappearance of Etan Patz, attended and was removed from the Rainbow Gathering twice in the 1980s and was convicted of molesting an 8-year-old boy at a gathering in Pennsylvania. Rainbow elder Barry Adams helped to identify and convict Ramos. Ramos served a 20-year prison sentence in the State Correctional Institution in Dallas, Pennsylvania for child molestation. He was released from prison on November 7, 2012. Soon after his release he was arrested on a Megan's Law violation. Cost to local and federal governments Costs local jurisdictions must bear. For example, the 2013 gathering in Beaverhead County, Montana experienced uncollectible patient charges for emergency room care and additional costs incurred at the county's hospital, which totaled an estimated $175,000. Cost to federal government of $573,000 according to Tim Walther, assistant special agent in charge of law enforcement for the Forest Service. A total of 850 incident reports, written warnings and citations were recorded during the event. Of these, 405 incident reports were written up for Rainbow people not following the operational plan agreed upon by the Rainbows and the Forest Service. Relations with law enforcement In 2016, the American Civil Liberties Union in Vermont issued a report expressing concern over federal law enforcement activities which the ACLU describe as "overzealous" and "unconstitutional". The ACLU-VT sent letters to law enforcement officials calling for an end to the illegal targeting of Rainbow Gathering attendees expressing First Amendment rights on public land. In an October 2008 report the American Civil Liberties Union stated, "The U.S. Forest Service systematically harasses people who attend Rainbow Family gatherings on public lands." All major gatherings in the United States are held on National Forest land, which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Forest Service, a federal agency with its own federal law enforcement officers. County sheriffs have concurrent jurisdiction on all forest lands, as do county police and local police depending on location, community boundaries and locals laws. So too do state law enforcement agencies, namely state wildlife wardens, state troopers and state police or bureaus of investigation. Many local gatherings occur in remote areas, with county sheriffs being the primary response. They often request deputies from neighboring counties and officers from area police departments. Additionally, it is common for state conservation and wildlife officers and state troopers to deploy. The Forest Service has often received assistance from the FBI, US Marshalls for fugitives, DEA for drug trafficking and other federal agencies. The USFS has tried to prevent these gatherings from taking place because it denies all others access to the forest and the surrounding area for the duration of the gathering or insisted that a group-use permit be signed, contending that this is standard practice for large groups wishing to camp on public land and that it is necessary to protect public safety and the local environment. Gathering organizers generally contend that the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights give them the right to peaceably assemble on public land and that requiring a permit would violate that basic right by turning it into a privilege to be regulated. In 1984, the Forest Service enacted a regulation requiring a permit for any expressive assembly of ten or more people on Forest Service lands. This was unenforced for a year and a half before the Service attempted to apply it to the gathering in Arizona in 1986. Judge Bilby called attention to the selective enforcement of the regulation, and in any case ruled it unconstitutional, in part because it required expressive assemblies, but not non-expressive ones, to obtain permits. The U.S. government has in the past pressured individuals to be representatives of the Gathering (e.g., to sign a permit), however, this is in violation of the well-established Rainbow principle that "no individual may officially represent the Family as a whole." A number of court cases have resulted from both Forest Service prosecutions and Rainbow Family-inspired legal actions against enforcement activities; the Forest Service found itself rebuffed by the judge in a defendant class suit originating from the 1987 North Carolina gathering, among other defeats. A notable account of Gathering relations with law enforcement, Judge Dave and the Rainbow People, was written by U.S. Federal Judge David Sentelle. The book provides a first hand account of Sentelle's role in presiding over the 1987 case brought by the State of North Carolina in an attempt to stop the Gathering, including site visits to the Gathering and related legal actions. Garrick Beck, a Rainbow Family member involved in the 1987 case, wrote an afterword to the book in which he expresses agreement with Sentelle's characterizations. In that particular gathering, numerous state arrests were made for breaches of the peace, alcohol and traffic violations and interfering with officers. The federal court allowed the NC gathering to continue, but when members overstayed their time allocation, they were forcibly removed and arrested by state and federal officers. Damage to the Slick Rock area of Nantaha National Forest was estimated to be in the tens of thousands of dollars. An outbreak of bloody diarrhea occurred and at least two kidnapped minors were rescued from the camp in 2 separate incidents. The Forest Service has dealt with the scale of the US Annual Rainbow Gathering in the past by assigning a Type 2 National Incident Management Team (NIMT). Around 40 personnel from the NIMT have been assigned in the past, including NIMT members, Forest Service law enforcement officers (LEOs) and resource advisors. Because the Rainbow Gathering has utilized the land in the past without required consent from the Forest Service, the gatherings have been given special attention, as under current Forestry rules and regulations they may occur illegally. In 1999 and again in 2000, the NIMT selected three gathering participants who were charged with "use or occupancy of National Forest System lands without authorization." The citation carried a maximum penalty of six months and a $5,000 fine; the charges originally could have been cleared by paying a $100 fine. Instead, they all chose to fight it in court, but lost their appeals. The three 1999 cases were later turned down by the Supreme Court. At the 2008 National Gathering in Wyoming, an incident occurred whereby Forest Service officers tried to arrest a member of the group. A spokeswoman for the U.S. Forest Service said that about 400 participants in the Gathering began to advance, throwing sticks and rocks at the officers, although this was disputed by Gathering participants and video evidence. Pepper balls were then fired to control the crowd. Witnesses reported that officers pointed weapons at children and fired rubber bullets at gathering participants. The ACLU produced a report following their investigation of the incident in which they were critical of the officers for a pattern of harassment and using overzealous enforcement techniques, using small violations as a pretense for larger searches. Alcohol According to the guidelines, or Raps of the Rainbow Gathering, open and public consumption of alcohol is discouraged by many people at the gatherings with respect for others being the primary reason. A distinguishing characteristic of the U.S. annual gatherings is "A-Camp," (commonly, and mistakenly, thought to mean "alcohol camp") typically located near the front gate, where some of those who want to openly drink alcohol usually stay, yet public drinking is generally accepted in most camps close to the road. Gatherings in Europe do not have "A-Camps." Some gatherings in Canada have "A-Camps" and some do not. Wine is tolerated in moderation at some European gatherings, particularly in France, where it is customary to drink wine with the evening meal. Confusion over Hopi legend There has been a longstanding Rainbow rumor that the Gathering is recognized by the elders of the Hopi people as the fulfillment of an ancient Hopi prophecy (some versions substitute Hopi with the Ojibwe people). Sometimes referred to as the Legend of the Rainbow Warriors, it was debunked as fakelore by writer Michael Niman in the 1997 book, People of the Rainbow: A Nomadic Utopia. While researching the legend, Niman interviewed Thomas Banyaca, a Hopi selected by elders in the 1950s to interpret and pass on Hopi prophecies. According to Niman, Banyaca was "puzzled about the supposed Hopi prophecy" and said, "It's not right...We hope they will stop it". Although Banyaca was unfamiliar with the Rainbow Family, he was aware of the Rainbow Warrior myth and said it was invented by two non-Native, Evangelical Christians, William Willoya and Vinson Brown. Willoya and Brown had briefly met with Banyaca before publishing Warriors of the Rainbow in 1962, a Christian tract in which they fabricated the Rainbow Warrior concept, claiming it was an ancient Native American legend and a prophecy about the Second Coming of Christ. According to Niman, the rainbow in Willoya and Brown's version was a reference to the rainbow in the Book of Genesis. Niman described the source as purveying "covert anti-Semitism throughout" and that, "If anything, it was an attack on Native culture...an attempt to evangelize within the Native American community". He said Rainbows who likely don't recognize the Biblical overtones continue to cite Warriors of the Rainbow and mischaracterize it as containing a message that aligns with the Rainbow ideology, often inventing entirely new versions of the myth that they still attribute to Willoya and Brown's 1962 tract. Cultural misappropriation In 2015, a group of Native American academics and writers issued a statement against the Rainbow Family members who are "appropriating and practicing faux Native ceremonies and beliefs. These actions, although Rainbows may not realize, dehumanize us as an indigenous Nation because they imply our culture and humanity, like our land, is anyone’s for the taking." The signatories specifically named this misappropriation as "cultural exploitation." Deaths In 1980, the bodies of two women were found after the gathering at Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia and members were questioned about possible involvement. They had been shot dead during the gathering. There had been tension between local residents and the "hippies", and police concluded local men led by Greenbrier County resident Jacob Beard were responsible. Beard was convicted in 1999, but exonerated on appeal in 2000 and received a $2 million settlement for wrongful conviction. White supremacist Joseph Paul Franklin confessed to the murders but later revealed he had just read about them. The killers remain at large and filmmaker Julia Huffman is working on a documentary, The Rainbow Murders, hoping to bring more facts to light. In July 2011, a woman named Marie Hanson, from South Lake Tahoe, California went missing in Skookum Meadow, Washington state while attending the 2011 Rainbow Gathering at Gifford Pinchot National Forest. The local Sheriff's office reportedly initially refused to use tracking dogs at the site, stating they were not certain a crime had taken place. After pleas by the Hanson family and the Rainbow Family, a series of 4 searches by Rainbow Family members, law enforcement and the Hanson Family took place during late summer and fall of 2011. In October 2011, human remains and jewelry were found near the woman's campsite. It was later confirmed that the remains were those of Marie Hanson. In 2011, three unrelated fatalities occurred at Rainbow Gatherings, including two fatalities at the 2011 Washington State national Rainbow Gathering. The Washington State deaths were those of Amber Kellar, a 28-year-old Californian who died of a preexisting medical condition, and Steve Pierce, a 50-year-old Californian who died of a fatal heart attack. In February 2011, a man drowned in a Farles Prairie pond during a regional Rainbow Gathering in Ocala National Forest, Florida. In 2015, at a regional gathering at Apalachicola National Forest in Florida, 24-year-old Rainbow member Wesley "Dice" Jones was shot and paralyzed by Clark Mayers, 39, of Milledgeville, Georgia. Another member, Jacob Cardwell, known as "Smiley", threw himself over Dice and was himself shot and killed. Other Family members then beat and stabbed Mayers, who spent two weeks in the hospital before being moved to jail where he was charged with first-degree murder. Authorities ordered the encampment vacated. The group complied after holding a prayer meeting. In July 2018, Joseph Bryan Capstraw, 20, was arrested in Elizabethtown, Kentucky after confessing to the murder of a woman he met at a Rainbow Gathering in Lumpkin County, Georgia the week before. Police say the woman, identified as 18-year-old Amber Robinson of Florida, hitchhiked with Capstraw after leaving the Gathering and was beaten to death by him after an altercation. In February 2021, Larry "Frank" Dugger, who was attending a Rainbow Gathering at the Ocala National Forest, was shot and killed by an unknown assailant. Gatherings outside the United States Gatherings are routinely held all over the world, on every continent (excluding Antarctica). European gatherings There is an annual European gathering and many European countries host their own national or regional gatherings. The first European Rainbow Gathering was organized in 1983 in Val Campo, Ticino, Switzerland. The 2007 European gathering, the 25th recurrence of that annual event, took place in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The subsequent European Gatherings took place in Serbia (2008), Ukraine (2009) and Finland (2010). In 2010, there were also two Rainbow Gatherings in the Canary Islands, Spain. The first was held near the northern coast of La Palma and the second was held on Gran Canaria. The 2011 Gathering was in Portugal, 2012 in Slovakia, 2013 in Greece, the 2014 gathering in Romania, the 2015 gathering in Lithuania, 2016 in the Alps, 2017 in Italy, 2018 in Poland, 2019 in Sweden. The 2020 European Gathering took place in Estonia. In 2021 the gathering was held in France. Note that the 2017 gathering in Italy was connected to several typhoid cases in France, Germany, and Slovenia. World gatherings World Gatherings have been held in Australia, Zimbabwe, Brazil, Costa Rica, Canada, Turkey, Thailand, China, New Zealand, Argentina, Guatemala, Mexico, Hungary, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Taiwan, and Colombia. Approximately 3,000 people attended the 2000 World Gathering in Australia, held on farmland in Boonoo Boonoo State Forest, in northern New South Wales. The 2009 World Gathering was held outside Murchison, New Zealand, 2011 in Argentina, 2012 it began in Brazil, where the gatherers caravaned to Guatemala and completed the second half of the WRG, carrying their vision counsel finally to Palenque, Mexico. In 2013, it was once again held in Canada, on Vancouver Island in the western province of British Columbia. 2014 WRG was in Hungary. 2015 WRG was in Egypt, Sinai. 2016 in Ethiopia. World Rainbow Gathering May 2017 was at Jengglungharjo, Indonesia. 2018 World Rainbow Gathering was in Hualien county in Taiwan. 2019 World Rainbow Gathering was be in Chimila, in the Sierra Nevadas of Colombia. The 2020 World Rainbow Gathering was to be in Siberia, Russia, but was postponed to 2021. In 2021 due to travel restrictions upon entering Russia the vision council decided to make it in December in Mexico. References Further reading External links Rainbow Family of Living Light Unofficial Home Page Field recordings from rainbow gatherings Clothing-optional events Counterculture Counterculture festivals Hippie movement Recurring events established in 1972 Temporary populated places Cultural appropriation

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Westgate Sindjelic Football Club or Srpski sportski klub Sindjelić (Serbian Cyrillic: Српски спортски клуб Синђелић; English: Serbian Sporting Club Sindjelić), commonly known as Westgate or Sindjelić, is a Serbian Australian association football club located in Ardeer, Melbourne. The club plays in the Victorian State League 2 North-West. Founded on 18 February 1985 as Royal Richmond, with its home ground based at Burnley Oval in the suburb of Richmond. In 1986, the club changed its home venue to Yarraville Oval and officially converted the club named to Westgate FC by 1987. The club won its first trophy in 1987 after winning the Victorian State League Division 2. Westgate FC have twice been crowned champions of the Victorian State League Cup and have won the Karadjordje Cup a record five times. History 1985 – Inaugural season Upon the club's foundation, they would compete in the Victorian State League Division 2 under the name Royal Richmond. Their home matches were played at Burnley Oval in the suburb of Richmond. The club's first ever goal scorer in an official league match was Tony Marchett, who scored in the 50th minute of Royal Richmond's Round 1 fixture against Waverley City on 23 March. The club eventually went on to be defeated 2–1, having been winning 1–0. Marchett would score again in the next fixture, which was a 2–0 away victory against Keilor Austria on 30 March. Dragan Vasic would get his name on the score sheet for the next three fixtures, himself and Tony Marchett would play a major part in scoring for the club throughout the duration of the season. After a series of many defeats, including a 4–0 home victory against South Oakleigh on 8 June, the club gained an important 3 points when defeating Dandenong City 2–0 away on 15 June, with goals coming from Dragan Vasic and Jim Kondarios. In Round 15, Royal Richmond gained another crucial 3 points to avoid relegation when they defeated Keilor Austria 2–0 at home on 29 June. From this match onwards, Royal Richmond went on to avoid defeat for the next seven matches, with Dragan Vasic netting six times out of the six fixtures, including an important 3–2 home victory against Coburg on 21 September. Having been un beaten for a total of eight consecutive weeks, the club suffered a 3–0 home defeat against Eltham on 17 August. After draws with South Melbourne, Sandringham and South Oakleigh, a win was needed to avoid relegation in their last round. In Round 26, Royal Richmond defeated Dandenong City 3–2 at home on 14 September, with a double from Dragan Vasic. The club finished their inaugural season 8th position with 22 points, 3 points from relegation, having won 8 matches, drawn 6 times and lost 12. 1986 In 1986, the club continued in the Victorian State League Division 2, the 1986 season being the last one in which they participated under the club name 'Royal Richmond'. In the 1986 season, the club used Yarraville Oval as their venue for home matches. Royal Richmond drew their first two fixtures before defeating Keilor Park 4–0 at home in round 3 on 5 April, with Dragan Vasic with three goals in the three fixtures and Tony Marchett with two. Vasic went on a goal-scoring stint from Round 5 to Round 12, netting 14 goals in 8 consecutive matches. In Round 17, Tony Marchett scored a hat-trick, becoming the first player to ever do so for the club, in a 4–0 home victory against Moreland Park Rangers on 12 July. The club finished the last round of the season with a 1–0 away victory against Bulleen on 13 September, with a goal from Dragan Vasic. The club finished in 5th position of the table with 30 points. Vasic concluded the 1986 season with 22 as the leading goal scorer of the Victorian State League Division 2. 1987 – First league title Under the name 'Westgate FC', the club began the 1987 Victorian State League Division 2 season with a 3–0 home victory against North Geelong Warriors on 28 March, Pedro Gasco (top player) scored a double. In the following fixtures, Westgate were thrashed 5–1 away against Prahran City on 4 April, with Pedro Gasco again scoring. By Round 5, Westgate had obtained three consecutive wins with Pedro Gasco netting in each match, totalling to six goals in five matches. In Round 10, Westgate recorded their biggest ever win, a 7–1 home victory against Eltham on 30 May, Tony Marchett scored a double and Pedro Gasco also got his name on the score sheet. Two fixtures later, Westgate demolished Doveton 4–0 at home on 13 June, with two goals from Pedro Gasco. Gasco again scored another double in the following fixture, which saw Westgate defeat Morington 5–3 away on 20 June. After suffering two defeats throughout a handful of matches, Westgate continued their winning ways with a 5–1 home victory against Hamlyn Rangers on 18 July. In the following fixture, Westgate would snare off a challenge from Dandenong City in a 1–0 away victory on 25 July, the goal coming from former National Soccer League and Australian national team player Joe Picioane. In Round 26, Westgate defeated Mornington 7–2 at home on 19 September, with Tony Marchett recording a total of 6 goals in the match. A Round 20 fixture against Altona City was re-scheduled to be played at the end of the season. Prior to the fixture, Westgate were standing in third position of the Victorian State League Division 2 table, needing just 1 point in order to gain promotion to the Victorian State League Division 1. A win would see them crowned champions of the entire league, topping both Mooroolbark and Sandringham City, who both sat equal on top with 37 points. The match was played at Altona City's home, as they took an early lead in the match. Westgate eventually finished the game winning 3–1, ending the 1987 season in first place of the Victorian State League Division 2 with 38 points, 1 point ahead of joint second placed Mooroolbark and Sandringhan City and 3 points ahead of North Geelong Warriors. After just three years of experience in Victoria's stage leagues, Westgate FC gained promotion to the Victorian State League Division 1 for the 1988 season, a league in which they would serve for the next 15 seasons. Pedro Gasco netted a total of 18 league goals for the club and was the leading goal scorer of the entire league. Joe Picioane was also awarded with the Best and Fairest award of the entire league. 1988 – Division 1 and first cup title Westgate's season concluded in 7th position of the 1988 Victorian State League Division 1 table with a total of 28 points. Westgate's 1988 season kicked off with a 1–0 away victory against Nunawading on 2 April, with Tony Marchett scoring. The season would consist of regular wins and losses, before Westgate went on an undefeated streak from Round 11 to Round 14, notably beating Nunawading City 4–0 at home on 2 July, with Chris Andriotis scoring a double. In Round 18, Westgate would thrash Richmond 6–0 at home on 30 July, with Tony Marchett scoring a double. Westgate also claimed their first State League Cup title, after former South Melbourne striker Chris Andriotis netted in a 1–0 victory against Mooroolbark in the final. 1989 Westgate's 1989 season commenced with two straight losses and one draw. The club earned their first 3 points in Round 4 in a 1–0 home victory against Albion on 22 April, with 1989 Victorian League Division One – Season Results </ref> Number of draws and losses continued, including a 4–0 defeat away against Sandringham City on 27 May in Round 9. In the following round, Westgate earned just their second league win of the season in a 1–0 home victory against Broadmeadows City on 3 June, with a goal from Milan Vlatokovic. Vlatkovic again scored in the following fixture, a 1–0 away victory against Essendon on 10 June. In Round 16, Westgate earned a crucial 3 points in a 2–1 home victory against Mooroolbark on 15 July. As of Round 19, Westgate then went undefeated until Round 23, recording an important 5–0 away victory against Mordialloc on 20 August and conceding just one goal within the 4 rounds. Westgate went on to lose their last two matches of the season and concluded the competition in 8th position, with 25 points, just 3 points from being relegated. 1990s From 1988 to 2002 (15 seasons) they competed in Victorian State League Division 1. In 2002 Wesgate finished 10th, and had to go into a play-off to remain in the division. The club also made an appearance in the final of the Harry Armstrong (Reserves) Cup in 1993. The game was played as a curtain raiser to the Dockerty Cup final between Heidelberg United and South Melbourne at Olympic Park. 2000s The 2000 Victorian State League Division 1 season saw Westgate defeated 5–3 away to Westvale in Round 1, before defeating Springvale White Eagles 1–0 at home in Round 2. Westgate went on to suffer 8 consecutive defeats, including a 4–0 home defeat against Frankston Pines in Round 8 and a 5–0 away defeat against Essendon in Round 10. They ended their losing streak with a 4–3 home victory against Doncaster Rovers in Round 11, and the following week, Darryl Spiteri netted a hat-trick at home in a 3–1 victory against Westvale in Round 12. In the following fixture, Tony Lingurovski netted a double and Darryl Spiteri also found his name on the scoresheet as Westgate defeated Springvale White Eagles 3–1 away in Round 13. Westgate continued their winning ways when Darryl Spiteri again scored in a 1–0 home victory against Richmond in the following fixture in Round 14. The goal was Spiteri's 5th in three consecutive games and Westgate had gone four weeks without losing. They then suffered two losses and two draws before being defeated 4–2 away against Frankston Pines in Round 19. Westgate went on to lose the next two matches, the second being a 7–0 thrashing at home against Essendon in Round 21, one of the biggest defeats in Westgate's history. Westgate won their last match of the season, a 4–1 away victory against Doncaster Rovers in Round 22, with a hat-trick from Darryl Spiteri and a goal from Robert Georgieski, the win was sufficient enough to avoid relegation. Westgate finished the season towards the bottom half of the table, just 3 points from relegation. Darryl Spiteri had also concluded the season with 12 goals, finishing as the league's 5th leading goal scorer. The 2001 Victorian State League Division 1 began with a 4–2 home defeat against Westvale. Another two losses would follow until Round 4, when Westgate defeated Springvale White Eagles 5–0 away, with Tony Lingurovski scoring a hat-trick. In the following fixture, Westgate again earned 3 points with another 5–0 victory away against Frankston Pines. Westgate would then go on to achieve a 2–0 and a 1–0 victory, keeping a clean sheet for four weeks straight. Unbeaten since Round 3, Westgates undefeated streak was ended in Round 13 in a 1–0 home defeat against Western Suburs. Another two losses followed, followed by a series of two draws and another loss, Westgate did not win another fixture until Round 19 in a 3–0 away victory against Sunshine George Cross, with Tony Lingurovski scoring a hat-trick. Westgate concluded the last 3 fixtures of the season with two draws and a 5–0 home victory against Frankston Strikers on 9 September. Westgate concluded the season in 7th position with 31 points. Tony Lingurovski had scored a total of 14 league goals and finished the season as the league's 3rd leading goal scorer. 2001 – Second cup title Westgate were drawn in Group 6 of the 2001 State League Cup against Keilor Park, Williamstown and North Sunshine Eagles. Westgate would gain 5 points form their group stage, having drawn twice and won in a 5–1 thrashing against Northern Sunshine Eagles on March, with Francisco Vera netting a double. In Round 2 of the competition, Westgate were drawn against Westvale where they would defeat them 3–2 on 17 March. On 25 March, Westgate defeated Whittlesea Stallions 2–0 at the quarter-final stage of the competition. In the semi-final, Westgate faced Northcote City on 16 April, where they would come out winners with a 4–3 result after extra time. Westgate then faced Cranbourne Comets in the 2001 State League Cup final on 25 April, the match was refereed by Senko Rastocic and the venue of the final was SS Anderson Reserve, the stadium of Port Melbourne Sharks. Cranbourne Comets had not conceded a goal during the entire competition, going six games with a clean sheet. Darryl Spiteri, Zoran Kostadinovski and Alex Jovicic were all substituted in during the second half for Westgate as Dusko Delic scored in the 67th minute of the match to win 1–0. 2002 – Relegation to FFV Division 2 Westgate began the 2002 Victorian State League Division 1 campaign with a series of poor results, one loss and two draws, before earning their first 3 points in Round 4 against Springvale White Eagles in a 1–0 home victory on 28 April. They were only able to score 2 goals out of the 4 fixtures. The following two rounds saw Westgate suffer defeats, without being able to score any goals, a 3–0 away loss against Essendon Royals on 4 May and a 2–0 home defeat against Knox City on 11 May. In Round 7, they were able to gain an important 3 points in a 3–1 away victory against Thomastown Devils on 20 May, with goals coming from Kwabena Adomako, Dan Ito and Ernie Tapai. In Round 9, Westgate avoided defeat against Frankston Pines, who eventually won the league and lost just once, after a 0–0 away draw on 1 June. Westgate continued to draw their fixtures, which eventually became a total of 9 as the season concluded. They were able to earn another important 3 points in a 3–1 home victory against Essendon Royals on 20 July. Another series of losses and draws would continue, including another tie with Frankston Pines, which ended 1–1 at home on 18 August. In round 21, Westgate defeat Oakleigh Cannons 1–0 at home on 31 August with a goal from Zdravko Atanasovski and in the following fixture thrashing Lalor United 9–3 away on 7 September with Jim Gacovski scoring three and Quentin O'Grady, Kwabena Adomako and Rene Andersen netting a double each. The 9–3 result recorded the club's highest ever win. Westgate finished the 2002 season third last, with 27 points, needing just 2 points to avoid relegation, and subsequently appeared in the league play-off against North Coburg United, who had finished in 2nd place in the 2002 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West. Over just one-leg of the promotion-relegation play-off, Westgate were defeated 4–2 against North Coburg United on 21 September and, along with Springvale White Eagles and Lalor United, were relegated to the Victorian State League Division 2. 2003–2005 The 2003 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West season began in a positive manner for Westgate, as they obtained 10 points in their first five fixtures, losing just one, and winning three times, including two 4–2 home victories. A series of losses would then following, including a 4–0 thrashing against Williamstown on 7 June in Round 9. This was part of six rounds going without a win, with Westgate losing give times and drawing just once. In Round 12, Westgate earned an important victory against Moreland City in a 3–2 away victory on 28 June, with Daniel Glogovac scoring a double and Alex Jovicic netting to assure Westgate's victory against a team who eventually went on to finish in third place of the table. In the following round, Westgate would record a 5–1 home victory against Croxton Park on 5 July, with Daniel Glogovac again on the scoresheet alongside Sam Bubulj, and Dino Grillo, who scored a hat-trick. Westgate went on to suffer two consecutive 4–1 defeats, before drawing the last two fixtures of the season 2–2 and 3–3, with Dino Grillo scoring three goals in within the two matches. Westgate concluded the season in 9th spot of the Victorian State League Division 2 North-West table, three points from being relegated, with a total of 28 points. Having lost in Round 1 of the 2004 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West season, Westgate obtained 6 points in their next two matches, having won twice, with Con Georgiou scoring 4 goals during both fixtures Westgate went on to draw three times and win once in the next four rounds, with Ivan Filiposki scoring in three out of the four fixtures. Westgate continued their undefeated streak by defeating North Sunshine Eagles 4–2 at home on 5 June and Moreland City 1–0 at home in the following fixtures on 12 June, Ivan Filiposki again netting in both matches. Filiposki scored in the following fixture, a 2–1 away loss against Brunswick City on 19 June, the defeat spelling an end to the club's nine-week undefeated stint. in Round 14, Westgate would win 4–1 away at Corio on 10 July, with two goals from Ivan Filiposki. Filiposki had scored 7 goals in the last 6 consecutive fixtures from Rounds 9 to 14. In Round 17 on 31 July, Westgate recorded a 5–0 home victory against Albion Rovers SC with a double being scored by both Dimce Panev and David Maglovski, Alex Stevanovic would also get on the score sheet. Westgate would then draw once and win twice before losing their last two fixtures of the 2004 season. The season concluded seeing Westgate with 38 points, one point under Keilor Park, finishing in 4th position. Beginning the 2005 season winning their first two fixtures, Westgate would then lose their next two matches. In Round 5 they would draw 3–3 away against North Geelong Warriors, who would eventually go on to win the league and gain promotion, on 30 April, with goals coming from Adrian Caniglia, Con Georgiou and Dejan Tosic. In Round 8, Westgate would thrash Geelong SC 4–1 at home on 13 July, and would win the next three matches 1–0, 1–0 and 2–0. Their four-week winning streak would end on 18 June against Banyule City in a 3–2 away defeat. This defeat would be one of 10 matches that Westgate would lose out of their following 11 fixtures, losing 9 of them consecutively, including a 4–0 away loss against Lalor United on 20 August, and a 2–1 home loss against Thomastown Devils on 30 July, with one of Thomastown's goals being scored by Joe Montagnese, who would go on to coach Westgate in 2014. Despite the club's 11-week winless streak, Westgate finished in 8th position of the 2005 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West season table with 23 points, just a single point clear of being relegated. Second league title and 2007 FFV Division 1 The 2006 season commenced with a 1–0 away victory against Altona City on 1 April. Milan Savic scoring the only goal of the match. In the following match, Westgate would win 4–2 at home against Westvale on 8 April with Dominic Murdaca scoring a double. Westgate continued their winning streak with a 4–1 away victory in Round 3 against Keilor Park on 22 April, with Dominic Murdaca again on the score sheet. Their first loss of the season came in the following fixture on 29 April, a 2–1 home defeat against Lalor United. This loss would be one of just four losses during the entire 2006 season, with Westgate commencing an 11-week unbeaten run as of Round 8 which included a 6-week winning streak which included two 4–0 victories. Westgate eventually suffered a 2–0 away defeat against Yarraville Glory on 19 August in Round 19, however, Westgate had obtained their second league title with three league fixtures remaining. Westgate finished in first place of the Victorian State League Division 2 North-West table with 50 points, 6 points clear of their nearest rivals Keilor Park. Dominic Murdaca had scored 11 goals for Westgate during the 2006 season and was also the leading goal scorer of the league. 2007 Westgate's commencement to the 2007 Victorian State League Division 1 season began slowly, with just 4 points being obtained in the first five rounds. In Round 6, the club would gain an important win to keep them mid-table in a 2–1 away victory against North Geelong Warriors on 19 May. Westgate had been trailing 1–0 until goals from Daniel Glogovac and Marcos Oliveira would help seal the victory. Westgate would go on to win the next two fixtures with clean sheets with two 1–0 results, including an away victory against Hume City, who had been undefeated all season, on 2 June, with a goal from Zdravko Atanasovski. After two consecutive defeats, the club would play out a 3–3 draw with Brunswick City on 23 June to gain 1 point, with Robert Trajanovski scoring all three goals. In the following fixture, Westgate would gain a crucial 3 points after defeating Port Melbourne Sharks in a 2–1 result at home on 30 June to avoid the relegation zone. Both Robert Trajanovski and Zdravko Atanasovski had netted Westgate's goals. In Round 14, Westgate were demolished 6–2 away against Dandenong Thunder on 14 July, the match would be one of three fixtures that Westgate would go on to lose in the next five rounds. Westgate would not record their next win, a crucial one, until Round 19 which was again against Hume City as goals came from Ilce Mladenovski and Boban Pajic. Westgate sealed a 2–1 home victory on 18 August. Ilce Mladenovski would again strike in the following fixture against St. Albans Saints as Westgate defeated their opponents in a 1–0 away victory on 26 August, assuring their presence in the Victorian State League Division 1 for the 2008 season. The club would end the season with a 2–1 away victory against Brunswick City on 8 September in Round 22, with goals coming from Joe De Bono and Michael Maljanek. Westgate concluded the 2007 Victorian State League Division 1 season in 7th place with 30 points, having won 8, drawn 6 and lost 8 fixtures in total. 2008 and 2009 relegation 2008 FFV Division 1 Westgate commenced the 2008 Victorian State League Division 1 season two consecutive loses before gaining their first 3 points in a 4–0 home victory against Springvale White Eagles on 19 April in Round 3, with Boban Pajic scoring twice. In Round 5, Westgate recorder an important 3–1 home victory against Sunshine George Cross on 3 May, with Robert Trajanovski scoring his third goal in three consecutive fixtures. Westgate would then face poor results, drawing four times and losing twice in the next six rounds. They would not get their next win until Round 12 in a 4–1 away victory against Kingston City on 20 June. Westgate would gain just 2 points out of their next 8 fixtures, having suffered 6 loses, including a 7–1 away thumping against Bulleen Royals on 25 August. The club would get its last win of the 2008 season in a 2–0 home victory against Keilor Park on 30 August before being held 1–1 away at Langwarrin on 6 September. Westgate had finished in third last place on the table, with 20 league points, and were relegated alongside Keilor Park and Kingston City. 2009 FFV Division 2 Westgate's 2009 Victorian State League Division 2 campaign got under way on a negative note, with the club obtaining just two points out of its first four fixtures. They would record their first win in Round 5 in a 2–0 away victory against Williamstown on 2 May, with Jamie Porter netting a double. One week later, a 6–2 away thrashing would follow at the hands of North Geelong Warriors on 8 May. David Maglovski would score both of Westgate's goals. Another victory would follow, as Westgate then went on to lose three more matches. In Round 12, the club would secure its third league win in a 4–1 thrashing against Thomastown Devils on 27 June. The club faced a series of draws and losses before earning their last wins in Rounds 20 and 22, with Kwabee Otuo-Acheampong scoring a total of three goals in both fixtures. Westgate were relegated for the second consecutive season, again alongside Keilor Park. Both clubs had finished as the bottom two teams on the 2009 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West table. 2010s 2010 promotion to Division 2 Westgate commenced the 2010 Victorian State League Division 3 with two consecutive draws before obtaining their first win in a 3–2 away victory against Melbourne University Rangers on 24 April, as Volkan Kalayci scored a double. By Round 10, the club would suffer just its third defeat of the season as by that time they had gained 15 points. After two consecutive loses, Westgate defeated Geelong SC 2–1 away from home on 23 July, as Josh D'Alessi would score both goals to keep the club's title hopes alive. Westgate would go on to win the next three fixtures with Henry Nunez scoring in each match, including a 6–1 home thrashing of Essendon United on 14 August, where Josh D'Alessi would score a hat-trick making that his sixth goal in the last four matches. D'Alessi went on to score a double in the next fixture as Westgate were defeated 4–2 away at La Trobe University on 21 August. Westgate would win the next three league matches, conceding just one goal in the process, which clinched them the title and gained them promotion back into the Victorian State League Division 2 North-West for the 2011 season having concluded the season with 40 points, just two points from their nearest rivals Geelong SC. 2011–2013 The club commenced the 2011 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West on a positive note with two wins in their first three matches, with Nana Addo scoring 3 goals in 3 appearances. Westgate earned two important victories in the next four rounds, including a 3–2 home victory against Altona East Phoenix on 30 April, with Josh D'Alessi netting a double. Westgate would comfortably beat Banyule City 4–1 at home on 28 May, before being thrashed 5–1 away against Moreland City in the following fixture on 4 June, with Joe De Bono scoring in both matches for Westgate. The following week, the club faced another 5–1 thrashing away against Ballarat Red Devils on 18 June. By Round 13, the club faced their fourth loss in five matches until a 15th minute Henry Nunez goal in a Round 14 fixture was enough to see the club earn a 1–0 home victory against Williamstown on 16 July. Westgate would then suffer four defeats in the next five fixtures. In Round 21, the club would earn just their seventh win of the 2011 season in a 4–1 home victory against Ballarat Red Devils on 12 September, with Joe De Bono scoring a double. Westgate finished in 9th position on the table, having been deducted 3 points along with Werribee City, Brunswick City, Clifton Hill and Geelong SC, with 21 league points in total. Westgate commenced the 2012 FFV Division 2 season with a 4–1 home victory against Preston Lions on 31 March. In Round 2, the club would be held to a 1–1 away draw against Ballarat Red Devils on 14 April, this draw being one of eleven that Westgate would go on to take with them to the end of the season. In Round 5, the club recorded its second win of the season in a 2–0 away victory against Keilor Park on 12 May, with goals coming from Matthew Italiano and Nemanja Vucic. Westgate would go on to win two out of their next five fixtures, including a 4–2 home victory against La Trobe University on 23 June, with Raffael Origlia scoring a first-half double. Origlia would score in the next fixture as Westgate would be defeated 2–1 away against Moreland City on 30 June, having been 1–0 in front. Westgate went on to suffer two consecutive defeats in their next three fixtures, including a 4–1 home thrashing against Brunswick City on 21 July. In Round 18, Westgate would earn their last match of the 2012 season in a 3–2 home victory against Clifton Hill on 18 August, with goals coming from Matthew Italiano, Raffael Origlia and Kwabee Otuo-Acheampong. The club would draw their last three fixtures of the season before concluding the competition in 7th position of the 2012 Victorian State League Division 2 North-West table, having been deducted one point, ultimately with 25 points. 2014–2017 State League 1 Due to the introduction of Australia's new National Premier League competition, Westgate went from State League 2 North-West to the new State League 1 North-West, but retained its level in the Australian soccer league system as the Premier League was made up of NPL Victoria and NPL Victoria 2. The club participated in its first official competitive fixture in the 2014 Dockerty Cup. It was the club's first appearance in the competition since its return in 2011. Westgate were defeated 3–0 at home against Mornington in the competition's Third Round on 14 March. Westgate finished the season in 9th place, two points clear of the relegation zone. In 2015, Westgate dispatched Hampton Park United by a scoreline of 5–1 in the Third Round of the 2015 FFA Cup preliminary rounds, but lost 3–1 to Geelong SC at Stead Park in the Fourth Round, exiting the competition. In the league, Sindjelic once again placed 9th and once more narrowly avoided relegation, this time by three points. Fortunes improved in 2016 and, with a young squad, the club finished in 6th place, well beyond pre-season expectations. In 2017, though, Westgate was unable to fend off relegation, finishing in 11th position and experiencing relegation back to State League 2 North-West. 2018–Present In the off-season, Westgate presented its newly redeveloped $1.5m facility, "Oreana Park" at Ardeer Reserve. Home ground Westgate FC's home ground Ardeer Reserve is located on Helene Street in Melbourne's western suburb of Ardeer. Honours League Victorian State League Division 2 Winners (2): 1987, 2006 Victorian State League Division 3 Winners (1): 2010 Cup Victorian State League Cup Winners (2): 1988, 2001 Karadjordje Cup Winners (5): 1989, 1990, 1991, 2002, 2006 Runners-up (5): 1987, 1992, 2003, 2004, 2007 International representatives Joe Picioane – Australia national team (1978–1979) Warren Spink – Australia national team (1988–1997) Ernie Tapai – Australia national team (1990–1998) Coaching staff Affiliated clubs Springvale White Eagles – Westgate FC has a sister club relationship with Springvale White Eagles due to the ethnicity of the club's background. Fitzroy City SC – Westgate FC has a sister club relationship with Fitzroy City SC due to the ethnicity of the club's background. References External links Westgate FC Official Website Westgate FC Official Facebook Page Westgate FC Ozfootball Profile Westgate FC Football Chaos Profile Football Federation Victoria Official website Serbian sports clubs in Australia Soccer clubs in Melbourne Soccer clubs in Victoria (Australia) Association football clubs established in 1985 1985 establishments in Australia

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The culture of Ireland includes language, literature, music, art, folklore, cuisine, and sport associated with Ireland and the Irish people. For most of its recorded history, Irish culture has been primarily Gaelic (see Gaelic Ireland). It has also been influenced by Anglo-Norman, English and Scottish culture. The Anglo-Normans invaded Ireland in the 12th century, and the 16th/17th century conquest and colonisation of Ireland saw the emergence of Tudor English culture repurposed in an Irish style. The Plantation of Ulster also introduced Scottish elements mostly confined to Northern Ireland. Today, there are often notable cultural differences between those of Catholic and Protestant (especially Ulster Protestant) background, and between travellers and the settlers population. Due to large-scale emigration from Ireland, Irish culture has a global reach and festivals such as Saint Patrick's Day and Halloween are celebrated all over the world. Irish culture has to some degree been inherited and modified by the Irish diaspora, which in turn has influenced the home country. Though there are many unique aspects of Irish culture, it shares substantial traits with those of Britain, other English-speaking countries, other predominantly Catholic European countries, and the other Celtic nations. From the wider European perspective, many aspects of Irish culture were commonly found on the continent, but had died out elsewhere when cultural markers came to be written down and codified in the 1700-1800s. The evidence is that dances like the jig, instruments like bagpipes, speaking a Celtic language and even brewing stout, had all been introduced into Ireland from other parts of Europe, and came to be seen as Irish because they had survived there last. Use of the Brehon law into the 1500s continued long after similar systems had been ended by the Roman Empire. This makes the culture important to those studying past European cultures. Farming and rural tradition As archaeological evidence from sites such as the Céide Fields in County Mayo and Lough Gur in County Limerick demonstrates, the farm in Ireland is an activity that goes back to the Neolithic, about 6,000 years ago. Before this, the first settlers of the island of Ireland after the last Ice Age were a new wave of cavemen and the Mesolithic period. In historic times, texts such as the Táin Bó Cúailinge show a society in which cows were represented a primary source of wealth and status. Little of this had changed by the time of the Norman invasion of Ireland in the 12th century. Giraldus Cambrensis portrayed a Gaelic society in which cattle farming and transhumance was the norm. Townlands, villages, parishes and counties The Normans replaced traditional clan land management (Brehon Law) with the manorial system of land tenure and social organisation. This led to the imposition of the village, parish and county over the native system of townlands. In general, a parish was a civil and religious unit with a manor, a village and a church at its centre. Each parish incorporated one or more existing townlands into its boundaries. With the gradual extension of English feudalism over the island, the Irish county structure came into existence and was completed in 1610. These structures are still of vital importance in the daily life of Irish communities. Apart from the religious significance of the parish, most rural postal addresses consist of house and townland names. The village and parish are key focal points around which sporting rivalries and other forms of local identity are built and most people feel a strong sense of loyalty to their native county, a loyalty which also often has its clearest expression on the sports field. Land ownership and land hunger With the Tudor Elizabethan English conquest in the 16th-17th centuries, the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, and the organized plantations of English Tudor, and later Scottish colonists, the Scottish confined to what's now mostly Northern Ireland, the patterns of land ownership in Ireland were altered greatly. The old order of transhumance and open range cattle breeding died out to be replaced by a structure of great landed estates, small tenant farmers with more or less precarious hold on their leases, and a mass of landless labourers. This situation continued up to the end of the 19th century, when the agitation of the Land League began to bring about land reform. In this process of reform, the former tenants and labourers became land owners, with the great estates being broken up into small- and medium-sized farms and smallholdings. The process continued well into the 20th century with the work of the Irish Land Commission. This contrasted with Britain, where many of the big estates were left intact. One consequence of this is the widely recognised cultural phenomenon of "land hunger" amongst the new class of Irish farmer. In general, this means that farming families will do almost anything to retain land ownership within the family unit, with the greatest ambition possible being the acquisition of additional land. Another is that hillwalkers in Ireland today are more constrained than their counterparts in Britain, as it is more difficult to agree rights of way with so many small farmers involved on a given route, rather than with just one landowner. Holidays and festivals The majority of the Irish calendar today still reflects the old pagan customs, with later Christian traditions also having significant influences. Christmas in Ireland has several local traditions, some in no way connected with Christianity. On 26 December (St. Stephen's Day), there is a custom of "Wrenboys" who call door to door with an arrangement of assorted material (which changes in different localities) to represent a dead wren "caught in the furze", as their rhyme goes. The national holiday in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland is Saint Patrick's Day, that falls on the date 17 March and is marked by parades and festivals in cities and towns across the island of Ireland, and by the Irish diaspora around the world. The festival is in remembrance of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Pious legend credits Patrick with the banishing of the snakes from the island, and the legend also credits Patrick with teaching the Irish about the concept of the Trinity by showing people the shamrock, a 3-leaved clover, using it to highlight the Christian belief of 'three divine persons in the one God'. In Northern Ireland The Twelfth of July, or Orangemen's Day, commemorates William III's victory at the Battle of the Boyne. A public holiday, it is celebrated by Irish Protestants, the vast majority of whom live in Northern Ireland. It is notable for the numerous parades organised by the Orange Order which take place throughout Northern Ireland. These parades are colourful affairs with Orange Banners and sashes on display and include music in the form of traditional songs such as "The Sash" and "Derry's Walls" performed by a mixture of pipe, flute, accordion, and brass marching bands. The Twelfth remains controversial as many in Northern Ireland's large and majority-nationalist Catholic community see the holiday, celebrating a victory over Catholics that ensured the continued establishment of a Protestant Ascendancy, as triumphalist, supremacist, and an assertion of British and Ulster Protestant dominance. Brigid's Day (1 February, known as Imbolc or Candlemas) also does not have its origins in Christianity, being instead another religious observance superimposed at the beginning of spring. The Brigid's cross made from rushes represents a pre-Christian solar wheel. Other pre-Christian festivals, whose names survive as Irish month names, are Bealtaine (May), Lúnasa (August) and Samhain (November). The last is still widely observed as Halloween which is celebrated all over the world, including in the United States followed by All Saints' Day, another Christian holiday associated with a traditional one. Important church holidays include Easter, and various Marian observances. Religion Christianity in the form of both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism is the most widely practised religion in Ireland. Christianity was brought to Ireland during or prior to the 5th century and its early history among the Irish is in particular associated with Saint Patrick, who is generally considered Ireland's patron saint. The Celtic festival of Samhain, known as Halloween, originated in Ireland and is now celebrated all over the world. Ireland is a place where religion and religious practice have always been held in high esteem. The majority of people on the island are Roman Catholics; however, there is a significant minority of Protestants who are mostly concentrated in Northern Ireland, where they make up a plurality of the population. The three main Protestant denominations on the island are the Church of Ireland, the Presbyterian Church in Ireland and the Methodist Church in Ireland. These are also joined by numerous other smaller denominations including Baptists, several American gospel groups and the Salvation Army. As well as these Protestant Churches, other minority denominations include Eastern Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS). In addition to the Christian denominations there are centres for Buddhists, Hindus, Baháʼís, Pagans and for people of the Islamic and Jewish faiths. In the Republic of Ireland, the last time a census asked people to specify their religion was in 2011. The result was 84.16% Roman Catholic, 2.81% Church of Ireland (Anglican), 1.07% Islam, 0.54% Presbyterian, 0.9% Christian, 0.99% Orthodox, approximately 2.07% other religious groupings and 5.88% identified as having no religion. About 1.59% did not state their religious identity. Amongst the Republic's Roman Catholics, weekly church attendance dropped sharply from 87% in 1981 to 60% in 1998, to 36% in 2016. This remained one of the highest attendance rates in Europe, where the average was 12.8% in 2016. The decline is said to be linked to reports of Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Ireland. In Northern Ireland in 2011, the population was 40.8% Roman Catholic, 19.1% Presbyterian, 13.7% Church of Ireland (Anglican), 3% Methodist, 5.8% other Christian, 0.8% other religion and philosophy, 10.1% with no religion and 6.8% religion not stated. Folklore The Leprechaun has been estimated to figure to a large degree in Irish folklore. According to the tales, the leprechaun is a mischievous fairy type creature in emerald green clothing who when not playing tricks spend all their time busily making shoes; the Leprechaun is said to have a pot of gold hidden at the end of the rainbow and if ever captured by a human it has the magical power to grant three wishes in exchange for release. More acknowledged and respected in Ireland are the stories of Fionn mac Cumhaill and his followers, the Fianna, from the Fenian cycle. Legend has it he built the Giant's Causeway as stepping-stones to Scotland; not to get his feet wet, to fight an ugly Scottish giant. He also once scooped up part of Ireland to fling it at a rival, but it missed and landed in the Irish Sea – the clump became the Isle of Man and the pebble became Rockall, the void became Lough Neagh. The Irish king Brian Boru who ended the domination of the so-called High Kingship of Ireland by the Uí Néill, is part of the historical cycle. The Irish princess Iseult is the adulterous lover of Tristan in the Arthurian romance and tragedy Tristan and Iseult. The many legends of ancient Ireland were captured by Lady Gregory in two volumes with forewords by W.B. Yeats. These stories depict the unusual power and status that Celtic women held in ancient times. Halloween is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Ireland on the night of 31 October. Supposedly the first evidence of the word halloween is found in a 16th century scottish document as a shortening for All-Hallows-Eve, and according to some historians it has its roots in the gaelic festival Samhain, where the Gaels believed the border between this world and the otherworld became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world. In Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include; Guising – children disguised in costume going from door to door requesting food or coins – which became practice by the late 19th century, turnips hollowed-out and carved with faces to make lanterns, holding parties where games such as apple bobbing are played. Other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays. Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America. Literature and the arts For a comparatively small place, the island of Ireland has made a disproportionately large contribution to world literature in all its branches, in both the Irish and English languages. The island's most widely known literary works are undoubtedly in English. Particularly famous examples of such works are those of James Joyce, Bram Stoker, Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde and Ireland's four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature; William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Three of the four Nobel prize winners were born in Dublin (Heaney being the exception, having lived in Dublin but being born in County Londonderry), making it the birthplace of more Nobel literary laureates than any other city in the world. The Irish language has the third oldest literature in Europe (after Greek and Latin), the most significant body of written literature (both ancient and recent) of any Celtic language, as well as a strong oral tradition of legends and poetry. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century. The early history of Irish visual art is generally considered to begin with early carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze Age artefacts, particularly ornamental gold objects, and the Celtic brooches and illuminated manuscripts of the "Insular" Early Medieval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong indigenous tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy. The Irish tradition of folk music and dance is also widely known, and both were redefined in the 1950s. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was attempting to modernise, traditional Irish music fell out of favour to some extent, especially in urban areas. Young people at this time tended to look to Britain and, particularly, the United States as models of progress and jazz and rock and roll became extremely popular. During the 1960s, and inspired by the American folk music movement, there was a revival of interest in the Irish tradition. This revival was inspired by groups like The Dubliners, the Clancy Brothers and Sweeney's Men and individuals like Seán Ó Riada. The annual Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann is the largest festival of Irish music in Ireland. Before long, groups and musicians like Horslips, Van Morrison and even Thin Lizzy were incorporating elements of traditional music into a rock idiom to form a unique new sound. During the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing as a matter of course. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of bands like U2, Snow Patrol, The Cranberries, The Undertones and The Corrs. Languages Irish and English are the most widely spoken languages in Ireland. English is the most widely spoken language on the island overall, and Irish is spoken as a first language only by a small minority, primarily, though not exclusively, in the government-defined Gaeltacht regions in the Republic. A larger minority speak Irish as a second language, with 40.6% of people in the Republic of Ireland claiming some ability to speak the language in the 2011 census. Article 8 of the Constitution of Ireland states that Irish is the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland. English in turn is recognised as the State's second official language. Hiberno-English, the dialect of English spoken in most of the Republic of Ireland, has been greatly influenced by Irish. In contrast Northern Ireland, like the rest of the United Kingdom, has no official language. English, however, is the de facto official language, and Ulster English is common. In addition, Irish and Ulster Scots have recognition under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, with 8.1% claiming some ability in Ulster Scots and 10.7% in Irish. In addition, the dialect and accent of the people of Northern Ireland is noticeably different from that of the majority in the Republic of Ireland, being influenced by Ulster Scots and Northern Ireland's proximity to Scotland. Several other languages are spoken on the island, including Shelta, a mixture of Irish, Romani and English, spoken widely by Travellers. Two sign languages have also been developed on the island, Northern Irish Sign Language and Irish Sign Language. Some other languages have entered Ireland with immigrants – for example, Polish is now the second most widely spoken language in Ireland after English, Irish being the third most commonly spoken language. Irish language Irish Sign Language Hiberno-English Ulster Scots dialect Mid-Ulster English Northern Ireland Sign Language Shelta language Food and drink Early Ireland There are many references to food and drink in early Irish literature. Honey seems to have been widely eaten and used in the making of mead. The old stories also contain many references to banquets, although these may well be greatly exaggerated and provide little insight into everyday diet. There are also many references to fulacht fia, which are archaeological sites commonly believed to have once been used for cooking venison. The fulacht fia have holes or troughs in the ground which can be filled with water. Meat can then be cooked by placing hot stones in the trough until the water boils. Many fulach fia sites have been identified across the island of Ireland, and some of them appear to have been in use up to the 17th century. Excavations at the Viking settlement in the Wood Quay area of Dublin have produced a significant amount of information on the diet of the inhabitants of the town. The main animals eaten were cattle, sheep and pigs, with pigs being the most common. This popularity extended down to modern times in Ireland. Poultry and wild geese as well as fish and shellfish were also common, as were a wide range of native berries and nuts, especially hazel. The seeds of knotgrass and goosefoot were widely present and may have been used to make a porridge. The potato in Ireland The potato would appear to have been introduced into Ireland in the second half of the 16th century, as a result of the European colonisation of the Americas, initially as a garden crop. It eventually came to be the main food field crop of the tenant and labouring classes. As a food source, the potato is extremely efficient in terms of energy yielded per unit area of land. The potato is also a good source of many vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C (especially when fresh). As a result, the typical 18th- and 19th-century Irish diet of potatoes and buttermilk was a contributing factor in the population explosion that occurred in Ireland at that time. However, due to the political rule of the time, the majority of Irish produce (root crops, cereals and animal produce) was exported to Britain, leaving few strains of potato as the sole food source for the Irish. This, along with the spread of potato blight led to shortages and famines, the most notable instance being the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). The causes are attributed by some to potato blight, others to an adherence to laissez-faire economic policies of the Liberal government, which kept food exports at the pre-famine level leading to disease, death and emigration. Modern times In the 20th century the usual modern selection of foods common to Western cultures has been adopted in Ireland. Both US fast-food culture and continental European dishes have influenced the country, along with other world dishes introduced in a similar fashion to the rest of the Western world. Common meals include pizza, curry, Chinese food, and lately, some west African dishes have been making an appearance. Supermarket shelves now contain ingredients for, among others, traditional, European, American (Mexican/Tex-Mex), Indian, Polish and Chinese dishes. The proliferation of fast food has led to increasing public health problems including obesity, and one of the highest rates of heart disease in the world. In Ireland, the Full Irish has been particularly cited as being a major source for a higher incidence of cardiac problems, quoted as being a "heart attack on a plate". All the ingredients are fried, although more recently the trend is to grill as many of the ingredients as possible. In tandem with these developments, the last quarter of the century saw the emergence of a new Irish cuisine based on traditional ingredients handled in new ways. This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish, especially salmon and trout, oysters and other shellfish, traditional soda bread, the wide range of hand-made cheeses that are now being made across the country, and, of course, the potato. Traditional dishes, such as the Irish stew, Dublin coddle, the Irish breakfast and potato bread, have enjoyed a resurgence. Schools like the Ballymaloe Cookery School have emerged to cater for the associated increased interest in cooking with traditional ingredients. Pub culture Pub culture pervades Irish society, across all cultural divides. The term refers to the Irish habit of frequenting public houses (pubs) or bars. Traditional pub culture is concerned with more than just drinking. Typically pubs are important meeting places, where people can gather and meet their neighbours and friends in a relaxed atmosphere; similar to the café cultures of other countries. Pubs vary widely according to the clientele they serve, and the area they are in. Best known, and loved amongst tourists is the traditional pub, with its traditional Irish music (or "trad music"), tavern-like warmness, and memorabilia filling it. Often such pubs will also serve food, particularly during the day. Many more modern pubs, not necessarily traditional, still emulate these pubs, only perhaps substituting traditional music for a DJ or non-traditional live music. Many larger pubs in cities eschew such trappings entirely, opting for loud music, and focusing more on the consumption of drinks, which is not a focus of traditional Irish culture. Such venues are popular "pre-clubbing" locations. "Clubbing" has become a popular phenomenon amongst young people in Ireland during the celtic tiger years. Clubs usually vary in terms of the type of music played, and the target audience. Belfast has a unique underground club scene taking place in settings such as churches, zoos, and crematoriums. The underground scene is mainly orchestrated by DJ Christopher McCafferty . A significant recent change to pub culture in the Republic of Ireland has been the introduction of a smoking ban, in all workplaces, which includes pubs and restaurants. Ireland was the first country in the world to implement such a ban which was introduced on 29 March 2004. A majority of the population support the ban, including a significant percentage of smokers. Nevertheless, the atmosphere in pubs has changed greatly as a result, and debate continues on whether it has boosted or lowered sales, although this is often blamed on the ever-increasing prices, or whether it is a "good thing" or a "bad thing". A similar ban, under the Smoking (Northern Ireland) Order 2006, came into effect in Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007. National and international organisations have labelled Ireland as having a problem with over-consumption of alcohol. In the late 1980s alcohol consumption accounted for nearly 25% of all hospital admissions. While this figure has been decreasing steadily, as of 2007, approximately 13% of overall hospital admissions were alcohol related. In 2003, Ireland had the second-highest per capita alcohol consumption in the world, just below Luxembourg at 13.5 litres (per person 15 or more years old), according to the OECD Health Data 2009 survey. According to the latest OECD figures, alcohol consumption in Ireland has dropped from 11.5 litres per adult in 2012 to 10.6 litres per adult in 2013. However, research showed that in 2013, 75% of alcohol was consumed as part of a drinking session where the person drank six or more standard units (which equates to three or more pints of beer). This meets the Health Service Executive's definition of binge drinking. Sport Sport on the island of Ireland is popular and widespread. A wide variety of sports are played throughout the island, with the most popular being Gaelic football, hurling, soccer, rugby union, and golf. Four sports account for over 80% of event attendance. Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement, and represents 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland and abroad, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. and the All-Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in Ireland's sporting calendar. Swimming, golf, aerobics, soccer, cycling, Gaelic football, and billiards and snooker, are the sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation. Other sports with material playing populations, including at school level, include tennis, hockey, pitch and putt, basketball, boxing, cricket and squash. Soccer is the most popular sport involving national teams. The success of the Ireland team at the 1990 FIFA World Cup saw 500,000 fans in Dublin to welcome the team home. The team's song "Put 'Em Under Pressure" topped the Irish charts for 13 weeks. In Ireland many sports, such as rugby union, Gaelic football and hurling, are organised in an all-island basis, with a single team representing the island of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer, have separate organising bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Traditionally, those in the North who identify as Irish, predominantly Catholics and nationalists, support the Republic of Ireland team. At the Olympics, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either the Great Britain team or the Ireland team. Also as Northern Ireland is a Home Nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games every four years. Gaelic Athletic Association Northern Ireland national football team Republic of Ireland national football team Irish Rugby Football Union Northern Ireland Commonwealth Games Team British Olympic Association Olympic Council of Ireland Community Games Irish Derby Stakes Media Print In the Republic of Ireland there are several daily newspapers, including the Irish Independent, The Irish Examiner, The Irish Times, The Star, The Evening Herald, Daily Ireland, the Irish Sun, and the Irish language Lá Nua. The best selling of these is the Irish Independent, which is published in both tabloid and broadsheet form. The Irish Times is Ireland's newspaper of record. The Sunday market is quite saturated with many British publications. The leading Sunday newspaper in terms of circulation is The Sunday Independent. Other popular papers include The Sunday Times, The Sunday Tribune, The Sunday Business Post, Ireland on Sunday and the Sunday World. In Northern Ireland the three main daily newspapers are The News Letter, which is Unionist in outlook, The Irish News, mainly Nationalist in outlook and the Belfast Telegraph. Also widely available are the Northern Irish versions of the main UK wide daily newspapers and some Scottish dailies such as the Daily Record. In terms of Sunday papers the Belfast Telegraph is the only one of the three main Northern Irish dailies that has a Sunday publication which is called the Sunday Life. Apart from this all the main UK wide Sunday papers such as The Sun on Sunday are widely available as are some Irish papers such as the Sunday world. There are quite a large number of local weekly newspapers both North and South, with most counties and large towns having two or more newspapers. Curiously Dublin remains one of the few places in Ireland without a major local paper since the Dublin Evening Mail closed down in the 1960s. In 2004 the Dublin Daily was launched, but failed to attract enough readers to make it viable. One major criticism of the Republic of Ireland newspaper market is the strong position Independent News & Media has on the market. It controls the Evening Herald, Irish Independent, Sunday Independent, Sunday World and The Star as well as holding a large stake in the cable company Chorus, and indirectly controlling The Sunday Tribune. The Independent titles are perceived by many Irish republicans as having a pro-British stance. In parallel to this, the Independent titles are perceived by many opposition supporters as being pro Fianna Fáil. The Irish magazine market is one of the world's most competitive, with hundreds of international magazines available in Ireland, ranging from Time and The Economist to Hello! and Reader's Digest. This means that domestic titles find it very hard to retain readership. Among the best-selling Irish magazines are the RTÉ Guide, Ireland's Eye, Irish Tatler, VIP, Phoenix and In Dublin. Radio The first known radio transmission in Ireland was a call to arms made from the General Post Office in O'Connell Street during the Easter Rising. The first official radio station on the island was 2BE Belfast, which began broadcasting in 1924. This was followed in 1926 by 2RN Dublin and 6CK Cork in 1927. 2BE Belfast later became BBC Radio Ulster and 2RN Dublin became RTÉ. The first commercial radio station in the Republic, Century Radio, came on air in 1989. During the 1990s and particularly the early 2000s, dozens of local radio stations have gained licences. This has resulted in a fragmentation of the radio broadcast market. This trend is most noticeable in Dublin where there are now 6 private licensed stations in operation. Television Different television stations are available depending on location in Northern Ireland or the Republic of Ireland. In Northern Ireland the main terrestrial television stations are the main UK wide channels BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5. Both the BBC and ITV have local regional programing specific to Northern Ireland produced and broadcast through BBC Northern Ireland and UTV. In terms of Satellite-carried channels in Northern Ireland these are the same as for the rest of the United Kingdom including all Sky channels. In the Republic of Ireland some areas first received signal from BBC Wales and then latter from BBC Northern Ireland when it began broadcasting television programmes in 1959 before RTÉ Television opened in 1961. Today the Republic's main terrestrial channels are RTÉ One, RTÉ Two, TV3 which began broadcasting in 1998 and Teilifís na Gaeilge (TnaG), now called TG4 which started its Irish language service in 1996. British and satellite-carried international television channels have widespread audiences in the Republic. The BBC and ITV families of channels are available free to air across the Republic and there is widespread availability of the four main UK channels (BBC1, BBC2, ITV1 and Channel Four) but only limited coverage from Five. Sky One, E4, and several hundred satellite channels are widely available. Parts of the Republic can access the UK digital TV system Freeview. Film The Republic of Ireland Film industry has grown rapidly in recent years thanks largely to the promotion of the sector by Bord Scannán na hÉireann (The Irish Film Board) and the introduction of generous tax breaks. Some of the most successful Irish films included Intermission (2001), Man About Dog (2004), Michael Collins (1996), Angela's Ashes (1999), My Left Foot (1989), The Crying Game (1992), In the Name of the Father (1994) and The Commitments (1991). The most successful Irish film directors are Kenneth Branagh, Martin McDonagh, Neil Jordan, John Carney, and Jim Sheridan. Irish actors include Richard Harris, Peter O'Toole, Maureen O'Hara, Brenda Fricker, Michael Gambon, Colm Meaney, Gabriel Byrne, Pierce Brosnan, Liam Neeson, Daniel Day-Lewis, Ciarán Hinds, James Nesbitt, Cillian Murphy, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Saoirse Ronan, Brendan Gleeson, Domhnall Gleeson, Michael Fassbender, Ruth Negga, Jamie Dornan and Colin Farrell. Ireland has also proved a popular location for shooting films with The Quiet Man (1952), Saving Private Ryan (1998), Braveheart (1995), King Arthur (2004) and P.S. I Love You (2007) all being shot in Ireland. Cultural institutions, organisations and events Ireland is well supplied with museums and art galleries and offers, especially during the summer months, a wide range of cultural events. These range from arts festivals to farming events. The most popular of these are the annual Dublin Saint Patrick's Day Festival which attracts on average 500,000 people and the National Ploughing Championships with an attendance in the region of 400,000. There are also a number of Summer Schools on topics from traditional music to literature and the arts. Major organisations responsible for funding and promoting Irish culture are: Arts Council of Ireland Arts Council of Northern Ireland Culture Ireland Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media (Republic of Ireland) Department for Communities (Northern Ireland) Foras na Gaeilge List of institutions and organisations Abbey Theatre Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge Ambassador Theatre Aosdána Arts Council of Ireland Art Projects Network Chester Beatty Library Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann Conradh na Gaeilge Cork Opera House Crawford Art Gallery Culture Ireland Druid Theatre, Galway Dublin Writers Museum Gael Linn Gaelchultúr Gaelic Athletic Association Gate Theatre Glór na nGael Chun Bliain Taitneamhach a Fheiceáil Grand Opera House, Belfast Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, Dublin Heritage Council Irish Architecture Foundation Irish Georgian Society Ireland Literature Exchange (ILE) Irish Museum of Modern Art at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham Irish Museums Association James Joyce Centre Lime Tree Theatre, Limerick Macnas, performance arts company, Galway National Archives of Ireland National Concert Hall National Folklore Collection UCD National Gallery of Ireland National Library of Ireland National Museums Northern Ireland National Museum of Ireland National Photographic Archive National Transport Museum of Ireland National Wax Museum Northern Ireland Screen National Trust (UK) Office of Public Works Poetry Ireland Royal Dublin Society (RDS) Royal Irish Academy Royal Irish Academy of Music Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland Royal Ulster Academy of Arts SFX City Theatre State Heraldic Museum Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe, Irish language theatre, Galway Temple Bar Cultural Trust The Helix, performing arts centre, Dublin The Hunt Museum, Limerick The Point Theatre Ulster American Folk Park, Omagh Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Co. Down Ulster Museum, Belfast University Concert Hall, Limerick Events All-Ireland Senior Football Championship All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Bealtaine Bloomsday Bray Jazz Festival Kilkenny Cat Laughs Comedy Festival City of Derry Jazz and Big Band Festival Clifden Arts Festival Cork Jazz Festival Culture Night Dublin Theatre Festival Earagail Arts Festival Féile na Gealaí Fleadh Cheoil Galway Arts Festival Imbolg Liú Lúnasa Lúnasa National Ploughing Championships Oireachtas na Gaeilge Pan Celtic Festival Puck Fair, Killorglin Saint Patrick's Day Samhain Scoil Acla Seachtain na Gaeilge St. Patrick's Festival and Skyfest Swell Music and Arts Festival The Twelfth Maiden City Festival Harvest Time Blues Heritage Week See also List of Ireland-related topics Architecture of Ireland Culture of Gaelic Ireland Culture of Northern Ireland Gaelic Revival Irish name Heritage sites (Ireland) Bataireacht – An ancient Irish martial arts that uses a Shillelagh Fidchell – An ancient Irish board game similar to chess Gaelic culture Clothing of Ireland References External links BBC Northern Ireland Television & Radio Archive Central Statistics Office Ireland Irish Department of Foreign Affairs: Facts about Ireland Irish Broadcasting Population figures by religion Pobal Eolas Ilmheáin Gaeilge – PEIG.ie Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge provides a diploma course in indigenous Irish culture

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Edward Moore (born December 12, 1981), better known by his ring name Eddie Kingston, is an American professional wrestler, currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW). Kingston started his wrestling career in 2002, and has wrestled for numerous wrestling promotions, including Evolve, National Wrestling Alliance, Chikara, AAW Wrestling, Combat Zone Wrestling, Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South, Impact Wrestling, Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, and Ring of Honor (ROH). Outside of brief stints in Impact and ROH he was a mainstay on the independent scene for 18 years before signing with AEW. He has been praised for his speaking skills and ability to cut promos, and is regarded by many as one of the best speakers of the modern professional wrestling era. Early life Edward Moore was born on December 12, 1981 in the New York City suburb of Yonkers, New York to an Irish father and a Puerto Rican mother. He had a difficult childhood in a tough part of Yonkers, constantly getting into fights at school; he credits getting into wrestling at an early age from watching old tapes as what kept him out of jail and trouble. Professional wrestling career Independent scene (2002–2016, 2018–2020) Chikara (2002–2016) Moore initially trained alongside BlackJack Marciano and Jigsaw under Kevin Knight at the Independent Wrestling Federation in Woodland Park, New Jersey (formerly West Paterson). After Moore was kicked out of the school, he became part of the second class of students to train at the Chikara Wrestle Factory, where he was taught by Mike Quackenbush and Chris Hero. Moore made his professional wrestling debut, under the ring name Eddie Kingston, on October 12, 2002, at Chikara's seventh event, where he and BlackJack Marciano, the team known collectively as the Wild Cards, defeated Melvin Snodgrass and Lester Crabtree in a tag team match. In 2003 Kingston and Marciano began feuding with Mister ZERO and UltraMantis, the team known collectively as Ultra/ZERO. The feud came to an end on July 5, when Ultra/ZERO defeated the Wild Cards in the semifinals of the 2003 Tag World Grand Prix, after which Kingston and Marciano moved on to feuding with Team F.I.S.T. (Icarus and Gran Akuma). The following year the Wildcards teamed up with Jigsaw to form the Toxic Trio, while Icarus and Akuma recruited the help of Mike Quackenbush. On May 22, 2004, the Toxic Trio faced Icarus, Akuma and Quackenbush in an Ultimate Jeopardy match, where Kingston's, Marciano's and Icarus' hair, Jigsaw's and Akuma's masks and Quackenbush's various championship belts were on the line. In the match Akuma forced Kingston to tap out and, as per stipulation of the match, both the Wild Cards were shaved bald, effectively ending the feud. On September 18, 2004, the Wild Cards won the IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship and enjoyed reasonable success outside of Chikara, until a knee injury forced Marciano into retirement, thus disbanding the team. After taking a break from wrestling, Kingston returned to the ring in July 2005, turning face and teaming with Sabian, Equinox and Quackenbush to take on The Kings of Wrestling (Chris Hero, Claudio Castagnoli, Gran Akuma and Arik Cannon). On August 13, Hero defeated Kingston in a singles match, that would lead the two into feuding with each other over at Combat Zone Wrestling, while in Chikara they were kept apart from each other following the match. For a majority of 2006, Kingston had a rivalry against Larry Sweeney. Kingston and Sweeney traded many verbal and physical exchanges for months, and the feud culminated with a No Disqualification Strap match between the two at Chikara's last show of the year. Kingston won this match and the overall feud. In 2007, Kingston turned heel (villainous) when he was pinned in an eight-man tag team match. Following the loss, Kingston attacked Hallowicked and attempted to remove his mask. The resulting feud lasted for over six months. During this time Kingston frequently forced his opponents to wear a replica of Hallowicked's mask. The feud ended when Kingston defeated Hallowicked in a Falls Count Anywhere match. Kingston, along with fellow BLKOUT stable members Joker and Ruckus, went on to the finals of the 2008 King of Trios tournament, coming up short against the team of El Pantera, Incognito and Lince Dorado, when Kingston tapped out to Dorado's Chikara Special. After the tournament Kingston was not seen in Chikara for two months, but when he returned in May, he quickly targeted the man who had forced him to tap out at King of Trios, Lince Dorado. Kingston defeated Dorado in back-to-back singles matches on July 13 and August 10, but both times Dorado refused to stay down and begged for more. On September 7 Kingston and Dorado face each other in their third singles match, which ended when referee Bryce Remsburg disqualified Kingston due to "excessive punishment". However, once again Dorado refused to stay down and demanded the match to be restarted. After the restart, Kingston had himself disqualified by low blowing Dorado and then walked out, before declaring that he was done with Dorado, since he was making him mentally unstable with his actions. In late 2008 Kingston would team up with Brodie Lee and Grizzly Redwood to form an alliance that would later be named The Roughnecks. In early 2009 The Roughnecks defeated the Order of the Neo-Solar Temple (UltraMantis Black, Crossbones and Sami Callihan) to advance to the 2009 King of Trios, where they ended up being eliminated in the first round by Team Uppercut (Claudio Castagnoli, Bryan Danielson and Dave Taylor). Following the loss Kingston started a feud with Castagnoli, claiming that he had been embarrassed and disrespected. On May 24, 2009, at Aniversario Yang Kingston, who had claimed to being able to outwrestle Castagnoli, pinned him cleanly with an Oklahoma roll. After Castagnoli defeated Kingston via countout at the 2009 Young Lions Cup, the two of them were booked in a "Respect Match" at the season eight finale Three-Fisted Tales, where the loser of the match had to show respect to the winner. Castagnoli won the match, but instead of showing respect, Kingston laid him out with a spinning back fist, after claiming that both him and his former tag team partner (Chris Hero) are shady and deserve respect from no one. At the end of the event Kingston's suspicions about Castagnoli were proven right as he turned rudo and formed the stable Bruderschaft des Kreuzes (BDK). On January 31, 2010, at the season nine premiere Kingston, now a tecnico, replaced Lince Dorado, after he had turned on his tecnico teammates and joined BDK, and teamed up with Mike Quackenbush, Jigsaw and Equinox in an eight-man tag team match against Castagnoli, Ares, Tursas and Dorado. BDK won the match, when Castagnoli pinned Kingston after a low blow. After the match Kingston once again refused to show respect to Castagnoli and was therefore beaten down. On March 21 Kingston re-ignited his old feud with BDK's newest recruit Lince Dorado by facing him in a singles match. Dorado won by disqualification by taking his mask off behind the referees back and throwing it at Kingston, who was holding it when the ref turned around. This is an automatic disqualification as per lucha libre rules. After the match Kingston attacked Dorado, while also taking care of BDK members Pinkie Sanchez, Sara Del Rey and Tim Donst, who attempted to make the save, before he was stopped by Castagnoli, who once again demanded the respect he was owed from Three-Fisted Tales. On May 23 Kingston was set to wrestle one of his idols, Tommy Dreamer, at Chikara's eighth anniversary show, but the match was ruined by an interference from Castagnoli and Ares. After Dreamer helped Kingston take care of BDK, the two made a challenge for a tag team match for Chikara's July 25 show in The Arena in Philadelphia. On July 25 at Chikarasaurus Rex: King of Show Kingston and Dreamer were defeated in a non-title tag team match by Ares and Castagnoli. On October 23 Kingston represented Chikara in the torneo cibernetico match, where the company's originals faced BDK. He eliminated Daizee Haze and Sara Del Rey from the match, before being stuck in a two-on-one disadvantage against BDK members Claudio Castagnoli and Tursas. Castagnoli was disqualified from the match, after low blowing Kingston, but Kingston managed to come back and pin Tursas to win the 2010 torneo cibernetico. On March 13, 2011, in Brooklyn, New York, Castagnoli defeated Kingston, after hitting him with a chain, in a grudge match fifteen months in the making. The following September, Kingston made his first tour of Japan, with the Osaka Pro Wrestling promotion, which had a working relationship with Chikara. During the tour, Kingston teamed with the villainous Joker stable. From May to October 2011, Kingston took part in 12 Large: Summit, a tournament used to determine the first ever Chikara Grand Champion. Kingston ended up winning his block of the tournament with a record of four wins and one loss to set up a final match with the winner of the other block, Mike Quackenbush. On November 13 at Chikara's first internet pay-per-view, High Noon, Kingston defeated Quackenbush to become the first Chikara Grand Champion. On February 26, 2012, Kingston made his first defense of the Grand Championship, defeating Vin Gerard, with whom he had developed a rivalry during the 12 Large: Summit. On March 25, Kingston defeated Brodie Lee in his second title defense. Kingston made his third successful title defense on April 28, defeating Kevin Steen via disqualification in an interpromotional match between Chikara and Ring of Honor. Kingston followed up by making successful title defenses against Jigsaw on May 20 at Chikara's tenth anniversary event, Dasher Hatfield on June 24 and Sara Del Rey on July 28. On September 15, during the second night of the 2012 King of Trios, Kingston made his seventh successful title defense against Osaka Pro Wrestling representative Tadasuke. Afterwards, Kingston was attacked by Tim Donst. On November 18, Kingston led a team to take on Team Steen in the ninth annual torneo cibernetico match. After Kingston managed to eliminate Steen, he was himself pinned for the win by Tim Donst. On December 2, Kingston defeated Donst in the main event of Chikara's third internet pay-per-view, Under the Hood, to retain the Grand Championship for the eighth time. Kingston's ninth successful defense took place during Chikara's first weekend of 2013 on February 10, when he defeated Kevin Steen. Kingston was next scheduled to defend his title against Green Ant on March 9, but ended up no-showing the event. Kingston later revealed that he had gotten drunk the previous night, punched a mirror in his hotel room and injured a tendon in his hand. On April 6, Kingston defeated Hallowicked for his tenth successful defense of the Grand Championship. During the weekend of May 3 and 4, Kingston made two more successful title defenses against Green Ant and Mark Angelosetti. Kingston's thirteenth successful title defense took place on May 18 against Archibald Peck. Kingston's fourteenth defense on June 2 at Aniversario: Never Compromise ended in controversy, when, just as his challenger Icarus had locked him in a submission hold, the ring was attacked by a group named "Condor Security", ending the match in a no contest. After a one-year hiatus, Chikara returned on May 25, 2014, with You Only Live Twice, where Kingston lost the Grand Championship to Icarus, ending his two and a half year reign. Afterwards, Kingston turned rudo and joined the Flood stable in order to regain the Grand Championship. The alliance, however, was short-lived with Kingston turning on the Flood on September 21. This led to a rivalry between Kingston and Flood's second-in-command, Jimmy Jacobs, which culminated on December 6 at Tomorrow Never Dies, where Kingston defeated Jacobs in a grudge match. Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (2003–2008) Kingston has made on-and-off appearances for Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South since 2003. From his debut through the end of 2004, most of his activity involved tagging with Marciano as the Wild Cards. The duo won the IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship once, and successfully defended them on numerous occasions. After Marciano's retirement, however, Kingston's Mid-South work mainly involved one-on-one matches, including a lengthy feud against Ian Rotten. He also rekindled his feud with Hero during the 2007 Ted Petty Invitational, and on the final night of the tournament, Kingston defeated Hero in a Last Man Standing match, which is considered the 2007 Match of the Year for the company. On December 7, 2007, Kingston won a four-way elimination match against Hero, then-champion Quackenbush, and Chuck Taylor to win the IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship. On April 11, 2008, Kingston no-showed a scheduled event, resulting in IWA Mid-South owner Ian Rotten stripping him of the championship. Rotten told the crowd that Kingston was "going through some personal problems", but that he was welcome back to the promotion once he got his act together. Kingston participated in the 2008 Ted Petty Invitational tournament, defeating Necro Butcher in the first round on Night One, but losing to Sami Callihan in the quarter-finals. Combat Zone Wrestling (2004–2012) Kingston made his debut in Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) in early 2004, competing in a series of tag team matches showcasing Chikara wrestlers, before joining the roster as the enforcer and mouthpiece in the BLKOUT faction. Kingston and fellow BLKOUT member Joker won the CZW World Tag Team Championship from the Kings of Wrestling (Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli) on February 11, 2006, at Seven Years Strong: Settling The Score. Seven months later on September 9, Kingston defeated Chris Hero to win the CZW World Heavyweight Championship after an extended feud. As a result of winning the CZW World Championship, BLKOUT vacated the tag team championship, and the Kings of Wrestling won them in a tournament, but were attacked by BLKOUT afterwards. After a successful world title defence against Justice Pain at Night of Infamy 5, due to Hero interfering and accidentally hitting Pain, Kingston lost the title to Pain in a three-way elimination match, also involving Hero. Kingston was eliminated first, after suffering a legitimate broken ankle, after botching a backdrop. At the following show, Hero challenged Kingston to a Loser Leaves Town match when he returned. In his return match at Redemption on March 10, 2007, Kingston defeated Hydra. On April 7, at Out With the Old, In With the New, Kingston defeated Hero in a Loser Leaves Town match. Following the match, CZW owner John Zandig went to the ring and publicly fired Kingston for "ongoing misconduct". This was suspected by many to be an angle, but was later found out to have been legitimate. Kingston released a public interview on YouTube discussing the matter, but the footage was removed only hours later. Kingston did not appear in CZW for nearly a year following this, but eventually made his return at New Years Resolutions on January 12, 2008, in the main event for the CZW World Heavyweight Championship. Kingston returned to Combat Zone Wrestling on February 14, 2009, at its 10th Anniversary Show, in a losing effort to CZW World Heavyweight Champion Drake Younger in a No Rope Barbed Wire Deathmatch. Kingston and Younger went on to defeat The Best Around (TJ Cannon and Bruce Maxwell) on April 10, 2010, to win the CZW World Tag Team Championship. After a successful title defense on June 12 against Cult Fiction (Brain Damage and Masada), Kingston threw his World Tag Team Championship belt down and once again quit CZW. Kingston's title reign officially ended on July 10, when CZW owner DJ Hyde stripped him and Younger of the title. Westside Xtreme Wrestling (2004–2010, 2013, 2020) Kingston first appeared in Westside Xtreme Wrestling (wXw) in 2004, as part of a Chikara exhibition match. On August 21, at Broken Rulz, the Wild Cards and Hallowicked were defeated by Gran Akuma, Jigsaw and Mike Quackenbush. He then appeared two years later, as part of the Joint@Venture event in February 2005. On day one, he and Hallowicked were defeated by Dark Dream (Darksoul and X-dream). On day two, he, Hallowicked and Skayde were defeated by Akuma, Jigsaw and Quackenbush. On March 13, 2010, at The Vision, Kingston was defeated by Big Van Walter in a singles match. Kingston was brought back to wXw for the 2013 edition of 16 Carat Gold. On night one, he defeated Chuck Taylor in the first round. On night two, he was defeated by Shinobu in the quarter-final. On night three, he partnered Kim Ray in a defeat to Hot & Spicy (Axel Dieter Jr. and Da Mack). Seven years later, Kingston returned to the promotion for the 2020 edition of 16 Carat Gold. On night one, he defeated Daniel Makabe in the first round. On night two, he defeated The Rotation in the quarter-final. On night three, he was defeated by Cara Noir in the semi-final. Ring of Honor (2006–2014) Kingston made his first appearance in Ring of Honor at Death Before Dishonor IV on July 15, 2006, as the fifth member of Team CZW in the Cage of Death match, which Team CZW lost. Kingston's next appearance was on March 14, 2008, when he showed up in the audience during a match between The Vulture Squad and Austin Aries and Bryan Danielson. During the match, Kingston harassed Ruckus, a member of The Vulture Squad in ROH and Kingston's stablemate in BLKOUT in other promotions, and claimed he'd be in Philadelphia on March 16, 2008 during ROH's Take No Prisoners pay-per-view. During the non-pay-per-view portion of the show, Kingston, Sabian and Robbie Morino of BLKOUT got into a brawl with Jigsaw and Julius Smokes of The Vulture Squad, while Ruckus tried to restrain both factions. In June it was announced that BLKOUT was planning on disrupting ROH's pay-per-view taping, Respect is Earned II, on June 7. The Vulture Squad responded with Jigsaw challenging Kingston to face him in a match. Kingston appeared with BLKOUT, but failed to defeat Jigsaw, while Ruckus again tried to calm down both of his stables. Kingston wrestled at the Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings on March 1, 2009, in Philadelphia, defeating Sami Callihan. Kingston then appeared on the March 18 ROH videowire, and soon after re-developed his feud with Chris Hero. On December 19, 2009, at Final Battle 2009, ROH's first live pay-per-view, Kingston defeated Hero in a "Fight Without Honor" match to win the feud. Kingston returned to ROH on March 4, 2012, at the 10th Anniversary Show, where he represented Chikara as the Grand Champion and had a confrontation with Kevin Steen. This led to a Grand Championship match in Chikara, where Kingston defeated Steen via disqualification. Kingston returned to ROH at the June 29 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling, saving Mike Mondo from Steen and Jimmy Jacobs. He then went on to unsuccessfully challenge Steen for the ROH World Championship on August 11 at Boiling Point. On August 17, 2013, Kingston returned to ROH, forming a new tag team with Homicide. In their return match, the two defeated Marshall Law (Q.T. Marshall and R.D. Evans). Following the main event of the evening, Kingston and Homicide attacked new ROH World Tag Team Champions, reDRagon (Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly), before announcing their intention of taking down "corporate ROH" and revealing their team name as "Outlaw Inc.". Kingston and Homicide, however, claimed that they had come to ROH to help Match Maker Nigel McGuinness and take out those they felt were bad for the promotion. As part of the gimmick, Kingston and Homicide wore suits and followed the Code of Honor. After defeating The American Wolves (Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards) on November 16, Outlaw Inc. were named the next challengers for the ROH World Tag Team Championship. Outlaw Inc. received their title shot on December 14 at Final Battle 2013, but were defeated by reDRagon. Post-match, Kingston and Homicide announced that they were no longer going to play by ROH's rules. Kingston's last few ROH appearances were in the spring of 2014. After Homicide and Eddie jumped Kevin Steen and Cliff Compton during their No DQ match a tag team match was announced. This tag match saw Outlaw Inc. losing and they were never seen again. Jersey All Pro Wrestling (2007–2012) From 2007 to 2010, Kingston competed regularly in the New Jersey–based Jersey All Pro Wrestling (JAPW) organization. After winning a number one contenders match on February 24, Kingston defeated Bandido, Jr. on February 28 at JAPW's Jersey City Rumble to win the JAPW New Jersey State Championship. He would hold the title for little over two months before losing it to Archadia. On January 23, 2010, at JAPW's 12th Anniversary Show, Kingston had his biggest match to date in the promotion, unsuccessfully challenging Dan Maff for the JAPW Heavyweight Championship. Kingston returned to JAPW on April 14, 2012, when he and Homicide defeated Philly's Most Wanted (Blk Jeez and Joker) to win the vacant JAPW Tag Team Championship. Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2007–2008) On November 11, 2007, Kingston debuted in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) as Human Tornado's mystery tag team partner. It was revealed earlier on that Tornado's opponent, Chris Hero, had also picked Kingston as his partner, but Kingston had chosen to side with Tornado. Kingston and Tornado lost a Handicap match to Hero via a disqualification caused by Claudio Castagnoli. Post-match, the three men collectively attacked Hero and showed signs of the forming of a new stable. On January 5, 2008, Tornado, Castagnoli and Kingston defeated the three-person unit of Hero, Necro Butcher and Hero's then-valet Candice LeRae in a No Disqualification match. The competing stables would have a variety of matches against each other throughout the year, with various members facing off one-on-one. As a team, Kingston and Castagnoli were also involved in a brief feud against The Dynasty (Joey Ryan and Scott Lost), which began when they interfered in a PWG World Tag Team Championship match between The Dynasty and challengers the Briscoe Brothers (Jay Briscoe and Mark Briscoe) on May 7. A title match was booked between Castagnoli and Kingston and The Dynasty on two consecutive shows, both of which Kingston missed. Soon after missing the second event, Kingston's name was removed from the roster page. On August 30, it was announced that Kingston would return for All Star Weekend VII. On Night One, he competed in a four-way match for the PWG World Championship; participants included Necro Butcher, former champion Low Ki, and defending champion Hero, who pinned Kingston to retain. Following the match, Kingston assaulted Hero, forcing PWG officials to pull them apart. On Night Two, Kingston was defeated by Necro Butcher in a Necro Butcher Rules match. Other promotions (2011–2020) During 2011, Kingston worked for the newly founded Urban Wrestling Federation (UWF) promotion. On June 23, 2013, Kingston and Homicide were defeated by The Steiner Brothers (Rick and Scott) at House of Hardcore 2. At the following event on November 9, they were defeated by Devon and Matt Hardy. On September 29, 2016, Kingston was part of a group of about 40 wrestlers invited to a WWE tryout at their Performance Center. Kingston lost to Bull Dempsey on January 26, 2018, at House of Hardcore 37. On September 9, 2018 Kingston lost to Brody King at PCW Ultra's Vision Quest in Wilmington, CA. Total Nonstop Action Wrestling / Impact Wrestling Death Crew Council (2016–2017) Kingston was revealed as a member of the masked gang Death Crew Council (DCC) on the November 10, 2016 episode of Impact. The DCC made their Impact Zone debut on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling, when they attacked The Tribunal, following the latter's loss to TNA World Tag Team Champions, The Broken Hardys. The DCC continued their assault on TNA wrestlers, attacking Robbie E and Grado on the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling. On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling, the DCC attacked the Tag Champions. As the faction was leaving, the Hardys challenged them to an immediate match and put their titles on the line; whether this was a handicap match or not and what its official result was have never been specified. The match devolved into a backstage fight during which Matt Hardy suffered amnesia after being knocked off a forklift by one of the DCC members. The DCC unmasked themselves on the following episode of Impact Wrestling after laying out TNA World Heavyweight Champion Eddie Edwards following his successful title defense against Eli Drake. On the November 17 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kingston made his Impact in-ring debut teaming with Storm and Bram to defeat Edwards and Brother Nero in a No Disqualification 3-on-2 handicap match. On the December 1 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kingston and Bram faced The Broken Hardys for the TNA Tag Team Championship, but were ultimately defeated. Bram and Kingston would face Decay in a losing effort, after James Storm attacked Abyss, resulting in a disqualification. At Genesis, the DCC were defeated by Decay and The Broken Hardys in a three-way tag team, thus not winning their TNA World Tag Team Championship. On the January 19 episode of Impact Wrestling, Bram and Kingston competed in the first ever Race for the Case, capturing the yellow briefcase when Kingston knocked it out of Jessie Godderz's hands and into Bram's, later learning they have the #2 call out spot for the February 2 Open Fight Night episode of Impact Wrestling. On the February 2 episode of Impact Wrestling, the DCC used their Race for the Case briefcase to call out and defeat Decay in a Fall Count Anywhere match. At the end of the show, they would attack Ethan Carter III after his match against Eli Drake, only to attack him and his bodyguard Tyrus after. On the February 9 episode of Impact Wrestling, the DCC defeated Eli Drake and Tyrus in a handicap match. On the April 6 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kingston and Bram interrupted James Storm kicking him out of the DCC after Kingston spat in Storm’s face and Storm laid both guys out with superkicks. Kingston would return to Global Force Wrestling, which he was involved in a 20-man Gauntlet for the Gold match for the vacated Impact World Championship which he was unsuccessful. On October 4, 2017, Kingston announced his departure from Impact Wrestling. Latin American Xchange (2018) On the May 24, 2018 episode of Impact, Kingston, now renamed King, returned as a member of The Latin American Xchange (LAX). After the group leader Konnan was attacked, and Homicide and Diamante went missing in action, King assumed leadership of the faction and guided Ortiz and Santana back to being tag team champions. In June, Konnan and Diamante returned, both showing suspicion about King's involvement with the group. On the July 5 episode of Impact, King confirmed that he had been behind the attack on Konnan, before former LAX members Homicide and Hernandez returned and attacked LAX, joining forces with King. The group later became known as "The OGz". At the Bound for Glory on October 14, The OGz lost to LAX in a Concrete Jungle Death match. After several weeks, King moved to alumni section. National Wrestling Alliance (2019–2020) Kingston debuted for the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) at their television tapings on September 30 for NWA Power. At the tapings he reunited with Homicide as Outlaw Inc., feuding with The Wilds Cards (Thom Latimer and Royce Isaacs) and The Dawsons (Dave and Zane Dawnson) over the NWA World Tag Team Championship. All Elite Wrestling (2020–present) Kingston made his debut for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) on the July 22, 2020 episode of Dynamite, where he faced against Cody for the AEW TNT Championship in a No Disqualification match, but lost. On July 31, it was announced that Kingston had signed a contract with AEW. On the August 22 episode of Dynamite, Kingston created an alliance with The Butcher and The Blade and the Lucha Brothers (Pentagón Jr. and Rey Fénix). At the All Out pay-per-view, Kingston participated in the Casino Battle Royale, where he was lastly eliminated by eventual winner Lance Archer. Despite this, Kingston would claim that he was never eliminated from the match as he went under the bottom rope and began touting for an AEW World Championship match. On the September 23 episode of Dynamite, Kingston received his AEW World Championship match against his former friend Jon Moxley, where he was defeated after passing out to a chokehold. Kingston would later attack Moxley after the latter's match with Lance Archer on the October 14 episode of Dynamite, protesting that Moxley had never made him submit. Due to this, an "I Quit" match between the two was set up for the Full Gear event on November 7, which Kingston lost. On the November 18 episode of Dynamite, the Lucha Brothers would turn on Kingston after he and Butcher and Blade attacked Pac. At New Year's Smash on January 13, 2021, Kingston was defeated by Pac. At Revolution on March 7, Kingston rescued Jon Moxley after Moxley's main event match against Kenny Omega, turning face in the process. The two would later resume their friendship and begin an alliance. Furthermore, Kingston would end his association with The Butcher and The Blade, after they were hired by Matt Hardy as part of his entourage. Over the next weeks, Kingston and Moxley feuded with Omega, as well as his allies The Good Brothers (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson) and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson). At the Double or Nothing event on May 30, Kingston and Moxley challenged The Young Bucks for the AEW World Tag Team Championship, but were defeated. After Moxley took an absence for the birth of his first child, Kingston allied with Pentagón Jr. to face The Young Bucks for the championship in a Street Fight at the Road Rager event, but they were defeated. Kingston eventually began a feud with Miro, whom he challenged for the TNT Championship at All Out, though he was defeated. After his loss to Miro at All Out, he participated in an eight-man, single elimination tournament for an opportunity for the AEW World Championship, where he would be eliminated in the semi-finals by Bryan Danielson in a critically acclaimed match. Immediately following his loss to Danielson, he would interrupt an interview segment with CM Punk, beginning a feud between the two of them. Kingston would face Punk at the Full Gear event in November, but lost. The following month, Kingston would initiate a rivalry with Chris Jericho, but suffered an orbital bone injury in January 2022, temporarily sidelining him. The rivalry would continue after Kingston returned to AEW television and on the February 23, 2022 episode of Dynamite, the two agreed that they would wrestle each other at the upcoming AEW Revolution. Championships and accomplishments All American Wrestling / AAW: Professional Wrestling Redefined AAW Heavyweight Championship (2 times) AAW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with David Starr and Jeff Cobb American Championship Entertainment ACE Diamond Division Championship (1 time) CBS Sports Rookie of the Year (2020) Smack Talker of the Year (2020) Chikara Chikara Grand Championship (1 time) 12 Large: Summit (2011) Torneo Cibernetico (2010) Combat Zone Wrestling CZW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) CZW World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Joker (1) and Drake Younger (1) DDT Pro-Wrestling Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship (1 time) EGO Pro Wrestling EPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Evolve Evolve Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Joe Gacy Glory Pro Crown of Glory Championship (1 time) Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South IWA Mid-South Heavyweight Championship (1 time) IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with BlackJack Marciano (1) and Homicide (1) Revolution Strong Style Tournament (2006) Jersey All Pro Wrestling JAPW New Jersey State Championship (1 time) JAPW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Homicide Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 75 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2021 Sports Illustrated Ranked No. 10 of the top 10 wrestlers in 2020 Top Rope Promotions TRP Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best on Interviews (2020) Feud of the Year (2020) World Star Wrestling Federation WSWF Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Other titles ICW/ICWA Tex-Arkana Television Championship (1 time) Luchas de Apuestas record Notes See also Professional wrestling in Puerto Rico References External links 1981 births All Elite Wrestling personnel American male professional wrestlers Living people Professional wrestlers from New York (state) Puerto Rican male professional wrestlers Sportspeople from Yonkers, New York

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Taiwanese Mandarin or Guoyu () refers to Mandarin Chinese spoken in Taiwan. This comprises two main forms: Standard Guoyu, the formal standard variety, and Taiwan Guoyu, its colloquial counterpart. A large majority of the population is fluent in Mandarin, although other Chinese dialects, especially Taiwanese Hokkien, are common as well. Standard Guoyu () refers to the formal variety that serves as the official national language of the Republic of China (Taiwan). This variety is used in the education system, in official communications, and in most news media. The core of this standard variety is described in the dictionary Guoyu Cidian (國語辭典), which is maintained by the Ministry of Education of Taiwan. This dictionary is based on the phonology of the Beijing dialect and the grammar of vernacular Chinese. Standard Guoyu closely resembles and is mutually intelligible with the Standard Mandarin () of mainland China. However, some divergences and differences exist in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Taiwan Guoyu () refers to the colloquial form of the language. This comprises varieties of Mandarin used in Taiwan that diverge from Standard Guoyu. These divergences are often the result of Taiwan Guoyu incorporating influences from other languages used in Taiwan—primarily Taiwanese Hokkien and Japanese, to a lesser extent. Like Standard Guoyu, Taiwan Guoyu is mutually intelligible with Putonghua. However, when compared with Standard Guoyu, Taiwan Guoyu exhibits greater differences from Putonghua, and is more identifiably "Taiwanese" as a result. All forms of written Chinese in Taiwan use traditional characters alongside other Sinophone areas such as Hong Kong, Macau, and many overseas Chinese communities. This is in contrast to mainland China, where simplified Chinese characters were adopted beginning in the 1950s. This article uses Taiwan Guoyu to refer to the colloquial varieties of Mandarin in Taiwan, Standard Guoyu for the prescribed standard form, Putonghua to refer to Standard mainland Chinese Mandarin, and simply Guoyu or Taiwanese Mandarin when a distinction is unnecessary. Terms and definition Chinese is not a single language, but a group of languages in the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. These languages share a common ancestry and script, Chinese characters, and among Chinese speakers are popular considered dialects of the same, overarching Chinese language. These dialects are often extremely divergent in the spoken form, however, and not mutually intelligible. Mandarin Chinese is a grouping of Chinese languages that includes at least eight subgroups (often called dialects). In English, "Mandarin" can refer to any of these Mandarin dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. However, the term is most commonly used to refer to Standard Chinese. Standard Chinese in mainland China is called Putonghua (普通话 Pǔtōnghuà, lit. 'common speech') and in the Republic of China (Taiwan) Guoyu (國語 Guóyǔ, lit. 'national language'). Both of these, as Mandarin languages, are based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and are mutually intelligible, but also feature various lexical, phonological, and grammatical differences. Linguists have further differentiated between the Standard Guoyu, the formal, standardized variety of Mandarin in Taiwan (標準國語 Biāozhǔn Guóyǔ) and Taiwan Guoyu (臺灣國語 Táiwān Guóyǔ), which refers to Mandarin as it is commonly spoken, incorporating significant influences from mutually unintelligible Southern Min Chinese dialects (namely, Hokkien). Some linguists further distinguish between Taiwan Guoyu and "Taiwanese Guoyu", an even more heavily Southern Min-influenced variety that is somewhat stigmatized and often spoken by older speakers who learned Guoyu as a second language. More formal occasions—such as television news broadcasts or books—will generally use Standard Guoyu, which bears a greater resemblance to mainland Putonghua, and is not used as a day-to-day language by most native speakers. Less formal situations will often result in the use of the basilect, which features unique characteristics from Hokkien. In this context, bilingual speakers will often code-switch between Mandarin and Hokkien, sometimes in the same sentence. History and usage Large-scale Han Chinese settlement of Taiwan began in the 17th century with Hoklo immigrants from Fujian province who spoke Southern Min languages (predominantly Hokkien), and, to a lesser extent, Hakka immigrants who spoke their respective language. Official communications were made in Mandarin (官話 guānhuà, lit. 'official language'), but the primary languages of everyday life were Hokkien or Hakka. After its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Qing dynasty ceded Taiwan to the Empire of Japan, which governed the island as an Imperial colony from 1895 to 1945. By the end of the colonial period, Japanese had become the high dialect of the island as the result of decades of Japanization policy. Under KMT rule After the Republic of China under the Kuomintang (KMT) regained control of Taiwan in 1945, Mandarin was introduced as the official language and made compulsory in schools, despite the fact that it was rarely spoken by the local population. Many who had fled the mainland after the fall of the KMT also spoke non-standard varieties of Mandarin, which would later influence colloquial pronunciations. Wu Chinese dialects were especially influential due to the relative power KMT refugees from Wu-speaking Zhejiang, Chiang Kai-shek's home province. The Mandarin Promotion Council (now called National Languages Committee) was established in 1946 by then-Chief Executive Chen Yi to standardize and popularize the usage of Mandarin in Taiwan. The Kuomintang heavily discouraged the use of Hokkien and other non-Mandarin dialects, portraying them as inferior, and school children were punished for speaking their native languages. Mandarin/Guoyu was thus established as a lingua franca among the various groups in Taiwan at the expense of other, preexisting, languages. Post-martial law Following the end of martial law in 1987, language policy in the country underwent liberalization, but Guoyu remained the dominant language. Local languages were no longer proscribed in public discourse, mass media, and schools. Guoyu is still the main language of public education, with English and "mother tongue education" () being introduced as subjects in primary school. However, mother tongue classes generally occupy much less time than Standard Guoyu classes, and English classes are often preferred by parents and students over mother tongue classes. A 2004 study found that Mandarin was spoken more fluently by Hakka and Taiwanese aboriginals than their respective mother tongues; Hoklo groups, on average, spoke better Hokkien, but young and middle-aged Hoklo (under 50 years old) still spoke significantly better Mandarin (with comparable levels of fluency to their usage of Hokkien) than the elderly. Overall, while both national and local levels of government have promoted the use of non-Mandarin Chinese languages, younger generations generally prefer using Mandarin. Mandarin is spoken fluently by the vast majority of the Taiwanese population, with the exception of some of the elderly population, who were educated under Japanese rule. In the capital of Taipei, where there is a high concentration of Mainlander descendants who do not natively speak Hokkien, Mandarin is used in greater frequency and fluency than other parts of Taiwan. The 2010 Taiwanese census found that in addition to Mandarin, Hokkien was natively spoken by around 70% of the population, and Hakka by 15%. Government statistics from 2021 found that 66.3% of Taiwanese residents use Guoyu as their primary language, and another 30.5% use it as a secondary language (31.7% used Hokkien as their primary language, and 54.3% used it as a secondary language). Guoyu is the primary language for over 80% of people in the northern areas of Taipei, Taoyuan, and Hsinchu. Script Guoyu employs traditional Chinese characters (which are also used in the two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau), rather than the simplified Chinese characters used in mainland China. Shorthand characters In practice, Taiwanese Mandarin users may write informal, shorthand suzi (; also sútǐzì) in place of the full traditional forms. These variant Chinese characters are generally easier to write by hand and consist of fewer strokes. Often, suzi are identical to their simplified counterparts, but they may also take after Japanese kanji, or differ from both, as shown in the table below. A few suzi are used as frequently as standard traditional characters, even in formal contexts, such as the tai in Taiwan, which is written as (5 strokes), as opposed to the official traditional form, (14 strokes). Braille Taiwanese braille is based on different letter assignments than Mainland Chinese braille. Transliteration Zhuyin Fuhao While pinyin is used in applications such as in signage, most Taiwanese speakers learn phonetics using the Zhuyin Fuhao (國語注音符號 Guóyǔ Zhùyīn Fúhào lit. Guoyu Phonetic Symbols) system, popularly called Zhuyin or Bopomofo after its first four glyphs. Taiwan is the only Chinese-speaking polity to use the system, which is taught in schools and represents the dominant digital input method on electronic devices. It has accordingly become a symbol of Taiwanese nationalism as well. Romanization Chinese language romanization in Taiwan somewhat differs from on the mainland, where Hanyu Pinyin is almost exclusively used. A competing system, Tongyong Pinyin, was formally revealed in 1998 with the support of then-mayor of Taipei Chen Shuibian. In 1999, however, the Legislative Yuan endorsed a slightly modified version of Hanyu Pinyin, creating parallel romanization schemes along largely partisan lines, with Kuomintang-supporting areas using Hanyu Pinyin, and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) areas using Tongyong Pinyin. In 2002, the Taiwanese government led by the DPP promulgated the use of Tongyong Pinyin as the country's preferred system, but this was formally abandoned in 2009 in favor of Hanyu Pinyin. In addition, various other historical romanization systems also exist across the island, with multiple systems sometimes existing in the same locality. Following the defeat of the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War and their subsequent retreat to Taiwan, little emphasis was placed on the romanization of Chinese characters, with the Wade-Giles system used as the default. It is still widely used for transcribing people's legal names today. The Gwoyeu Romatzyh method, invented in 1928, also was in use during this time period, albeit to a lesser extent. In 1984, Taiwan's Ministry of Education began revising the Gwoyeu Romatzyh method out of concern that Hanyu Pinyin was gaining prominence internationally. Ultimately, a revised version of Gwoyeu Romatzyh was released in 1986, which was formally called the 'National Phonetic Symbols, Second Scheme'. However, this system was not widely adopted. Phonology Standard Guoyu Like Putonghua, both Standard and Taiwanese Guoyu are tonal. Pronunciation of many individual characters differs in the standards prescribed by language authorities in Taipei and Beijing. Mainland authorities tend to prefer pronunciations popular in Northern Mandarin areas, whereas Taiwanese authorities prefer traditional pronunciations recorded in dictionaries from the 1930s and 1940s. These character-level differences notwithstanding, Standard Guoyu pronunciation is largely identical to Putonghua, but with two major systematic differences (also true of Taiwan Guoyu): Erhua, the rhotacization of certain morphemes with the suffix -兒 -er, is very rare in Guoyu. Isochrony is considerably more syllable-timed than in other Mandarin dialects (including Putonghua), which are stress-timed. Consequently, the "neutral tone" (輕聲 qīngshēng) does not occur as often, so final syllables generally retain their tone. For example, 'friend' is pronounced péngyou in Putonghua but péngyǒu in Guoyu, with yǒu retaining its original tone. This tendency to retain original tone is not present in words ending noun suffixes such as - -zi or - -tou . In addition, two other phenomena, while nonstandard, are extremely common across even highly educated speakers in Taiwan: The retroflex sounds zh- [ʈ͡ʂ], ch- [ʈ͡ʂʰ], and sh- [ʂ] merge into the alveolar consonants (z- [t͡s], c- [t͡sʰ], s- [s], respectively). The finals -ing [iŋ] and -eng [əŋ] have largely merged into -in [in] and -en [ən], respectively. Taiwan Guoyu Taiwan Guoyu pronunciation is very strongly influenced by Hokkien. This is especially prominent in areas where Hokkien is common - namely Central and Southern Taiwan. Many, though not all, of the phonological differences between Taiwan Guoyu and Putonghua can be attributed to the influence of Southern Min. Notable phonological features of Taiwan Guoyu include: The ability to produce retroflex sounds is considered a hallmark of "good" Mandarin (i.e. Standard Guoyu);some speakers may hypercorrect to pronounce alveolar consonants as their retroflex counterparts when attempting to speak "properly" (for example, shísān 'thirteen' as shíshān). f- becomes a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ], closer to a light 'h' in standard English ( fǎn → huǎn) The syllable written as ([əŋ]) after labials (in pinyin, b-, f-, m-, p- and w-) is pronounced ([ɔŋ]). The semivowel /w/ may be dropped altogether, rendering e.g. the surname Wēng as [ʊŋ] rather than [wəŋ]. The deletion of /w/ also happens in colloquial Putonghua, but less frequently. n- and l- are sometimes interchangeable, particularly preceding nasal finals (i.e. -n, -ng) endings -uo, -ou, and -e (when it represents a close-mid back unrounded vowel like in 喝 hē 'to drink') merge into the open-mid back rounded vowel -o [ɔ] the close front rounded vowel in words such as yǔ 'rain' become unrounded, transforming into yǐ the diphthong -ei is monophthongized into [e], as is the triphthong -ui [uei] Elision The non-standard Taiwanese Guoyu tends to exhibit frequent, informal elision when spoken. For example, zhè yàngzi 'this way, like so' can be pronounced similar to jiàngzi 'paste, sauce'; wherein the "theoretical" retroflex (so called because it is a feature of Standard Guoyu but rarely realized in everyday speech, as zh- is usually pronounced z-; see above section) is assimilated into the palatal glide [j]. Often the elision involves the removal of initials in compound words, such as dropping the t in jīntiān 'today' or the ch in fēicháng 'extremely, very'. Such elisions are not necessarily a function of speed of speech than of register, as it is more commonly used in casual conversation than in formal contexts. Differences from Mainland Mandarin Standard pronunciations In addition to differences in elision and influence from Hokkien, which are not features that are codified in the standard Guoyu, there are differences in pronunciation that arise from conflicting official standards in Taiwan and the mainland. These differences are primarily but not exclusively tonal. Of the 7,000 characters in the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese, approximately 18.3% differ in pronunciation between Guoyu and Putonghua. 12.7% of the 3,500 most commonly used characters differed. Official pronunciations given by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education are considered formal standards. The Ministry of Education tends to prefer language features present in traditional Beijing Mandarin, on which Guoyu is formally based, but these may not always reflect actual pronunciations commonly used by native Taiwanese Mandarin speakers. The following is a table of relatively common characters pronounced differently in Guoyu and Putonghua in most or all contexts. The first three columns display tonal differences, the more frequent type of difference, and the last column displays examples of differences in consonant or vowels. Some differences are not universal and may be relevant only in certain contexts. The following is a list of examples of such differences from the Cross-strait language database: Vocabulary Guoyu and Putonghua share a large majority of their vocabulary, but significant differences do exist. Some, but not all, of these differences may affect mutual understanding between speakers of their respective dialects. These differences can be classified in one of multiple ways: same word, different meaning (同實異名); same meaning, different word (同實異名); and words referring to concepts specific to either Taiwan or the mainland (臺詞 and 陸詞, respectively, in the Cross-Straits Dictionary). Differing usage or preference Guoyu and Putonghua speakers may display strong preference for one of a set of synonyms. For example, while both jièjù 借據 and jiètiáo 借條 refer to an IOU in either dialect, Taiwanese speakers tend to use jièjù, and mainland speakers tend to prefer jiètiáo. Likewise, words with the same literal meaning in Putonghua may differ in register from Guoyu. For instance, éryǐ 而已 'that's all, only' is very common even in Standard Guoyu in both its spoken and written forms, influenced by speech patterns in Hokkien, but in Putonghua the word is largely confined to formal, written contexts. Guoyu also tends to preserve older lexical items that are less common in the mainland. For example, Taiwanese commonly use zǎo'ān 早安 to say 'good morning', whereas mainland speakers tend to prefer zǎoshang hǎo 早上好. The following table highlights some terms where one or more of a particular set of synonyms is strongly preferred in either Guoyu or Putonghua. This also applies to the use of some function words. Preference for the expression of modality often differs among northern Mandarin speakers and Taiwanese, as evidenced by the selection of modal verbs. For example, Taiwanese Mandarin users strongly prefer 要 yào and 不要 búyào over 得 děi and 別 bié to express 'must' and 'must not', compared to native speakers from Beijing, though both pairs of characters are grammatically correct in either dialect. Same word, different meaning Some terms have different meanings in Taiwan and China, which can sometimes lead to misunderstandings between speakers of different sides of the Taiwan Strait. Often there are alternative terms which can be used unambiguously by speakers on both sides. Same meaning, different word The political separation of Taiwan (formally, the Republic of China, ROC) and mainland China (formally, the People's Republic of China, PRC) after the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 contributed to many differences in vocabulary. This is especially prominent in words and phrases which refer to things or concepts invented after the split, which frequently have totally different names in Guoyu and Putonghua. Because of this, scientific and technological terminology shows great variation between Putonghua and Guoyu. In computer science, for instance, the differences are prevalent enough to hinder communication between Guoyu and Putonghua speakers unfamiliar with each other's respective standards. Zhang (2000) selected four hundred core nouns from computer science and found that while 58.25% are identical in Standard and Taiwanese Mandarin, 21.75% were "basically" or "entirely" different. As cross-strait relations began to improve in the early 21st century, direct interaction between mainland Chinese and Taiwanese increased, and some vocabulary began to merge, especially by means of the Internet. For example, the words píngjǐng 瓶頸 'bottleneck (in a production process, etc.)' and zuòxiù 作秀 'to grandstand, show off' were originally unique to Taiwanese Mandarin, but have since become widely used in mainland China. Likewise, Taiwanese Mandarin users have incorporated mainland phrases and speech patterns as well. For example, Taiwanese Mandarin traditionally uses the word guǎndào 管道 for a figurative "channel" (as in "communications channel", etc.), as opposed to qúdào 渠道 in the mainland, but qúdào has become common in Taiwan as well. The following is a small selection of vocabulary items that differ from between Guoyu and Putonghua. Words may be formed from abbreviations in one form of Mandarin but not the other. For example, in Taiwan, bubble tea (珍珠奶茶 zhēnzhū nǎichá) is often abbreviated zhēnnǎi (珍奶), but this usage is not common on the mainland. Likewise, 'traffic rules/regulations' (交通规则 jiāotōng guīzé) is abbreviated as jiāoguī (交规) on the mainland, but not in Taiwan. In other cases, the same word may carry different connotations or usage patterns, and may be polysemous in one form of Mandarin but not the other. For example, lǒngluò 籠絡 in Taiwan's Guoyu means 'to convince, win over', but in mainland Putonghua, it carries a negative connotation (cf. 'beguile, coax'). Kuāzhāng 誇張 means 'to exaggerate,' but in Taiwan, it can also be used to express exclamation at something absurd or overdone, e.g., "(他們) 居然到現在還沒回來, 是不是太誇張了" '(They) still haven't even come back yet, isn't that absurd?' Another example is xiǎojiě 小姐, which literally mean 'miss' or 'young lady', which is regularly used to address any young woman in Taiwan. On the mainland, however, the word is also a euphemism for a prostitute and is therefore not used as a polite term of address. Words specific to Taiwanese Mandarin Authors of the Cross-Straits Dictionary (《两岸差异词词典》) estimate there are about 2000 words unique to Taiwanese Mandarin, around 10% of which come from Hokkien. Sometimes, Hokkien loanwords are written directly in Bopomofo (for example, ㄍㄧㄥ). Likewise, Standard Mandarin from the mainland contains significant amounts of vocabulary that are not present in Taiwan. Some of these differences stem from different social and political conditions, which gave rise to concepts that were not common between different areas, e.g. fúcǎi 福彩, a common abbreviation for the China Welfare Lottery of the People's Republic of China, or shíbāpā 十八趴, which refers to the 18% preferential interest rate on civil servants' pension funds in Taiwan. (趴 pā used as "percent" also being unique to Taiwanese Mandarin.) Additionally, many terms unique to Taiwanese Mandarin were adopted from Japanese both as a result of its geographical proximity, as well as Taiwan's status as a Japanese territory in the first half of the 20th century. Particles Modal particles convey modality, which can be understood as a speaker's attitude towards a given utterance (e.g. of necessity, possibility, or likelihood that the utterance is true). Modal particles are common in Chinese languages and generally occur at the end of sentences, and so are commonly called sentence-final particles or utterance-final particles. Guoyu employs some modal particles that are rare in Putonghua. Some are entirely unique to spoken, colloquial Taiwan Guoyu, and identical particles may also have different meanings in Putonghua and Guoyu. Conversely, particles that are common in Putonghua — particularly northern Putonghua, such as that spoken in Beijing — are very rare in Guoyu. Examples include 唄 (S: 呗) bei, 嚜 me, and 罷了 (罢了) bàle. 啦 Lā is a very common modal particle in Guoyu, which also appears in Putonghua with less frequency and always as a contraction of 了 le and 啊 a. In Guoyu, it has additional functions, which Lin (2014) broadly defines as "to mark an explicit or implicit adjustment" by the speaker to a given claim or assessment. In more specific terms, this use includes expression of impatience or displeasure (a, below); an imperative, such as a suggestion or order, especially a persistent one (b), and rejection or refutation (c). Wu (2006) argues is influenced by a similar la particle in Hokkien. (Unlike in Putonghua, Guoyu speakers will use 啦 immediately following 了, as seen in (a).) (a) Impatience or displeasure Go to sleep already! [You] have to go to class tomorrow! (b) Suggestion or order A: I'm so full! B: Don't be so polite, have another bowl! (c) Rejection or refutation A: He married so early, it has to be [because of] a pregnancy. B: There's no way. Taiwan Guoyu in spoken form has functionally adopted some particles from Hokkien. For example, hoⁿh functions in Hokkien as a particle indicating a question to which the speaker expects an affirmative answer (c.f. English "..., all right?" or "..., aren't you?"). Among other meanings, when used in Taiwan Guoyu utterances, it can indicate that the speaker wishes for an affirmative response, or may mark an imperative. In informal writing, Guoyu speakers may replace possessive particles 的 de or 之 zhī with the Japanese particle の no in hiragana (usually read as de), which serves a nearly identical grammatical role. No is often used in advertising, where it evokes a sense of playfulness and fashionability, and handwriting, as it is easier to write. Loan words and transliteration Loan words may differ between Putonghua and Guoyu. Different characters or methods may also be chosen for transliteration (phonetic or semantic), and the number of characters may differ. In some cases, loans may be calqued in one variety and transliterated in the other (as in the word for blues music, below). Generally, Guoyu tends to imitate the form of Han Chinese names when transliterating foreign persons' names. From Taiwanese Hokkien The terms " agōng" and " amà" are more commonly heard than the standard Mandarin terms yéye (paternal grandfather), wàigōng (maternal grandfather), nǎinai (paternal grandmother) and wàipó (maternal grandmother). Some local foods are usually referred by their Hokkien names. These include: Some Taiwanese Hokkien words are commonly found in local Mandarin-language newspapers and periodicals: From Japanese Japan's 50-year imperial rule of Taiwan preceded the KMT's exile to the island after the Chinese Civil War and its subsequent heavy promotion of Guoyu. As such, Hokkien and Hakka exhibit a large amount of lexical influence from Japanese. Many Japanese loanwords in Guoyu were originally borrowed from Hokkien. For example, the Hokkien word 摃龜 (Peh-oe-ji: kòngku; IPA: kɔŋ˥˩ku˥˥) 'to lose completely', which has been borrowed into Guoyu, originates from Japanese sukanku (スカンク, 'skunk'), with the same meaning. Grammar For non-recurring events, the construction involving (yǒu) is used where the sentence final particle (le) would normally be applied to denote perfect. For instance, Taiwanese Mandarin more commonly uses "" to mean "Have you seen a doctor?" whereas Putonghua uses "". This is due to the influence of Hokkien grammar, which uses (ū) in a similar fashion. For recurring or certain events, however, both Taiwanese and Mainland Mandarin use the latter, as in "", meaning "Have you eaten?" Another example of the influence of Hokkien Grammar on both Guoyu and Taiwan Mandarin is the use of (huì) as "to be" (a copula) before adjectives, in addition to the usual meanings "would" or "will". Compare typical ways to render "Are you hot?" and "I am (not) hot" in Putonghua, Guoyu, and Taiwanese Hokkien: Putonghua: ? — 。 Guoyu: ? — 。 Hokkien: ? — 。 Speakers of Guoyu may avoid splitting separable verbs, a category of verb + object compound words that are separated in certain grammatical contexts in standard usage. For example, the verb bāngmáng 幫忙 'to help; to do a favor', is composed of bāng 'to help, assist' plus máng 'to be busy; a favor'. The word in Guoyu can take on a direct object without separation, which is ungrammatical in Putonghua—我幫忙他 'I help him' must be rendered as 我帮他个忙 (as opposed to 我幫忙他 in Guoyu). This is not true of all separable verbs in Guoyu, and prescriptive texts still opt to treat these verbs as separable. Notes References Further resources Transliteration and romanization of Hokkien done with reference to: Languages of Taiwan Mandarin Chinese Taiwanese culture Chinese language

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The Night Angel Trilogy is a fantasy series written by Brent Weeks. The story follows the life of Azoth (later Kylar Stern) as he struggles as a guild rat to become the ultimate wetboy (an assassin with magical talent, such as the ability to muffle sound or to block an attack), but then tries to leave it all behind and finally becomes the avatar of retribution: the Night Angel. Plot summary For a detailed synopsis of the novels, see the relevant article for each book Series The Way of Shadows Shadow's Edge Beyond the Shadows Prequel: The Perfect Shadow Characters in the series Setting The story is set on the continent of Midcyru, mainly in the country of Cenaria and in its capital city which shares the same name. Magic The Talent The Talent is the magic most commonly used in Midcyru. Talented individuals must have three different components to be able to express their Talent outwardly. The first is their Glore Vyrden, or life magic. This is the reserve that stores the power that can be directed as the user wishes. The second component is the ability to refill one's glore vyrden when it is empty - if one does not possess it, then one can use magic only once or twice during one's whole life. A person with such an ability usually replenishes the glore vyrden by absorbing sunlight or light from other sources. The final component is a conduit allowing the use of one's glore vyrden however one desires. This conduit can be small or blocked, limiting the maximum amount of magic one can use at a single time. A nonexistent conduit, large glore vyrden and the ability to absorb large amounts of energy through the skin and eyes are the signs of a ka'karifer, one ready to bond and use the ka'kari artifacts. Also, people who are ka'karifers can call out to ka'kari, but once they bond, they cannot do so anymore. Magus and Maja In the series, a male mage is called a Magus, with Magi as its plural form. A Maja is a female mage, with Magae as its plural form. Red Magi Red Magi tend to use fire magic. Solonariwan Tofusin is a Sethi red mage in line for the throne and is very Talented, considered to be one of the strongest red mages of his time. Green Magi Green Magi are healers. Dorian Ursuul trained with the Green Magi in an attempt to use healing magic to possibly save him from the inevitable madness that afflicts all prophets, achieving the rank of Hoth'Salar (Brother of Healing). Brown Magi Also known as the Makers, the Brown Magi specialize in the creation of magical artifacts. Feir Cousat is an example of a Brown Mage. Ka'karifers Ka'karifers are those who use a ka'kari. These people have no conduit for their Talent, but the ka'kari provides them with one if they bond with one of the seven. In this case, a ka'karifer is someone who calls a ka'kari. However, if the ka'kari ever leaves the ka'karifer, as in the case of Durzo Blint, the conduit remains. Known ka'karifers include: Arikus Daadrul Corvaer Blackwell Trace Arvagulania Oren Razin Irenaea Blochwei Shrad Marden Acaelus Thorne/Durzo Blint Kylar Stern/Azoth Vir The vir is used by Meisters, Vürdmeisters and the Ursuul family. Vir users are also referred to as wytches, though this term insults them. The prayer that the Khalidorians say to their goddess is actually a spell that empties a small portion of their glore vyrden into her "reservoir" of magic; she then returns however much she desires back to them as vir. Like the Talent, it can act as an extension of the physical being. The difference between vir and Talent is that the vir is living, and has a measure of sentience, mostly because it is part of Khali. Many Meisters and Vürdmeisters who find themselves in harm's way will be protected by it unintentionally. It is described as a magical parasite. It opens new channels in the user's Talent, so initially a vir user will have stronger Talent, but the vir eventually consumes all the user's Talent permanently. A Meister's or Vürdmeister's strength in the vir is measured in shu'ra. There are thirteen shu'ra; however, only the Godking can attain the thirteenth. The vir appears on a Meister as a black, living tattoo of vines on the body of a Meister. The strength of a Meister's vir is shown by the amount of vir on his or her body, and the intricacy of the tattoos represents his or her mastery of the vir. Usually only the wytch's arms show vir, but stronger vir users, such as Dorian and Garoth Ursuul, are almost completely covered in vir when they choose to display it. The Ursuuls are the only Meisters who can hide their vir and bring it to the surface of their bodies at will. According to Neph Dada, the Ursuuls are also capable of removing access to the vir from another wytch. Curoch also has the power to destroy the vir contained in a wytch's body and does so in a small but violent concussive explosion. The Ursuul family's hidden vir can be stopped by stopping the physical expression of it, which appears to be the only weakness of their ability to hide their vir. While the Ursuuls can control the vir and who is able to use it, Khali controls the reservoir of vir and talent, which allows her to decide the level of a wytch's power. Meisters Meisters are the lowest rank and most common users of the vir, and they are never above the tenth shu'ra. They usually do not display much of the vir on their arms or the rest of their bodies. All ranking officials in Khalidor are at least Meisters, but most offices do not appear to take strength into great consideration. For example, Godking Wanhope's Keeper of the Dead is only a meister of the third shu'ra. Vürdmeisters Vürdmeisters are more powerful meisters. To become a Vürdmeister, a meister must pass at least the 10th shu'ra. Vürdmeisters are able to effectuate summons, such as the Pit Wyrm, while most meisters appear not to be able to. Neph Dada is a Vürdmeister. Magical artifacts Ka'kari Created by Ezra the Mad, based on the Black ka'kari that he discovered, and given to the Six Champions. They are described as glowing, metallic balls. When the user desires, the ka'kari covers their body like a second skin and gives them power over a specific element. This is activated by crushing said metallic ball which becomes a liquid and then covers the body. They also grant the user immortality, although they can still be killed in a way unaffiliated with the powers of their ka'kari. For example, while the bearer of the silver ka'kari is completely impervious to blades and metal weapons, he or she could easily be drowned or burned to death. The only known way of completely destroying a ka'kari is with the sword Curoch, as demonstrated by Kylar's destruction of the white ka'kari. However, while discussing the ka'kari with Garoth Ursuul, Neph Dada states that he believes a high amount of elemental power could be used to damage the ka'kari, and that this may have happened to the red and blue ka'kari. Black Ka'kari The original ka'kari, found by Ezra. He tried to replicate it but was only able to make inferior copies. Not much is known about it, but it is ancient and extremely powerful. It is sentient in nature, able to engage in small talk with Kylar and Durzo, as well as offer them advice. Furthermore, it also has a sarcastic sense of humor, similar to Durzo's, presumably from spending seven hundred years with him. The black ka'kari, like all ka'kari, chooses its user. The black ka'kari chose Acaleus Thorne and Kylar Stern because of their love of companionship, as the black ka'kari's abilities are based on love. It chose Acaelus Thorne over Ezra and Jorsin Alkestes, as Acaelus lived for the brotherhood shared in battle. After Durzo chose to let Vonda, a woman he was involved with die, the ka'kari abandoned him, as his ability to love was gone. It is known as the Devourer and the Sustainer; it devours everything it touches, including magic, items or clothing, except for the bearer (And certain rare magical items such as Iures the Staff of Law, and Curoch the Sword of Power). The black ka'kari allows the bearer to become perfectly invisible to everyone except mages. It is also able to bring the bearer back to life after being killed. In doing so, the sacrifice of new life is ending another's, this person being someone the bearer loved, either as friend or loved one. This death is not immediate but it is imminent. It is also a known fact that whoever is the wielder of the Black Ka'kari is known as the Night Angel who serves Vengeance, Justice, and Mercy culminating as the Avatar of Retribution. The black ka'kari's powers are vast and while most of them have been explained several of them are not. Its other abilities are: accelerated healing, the ability to see through shadows, the ability to dissipate a talent users weaves and(or) talent {"...she gathered her full strength; he blew in her face. Her Talent scattered as if that puff had been a hurricane..." Kylar confronting Istariel in her office}, the ability to see into the magical spectrum, the ability to see the Coranti {the unclean - sins or injustices that a person has committed}, and to transfer any thing it devours to its bearer as magical energy to restore their glore vyrden. Of these powers; accelerated healing and the ability to see through shadows remain to the user whether he is in possession of the ka'kari or not. It is unclear as to what powers remain to the a person whom the ka'kari abandons, but it could be speculated that the ability to see through shadows remains as Durzo has never had a problem navigating through a place of total darkness; even after the ka'kari had abandoned him as is evident from him easily moving through the tunnels to the nine's meeting spot without the use of a light source and there is no point when Durzo takes enough harm to tell if he still has the benefit of the accelerated healing though due to one having the ability while not in possession of the ka'kari would suggest that he does. Silver Ka'kari Originally given to Arikus (Eric according to the latest released novella "Perfect Shadow") Daadrul. Once bonded, the silver ka'kari makes the user impervious to blades and other metals. The Globe of Edges in Cenaria was thought to be the silver ka'kari, but was a forgery. This could be the item that Garoth Ursuul wanted but is never made specific. The current location of the silver ka'kari remains unknown. Red Ka'kari Originally given to Corvaer Blackwell, also known as Corvaer the Red. Once bonded, the red ka'kari gives the user power over fire. It was hidden inside Mount Tenji by Durzo Blint in an attempt to keep it away from the Wolf. This action turned Mount Tenji into an active volcano. White Ka'kari Originally given to Trace Avagulania. Once bonded, the white ka'kari gives the user the power of glamour. Glamour being defined as a weave to give the bearer an illusion to others, and in this case, the glamour of the white ka'kari was so powerful that it could be used to create an irresistible compulsion in others. Trace, reputed to be horribly ugly, became the most beautiful woman ever seen. Using the power given to her by the ka'kari, she became the Khalidorian goddess Khali. This ka'kari was destroyed when Kylar used Curoch to kill Khali. Brown Ka'kari Originally given to Oren Razin. Once bonded, the brown ka'kari gives the user power over the earth. The user can become a thousand-pound brute with skin made of stone. A much younger Durzo Blint gave it to the Wolf before deciding he needed to keep the artifacts safe from the Wolf. Green Ka'kari Originally given to Irenaea Blochwei. Once bonded, the green ka'kari gives the user power over plant life. It is believed to be somewhere in Ladesh. However, it is possible that this ka'kari was thrown into Ezra's wood, as Durzo states he threw two ka'kari into the wood, and all other ka'kari are accounted for. Blue Ka'kari Originally given to Shrad Marden. Once bonded, the blue ka'kari gives the user power over water. It also is said to allow the user to drain the liquid from a man's blood. It was thrown into the ocean by Durzo Blint, which created the Tlaxini Maelstrom. Iures (The Staff of Law) Created by Jorsin Alkestes and Ezra the day before Jorsin's demise, it is the companion to Curoch. Iures differs from Curoch in that it grants no additional power, but instead allows the wielder to focus his or her power to an extreme degree, allowing them to create or undo extremely complicated weaves with ease. It also has the power to record any weaves created near it and it remembers those weaves forever. Like Curoch, the wielder can also change Iures' appearance and shape at will. Durzo Blint and Kylar both use Iures disguised as the sword Retribution. The location of Iures is not explicitly stated at the end of the trilogy, but it is highly likely that the Dark Hunter has it in Ezra's Wood. Ceur'caelestos (The Blade of Heaven) Ceur'caelestos, or Blade of Heaven, is the Ceuran's legendary sword. Ceuran Law states that the bearer of the Blade of Heaven is King of Ceura. The sword is made of pure mistarille. There is a dragon on each side of the blade with a gap at the mouth, from which fire is produced whenever danger or magic is near. On the hilt there is a mark of two crossed war hammers. The hilt also contains a very large and pure red ruby. It first appears when Feir is running from Lantano Garuwashi and he has to confront him with Curoch. Curoch takes on the appearance of this blade (and it is suggested that Curoch, through its inherent shapeshifting abilities, may very well be the original Ceur'caelestos), and Lantano Garuwashi subsequently takes it from Feir. Kylar then steals the blade and throws it into Ezra's Wood. Feir enters the Wood to retrieve it, and receives instructions on how to recreate Ceur'caelestos. He then travels to Black Barrow and forges a perfect replica of the sword; save for Feir hiding his own smithing symbol near the base of the blade, which he gives to Garuwashi. However, the replica does not breathe fire like the original, as Feir cannot find a ruby to bind the necessary magic into. Immediately before the inspection of the sword by a Ceuran mage, Solon brings a suitable ruby to Garuwashi, completing the sword in truth, and causing it to gain the ability to breathe fire. The inspection reveals Feir's symbol, which according to the document is supposed to be on the blade. Thus, Ceur'caelestos existed only as a legend before Feir forged it. Curoch (The Blade of Power) Created by Jorsin Alkestes and Ezra, Curoch is the partner blade to Iures. Like Iures, Curoch can take any form that the bearer wishes, as Neph Dada demonstrated in the Hall of Winds. However, while Iures gives the bearer greater control over magic (allowing them to create or undo weaves with greater precision) Curoch amplifies the bearer's power to an extreme degree. With the vast majority of mages, this amplification exceeds what the bearer's body can handle, with only the strongest mages in the trilogy being capable of handling Curoch even at its lowest levels of power. The two best examples of Curoch's power are when Solon Tofusin used it to kill all the meisters using their vir during Roth's coup in Cenaria, when Jorsin Alkestes used it to blow apart the magic that was giving the krul form in the Alkestian Cycle (an era predating the time in which the Trilogy is set), and when Kylar uses Curoch to kill Neph Dada, euthanise Elene, and kill Khali, who was possessing her at the time. Curoch is also responsible for the destruction of the vir as it destroyed Khali, the goddess who supplied the vir to the Khalidorians. Curoch is the blade that Lantano Garuwashi originally believed to be the Blade of Heaven. Although the dark hunter appears to have taken Curoch at the end of the final book, it was prophesied by Dorian that there is one meant to wield Curoch, but this person has yet to come. This could refer to a child of Kylar and Elene, as it is implied that Dorian magically transferred the child from Elene to Jenine before her death. However, it could also refer to a child of Dorian and Jenine, as this would be a child of the only true Prophet, the most powerful Healer of the age, and the High Queen. Also, as mentioned by the author, there will be a series set seventeen years after the events of Beyond The Shadows. Curoch is also the only weapon known that is able to truly kill the bearer of the Black Ka'kari. Black Ka'kari to Kylar "...By the way, Jorsin Alkestes didn't like the idea of his enemies coming back to life. If that sword kills you, you're really dead." Politics Legitimate rulers High King The prophesied king to become ruler of all Midcryu. He was born on a special day and has the mark of a moon dragon on his arm (what the mark is was ambiguous in the prophecy. The other contender simply had a tattoo on his arm). Logan Gyre assumes the title of High King, becoming the overlord of Khalidor, Lodricar, Cenaria and Ceura. Godking The ruler of Khalidor from the Ursuul bloodline. Godkings are the only meisters capable of reaching the thirteenth shu'ra. They have a high degree of control over the vir and are able to rip out the vir of other meisters. Royal titles Most of Midcyru's countries are monarchies ruled by kings (Cenaria, Friaku), queens (Waeddryn), emperors (Seth) or regents (Ceura). Or the Godking in Khalidor. Criminal Underworld Sa'kagé (The Lord Of Shadow) The Sa'kagé are the criminal underworld of various cities across Midcyru, the most powerful and evident one being Cenaria's and the least powerful being in Caernarvon. It is represented inconographically by an eye with a heavy lid drawn in one complete gesture. In Cenaria they control all of the crime in the city, including the prostitution, smuggling, assassinations, the guilds, etc. In the first book Durzo Blint is also controlled by the Cenarian Sa'kage. They are also the reason that Khalidor didn't invade Cenaria straight away, the Sa'Kage controlled everything and the royalty controlled next to nothing, Khalidor wanted to control the Sa'Kage to allow them to take Cenaria in a single attack. The word "Kagé" means the Shadow. Sa'kagé means Lords of the Shadow. Originally part of an oath Acaelus Thorne gave to Jorsin Alkestes, who claimed that the oath was as old as the Night Angels themselves, the term Sa'Kage has been stolen by the criminals who run Cenaria and are in every other country (apparently except for Ymmur although it has not been mentioned) in a bid to tell people that they were the lords of the night and not the night angels Shinga The Shinga is the head of the Sa'kagé, and is iconographically represented by a nine pointed star. Momma K was the Cenarian Shinga for over fifteen years, hiding behind various puppet Shingas to keep her identity a secret. She gave up her title to Jarl, who declared himself Shinga and was supported by Momma K. Consequently, many of those who knew the identity of the real Shinga thought Jarl was only another puppet. After Jarl's assassination, Momma K assumes the role of Shinga again, while conspiring with Logan Gyre to get rid of the Sa'kagé at the same time. The Nine The council to the Cenarian Shinga, consisting of the nine most important Sa'kagé members. The Nine and the wetboys are the only people who know the true Shinga's identity. While it is intimated that each of the nine has an actual title, not all of the titles or positions they hold are put forth. The Master of Coin (a position held at one point by Count Drake) and the Mistress of Pleasures (Momma K) are explicitly named, but some of the others are only mentioned in accordance with their duties. A smuggling master is mentioned (he was killed by Durzo), Corbin Fishill was said to be the head of the children's guilds (also killed by Durzo), and another man was said to be the head of the bashers (although no name was given). Wetboys "Wetboys are to assassins like a tiger is to a kitten." - Kylar "That's why assassins have targets. Wetboys have deaders. Why do we call them deaders? Because when we take a contract, the rest of their short lives is a formality." - Durzo Wetboys are unparalleled killers, the elite of the elite when it comes to assassination in Cenaria. While assassins and assassination in general are commonplace in Cenaria, what distinguishes the true wetboys is not their improved skill at hiding, sneaking, killing, or any of these things. They may be more talented at killing, but what actually makes the distinction is that the true wetboys (Durzo Blint, Scarred Wrable, Hu Gibbet, Anders Gurka, and Jonus Severing are named) have the Talent: magical ability that greatly enhances their prowess in different ways. In general, the Talent enhances their physical abilities to an extreme degree, but it also allows them to do things like bend light to hide in the shadows, create phantom limbs for attack or defense, and cling to vertical surfaces, to name a few. Durzo displays a far greater range of abilities than any of the others, but his Talent was correspondingly more powerful than nearly any of the other characters shown in the series, along with the nearly 700 years of knowledge and experience he had to work with. While the wetboys in the series tend to be loyal only to themselves and to the contracts they are paid to perform, their Talent allows them to swear a magically binding oath to the Shinga, something they are compelled to do early on. This is a safety measure for the Shinga, for as Durzo puts it: "Shingas who aren't paranoid don't live very long." The oath and corresponding magical compulsion are relatively weak, but to remove it entirely the wetboy would have to submit themselves to a mage (every mage in Cenaria is under the control of the Sa'Kage) or a meister (Durzo again: "...only an idiot would submit to a meister"). Thus, the extreme danger the wetboys present is somewhat balanced. However, Kylar and Durzo are the only two wetboys never made to swear this oath. Religion The Hundred Gods Most peoples of Midcyru believe in the Hundred Gods or at least in some of them. Priests to the Hundred Gods are called hecatonarchs. Nysos is the deity of potent liquids, including blood, wine, and semen. He is often worshipped by wetboys and is likely derived from the Greek Dionysos, who holds a similar position in the Greek pantheon. The One God The One God is never referred to as being the god of any particular religion, and characters throughout the series that worship The One God are also never referred to as being part of any particular religion. The One God's name affirms that it is a Monotheist religion. There are similarities that The One God shares with the God that is worshiped in many religions today. (Particularly the Christian God, as Elene once spoke from actual scripture that is located in the Holy Bible.) The One God is also referred to many times as just "God". In one section of the novel, Godking Wanhope appears to have a short argument with The One God, possibly validating his existence in the story. However, this argument could simply be seen as a sign of Wanhope's decaying mental state. Khali Worshipped by the people of Khalidor. Dorian believed that she was a fallen angel who roamed the earth. It turns out that Khali is Trace, the bearer of the white ka'kari; however, the relation between Khali and the Strangers isn't totally clear. Dorian said that Khali was just an ally of the strangers. Trace may have allied herself with one of the Strangers when Durzo used the black ka'kari's magic to kill her. Khali uses the power of the Ka'kari's compulsion powers to control Khalidor and others. Vürdmeisters' summoning magic There are many creatures that are only created by Vurdmeisters. Ferali A Ferali is a fearsome and terrible creature created from the bodies and souls of tortured prisoners and controlled with diamonds thrust into its "back". A ferali has the ability to absorb living creatures into its body and use the bones and tissue to become larger and more powerful. It is covered in mouths that will trap and consume a victim alive after even the slightest contact. A ferali is not bound to one shape but can change to any shape it pleases as to use the bones more effectively. When a ferali is created then the creator must host a stranger. Garoth Ursuul hosts two strangers, Lust and Pride. They are fearsome in battle as most magic is simply deflected and any wound heals instantly. A ferali can be "ridden" or possessed by a powerful user of vir and used against his enemies. If a ferali is not consuming others it will consume itself, and eventually die. Two of the Ferali in the Trilogy are Tatts and Lily, both prisoners from the deepest level of the Maw, the Hole. Kylar Stern loses an arm to a ferali before it is killed. Although the ferali is impervious to most magic, a powerful spell of a complicated weave is capable of destroying the negatory magic they seem to possess. An example of this is when Dorian, a magi skilled with complicated weaves, destroyed a ferali with one spell that took only several seconds to create. It is also susceptible to the powers of the Devourer—the Black Ka'kari—which if used to attack the Ferali will negate its ability to heal itself. Krul Krul are created by binding the spirit of demons known as Strangers into human bones. A krul is like a zombie in that it doesn't feel pain or fear and can be raised again after being killed, however, a krul needs to eat to sustain its energy. The bones do not have to be in human shape, however, and many krul have been created by placing human bones into the shape of a horse or dog. This is more difficult, however, because they wish to be in the form of a human, not an animal. Then, if they are given clay and water, they can form muscle, flesh, and ligaments around the bones. Once they are formed, they become living beings. They eat, they sleep, and they defecate. They do not feel as other creatures do. Krul can speak, but not very well. They can see better in the dark, but they cannot see as far, presumably because eyes are difficult to create. As such they are poor archers. While they can feel fear, they almost never do because they know that if their physical body dies that they will most likely be remade sometime in the future. A krul is almost perfectly obedient. They have a powerful hate toward the living, powerful enough that it overrides their sense of self-preservation. If a krul is locked in a room with a person, and are told that if they kill the person that they will die as well, the krul will always choose to kill and die in turn. This was carried out with both men and women, even children. The krul cannot create anything, even weapons of war. They only exist to destroy. They eat human flesh, and it seems to make them stronger. The Strangers use a base 13 number system and it confines the krul to a certain order. A meister can lead 12 krul himself, but to lead 13, he must master a white krul called daemon. Daemons are fast, over 6 feet tall, and take more magic to create. 13 krul form a squad. A platoon is composed of 13 squads, or 169 krul and therefore 13 daemons. To control the 13 daemons a bone lord must be raised. The bone lords speak well, they possess more intelligence and they can used talent-based magic. 13 bone lords make a legion, to control a legion a fiend must be raised. 13 fiends make an army, which is 28,561 krul. To lead an army, the raising of an arcanghul is necessary. To lead 13 armies, a Night Lord must be raised. It is said that with a Night Lord, Khalidor conquered most of the Freeze. Legend says that when Roygaris Ursuul had raised 13 Night Lords, slaughtering almost 5 million people, Khali came into the world. Ferozi Yet another foul creature that can be conjured by meisters, the ferozi are only mentioned by name. Presumably less powerful than the ferali, it is mentioned that the ferozi can breed with one another so there must be genders of ferozi Titan A Titan is a huge creature possessed by a Stranger. Like krul, Titans can be raised over and over by meisters. Titans look like blue-skinned men from the front, with huge leathery wings, spikes along their spine, and a rat-like tail. In battle, they are surrounded by Red strangers referred to as fire ants or buulgari or the bugs. The Fire ants fight with very sophisticated techniques. Pit wyrm A pit wyrm can be summoned by a Vürdmeister of sufficient power. The wyrm is preceded by a small white flying homunculus which is released on the target. After several seconds, the fabric of space is ripped apart and the wyrm appears to devour the homunculus and anything around it. The wyrm itself is difficult to destroy as its skin seems to be impervious to normal weapons and it moves rapidly and fiercely, however, the homunculus can be misdirected so that the wyrm doesn't do the intended damage. A direct confrontation between pit wyrm and ferali at Pavvil's Grove has shown that a grown-out ferali can defeat a pit wyrm; a ferali can defeat almost any other 'creature' in midcyru. Lantano Garuwashi also uses Curoch to cut a pit wyrm in half. Novels by Brent Weeks Fantasy novel trilogies Fiction about invisibility

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Fredmans epistlar (English: Fredman's Epistles) is a collection of 82 poems set to music by Carl Michael Bellman, a major figure in Swedish 18th century song. Though first published in 1790, it was created over a period of twenty years from 1768 onwards. A companion volume, Fredmans sånger (Fredman's Songs) was published the following year. The Epistles vary widely in style and effect, from Rococo-themed pastorale with a cast of gods and demigods from classical antiquity to laments for the effects of Brännvin-drinking, tavern-scenes, and apparent improvisations. The lyrics, based on the lives of Bellman's contemporaries in Gustavian-age Sweden, describe a gallery of fictional and semi-fictional characters and events in Stockholm. Jean Fredman, an alcoholic former watchmaker, is the central character and fictional narrator. The "soliloquy" of Epistle 23, a description of Fredman lying drunk in the gutter and then recovering in the Crawl-In Tavern, was described by Oscar Levertin as "the to-be-or-not-to-be of Swedish literature". Ulla Winblad, based on one of Bellman's friends, is the chief of the fictional "nymphs". She is half goddess, half prostitute, a key figure among the demimonde characters of Fredman's Epistles. The Epistles are admired for the way that their poetry and music fit so well together. Bellman chose not to compose the tunes, instead borrowing and adapting existing melodies, most likely to exploit the humour of contrasting the associations of well-known tunes with the meanings he gave them. This may also have been intended to provide historical depth to his work; he sometimes devoted considerable energy to adapting melodies to fit an Epistle's needs. Many of the Epistles have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia, especially in Sweden. They are widely sung and recorded: by choirs such as the Orphei Drängar, by professional solo singers such as Fred Åkerström and Cornelis Vreeswijk, and by ensemble singers such as Sven-Bertil Taube and William Clauson. The Epistles have been translated into German, French, English, Russian, Polish, Finnish, Italian and Dutch. Overview Bellman wrote a total of 82 Fredman's Epistles, starting in 1768. The overall theme of the Epistles is, on the surface, drinking, and its effects, but the Epistles are very far from being drinking songs. Instead, they are a diverse collection of songs, often telling stories. They are sometimes romantically pastoral, sometimes serious, even mournful, but always dramatic, full of life. Together, they "paint in words and music a canvas of their age". They are populated by a lengthy cast of characters, and set firmly in Bellman's time and place, eighteenth century Stockholm, but are simultaneously decorated, for romantic or humorous effect, in Rococo style. As a result, listeners are confronted with both striking realism and classical imagery. Within these general themes, the Epistles follow no discernible pattern, and do not join together to tell any single story. Their tunes, too, are borrowed from a variety of sources, often French. The words that are fitted to the tunes are often in parodic contrast to their original themes, very likely achieving humorous effects on their eighteenth-century audiences. Fredman's Epistles are thus not easy to categorise; the critic Johan Henric Kellgren stated that Bellman's songs "had no model and can have no successors". Bellman was a skilful and entertaining performer of his songs, accompanying himself on the cittern, putting on different voices, and imitating the sounds made by a crowd of people. He is unusual, even unique, among major poets in that almost all of his work was "conceived to music". His achievement has been compared to Shakespeare, Beethoven, Mozart, and Hogarth. Bellman, however, was no great playwright, nor a major classical composer. His biographer, Paul Britten Austin, suggests that the comparison with Hogarth is closer to the mark. Bellman had a gift for using elegant classical references in comic contrast to the sordid realities of drinking and prostitution. The way he does this, at once regretting and celebrating these excesses in song, achieves something of what Hogarth achieved in engravings and paint. The art historian Axel Romdahl describes Bellman's sensibility as if he had been a painter: "An unusual swiftness of apprehension, both optical and aural, must have distinguished him." Britten Austin agrees with this, noting that "When [Bellman's] words and music have faded into silence it is the visual image which remains." Jan Sjåvik comments in the Historical Dictionary of Scandinavian Literature and Theater that "Bellman's achievement consists in taking this humble and unrecognized literary form [the drinking song] and raising it to a genre that became impossible to ignore, while in the process creating songs and characters that have become an indispensable part of Sweden's literary and cultural heritage." The Epistles Many of the 82 Fredman's Epistles remain popular in Sweden. Their diverse styles and themes may be illustrated with examples of some of the best-known songs. To begin with No. 23, Ack du min Moder! (Alas, thou my mother), which has been described as "the to-be-or-not-to-be of Swedish literature", tells, in realist style, the story of a drunk who wakes in a Stockholm gutter outside the Crawl-In Tavern. He curses his parents for conceiving him "perhaps upon a table" as he looks at his torn clothes. Then the tavern door opens, and he goes in and has his first drink. The song ends with loud thanks to the drunk's mother and father. In contrast, the Rococo No. 28, I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja (Yesterday I saw thy child, my Freya), tells the tale of an attempt to arrest the "nymph" Ulla Winblad, based on a real event. Bellman here combines realism – Ulla wearing a black embroidered bodice, and losing her watch in a named street (Yxsmedsgränd) in Stockholm's Gamla stan – with images from classical mythology, such as a myrtle crown and an allusion to the goddess Aphrodite. Quite a different tone is set in No. 40, Ge rum i Bröllops-gåln din hund! (Make room in the wedding-hall, you dog!), as some unruly soldiers interfere in a chaotic wedding, mixing roughly with the musicians and the wedding-party. Shouts of "Shoulder arms!" and panic at a chimney fire combine with a complex rhyming pattern to create a humorous picture of the disastrous event. The story ends with the priest pocketing some of the collection money. A later Epistle, No. 48, Solen glimmar blank och trind (The sun gleams smooth and round), narrates the relaxed and peaceful journey of a boat bringing Ulla Winblad home to Stockholm across Lake Mälaren on a lovely spring morning, after a night of carousing. The boatmen call to each other, apparently haphazardly, but each detail helps to create a pastoral vision as "Gradually the wind blows up / In the fallen sails; / The pennant stretches, and with an oar / Olle stands on a hayboat;". The song is "one of Bellman's greatest", creating "an incomparable panorama of that eighteenth-century Stockholm which meets us in Elias Martin's canvasses." Bellman had stopped composing Epistles by 1781; he started again by the end of the decade, composing seven of his finest works around 1789 to 1790: Epistles 70, 71, 77, 80, 81, 82, and revising Epistle 72 which he had written in 1772. The musicologist James Massengale calls this "an impressive group, containing several of the [most] popular Bellman favorites of all time, as well as some of his most complex and intriguing works of art". He adds that the sources of their melodies are mostly unknown, leading some to suggest that Bellman composed the melodies rather than following his usual habit of modifying well-known existing tunes. No. 71, Ulla! min Ulla! säj får jag dig bjuda (Ulla! My Ulla! Say, may I offer thee) is another of the best-loved pastoral Epistles, and the melody may well be by Bellman himself. It imagines how Fredman, sitting on horseback outside Ulla's window at Fiskartorpet on a summer's day, invites her to come and dine with him on "reddest strawberries in milk and wine". The following Epistle, No. 72, Glimmande nymf (Gleaming nymph), is a night-piece, set to an Andante melody from a French opéra comique. It describes in erotic detail the "nymph" asleep in her bed. To create the desired mood of rising excitement, Bellman creates a rainbow — after sunset. Britten Austin comments that the audience "does not even notice". Meanwhile, No. 80, Liksom en Herdinna, högtids klädd (Like a shepherdess in her best dress), is a pastorale, almost paraphrasing Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux's French guide to the construction of pastoral verse, starting with "As a Shepherdess splendidly dressed / By the spring one day in June / gathers from the grass's rosy bed / adornments and accents for her dress". The effect is of an "almost religious invocation". The final Epistle, No. 82, Hvila vid denna källa (Rest by this spring), is both pastoral and Rococo, depicting a "little breakfast" in the Stockholm countryside. Red wine flows; there is roast chicken, and an almond tart. Flowers "of a thousand kinds" are all around; a stallion parades in a field "with his mare and foal"; a bull roars; a cockerel hops on the roof, and a magpie chatters. Meanwhile, the musicians are exhorted to blow along with the wind god Eol, small love-sprites are asked to sing, and Ulla is called a nymph. The final chorus asks everyone to drink their dram of brandy. Cast of characters The lyrics of the Epistles describe a gallery of fictional and semi-fictional characters who take part in more or less real events in and around the Stockholm of Bellman's time. This cast includes some 44 named personages, many of whom appear only once or twice. Some, like the principal characters Jean Fredman and Ulla Winblad, are based on real people, and in Fredman's case his real name was used. The Fredman of the Epistles is an alcoholic former watchmaker, and is the central character and fictional narrator. He is thus supposedly present in all the Epistles, but is only named in a few of them. The backdrop of many of the Epistles, Stockholm's taverns, is also frequented by musicians including Christian Wingmark on flute, Father Berg on various instruments, Father Movitz, and the dance master Corporal Mollberg. A particular group is the Order of Bacchus (Bacchi Orden): to become a member, one must be seen lying in a drunken stupor in a Stockholm gutter at least twice. Among the more minor characters is the brandy-distiller Lundholm. Another is Norström, Ulla Winblad's husband; the real Eric Nordström did in fact marry the "real Ulla Winblad", Maria Kristina Kiellström, a silk-spinner and fallen woman made pregnant by a passing nobleman. In the Epistles, Ulla Winblad is the chief of the "nymphs". She is half goddess, half prostitute, chief among the demimonde characters of the Epistles. Rococo theme Many of the Epistles have a Rococo theme, especially the pastorale pieces with a cast of gods and demigods from classical mythology. Thus, Epistle 25, "Blåsen nu alla (All blow now!)", a short crossing of the Stockholm waterway to Djurgården, is peopled with billowing waves, thunder, Venus, Neptune, tritons, postillions, angels, dolphins, zephyrs "and Paphos's whole might", as well as water-nymphs splashing about the "nymph" – in other words, Ulla Winblad. The principal figures, given that the Epistles focus on drinking and its effects, along with "nymphs", are Bacchus and Venus / Fröja, but the cast is wider, including: Amaryllis – a nymph of the countryside (from Virgil's Eclogues) Bacchus – god of wine and drinking Charon – the ferryman of Hades, carrying souls to the place of the dead Chloris / Flora – the nymph or goddess of springtime, flowers and growth Clotho – one of the three fates, spinning the thread of human life (which is suddenly cut off) Cupid / Astrild – god of desire and erotic love, Astrild being a late Nordic invention Jupiter/Jofur – king of the gods on Mount Olympus, god of thunder Morpheus – god of sleep Neptune – god of the sea, accompanying the birth of Venus from the waves Nymph – a (beautiful) female nature deity Pan – god of wildness and rough countryside Themis – Titaness of divine law and justice Triton – messenger of the sea, accompanying Neptune Venus / Fröja / Aphrodite at Paphos – goddesses of love Realism Alongside the frankly mythological, Fredman's Epistles have a convincing realism, painting pictures of moments of low life in Bellman's contemporary Stockholm. Bellman himself provided a list of descriptions of his characters, giving a brief pen-portrait of each one, like "Anders Wingmark, a former clothier in Urvädersgränd, very cheerful and full of commonsense". Different characters appear in different Epistles, making them realistically episodic. There is a fire in Epistle 34; a funeral is busily prepared in Epistles 46 and 47; and a fight breaks out in Epistle 53. Many of the songs are about the effects of strong drink, from the damage to the Gröna Lund Tavern in Epistle 12 to the masterly portrait of a drunkard lying in the gutter of Epistle 23, described by Oscar Levertin as "the to-be-or-not-to-be of Swedish literature". The pastoral Epistles, too, give the impression of being in real places, with flesh-and-blood people, at specific times of day. Epistle 48 tells how the friends return to Stockholm by boat after a night out on Lake Mälaren, one summer morning in 1769. Each of its twenty-one verses paints a picture of a moment in the peaceful journey, from the wind stirring the fallen sails, the skipper's daughter coming out of her cabin, the cockerel crowing, the church clock striking four in the morning, the sun glimmering on the calm water. The effects may seem to be haphazard, but "each stanza is a little picture, framed by its melody. We remember it all, seem to have lived through it, like a morning in our own lives." Britten Austin calls it "a new vision of the natural and urban scene. Fresh as Martin's. Detailed as Hogarth's. Frail and ethereal as Watteau's." Britten Austin tempers his praise for Bellman's realism with the observation that the effects are chosen to work in song, rather than to be strictly correct or even possible. Thus in Epistle 72, "Glimmande Nymf", the memorable rainbow with its glowing colours "of purple, gold and green" is seen after nightfall. He comments "Never mind. It is a beautiful scene, even if its chronology calls for much poetic license." Or in Epistle 80, "Liksom en herdinna", the farmer is for some reason going to or coming from market on a Sunday, when the market would be closed; and his cart "heavy on staggering wheel" must have been absurdly full if it contained chickens, lambs, and calves all at once. But it had to be a Sunday to allow Ulla Winblad to step out of her swaying chaise, on an outing from the city. Britten Austin remarks that "until such solecisms are actually pointed out, one does not even notice them." It is the same with the meals, which would cause "terrible indigestion" if the listener actually had to eat them, but "as a feast for mind, eye and ear they are highly satisfactory", the imagination filled with "all the poetic wealth" that Bellman provides. The literary historian Lars Warme observes that Bellman's sharp eye for detail has brought him praise for being the first Swedish realist, but at once balances this by saying that Warme credits Bellman with a good knowledge of a literary craftsman's tools, using rhetoric and classical knowledge "to provide a theatrical backdrop for his tavern folk." The result is an "astonishing mixture of realism and wild mythological fantasy", set to complicated musical structures: Fitted to music The critic Johan Henric Kellgren, in his introduction to the first edition, found that the songs could not be known fully only as poems. Never before, he stated, had the art of poetry and the art of music been more fraternally united. They were not, Kellgren argued, verse that had been set to music; not music, set to verse; but the two were so thoroughly melted together into One beauty that it was impossible to see which would most miss the other for its fulfilment. Quoting this in the final paragraph of his thesis, Massengale commented "That is how it ought to be said!" Massengale argues that, given that music is so important in the Epistles, and that Bellman had more than enough musical skill to write a tune, it is remarkable that all or almost all the tunes are borrowed. He suggests that this "seems to indicate that Bellman wanted to preserve some vestige of the borrowing." That the borrowing was not just about saving effort or making up for absent skill, Massengale argues, is demonstrated by the fact that the amount of work Bellman had to put into the melodies for Epistles 12 ("Gråt Fader Berg och spela") and 24 ("Kära syster") was "surely tantamount to the production of new melodies." Borrowing was accepted, even encouraged at the time, but that does not explain why Bellman would have done it so consistently. The "poetic possibility", Massengale suggests, is that Bellman wished to exploit the humorous contrast between a melody of one type and a story of another, or between an existing image associated with the melody, and a fresh one presented in an Epistle. In addition, Bellman was able to use what his audience knew to be borrowed music to reinforce the historical flavour of the Epistles, introducing exactly the kind of ambiguity that he was seeking. Massengale points out that in the Epistles, Bellman employs a variety of methods to make the poetry work. For example, in Epistle 35, Bröderna fara väl vilse ibland, Bellman uses a panoply of metrical devices to counteract the "metrically plodding melody". He uses the rhetorical figure anadiplosis (repeating the last word of a clause at the start of the next) in verse 3 with "...skaffa jag barnet; barnet det dog,..." (...got I the child; the child died...) and again in verse 4. He uses epanalepsis (repeating the first word of a clause at its end) in verse 3, with "Men, min Anna Greta, men!" (But, my Anna Greta, but!), and again in verse 5. And he uses anaphora (repeating a word at the starts of neighbouring clauses) in verse 4, "häll den på hjärtat, häll man fyra!" (pour ... pour out four!), and again in verse 5. Massengale observes that good musical poetry, like this Epistle, is always a compromise, as it has both to fit its music or be no good as a musical setting, and to contrast with its music, or be no good as poetry. The final verse, containing all three metrical devices, is not, argues Massengale, an example of "decay", but shows Bellman's freedom, change of focus (from lament to acceptance), and the closure of the Epistle. Improvisation King Gustav III called Bellman "Il signor improvisatore" (The master improviser). Scholars have debated the question of how far the Epistles are in fact improvisations. Carol J. Clover writes that while many of the Epistles give the impression of having been improvised during performance, there is plentiful evidence to the contrary. She notes Milman Parry's identification of the poetic formula, a metrical phrase for a particular idea, as the hallmark of improvised, orally composed, poetry; and that Bellman certainly had "regular usages" in the Epistles. These include hundreds of repetitions of phrases like "Kära syster" (among other occurrences, the title of Epistle 24), "Kära bror", "Kära vänner" and so forth for various persons. She notes, too, that while vin (wine) often appears without kärlek (love), "kärlek, in keeping with Fredman's program, is rarely mentioned apart from vin", giving instances like Epistle 24's Sjung om kärlek, vin och lycka alongside Epistle 11's Sjungom om kärlek, ropa på vin and phrases from Epistles 4, 13, 17, 21, and 64. She writes that the early Epistles have the rough-and-ready, but also quick and verbally clever, quality of krogspoesi (tavern verse). In contrast, a late one like Liksom en Herdinna, högtids klädd (Epistle 80) is evidently a "highly conscious literary composition" with "longer lines and a more relaxed rhyme pattern" which permits more complex content, in that case a rococo pastorale. She notes 's identification of 1772 as the turning point, from Bellman's early years in the relaxed 18th century frihetstiden to the Gustavian era's "poised rococo consciousness". In her view, the early Epistles are close to the improvisatory tradition, while the later ones are undoubtedly more literary. Impact In Bellman's lifetime Bellman is said to have had an "enormous reputation" in his lifetime. The critic Kellgren however objected both to Bellman's fame and to his flouting of the rules of good literary taste. Kellgren put his objections into verse: In other words, Bellman was a "tavern rhymester", admittedly with a wonderful gift of improvisation, who wildly ignored the rules of literary genres. For example, within the classical tradition odes and satires were supposed to have different metres and different use of language. Kellgren did not mind the amoral attitude: "indeed he shared it". But an Epistle like No. 28 traversed all moods, "from lyrical to humorous, tragic, descriptive and dramatic." It was too much for critics such as Kellgren. In later times Bellman was sung "with delight" by students and schoolchildren from the start of the 19th century. The Romantic movement treated Bellman as an inspired genius, whereas later he was admired more for his artistic skill and literary innovation. Research into Bellman's work began in the 19th century; the Bellman Society formalised Bellman studies with their standard edition and their Bellmansstudier publications in the 20th century. Towards the end of the 20th century, an increasing number of doctoral theses have been written on Bellman's life and work. Many of the songs have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia, especially in Sweden, where Bellman remains "widely popular to this day". In 1989, the Swedish government subsided an edition of Bellman's Epistles and Songs, with illustrations by Peter Dahl, to bring the texts to a wide audience. Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven. Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called "Swedish poetry's Mozart, and Hogarth", observing that Britten Austin says instead simply that: Charles Wharton Stork commented in his 1917 anthology of Swedish verse that "The anthologist finds little to pause over until he comes to the poetry of Karl Mikael Bellman (1740-1795), but here he must linger long." Describing him as a "master of improvisation", he wrote: Performance and recordings The Epistles are widely sung and recorded by amateur choirs and professional singers alike. The Orphei Drängar (Orpheus's farmhands) are a choir named for a phrase in Epistle 14, and set up to perform Bellman's works; they give concerts (of music by many composers) around the world. Several professional solo singers in the Swedish ballad tradition largely made their name in the 1960s singing Bellman, while accompanying themselves in Bellmanesque style with a guitar. They were the members of the "Storks" artistic community ("Vispråmen Storken") in Stockholm, and they include Fred Åkerström (1937–1985) with his albums Fred sjunger Bellman, Glimmande nymf and Vila vid denna källa, and Cornelis Vreeswijk with his albums Spring mot Ulla, spring! and Movitz! Movitz! Other singers, such as Sven-Bertil Taube and William Clauson, used the less authentic accompaniment of an ensemble; Clauson was also the first to release a recording of Bellman in English, alongside his Swedish recordings. Singers from other traditions sometimes sing Bellman; for example, the folk singer Sofia Karlsson and the rock musician Kajsa Grytt. Editions The 1790 edition was the only one to appear in Bellman's lifetime. It was published by Olof Åhlström, by royal privilege; he held a monopoly on the printing of sheet music in Sweden. Åhlström arranged the songs for piano, and Kellgren edited the song texts and wrote an introduction, but the extent of their influence on the shape of Fredman's Epistles cannot be fully determined. The edition was illustrated with a frontispiece by the leading Swedish artist Johan Tobias Sergel, engraved by Johan Fredrik Martin. The corpus of published Epistles did not change after Bellman's death. Many minor selections from the Epistles have been published, sometimes with illustrations and introductions. The Epistles have been translated, at least partially, into Danish, German, French, English, Russian, Polish, Finnish, Norwegian, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch, as shown below. The English edition by Britten Austin is a selection of the Epistles, and is in rhyming verse in the original metre. Britten Austin describes the challenge of translation as difficult or impossible, and admits that in one way his translations are inevitably "a little faint." He explains this is because "Bellman's colloquialisms which offended his contemporaries still strike Swedish ears as the language of everyday speech. My renderings, therefore, may seem a trifle too antique in flavour; but to have jumbled up, as Bellman brilliantly does, modern-sounding slang with the graces of Rococo diction, would have produced a horrid effect. Editions and selections of the Epistles, some with illustrations, some with music, some printed together with Fredman's Songs, include: 1790: Fredmans epistlar, Stockholm: Olof Åhlström, by Royal Privilege. --- facsimile reprint, 1976: Uddevalla. 1816: Fredmans epistlar, Stockholm: Rumstedt. 1844: Fredmans epistlar, Copenhagen: Jaeger. With 24 coloured lithographs. 1858: Fredmans epistlar, Text och musik, Copenhagen: J. Erslev. (In Danish) 1869: Fredmans epistlar och sånger, Stockholm: Elkan and Schildknecht. 1889: Fredmans epistlar, Stockholm: Bonniers. Arranged for piano solo. 1899: Fredmans epistlar af Carl Michael Bellman, Stockholm: Ljus. Intro. by Oscar Levertin. Illus. by Alf Wallander. 1909: Fredmans Episteln, Jena: E. Diederichs. (In German) 1920: Fredmans epistlar, Ord och musik, Stockholm: Bonniers. 1927: Carl Michael Bellmans skrifter. 1. Fredmans Epistlar, Stockholm: Bellmanssällskapet. ("Standard Edition") 1953: Les Épîtres de Fredman, Stockholm: Norstedt. (In French) 28 Epistles trans. Nils Afzelius and Pierre Volboudt. Illus. by Elias Martin. --- reprinted, 1984: La Ferté-Milon. 1958: Das trunkene Lied, Munich: Desch. (In German). trans. Hanns von Gumppenberg, Felix Niedner, Georg Schwarz. 1977: Fredman's Epistles and Songs, Stockholm: Reuter and Reuter. (In English) trans. Paul Britten Austin. 1982: Pesni Fredmana; Poslaniia Fredmana, Leningrad: Khudozh. (In Russian) 1991: Fredmanowe posłania i pieśni, Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne. (In Polish) 1991: Lauluja ja epistoloita, Helsinki: Yliopistopaino. (In Finnish) 1994: Fredmans epistlar, Stockholm: Proprius. 2002: Ulla, mia Ulla: antologia poetica in italiano cantabile, Rome: Istituti editoriali e poligrafici internazionali. (In Italian). A selection. 2003: Sterven van liefde en leven van wijn : een bloemlezing uit de Epistels & Zangen van Fredman, 's-Hertogenbosch : Voltaire. (In Dutch). A selection. Notes References Sources (contains the most popular Epistles and Songs, in Swedish, with sheet music) (contains the remaining Epistles and Songs, in Swedish, with sheet music) (with facsimiles of sheet music from first editions in 1790, 1791) External links Bellman lyrics and reference index Bellman.net Facsimile of 1790 book Fredmans Epistlar, 1836 edition, on Google books (free access) Swedish poetry 1790 books Works by Carl Michael Bellman Swedish songs

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Manor of Siston is the ancient manor in Siston in South Gloucestershire, England. Descent of the manor Berkeley of Dursley The Domesday Book of 1086 records Siston at an annual value of 8 marks, assessed at 5 hides, amongst the lands of the Norman magnate Roger de Berkeley I (d. 1093), held in-chief from the King. Roger's possessions and influence, centered on the royal demesne of Berkeley Castle, Dursley, ranged from Gloucester in the north to Bristol in the south, the Cotswolds to the east and the Bristol Channel to the west. Dr Neil Stacy has reconstructed the early history of Siston as follows: In 1127 Siston was occupied by a certain "Matron" Racendis, possibly the widow of Roger II (d. 1127) de Berkeley. She attempted to bequeath it to Glastonbury Abbey, which held neighbouring Pucklechurch, seemingly to deprive her nephew William of control of it, who was administering her son's inheritance during her lifetime. She stated that she held the manor freely with no other claim upon it. The Abbot sent knights and monks to Siston to visit Racendis on her death bed to remind her of her promise, only to find monks already in attendance from another Abbey, also claiming her body and property. Following a public hearing and the payment of 40 marks by Henry of Blois, Abbot of Glastonbury, to Racendis, probably to go to the other claimant house as compensation, the manor subsequently was recognised as being held from Glastonbury, still however tenanted by the Berkeleys. This position was perhaps formalised by a charter (now lost) from King Henry I (1100–1135), uncle to Abbot Henry. A further charter of confirmation was granted by King Stephen (1135–1154) in January 1138 describing Siston as rightfully held by Glastonbury, as its ancient possession. Stephen was the brother of Abbot Henry, both being sons of the Count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter of William I. The proof offered of an ancient holding may have been a charter forged in the scriptorium of Glastonbury, as Dr. Stacy suggests. However, in 1153 Roger III de Berkeley, possibly the son of Racendis, claiming it his property by inheritance, attempted to dispose of Siston in marriage settlement on a daughter of Robert FitzHarding, betrothed to his son and heir. Robert FitzHarding was a wealthy merchant of Bristol and a financier of Duke Henry of Aquitaine (future King Henry II, 1154–1189, rival of Stephen). This double marriage contract, binding the son and heir of each man to marry a daughter of the other, was signed at the house of Robert FitzHarding in Bristol in the presence of Duke Henry and 16 witnesses. It was an attempt to restore good relations between Roger de Berkeley and Robert FitzHarding. FitzHarding, earlier in 1153, had been given Berkeley Castle by Duke Henry and became 1st. Baron Berkeley, leaving Roger de Berkeley with a truncated lordship centred on Dursley. Glastonbury appealed to Duke Henry, who abruptly ordered the Earl of Gloucester to restore Siston to Glastonbury. The Earl of Gloucester effected a compromise whereby The Dursley Berkeleys would continue to hold Siston, but paying knight's service for it to the Abbey as overlords. Professor Crouch, writing in 2000, stated: "in the past 10 years the manor of Siston has become a very significant place in the understanding of what was happening in King Stephen's reign, largely due to the documentation that the contest for its possession generated" In 1218 Siston was handed over by Glastonbury with other temporalities to the Bishop of Bath & Wells, and continued to be held in chief by that see until Dissolution. The knight's service seems to have lapsed by the middle of the 13th century. Walerand of Whaddon, Wiltshire Siston eventually passed by marriage to Robert Walerand (d. 1272), Justiciar to Henry III, one of the four chief ministers of the Crown, eldest son of William Walerand of Whaddon, Wiltshire, and Isabel, daughter of Roger de Berkeley of Dursley, by her second marriage. By 1242/3 Walerand had succeeded to his patrimony of Whaddon, part of the Domesday barony of Walerand the Huntsman, whose descendants had often held the New Forest and Forest of Clarendon in fee. In 1245, on the death of the last Marshal Earl of Pembroke, he was made custodian of his lands in west Wales, including Pembroke Castle. From 1246 to 1250 he was High Sheriff of Gloucestershire and keeper of Gloucester Castle. In 1253 he held the stewardship of the New Forest and in 1255 was made keeper of the Forest of Dean and Constable of St Briavel's Castle. In 1259 he became keeper of Bristol Castle. Walerand gained huge land holdings throughout the kingdom largely acquired as forfeited lands of Hugh de Nevill after Evesham in 1265 and is recorded as holding on his death, among many other manors: Clearly the escheator of Gloucestershire was in error about Siston still being held from the Berkeleys, a mistake his successors were to make on at least two further occasions, when it was stated to be held in chief from the King, royal orders then being procured to halt the "intermeddling". Walerand, who seemingly had such a vast choice of residences, was apparently in residence at Siston, before and after all these grants were made. In 1256 he was given by eight breeding bream fish by the King to establish a vivarium or larder pond at Siston. This is an amusing detail, surely trinkets given arising from some promise in an after dinner discussion between the King and Walerand, then his steward, about the latest trends in fish breeding. ("I'll send you some and you can see for yourself!" is perhaps how the conversation ended). At the time these fish were received at Siston Walerand was employed on important business, raising money for Henry's second son, Edmund to take up the crown of Sicily, offered by the Pope in 1254. His forceful exactions were one of the causes of the rebellion of Simon de Montfort and the Barons' War, ended at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. In 1265, possibly as a personal reward for his assistance at Evesham, the King gave an order to his Forester in Melkesham, Wilts (15 m. to SW.) to let Walerand have 5 live buck and 5 live doe fallow deer for the establishment of his park at Siston. This was possibly the nucleus of the 1,000 strong herd there in 1607 referred to in the Cecil Papers. The park had been augmented with the permission of Walter, Bishop of Bath & Wells from former Abbey lands at Pucklechurch, at the yearly rent of 1d. Walerand married in 1257 Maud Russell daughter of Sir Ralph Russell of Kingston Russell, Dorset, who had inherited the Newmarch estates, including Dyrham (3 m. E. of Siston), from his wife Isabel, whose wardship and marriage his father Sir John Russell (d. c. 1224) had purchased on the death without male heir of her father James, Baron Newmarch. This marriage, to the daughter of his neighbour at Dyrham, is surely further evidence as to Walerand's actual residence at Siston. Maud brought Dyrham to Walerand as her Marriage Settlement, thus unifying the two manors briefly (in anticipation of the Denys's), but as Walerand died sine prole Dyrham reverted to the Russells and Siston passed to his heir, nephew Sir Alan Plokenet. Plokenet of Herefordshire Sir Alan Plokenet (d. 1298), was the son of Walerand's sister Alice (Walerand's intended heir, nephew Robert Walerand, (born 1256) (son of his elder brother William and Isabel de Kilpeck) was deemed an "idiot" legally incapable of inheritance). The Plokenet family was from Plouquenet, Brittany. Sir Alan's main lands were in Herefordshire, and he was buried at Dore Abbey, south west of Hereford, which he had endowed. Alan's son Alan II inherited Siston as evidenced by the lawsuit of novel disseisin brought against him in 1320 by Sir Nicholas de Kingston his retainer, who claimed he had been unjustly deprived of his "free tenement of Siston" Clearly Plokenet himself was not in residence at Siston, unlike Walerand. Alan II d.s.p. 1325 and the property seems to have passed to Alan I's sister Joan (d. 1327) who had married Sir Henry (Edward?) de Bohun. The union was sine prole. Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford and wife of James Butler, 1st Earl of Ormond (created 1328) certainly inherited the manor of Kilpeck, Hereford, from an Alan Plokenet, apparently at the request of Queen Isabella, so may have received Siston also. Corbet of Caus, Shropshire How Siston manor came to the Corbets is not clear, but Sir Peter Corbet, grandfather of Margaret, was seized of it when he died in 1362. It is however known that their Tenancies-in-Chief of Alveston ( north west of Siston) and Earthcott, Gloucestershire which holdings were to determine the devolution of Siston, had arisen on the marriage of Sir Peter Corbet (d. 1362) to Elizabeth FitzWarin, daughter of Walter FitzWarin (d. 1363) of Alveston. The marriage is likely to have arisen due to the two families anciently being neighbouring Marcher Lords in Shropshire and the Marches. Siston seems to have been the residence of Peter Corbet in Gloucestershire as Alveston and Earthcott were occupied by the de Gloucester family, holding from FitzWarin, when granted to Peter Corbet. Unlike Alveston and Earthcott, Siston was not held in-chief from the king, but from the Abbey of Bath and Wells. The Corbets descended from Norman Marcher Lords of Caus Castle, Shropshire, which name was taken from Pays de Caux, Normandy. Their "Liberty" in the Marches is estimated to have covered between and , and was exempt from royal writs, the Corbets assuming for themselves the rights of High Justice, imprisoning and executing men with impunity. The Corbet branch at Siston, whilst it had lost most of the ancient lands to collateral Corbet branches, nevertheless was the senior line of the Barons of Caus When Peter Corbet died, he left ten-year-old fatherless triplet grandchildren, as his descendants: John, deemed the eldest, William and Margaret. Their father William, who had married Elizabeth Oddingseles, had predeceased his own father, having had a short life. It is not known to whom the wardship of John the heir was granted, but the second son William was granted to John Gamage "by the King's Order". The Gamages were a Norman family descended from Godfrey de Gamage who married Joan de Clare, one of the co-heiresses of "Strongbow", 1st. Earl of Pembroke (d. 1176) and were based at Rogiet, directly across the Severn Estuary from Bristol. John died aged probably just under 21 in 1374. The lack of records suggests he had not attained his majority. His younger brother William, soon out of wardship at 21, thereupon inherited the Corbet estates. His sister Margaret, pivotal to the future descent of Siston, was married to William Wyriott from Orielton in Pembrokeshire, which was south west of the Corbet manor of Lawrenny. It appears that she had been granted the manor, possibly by her brother out of his new inheritance, as her marriage settlement. Margaret and Wyriott probably set up home in Pembroke, intending to spend the rest of their lives there. However, just three years after the death of John, William Corbet died too, without progeny, age 24, and Margaret was sole heiress of the Corbet estates, with her husband Wyriott holding in her right. These estates comprised Alveston and Earthcott (Green), both in Gloucestershire, both held in-Chief, Siston, Lawrenny, and Hope-juxta-Caus in Shropshire. The future devolution of Siston depends entirely on the possession by Margaret of the two tenancies-in-chief of Alveston and Earthcott. These were held directly from the Crown, unlike all the others, held from mesne lords. A tenancy-in-chief without a male tenant was likely to escheat, that is revert to the Crown. The king relied on his tenants-in-chief to be his agents in the shires, to raise troops for him and to perform knight service. He could not afford to leave ladies, educated to the gentler things in life, in such positions as the manor would simply not fulfil its feudal role. Only two years after she had inherited the Corbet estates from her brother, William Wyriott her husband also died, without issue, in 1379. Margaret now found herself as just such a widow tenant-in-chief. Effectively Margaret now became a pawn of the king. As a female tenant-in-chief she could not marry unless by royal licence; naturally the king wanted to select his own tenants based on his own pragmatic criteria – were they loyal and effective soldiers and good local diplomats for the Crown? Any choice of husband she might make would be refused, because probably the king had a long waiting list of useful men for whom he wished to find vacant royal manors, the revenues from which they would be expected to use in Crown service. Here was the essence of mediaeval feudalism. Margaret had the simple choice: either relinquish the family estates, possibly retiring to a nunnery, or to a life of social obscurity married to a man likely to be beneath her station, for she would have no land to bring to a marriage, or accept the man selected by the king as his new tenant-in-chief for her husband, and remain. Any new husband would on such marriage automatically become the life tenant (in her right) of all her lands and the revenues therefrom, including Siston, not just the royal manors of Alveston and Earthcott. Thus the future devolution of Siston became tied to that of Alveston, which was disposable at the king's choosing. Edward III had died three years before in 1377, leaving his ten-year-old grandson Richard II, son of The Black Prince who had predeceased his father, as nominal king. In that year of 1380 King Richard II, just three years into his reign, was age 13, clearly too young to appoint his own tenants-in-chief. The question arises as to who was then wielding this significant power of patronage on the king's behalf. Although the kingdom during Richard's minority was in the hands of a series of "continual councils" it seems not implausible that John of Gaunt (1340–1399), Richard's uncle then age 37, Duke of Lancaster and son of Edward III, would have had some influence in the matter, although never having been a formal member of these councils. It was not until Richard was 15 two years later in 1382 that he wrested back his kingdom from his councillors. That he had been proposed by Gaunt would be speculation, but certainly some powerful hand rather than the mere force of romance caused Margaret Corbet to accept the young esquire from Glamorgan, Gilbert Denys as her new husband. Margaret and Denys were married in 1380, and the long connection of the Denys family with Siston and Gloucestershire as a whole had begun, for as Sir Robert Atkyns, the 18th-century historian of Gloucestershire, stated about the Denys family "There have been more High Sheriffs from them than from any other family in the county". Denys of Waterton, Glamorgan Denys's career had begun in the service of John of Gaunt. It was on the Duke's behalf that in May 1375 he had taken formal custody of the manors of Aberavon and Sully in Glamorgan, part of the holdings of the late Lord Despenser. In 1359 Gaunt had married Blanche of Lancaster, heiress of great estates including Ogmore Castle in Glamorgan, southwest of Waterton, Denys's home. One must assume that Denys had come into the service of Gaunt in connection with duties at Ogmore Castle, possibly stewardship. Denys was to make his mark as a soldier rather than an administrator, and his military service started in March 1378 when he took out royal letters of protection to go overseas as a member of Gaunt's expedition. He is recorded again in 1383 similarly engaged. In 1395 when in Parliament as a knight of the shire for Gloucestershire, Denys was one of the 40 MP's who are believed to have supported the "Twelve Conclusions" proposed by the Lollards, the religious reforming group. John of Gaunt had at one time been a Lollard supporter although by 1395 his enthusiasm had waned, the movement having been recognised as one associated with popular unrest. Denys was from a well-established Glamorgan family, likely already bearing coat-armour, but seems not to have had a manor of his own. The Inquisition post mortem of Sir Lawrence de Berkerolles of 1415 refers to Denys merely paying rent in Waterton, Glamorgan, "together with others". John Denys is stated in the Golden Grove Book of Welsh Pedigrees to have been his father, and this must surely be the John Denys of "Watirton" granted a lease at Bonvilston by Margam Abbey in 1376, yet as John was apparently the youngest of five brothers, unlikely to inherit paternal lands, Waterton was probably a fairly modest home, acquired through John's own exertions. Although the Corbet marriage produced no male issue(Sir Gilbert Denys married secondly (c. 1404) Margaret Russell, eventual co-heiress of Sir Morys Russell (d. 1416) of Dyrham) all the Corbet manors, including Siston, Lawrenny in Pembroke and Hope-juxta-Caus, Salop., nevertheless passed to the Denys's likely due to a settlement by Margaret Corbet similar to that referred to in an Inquisition Quod Damnum of 1382: Siston is not mentioned, but the manor devolved similarly, not reverting to distant Corbet relatives. The marriage, assumed above to have been an arranged one, was a personal success for the couple as Sir Gilbert requested in his will to be buried next to his apparently beloved first Corbet wife in Siston church, although his much younger second Russell wife, mother of his children, survived him by 38 years. Following the death of Sir Gilbert, a dowry life interest in Siston passed to his young Russell widow and thence to her even younger second husband, John Kemeys of Began. Margaret Russell in her turn had apparently had a replacement husband thrust upon her by higher powers, possibly in the form of Gaunt's son Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, shortly to be member of the regency government of Henry VI, and his soon-to-be son-in-law Sir Edward Stradling. Curiously Denys had had the honour to nominate Beaufort overseer of his will. Kemeys of Began, Monmouth At the time of Denys's death in 1422 it seems that Bishop Beaufort had been planning to marry off his illegitimate daughter Joan, the result of a youthful affair with Alice FitzAlan, daughter of the Earl of Arundel. The man he seemed to have chosen for her was 33-year-old Sir Edward Stradling of St. Donat's, Glamorgan, ( S.E. of Ogmore) who was well known to Denys. Stradling was awarded the lucrative wardship of Morys Denys, Gilbert's 12-year-old son and heir and at the very same time Stradling obtained the marriage of Gilbert's widow Margaret Russell for his much younger nephew John Kemeys. It seems clear that the powerful moving hand behind the grants of Morys's wardship and Margaret's marriage was Bishop Beaufort. In 1422, the year of Denys's death, Henry V had died to be succeeded by his 10-year-old son Henry VI, great-nephew of Beaufort. Beaufort was immediately appointed a member of the Regency Government. He was thus in a position to dispose of wardships of infant Tenants-in-Chief like Morys Denys (again due to his holding of Alveston and Earthcott) and of marriages of widows of Tenants-in-Chief, such as Morys's mother. It seems that the wardship of Morys was effectively the marriage settlement offered to Stradling with the hand Joan Beaufort, for they were married the next year in 1423. John Kemeys (pron: "Kemmis") (d. 1476) thus became on marriage to Margaret Russell, Denys's widow, Lord of Siston for his lifetime, for the manor seems to have been her dowry, traditionally one third of the estate. He was son of John Kemeys of Began (6 m. N.E. of Cardiff Castle, caput of the Lordship of Glamorgan) by Agnes daughter of Sir William Stradling of St. Donats, Glamorgan and nephew to Sir Edward Stradling. Sir Edward married off his ward Morys to his daughter Katherine, who thus became a matriarch of the Denys family. Although they had long shared interests in Coity, Glamorgan, the Stradling connection with the Denys's across the Severn in Gloucestershire had begun in 1416 when Sir John Stradling, the elderly first cousin of Sir Edward's father, had married Joan Dauntsey, the young widow and second wife of Sir Morys Russell, father-in-law of Denys, thereby capturing a life interest in her large dowry. This event however, occurring whilst Sir Gilbert was still alive (he outlived his father-in-law by 6 years) may have happened with Deny's blessing, even encouragement. He had been a neighbour, friend and ally of Russell, was by then himself a powerful person, and must have had a concern and some influence over the disposition of Russell's widow. It is unlikely to have been a love match due to the age difference, or was it dictated by the Crown as the fine referred to above shows. Possibly John Stradling was an old Glamorgan friend of Denys, who deemed him a suitable match on personal grounds. Yet the marriage of Denys's widow Margaret Russell to Kemeys could have been engineered by Sir Edward Stradling, especially as Denys in his will had urged his widow Margaret Russell to take a vow of chastity. Within 7 months she had remarried Kemeys. Maybe Stradling was legitimately reaping his reward, by ensuring that the benefit from the Corbet manors procured for Denys by his grandfather-in-law John of Gaunt passed permanently into the family of his own daughter, and temporarily as a life interest to his nephew. Kemeys lived the remainder of his life as Lord of Siston, representing Gloucestershire in Parliament for a term. His son Roger died insane in 1484, but after having played a role in public life. His son founded the Bedminster, Somerset line of Kemeys. Denys of Alveston and Dyrham It was at the death of John Kemeys in 1476 (predeceased by Margaret in 1460 and Morys Denys in 1466) that the Denys family regained possession of Siston. The Denys residence had meantime been at Olveston (next to Alveston) where the remains of their fortified manor house, Olveston Court, possibly built by FitzWarin, can be seen. Apparently they preferred to reside thereafter at Dyrham, the nearby manor inherited from the Russells (together with Kingston Russell in Dorset), which became the definitive seat of Sir William Denys, son and heir of Sir Walter. The Siston pre-Tudor manor house could have been re-enfeoffed (i.e. let on life tenancy) or perhaps lived in by one of Sir William's sons. The Denys family held Siston from the death of Kemeys in 1376 until 1568 as evidenced by the Cecil Papers. Denys, Richard, of Cold Ashton and Gloucester Richard Denys, of Gloucester and Cold Ashton, Member of Parliament – Constituency: Bath (1547), Gloucestershire (1563). son of Sir Walter Denys and Margaret Weston daughter of Sir Richard Weston married c.1557, Anne St. John, daughter of Sir John St. John, of Bletsoe, Bedfordshire, England, son of 'Saint John', Sir Oliver St. John, Baron St. John, of Bletso, Knight, 'Lord of Penmark' (created 1582 for Oliver St. John), son of Sir John de St. John and Isabel Paveley daughter and heiress of Sir John Paveley and Lady Margaret Waldegrave out of wife Alice Bradshagh daughter of Thomas Bradshagh. Richard Denys was the great-grandson of Maurice Berkeley, 3rd Lord Berkeley who was born at Berkeley Castle, in Gloucestershire son of James Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley and his third wife Lady Isabel Mowbray daughter of 1st Duke of Norfolk. Maurice was heir to brother William Berkeley, 1st Marquess, of Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley. Richard and Anne had four sons and six daughters: Several are Ann Denys Porter, Walter Denys, Frances Denys Guillim who is the mother of immigrants from England to the Virginia Colony. Francis Denys married, John Guillim, Lord of the Manor of Hateweys, antiquarian and officer of arms at the College of Arms in London, the son of John Guillim of Wesbury-on-Severen, Gloucestershire. John Guilim is known for his work on heraldry and they had five boys and six girls. Their son St. John Guillim married daughter of Thomas Henshaw, Margery and their son John III Guilliam possessed 1,000 acres of Prince George County Through Francis and John Guillim's children, Elizabeth Guillim's birth is recorded in c. 1655, in Virginia, death 21 March 1715, Surry County, Virginia. With her first marriage to an NN West, there were two sons, John West and Francis West. Elizabeth Guillim's second marriage was to William Bevin and there was issue of two sons and a daughter. Elizabeth's third marriage to Francis Mabry begins a tradition involving great landholdings and slave ownership, though the latter is often referred to in documents as negros rather than of slaves. One son of Francis Mabry named Charles inherited an equal portion of approximately 400 acres divided between him and his brother Hinchea. The property is called Fountain Creek From Francis Mabry descends Judith Mabry grandmother of Colonel Richard Cyril Avery who was born in Surry, Virginia. He married first Sarah Henderson, secondly Sarah Wyche and third, Fortune Barrow. Through these families a marriage that is descended through the famous Tipton's of England and Burns of Scotland are several living heir apparent to the throne of England descended through Isiah Burns and Ruth Susannah Barnes. Per the history of Parliament, Richard Denys was involved in a 'protracted' dispute over the manor house of Siston. Legal ownership had been in question due to Richard's uncle, Sir Maurice Denys having to mortgage much of his estates of which he owned extensive property in Gloucestershire and a lesser amount in Kent. Richard was heir to Sir Maurice, yet at the time of his succession much of the property which had been mortgaged depleted the inheritance value. Sir Walter Denys, Richards father, initially heir to Sir Maurice was responsible for debts as large as £5,500 owed to the crown for Sir Maurice's account as Treasurer of Calais. Sir Maurice had also mortgaged Siston manor to two London merchants and at his death in 1563 a disagreement lasting through August 1574, between Richard Denys and a man named Robert Wekes aka 'Wicks', where both were claiming the manor of Siston, resulted in an intersession with the Privy Council. The decision was in favour of Richard Denys. In 1609, Richard Denys's will was probated after a judgment of fifteen years earlier was 'set aside'. Billingsley, Trotman, Rawlins It was conveyed to Queen Elizabeth in unclear circumstances involving a deliberate mortgage fraud, to settle a Crown debt of the Denys's. It was then sold to a speculator, Robert Wicks, who sold it in 1608 to Sir Henry Billingsley Jr., thence through temporary hands by sale in 1651 to Samuel Trotman Esq. It remained in the Trotman family for 252 years including the tenures of Fiennes Boughton Newton Dickenson, who married Harriette Elizabeth Trotman, the heiress of the Trotman line, and his eldest son who sold it in 1903 to Mr J. Ernest Rawlins, a buccaneering pioneer of the English Colony in Hanford, California, who having left England as a young man in 1877, farmed, played polo, set up a bank, a coal mine, brick factory, and built an opera house. Rawlins sold the manor in 1935, seemingly having suffered in the Wall Street Crash, and the historic contents of Siston Court were dispersed at auction. In 1940 the empty house served evacuated children from London's East-End. The Court is now divided into apartments in separate occupation. Notes References Bibliography Bindoff, S. T. (1982). The House of Commons 1509–1558. London. 2. pp. 31–34, 36–37. "Biographies of Sir M. Denys & Sir W. Denys-Roskell, J. S. et al." The House of Commons 1386–1421. Stroud, 1992. 2. pp. 771–772. "Biographies of Sir G. Denys, Chantler, P." History of the Ancient Family of Dennis of Glamorgan and Gloucestershire. South Molton, 2010 Clark, Col. G. T. (1886) Limbus Patrum Morganiae et Glamorganiae: Being the Genealogies of the Older Families of the Lordships of Morgan and Glamorgan. T. Hearne. (ed.) (1726). John of Glastonbury, Chonica sive Historia de Rebus Glastoniensibus. Oxford. 2 p. 379. Jeayes, I. H. (ed.) (1892). Charters and Muniments at Berkeley Castle. Bristol. Charter no. 4, c. Nov. 1153, pp. 4–5. John of Worcester, iii, 174–75 Pipe Roll 31 Henry I, p. 133 Robinson, W. J. "Siston Court". West Country Manors. Bristol, 1930. pp. 168–172. SISTON COURT, Siston - 1231511 | Historic England Scott Thomson, G. (1930). Two Centuries of Family History. London, 1930. Appendix D pp. 324–328 (Russell Pedigree) Stacy, N. (February 1999) "Henry of Blois and the Lordship of Glastonbury." The English Historical Review, Oxford. 114 History of Gloucestershire

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Exalted is a high fantasy tabletop role-playing game originally published by White Wolf Publishing in July 2001. The game is currently in its third edition. It was originally created by Robert Hatch, Justin Achilli and Stephan Wieck, and was inspired by world mythologies and anime. Influences The setting is strongly influenced by Tanith Lee's Tales from the Flat Earth, Michael Moorcock's Hawkmoon, Lord Dunsany's The Gods of Pegana and Yoshiaki Kawajiri's Ninja Scroll. Other influences include Glen Cook's The Black Company; Sean Stewart's Resurrection Man, The Night Watch, and Galveston; Homer's Odyssey, the Bible, and Wu Cheng'en's Journey to the West. System The game uses ten-sided dice and a variation of the Storyteller System to arbitrate the action, and, as with many other RPGs, requires little beyond the rulebooks themselves, dice, pencil, and paper. The Exalted version of the rules were derived from the trilogy of White Wolf Publishing games Trinity (formerly known as Aeon), Aberrant, and Adventure! where the idea of a fixed target number of 7 or higher was first introduced. Characters may be frequently presented with challenges that normal human beings, even within the context of the game, would find difficult, deadly, or simply impossible. However, as the chosen champions of greater powers, each Exalt possesses Charms, which may either enhance their natural capabilities or manifest as shows of great power. An Exalt with low-level archery charms might find her arrows hitting with preternatural accuracy, while greater faculty might allow her to shoot without difficulty to the edge of her vision, or turn a single arrow into a deadly rain of ammunition. The Exalted frequently power their charms with accumulated Essence, a universal energy that flows through and comprises Creation and other worlds. While normally their Essence recovered slowly through rest, in the first two editions they could also regain it more quickly by performing stunts, actions given special description and embellishment by the players. In the third edition stunts no longer regenerate Essence, but combat automatically causes Essence stores to refill quickly. However, stunts continue to exist, and their primary benefit—adding extra dice to the actions they describe, thus enhancing the possibility of success—remains. History Exalted has mechanical and thematic similarities to White Wolf's previous game series, the old World of Darkness, but exists in its own product line, called the Age of Sorrows. The game has a sales record on par with the company's flagship title, Vampire: The Masquerade, the second edition core rulebook achieving a sales ranking at #23,558 on Amazon.com with a 4.5-star mean user review rating based on 31 user reviews as of January 2019. The initial advertisements for Exalted placed the Age of Sorrows as the pre-history of the old World of Darkness. Meanwhile, some oWoD supplements also supported this; the Hunter Apocrypha gave a vision of the past that said that Hunters gained their power from the broken shards of the souls of great heroes of a lost age, which seems to suggest that Hunters carry fragments of Solar Essences. Likewise, the Kindred of the East supplement gave a structure of the Wheel of Ages (mirrored in Exalted first edition books as the Ages of Man) that seemed to accommodate the integration of Exalted and the classic World of Darkness, the former the first and second age, and the latter being the fifth age. However, once the game was released such connections rapidly became uncertain: names and themes from the World of Darkness line run throughout the material, but rarely in a way that suggested a direct connection between one and the other. Per the commentary of multiple developers, the connections are deliberately tenuous, allowing players to be free to treat it as a prehistory or as its own world as it may suit their individual game. The similarities between Exalted and the Chronicles of Darkness are even weaker, primarily intersecting only where the Chronicles reused material from its predecessor. The Second Edition briefly implies that its story is the prehistory of our own world on its back cover, but this idea is not explored in any depth beyond this; while the last book of Second Edition would posit a modernized world with the Exalted, it was clearly a technologically advanced version of Creation – the world of Exalted – rather than Earth. Shards of the Exalted Dream, the final 2nd edition product, was published in January 2012. Development of Exalted 3rd Edition was officially announced in October 2012. A Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign for Exalted 3rd edition ran in 2013 from May 9 to June 8, reaching its $60,000 funding goal within 18 minutes, raising a total of $684,755 and breaking Numenera's record for the most funded tabletop RPG Kickstarter. Promotions In March 2008, White Wolf Publishing unveiled a promotion that would allow 2,500 Dungeons & Dragons players to exchange their copy of their 3.5 Edition Player's Handbook for a copy of the Exalted Second Edition Core Rulebook. The promotion was called "Graduate your Game" and has received mixed reviews from fans of both games. The success of this promotion was not revealed. Setting Background The history of the setting begins with the Primordials: vast entities akin to Greek primordial deities or the Outer Gods of H. P. Lovecraft's works, even going so far as to use similar epithets to the latter. They shaped Creation – a flat world of finite extent – from the primordial chaos, and placed the gods to watch over it. In time, the gods decided to overthrow the Primordials, but were forbidden from taking arms against their makers. Instead, the most powerful of the gods imbued exceptional humans with their power (the titular Exalted) to fight for them. Upon victory, the gods retreated to the Heavenly city of Yu-Shan to oversee from on high, and left Creation to the Exalted and Humanity. However, the Exalted suffer from the "Great Curse," uttered upon the dying breaths of the slain Primordials. The Solars (a faction of the Exalted) eventually grew decadent and corrupt from this influence, and were slaughtered in a massive insurrection known as the Usurpation by their servants and advisors. After the Usurpation, the majority of the Exaltations of the Solar Exalted were locked away, and an organization known as the Wyld Hunt was organized to kill all the others, and to drive the Lunar Exalted from the civilized lands of Creation. During the intervening age, the Terrestrial Exalted became the rulers of the world, ruling in a shogunate. After the Great Contagion (a plague originating from the lands of the dead) and the Balorian Crusade (a war with the Fair Folk) wrought devastation across Creation, a young captain of the Dragon-Blooded armies gained access to powerful weapons of the First Age. With these, she saved Creation and then asserted her rulership over much of the it, dubbing herself the Scarlet Empress. Nearly eight hundred years later—in the present day of the game—there are eleven Great Houses of the Realm, nearly all of whom claim direct descent from the Empress. Five years prior to the default starting point of the game, the Empress vanished. By the present of the game it is believed she will not return, and the Realm stands on the brink of civil war. Simultaneously, the Solar exaltations locked away have returned. With the Houses ignoring the threat of the Celestial Exalted to position themselves to take control of the Realm, the number of Solar Exalted in Creation is slowly growing. Thus, the backdrop to the setting sees the newly arisen Solars (among various other heroes and villains) struggling to survive long enough to make their mark upon the fate of Creation, for good or for ill. The flat world of Creation is the primary setting of Exalted. Creation has two continents, the Blessed Isle and an unnamed super-continent which covers the northern, eastern and southern edges of Creation, populated by many nations and tribes, with the settled regions along the inner coast of this super-continent being known collectively as the threshold. The Blessed Isle is located in the center of Creation. The Realm rules the Blessed Isle and its proximate archipelago directly, and indirectly rules numerous tributary states known as satrapies along the threshold. Surrounding Creation is the infinite ocean of pure chaos known as the Wyld. The cosmology of Exalted also includes the Underworld, the celestial city of Yu-Shan, the demon realm of Malfeas, and the machine world of Autochthonia. Types of Exalts At the core of the setting, there are several different types of Exalted, any type of which could play the role of protagonist or antagonist of the game. The Exalted of Creation can be divided into two categories: Terrestrial Exalted and Celestial Exalted. Celestial Exalted, being the chosen of the Celestial Incarnae, are significantly more powerful than Terrestrial Exalted, and can live for millennia, but their numbers are limited by a fixed number of Exaltations passing from mortal life to mortal life at any given time. Terrestrial Exalted are the chosen of the Elemental Dragons; while less powerful, the Dragon-Blooded inherit Exaltation from their ancestors. The Abyssal, Alchemical, and Infernal Exalted technically fall outside of the two categories, though their power level is comparable to that of Celestial Exalted. A brief synopsis of each type is given here, organized by relative power and significance within the game. Most types of Exalted have certain collective predispositions toward or against other Exalt types by culture, and may be viewed differently by the various mortals of Creation. Centuries of Terrestrial hegemony and propaganda play a part in this: the Dragon-Blooded and their world-spanning empire are often seen as demigods and heroes, for instance, while the Lunar Exalted are often seen as monstrous and dangerous. Solar Exalted (Chosen of the Unconquered Sun, Lawgivers) The default protagonists of Exalted and the champions of the chief of the gods, a being known as the Unconquered Sun. There are five castes of Solar Exalted: Dawn (warriors and generals), Zenith (priest-kings of the Unconquered Sun), Twilight (scholars and sorcerers), Night (spies and assassins) and Eclipse (ambassadors and diplomats). Solars are regarded as monstrous demons by much of the mortal world due to centuries of propaganda by the Realm. The nature of Solar charms tends to express itself instead through human excellence taken to superhuman extremes, and as such their raw prowess in most skills easily exceeds any of the others. Abyssal Exalted (Chosen of the Void, Deathknights) Loyal servants of the Deathlords, the Abyssal castes are a dark reflection of their Solar counterparts; Dusk (soldiers, generals, and martial champions), Midnight (priests and leaders), Daybreak (scholars and artisans), Day (assassins and spies), and Moonshadow (bureaucrats and diplomats). In the present of Exalted, the Neverborn sow their revenge from beyond the grave through their Deathlord servants. The source materials, primarily the second-edition sourcebook The Manual of Exalted Power: Abyssals, present the Deathlords as the vengeful ghosts of First Age Solars slaughtered in the Usurpation. They have varied goals, but most strive not to conquer or corrupt Creation, save as a path to the Neverborn's desire: the complete destruction of existence. The greatest agents of the Deathlords in the world of the living are the Abyssal Exalted, also known as Deathknights: dark reflections of the Solar Exalted. They field vast undead armies, bolstered by ancient knowledge long since lost to the living but still readily available among the lingering dead, and a powerful form of magic known as necromancy. Several sourcebooks present the Abyssals and the Deathlords as having a tentative foothold in Creation, representing a grave threat. Lunar Exalted (Chosen of Luna, Stewards) Presented as the most anarchistic and chaotic of the Exalted. In the sourcebooks, they are often referred to as cunning shapeshifters, skilled fighters, and capable generals. Within the game's history, they were very tightly bound to the First Age Solars. While many stood and died beside their Solar friends and spouses in the Usurpation, others fled to the edges of Creation and remade themselves to fight a long war against the Dragon-Blooded. Lunars now follow at best a loose tribal hierarchy and often ritually tattoo each other to protect themselves from the warping effects of the Wyld. Second edition materials detailed the Lunar Exalted's subversive influence on Creation's societies and revealed the Thousand Streams River Project, a complicated system of social engineering designed to create self-sufficient human societies that do not require Exalted leadership to function. Several major societies within the game were declared the results of centuries of subtle, behind-the-scenes guidance, with varying degrees of success. Sidereal Exalted (Chosen of the Five Maidens, Viziers) These Celestial Exalted are few, yet are described as major players in the fate of Creation. Sidereals are peerless martial artists and excel at foreseeing and manipulating fate. They are often presented as secret agents of the Bureau of Fate of the Celestial City of Yu-Shan, the home of the gods, directing events in the mortal world from behind the scenes. They were the viziers, prophets and cunning advisers of the First Age. Toward the end of the First Age, a prophecy came to them that warned that without action, Creation would fall to darkness. Seeking to save the world, the Sidereals looked into the future and saw two options: attempt to reform of their maddening kings, or destroy the Solar Exalted and raise up the Dragon-Blooded in their place. The Sidereals, possibly under the effects of the Great Curse laid upon them by the Neverborn, elected the path that offered a guaranteed future for Creation. As such, they orchestrated the end of the First Age, known as the Great Usurpation. Sidereals slip from the minds of those who meet them, mortal and Exalt alike, which can be beneficial to Sidereal characters or harmful, depending on their intended goals as player characters and non-player characters. Some unpredicted events prior to the "present" setting of Exalted, such as the Great Contagion, have jarred their faith in their precognitive abilities. Meanwhile, the loss of the Scarlet Empress, their secret ally at the top of the Scarlet Dynasty, has greatly weakened their influence. In the present, a growing rift between the Bronze Faction (which supports the Dragon-Blooded hegemony) and the Gold Faction (which backs the newly returned Solars) renders the Sidereal Exalted uncertain of their future. Terrestrial Exalted (Chosen of the Elemental Dragons, Dragon-Blooded) There are five elemental aspects to the Dragon-Blooded: Air, Earth, Fire, Water, and Wood. In the history of Exalted, they were the elite infantry and servants to the rest of the Exalted in the First Age. They are less powerful than other types of Exalted, but most of their strength lies in their inheritance – rather than being chosen by a god, the Dragon-Blooded have the potential to share their Exaltation through their bloodline. With their comparatively massive numbers, along with the help and guidance of the Sidereal Exalted, they were able to overthrow the Solar Exalted at the height of their power and end the First Age. The most prevalent Dragon-Blooded in Creation make up the ruling class of the Realm, currently the most powerful empire in Creation. The state-sanctioned faith known as the Immaculate Order paints the Solar and Lunar Exalted as dangerous Anathema who will bring ruin to the world if allowed to exist. Because of this, the Realm organizes the Wyld Hunt, which actively seeks out dangers to the Realm (such "Anathema" include many other types of Exalted, rogue gods, and the Fair Folk) and destroys them. This practice had effectively kept the Solars from rising to power again since the end of the First Age, but has faltered with the recent disappearance of the Scarlet Empress and the subsequent power struggle among the Great Houses. The ruling Dragon-Blooded of the Realm are made up of the eleven Great Houses. Most houses were founded by and named after one of the Scarlet Empress's Exalted offspring, though at least two are descended from the Empress's late husbands and consorts, and three unspecified houses are descended from adopted children of the Empress. Alchemical Exalted (Chosen of Autochthon, Champions, Colossi, Patropoli/Matropoli) Creations made from clay and the Five Magical Materials, built in the world of Autochthonia. They were introduced in the supplement "Time of Tumult". Alchemicals serve the Great Maker Autochthon, a primordial who assisted the Gods by sharing the secret of Exaltation with them. The Champions are infused with the souls of dead Autochthonian heroes, serving as protectors of a parallel world made up of the body of Autochthon himself, and enforce the will of its theocratic government. They divide themselves into six castes according to which material was mainly used in their construction. Instead of wielding Essence directly and using their Charms in a "magical" fashion like other Exalted do, the Alchemicals have Charms "installed" like peripheral parts. As Alchemical Exalted grow in power, they also increase in size, eventually physically joining with Autochthon and forming living, sapient cities. The Alchemicals are not subject to the Great Curse, as they did not fight in the Primordial War. In gameplay, in place of curse-driven insanity, they have a Clarity track which measures their psychological distance from humanity. Those Alchemicals who have been infected with Autochthon's illness have a Dissonance track instead, measuring their madness, corruption, and drive to violate boundaries. Infernal Exalted (Chosen of the Yozis, Akuma and the Green Sun Princes) The Yozis — the Primordials who were overthrown but did not die — created the Infernal Exalted from fifty stolen Essences of Solar Exalts. While the first edition hinted at their existence, they did not get official rules until the 2nd edition's Manual of Exalted Power - The Infernals (April 2009). The Infernals have the full resources of the demon realm at their disposal, along with numerous Yozi cults which already exist in creation, and learn the transformative charms of the Yozis themselves. It is implied that despite currently reveling in their power, the vast majority of Infernal Exalted will grow disillusioned with the alien Yozis and ultimately go rogue. The Infernals' Primordial power gives them the potential to grow into new Titans themselves, not bound by the same shortness of vision their current patrons possess. Other Exalted Three new types of playable Exalted have been announced for 3rd edition: The Liminals, the Getimians and the Exigents. The Liminals "stand at the border between life and death, humanity and monstrosity". They are created when someone attempts to bring another person back from death; resurrection is explicitly impossible in Exalted, but some will still try. On occasion, this attempt draws the attention of some other power that raises the corpse to life again. The new Liminal possesses the memories of the body that she wears, but does not possess the same soul, and thus do not have the same personality. Like the Dragon-Blooded, they are divided among five aspects—Breath, Blood, Flesh, Marrow, and Soil—depending on the motives of the person who created them. The Getimian Exalted are heroes who could have changed the world, but instead were never born. The rogue Sidereal Exalt Rakan Thulio has rediscovered their Exaltations, and brought them into the world again to serve in his War Against Heaven. The Getimian Exalted have Essence split into two pools, but unlike the other Exalted types, their charms interact with their separate pools in different ways: Some of their charms can only be powered by one or the other, or cause different effects depending on which one is used. The Exigents are described by 3rd edition developer Holden Shearer as follows: A god may petition the Unconquered Sun for the power to Exalt their own champion. If successful, then the God receives the Exigence, which they may use to create their own champion. The process is taxing on a god, and can destroy it in the process. Some Exigences have been sold or otherwise passed into the hands of gods who do not have the Unconquered Sun's approval, while others have been heavily modified from multiple sources; the writers have referred to the former as "black market" Exaltations, and the latter as "dirty bomb" Exaltations. Other magical beings Alongside the various types of Exalts found in Creation, there are also other magical creatures that use the same Essence that Exalts use to power their magical effects. The following are the most prominent types of magical beings. Behemoths Behemoths are unique, immortal monsters. There are two broad categories of behemoths: Primordial Behemoths, created by the Primordials in the Time of Glory before the Primordial War. Some, now known as Hekatonkheires, were killed during that war and now serve the Neverborn in the Underworld. Wyld Behemoths appear as monsters under the control of Fair Folk, but they are not truly separate beings from their masters, and are merely the aggressive tendencies of powerful Fair Folk come to life. Dragon Kings The Dragon Kings are not Exalted; they are supernatural creatures offered as a player character type. The Dragon Kings are dinosaurlike beings of great power. Dragon Kings are sworn in allegiance to their creator, the Unconquered Sun, and can remember their past lives with great clarity. Although they once ruled Creation, the majority of their perpetually-reincarnating souls were annihilated during the war against the Primordials. After the First Age ended in war and disease, what remained of their civilization collapsed. They still exist in the Second Age, though hidden in the farthest corners of Creation. Rules for playing Dragon Kings are presented in the Exalted Player's Guide in 1st edition and the Scroll of the Fallen Races in 2nd edition. Fair Folk Like the Dragon Kings, they are an alternative player character type to the Exalted. They know themselves by their own word, Raksha; however the superstitious in Creation, rightly fearing that to name them is to invoke them, call them the Fair Folk with the hope of flattering and placating them. In one sense, they are very similar to the Primordials: primeval beings whose existences precede and are not bound by the physical reality of Creation. They are natives of the Wyld, which they call Rakshastan – the place that exists between Creation and the Unshaped Chaos. The Fair Folks prey upon mortal souls and do a brisk slave trade with The Guild, a powerful economic organization in Creation. The Unshaped are the most powerful of their number, but lack the means to stabilize themselves by assimilating the personhood of mortals and as such are incapable of existing in Creation for any great duration. Rules for playing Fair Folk are presented in Exalted: The Fair Folk in 1st edition; 2nd edition rules are included in Graceful Wicked Masques: The Fair Folk. God-Blooded Refers to, as a collective whole, offspring of a mortal or animal and a magical being, or the mortal offspring of two magical beings, in which case they take after the more powerful of the two. The resulting offspring bears traces of its mystical parentage. According to the authors, they stand somewhere between divinity and mortality: less than Exalted, but more than human. Those with awakened Essence can purchase the same types of Charms as their supernatural parent, though their power is limited by a low Permanent Essence trait and a small Essence pool. There are several subtypes of God-Blooded, mostly named for their supernatural parentage: God-Blooded are the children of gods and elementals, Demon-Blooded are the offspring of demons, Ghost-Blooded are the children of ghosts using powerful Charms to help them reproduce with mortals, and Half-Caste are the children of powerful Exalts (although exceedingly rare). The Fae-Blooded are the children of a union between the Raksha and mortals. The Mountain Folk can also produce God-Blooded offspring, but there is no specific term for them. Rules for playing God-Blooded characters are presented in the Exalted Player's Guide in 1st edition, and Scroll of Heroes in 2nd edition. Mountain Folk Also known as the Jadeborn, creatures of the Great Maker, Autochthon: when Creation was initially formed by the Primordials, some among the Unshaped were incorporated into the substance of the created world. Sensing that these other, native intelligences of Chaos had been snuffed out in the Creation of inanimate elements, Autochthon took pity on them. Salvaging whatever it could discern of their prior selves, Autochthon resurrected them – still formed of the earthen materials they had calcified into, but alive, and with at least a glimmering memory of the intelligent entities they had once been. The Mountain Folk, like many of the Exalted, are divided into Castes: Artisans, Warriors, and Workers. The vast majority of the Mountain Folk are Unenlightened – limited in intelligence, creativity, and supernatural power. A small minority of Workers and Warriors—as well as the entire Artisan Caste—are Enlightened, with much greater creativity as well as both mundane and supernatural potential. Mountain Folk society is ruled by the Artisan Caste, who make up the nobility, with Unenlightened Warriors and Workers making up the commoners and Enlightened Warriors and Workers occupying an intermediate position. Rules for playing the Mountain Folk are presented in 1st edition's Exalted: The Fair Folk and 2nd edition's Scroll of the Fallen Races. Spirits Spirits are divided into four broad categories: demons, elementals, ghosts, and gods. With the exception of elementals, spirits are naturally immaterial, generally require Charms to materialize in Creation, and will reform when killed unless some supernatural effect prevents them from doing so. Rules for playing ghosts in 1st edition are presented in Exalted: The Abyssals, and rules for 2nd edition are presented in The Books of Sorcery, Vol. V: The Roll of Glorious Divinity II: Ghosts & Demons. Rules for playing elementals and gods are presented in The Books of Sorcery, Vol. IV: The Roll of Glorious Divinity I: Gods & Elementals. Yozis and Demons The Yozis are exiled, imprisoned and twisted Primordials. As the makers of the world and the gods, they are at once grandiose beings and complex pantheons: Each Primordial has multiple souls, which are independent sapient beings in their own right and possess their own sapient spiritual fragments. These souls, and the entities which they craft, birth, or otherwise create, are the demons of Exalted. Due to the terms of the Yozis' surrender, all demons can be summoned and bound by a powerful enough sorcerer. Elementals Elementals maintain Creation, and with a few exceptions, embody one of the five elements: air, earth, fire, water or wood. Elementals are naturally material, requiring charms to dematerialize, and with a few exceptions, cannot reform when slain. Unlike other spirits, their growth is largely unrestricted. The most powerful elementals are the Lesser and Greater Elemental Dragons. Elementals are generally outranked by gods of similar power. While Sorcerers can summon and bind demons through sorcery, the Elementals conjured through a similar spell are brought into being whole-cloth, and frequently cease to exist at the end of their binding. The elementals of Autochthonia embody one of the machine world's elements: crystal, metal, oil, lightning or steam, and cannot be summoned through sorcery. Ghosts The most common type of ghosts, referred to as ghosts or the dead, are the hun or higher souls of mortals who have refused to pass into Lethe and reincarnation due to their attachment to their mortal lives. These ghosts are much weaker than Exalted, and they can only respire Essence in the Underworld and Shadowlands. Hungry ghosts generally come into existence due to betrayal, vengeance or a traumatic death. Initially, a hungry ghost includes both the higher soul and the po, or lower soul, but the hun soon moves on, leaving the hungry ghost largely mindless. Unlike other ghosts, hungry ghosts are naturally material in Creation at night. Nephwracks are ghosts who have been corrupted by the Neverborn. Unlike uncorrupted ghosts, they are capable of using necromancy. The Deathlords are thirteen ghosts of powerful Solar Exalted who have been empowered by the Neverborn, and although they are not technically Exalted, they have access to Abyssal Charms. Spectres, also known as plasmics, are bizarre creatures spawned by the nightmares of the Neverborn. The category of Hekatonkhire includes the ghosts of demons, devas and Primordial behemoths, as well as the manifested nightmares of the Neverborn. The Neverborn are the ghosts of slain Primordials. Immensely powerful, they are difficult to rouse from their slumber, and their power seems largely constrained to the Labyrinth. Only mundane ghosts and Hekatonkhire can be summoned through necromancy, and only mundane ghosts can be summoned through sorcery. Gods Most gods are members of the Celestial Order, which is stratified into two divisions: the Celestial Court, composed of gods of concepts, and the Terrestrial Bureaucracy, made up of the gods of physical objects and locations. Technically, all members of the Celestial Court outrank all members of the Terrestrial Bureaucracy. In practice, Terrestrial courts are largely independent. Outside of the Celestial Order, there are also the machine spirits of Autochthonia, unemployed gods whose domains have been usurped or destroyed, rogue gods who have abandoned their duties, and forbidden gods who have been exiled due to madness, an abhorrent nature or because they sided with the Primordials. Essence Essence is the mystical force which the Exalted and gods manipulate to gain their supernatural powers, as well as the energy that forms all things. Within the game, the mystical force "Essence" is always capitalized to distinguish from other uses of the word. Magical Materials The Magical Materials are used to forge artifacts and weapons. Each material is associated with a type of Exalted, as well as one of the castes of Alchemical Exalted, who are partially constructed from that material. These materials are all easily enchanted, and each one resonates with a particular type of Exalted. This resonance makes any item that is both constructed from one of the magical materials and attuned to an Exalt's anima preternaturally deft and sure in that Exalt's hands. It also gives the Exalt access to the powers of any hearthstone mounted on the item. Jade is the most common material, and is associated with the most common, least powerful of the Exalted, the Terrestrial Exalted. There are five colors of Jade which correspond to one of the Elemental Dragons. Blue jade resonates with Air, white with Earth, black with Water, green with Wood, and red with Fire. Starmetal is the rarest of the magical materials, forged from meteors, and the husks of godlings executed in Yu-Shan, the Heavenly City. Like its wielders, the Sidereal Exalted, Starmetal re-weaves fate and involves itself with divine functions. Moonsilver is considered by the Lunar Exalted to be a gift from their patron, Luna. It must be harvested by moonlight, using no crafted tools, forged at night and cooled only with water that has never seen the sun. Like the protean Lunars, Moonsilver can shift into new forms easily. Soulsteel is made from human souls and the substance of the Labyrinth of the Underworld. It is jet black, and agonized faces of the souls it contains can be seen moving and screaming in the metal. Unsurprisingly, this material is used almost exclusively by the Abyssal Exalted. Soulsteel weapons draw upon the forces of death and the underworld. Orichalcum is used primarily by the Solar Exalted. Orichalcum is rarely found in pure deposits; usually, it is created out of gold that has been heated by lava and sunlight reflected from mirrors of occult design. Adamant a super-solid crystal that is refined down to the sharpest substance known. It is largely present within the body of the Primordial Autochthon, but was also known in Creation during the First Age. This material is used primarily by the Alchemical Exalted, though the Exalted of the First Age occasionally made items out of the material. Books See the list of Exalted sourcebooks for further information. ReviewsPyramid'' See also Storytelling System. White Wolf's World of Darkness. White Wolf Publishing References External links Exalted Wiki, a Wiki containing fan-created material and archived quotes by the developers White Wolf Publishing games Role-playing game systems Fantasy campaign settings Fantasy role-playing games Role-playing games introduced in 2001

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The 2nd Chemical Battalion is a United States Army chemical unit stationed at Fort Hood, Texas, United States, and is part of the 48th Chemical Brigade. The battalion can trace its lineage from the 30th Engineer Regiment (Gas and Flame) and has served in World War I, World War II, Korean War, Operation Desert Storm, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The 2nd Chemical Battalion currently (June 2019) consists of the Headquarters and Headquarters Company (Hellfire), 68th Chemical Company (Responders) and 181st Chemical Company (Double Dragons) at Fort Hood, Texas, the 172nd Chemical Company (Gladiators) at Fort Riley, Kansas and the 63rd Chemical Company (Dragon Masters) at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. The unit is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the "2D CBRN Battalion" where CBRN stands for Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear. However the correct designation for the unit is "2D Chemical Battalion (CBRN)." History Formation Shortly after the U.S. entered World War I, the general staff of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) decided to establish a Gas Service, part of which would be an offensive gas regiment. Born out of this decision was War Department General Order 108, dated 15 August 1917, which authorized and established an offensive gas unit designated as the 30th Engineer Regiment (Gas and Flame.) Shortly thereafter, General Order 31 from the General Headquarters of the AEF officially activated the Gas Service Section with Colonel Amos Fries in command. Because its lineage traces directly back to the 30th Engineers, this timeline means that not only is the 2D Chemical Battalion the first and oldest unit in the Chemical Corps, but it is also older than the Chemical Corps itself. On 30 August 1917 Captain Earl J. Atkisson was assigned the task of raising and training the fledgling gas regiment which was stationed at Camp American University, Washington, D.C. Atkisson set out acquiring officers, enlisted men, equipment and information. Beginning on 19 October 1917, the influx of enlisted personnel into the regiment was "near continuous". Early on the 30th Engineer Regiment became known as the "Hell Fire Battalion", and its soldiers as the "Hell Fire Boys". A 15 November 1917 story in the Baltimore Evening Star stated: If His Satanic Majesty happened to drop around at the American University training camp to-day, he would see the "Hell Fire Battalion" at work and might blush with envy. On the War Department records the battalion is known as the "Gas and Flame Battalion of the Thirtieth Regiment Engineers." Throughout the Army they are known as the "Hell Fire Boys." In reality training consisted mostly of close order drill, marching, inspections and guard duty. The U.S Army had no men with chemical warfare experience, no weapons or agents to train for offensive chemical warfare, and no gas masks or other protection to train for defensive chemical warfare. On 24 December 1917, the first two companies of the Regiment deployed to France as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), still with no equipment or training for chemical warfare. World War I Once in France, companies A and B reported to the British Special (Chemical) Brigade and received training in offensive chemical warfare with Livens projectors and Stokes mortars. Five platoons completed a five-week training course and began offensive operations under supervision of the Special Brigade on 2 March, only 93 days after formal organization. During this period the 30th Engineers participated in the largest gas attack of the war, consisting of 4,000 Livens projectors. On 22 May 1918, the Regiment began combat operations as an independent American unit. The 30th Engineers won three campaign streamers – Flanders 1918, Lys, and Lorraine 1918 which are still carried on the battalion colors today. On 13 July 1918 the Regiment was re-designated as the 1st Gas Regiment. In its first campaign (Aisne-Marne) the front was very fluid. Gas weapons were considered static and of little use when positions were changing frequently. Therefore, the Regiment was assigned to road repairs and the men performed this task with such excellence that they were praised by the I Corps Commanding General for “maintaining practically the entire line of communication upon which the advancing Divisions were dependent” which was “of first importance” to the success of the campaign. Meanwhile, officers and picked weapon squads demonstrated to American combat commanders the effectiveness of their gas weaponry. This began a tradition still demonstrated by the Red Dragons today: gaining trust and confidence by excelling at onerous, off-mission work, and using persuasion and education to ensure their chemical capabilities are used most effectively. For their second campaign (St. Mihiel) they were assigned all along the American front, supporting eight infantry divisions. Confounding the view that gas weapons were static, members of the Regiment began carrying their Stokes mortars along with the advancing infantry to assist by taking out enemy machine gun positions and other strong points. At times their heavy 4-inch gas mortars were in action ahead of the infantry's own 3-inch mortars, firing combinations of gas, smoke, and thermite. The 1st Gas Regiment won battle streamers for Aisne-Marne, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne. During six campaigns seventy-five members of the Regiment made the ultimate sacrifice while supporting the AEF. After the Armistice, the Regiment redeployed to Camp Kendrick, Lakehurst, New Jersey where it was demobilized on 28 February 1919. Between the Wars On 24 February 1920 the 1st Gas Regiment was reconstituted at Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland which remained its home station until 1953. Duties at Edgewood were mostly routine for more than a decade. The men maintained the grounds, polished their equipment, and drilled. They conducted demonstrations with Stokes mortars and Livens projectors and taught the Chemical Warfare Course for all Army officers. Being trained with tear gas, their responsibilities included crowd control and periodic field exercises were conducted to practice this mission as well as combat operations. On 5 February 1929 the 1st Gas Regiment was redesignated the 1st Chemical Regiment. The men in ranks hardly noticed, as the idyllic environment at Edgewood continued unchanged. The daily schedule of events was standard, with weekends free after Saturday morning inspections. Change was more noticeable after 15 April 1935 when the 1st Chemical Regiment was disbanded. The next day the 2nd Separate Chemical Battalion was activated, receiving all personnel and equipment from the disbanded regiment. With supplies and equipment in short supply, soldiers began to refer to the new unit as the “2nd Desperate Chemical Battalion.” The battalion began training with the new 4.2-inch chemical mortar, developed from the 4-inch Stokes mortar. The new weapon had a rifled barrel that give it unprecedented accuracy, and a firm base structure that allowed firing up to 20 rounds per minute. With a 25-pound shell a company of mortars had the firepower (although not the range) of a full battalion of 105mm howitzers. World War II After Pearl Harbor the battalion spent several months performing guard duty at aircraft manufacturing plants, public water supplies and other potentially sensitive points. Then it was transferred to Fort Bragg, NC under a new commander, Major Robert W. Breaks. On 1 April 1942 Companies B, C, and D and a Medical Detachment were activated. For 14 months Breaks carried out a training program that involved working with paratroopers and engineers, extensive mountain training, and four amphibious invasion exercises. Most important, they trained with the 45th Infantry Division, with which they invaded Sicily in Operation HUSKY, and which they supported on many occasions during the war. During the Sicilian campaign, 10 July – 18 August 1943, operating under the code name SAPPHIRE, the Red Dragons were the only Allied unit to serve the entire 38-day campaign without relief. Their performance in supporting infantry attacks was so remarkable that shortly after the invasion of Italy, Fifth Army ordered that no infantry division would ever go into combat without a chemical mortar battalion attached, and no infantry regiment without a chemical mortar company attached. Eventually 32 chemical mortar battalions were activated and in 1947 the 4.2-inch mortar was standardized by Ordnance and was the primary heavy support weapon for fifty years. These decisions rested heavily on the mortar's performance in the hands of the 2nd Separate Chemical Battalion. The battalion was cited specifically for its actions on 6 August 1943 at San Fratello Ridge, known as “Hill 715.” Two battalions of the 15th Infantry became trapped while attacking across the Furiano River. The Red Dragons laid an eight-hour smoke screen on a 3500-yard front to protect the infantry which was under direct observation and fire from the ridge. Two chemical mortar companies were shelled out of their positions but set up elsewhere and continued firing. That night the two infantry battalions returned safely under cover of darkness. On 7 September 1943 the unit was re-designated the 2nd Chemical Battalion, Motorized being one of the few Army units with enough organic transport to move itself unassisted. Under this name the battalion participated in the invasion of Italy at Salerno (Operation AVALANCHE.) The 45th, 34th and 3rd Infantry Divisions went into the line and were rotated out, but the Red Dragons remained in action to support each in turn. The unit participated in the Naples-Foggia and Rome-Arno campaigns, then prepared for the invasion of southern France in operation ANVIL-DRAGOON, Company A joined the First Airborne Task in a glider assault 15 miles inland from the beaches. The battalion continued with the ABTF defending against any German penetration of the French-Italian border in the Maritime Alps. They then proceeded to the Vosges Mountains, attached to the First French Army. At this point they had completed the Southern France campaign. On 31 December 1944 the designation changed to 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion. Continuing on to cross the Rhine and enter Germany, the battalion completed the Rhineland, Ardennes Alsace, and Germany campaigns. Significant events included defending the flank of 3rd Army during the Battle of the Bulge, assault on the Maginot line, liberation of the Dachau concentration camp, and the capture of a town named Traunstein. This was the only occasion in the entire war in which a chemical mortar battalion was credited with such a capture. In Traunstein HQ Company captured a young Luftwaffe deserter named Joseph Ratzinger, who later would become Pope Benedict XVI. After the German surrender, the battalion was assigned guard duty over numerous sites where the Germans had stored chemical munitions, including Zyklon B, the nerve gas used for mass executions in the concentration camps. On 26 July 1946 the battalion was deactivated in Germany, with remaining personnel going to the 9th Infantry Division. During the war the battalion was in combat for 511 days, the same as the 45th Division, and more than any other unit in the US Army. Fifty-eight men were killed in action. Korean War The 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion was reactivated at Edgewood Arsenal on 1 February 1949. Personnel and equipment came from the 91st Chemical Mortar Battalion. For the next year and a halfunder the command of COL V.H Bell the Red Dragons trained to a high state of readiness under the command of Lieutenant Colonel V. H. Bell. The battalion taught the Chemical Warfare School for the entire Army. They trained Army and National Guard troops on use of the 4.2-inch mortar. They conducted PORTEX, a practice invasion of Puerto Rico, and trained on airborne operations with the mortar. The Korean War broke out on July 25, 1950. The battalion received movement orders on 7 September 1950 and moved so quickly that 47 days later, on 24 October, they fired their first combat mission. The journey. included travelling 700 miles up the Korean peninsula in four days, from Pusan South Korea to YongByon, North Korea. They were assigned the code name NATIVE and kept it for the rest of the war. A week later the battalion was over run at Unsan when the Chinese made their first significant entry into the war. Many guns and vehicles were lost and 19 men were killed, some by capture and execution. On 26 November the Chinese made a major assault against the US 9th Infantry, which the Red Dragons were supporting. The Chinese over ran most of the battalion's gun positions, and men continued to fire missions for the infantry while under small arms fire. Six men were killed; two were awarded posthumous Silver Stars. As the entire Eighth Army retreated, 2nd Chemical was attached to the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade. Working together smoothly these two units formed the rear guard as all of Eighth Army retreated more than 400 miles. They were the only units in contact with the enemy, constantly setting ambushes and falling back. The association of these two units continued for almost six months, and after the war the 27th gave the Red Dragons a set of ceremonial drums like the one they used on parade, which rest today in battalion HQ at Fort Hood. On 14 February 1951, the Red dragons, still with the 27th Commonwealth Brigade, played a critical role in saving the US 23rd Infantry which was surrounded at Chipyong-ni by 90,000 Chinese troops. When the United Nations advanced again in the spring of 1951 the battalion was moved literally from coast to coast. Their presidential citation for this period reads in part, “…the men of this Battalion moved along the entire width of the battle-line, emplacing where the fighting was heaviest, inflicting tremendous casualties among attackers, and redeploying as soon as a relative lull occurred to yet another sector where the savage battle flared anew.” This was one of four citations that the battalion earned during the war. The Red Dragons were the only chemical mortar battalion to serve in the war, and routinely outperformed heavy mortar units of the infantry, although operating with much lower manpower. The unit remained in combat for 1007 days, never relieved or placed in reserve. It participated in eight of the ten United Nations campaigns of the war. Sixty-one members of the battalion were killed or missing in action. On 23 January 1953 all personnel and equipment of the 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion were transferred to the 461st Infantry Battalion (Heavy Mortar). The Red Dragon personnel, serving as the 461st Infantry Battalion, continued in action until the Armistice, completing their ninth campaign, the tenth and last campaign of the war. The 461st was over run twice in June and July 1953. Ironically, those who served in the 461st were eligible for the Combat Infantryman's Badge after their transfer to the new unit. Cold War The 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion was transferred at zero strength to the U.S. and re-designated the 2nd Chemical Weapons Battalion. Personnel were transferred from the 3rd Chemical Weapons Battalion which was deactivated. The battalion trained with 5.5-inch chemical rockets at Dugway Proving grounds until 16 January 1955 when it was deactivated. On 7 January 1958 Headquarters and Headquarters Company was reactivated at Fort McClellan, Alabama as the 2nd Chemical Battalion (Smoke Generator.) Companies A, B, and C, still at Dugway were inactivated at the same time. For the first time in its 40-year history, the Red Dragons became a service unit rather than a combat unit. Smoke operations continued until the unit was deactivated 19 December 1973 at Fort McClellan Alabama. It was reactivated on 1 September 1981 as the 2d Chemical Battalion, stationed at Fort Hood, Texas. At this point the companies were no longer lettered, but had their own numbers and could be moved from battalion to battalion in the Chemical Corps. Initially the battalion consisted only of Headquarters and the 181st Chemical Detachment. The 181st was later expanded to a company and has remained part of the Red Dragons to the present day. There is not a record of which companies were in the battalion at any point in time, until Desert Storm. With various numbered companies, the battalion continued to function through the next twenty years with at least one smoke company, a decontamination company, a chemical reconnaissance company, and at times a BIDS (Biological Integrated Detection System.) The 13th Chemical Company was activated with 2nd Chemical in 2001 as the Army's first BIDS unit. It operated at first using a Humvee platform and later a specialized vehicle based on the M-113 personnel carrier. The deactivation of the 13th in 2011 ended the battalion's BIDS mission. Decontamination in the 1970s was carried out with the M12 skid-mounted decontamination system that was standardized in 1961. This was replaced beginning in 1987 by the M17, lighter but with higher capacity. During the 1980s the battalion discontinued the M3 stationary smoke generators that had been in use since 1952. M3 generators were mounted on Humvee platforms under the name M56 Coyote, and on M-1059 vehicles based on M-113 personnel carriers and known as Lynx. The Red Dragons tested and deployed the Army's first M-1059s in the mid-1980s. The M58 Wolf, also based on the M113, was introduced in 1998 but never fully replaced the M1059.The Red Dragons used M-1059s in Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom until the last ones were retired in 2005. After this the battalion mission set no longer included smoke. Operation Desert Storm In August 1990, Iraq attacked Kuwait and seized the oil fields and the capital, Kuwait City. The 2d Chemical Battalion received deployment orders from Fort Hood, Texas, and by 27 October 1990 the battalion had closed into Saudi Arabia and was attached to the XVIII Airborne Corps for the Defense of Saudi Arabia during Operation Desert Shield. On 10 January 1991 the battalion was attached to the Army VII Corps (designated the main force for the attack into Iraq), The VII Corps would eventually total approximately 145,000 Soldiers, and consist of four Armor divisions (one being the UK 1st Armor Division), one Mechanized Infantry Division and the 2d Armored Cavalry Regiment. The Red Dragons provided all chemical support to this formation, other than organic chemical units. When the ground war began on 24 February 1991 the battalion's operating chemical companies were the 46th and 84th, both smoke companies, the 181st, equipped for decontamination, the 323rd, a reserve unit, and the 12th Chemical Maintenance Company. The smoke companies lived in their tracks in the desert for five months. The total strength and equipment was 590 soldiers, 154 wheeled vehicles, 53 M-1059 tracked smoke generator vehicles, and 111 trailers. Headquarters and the 46th Chemical Company (Smoke Dawgs) were part of the VII Corps race across the desert in the “100-Hour War,” travelling 375 kilometers (233 miles.) Initially the Red Dragons were attached to the 1st Infantry which had the main attack, then the main attack was transferred to the 3rd Armored. At night the Red Dragons detached from the 1st ID which was in motion and in contact with the enemy, traveled 70 miles (113 kilometers) across unmarked desert to attach to the 3rd AD which was also in motion and in contact. On the way they went through acres of unexploded sub-munitions from American field artillery missions. This feat of land navigation was accomplished without GPS, because the XVIII Airborne had taken them. When hostilities ceased on 28 February, the battalion took up position in Kuwait for maintenance/recovery operations and supporting VII Corps in humanitarian assistance. On 7 May the battalion departed from Dhahran Airbase to return to Fort Hood, TX. 1992-2002 Throughout the 1990s the 2d Chemical Battalion remained stationed at Fort Hood, ready on order to deploy and take command and control of chemical units in any theater of operations. During this period the battalion participated heavily in development of the M93 Fox NBCRS (Nuclear Biological and Chemical Reconnaissance System) based on the German TPz Fuchs. The battalion was the first to deploy with Foxes, for chemical reconnaissance missions in Desert Storm. Beginning in 1998 it also tested the upgraded M93A1 Variant proving as viable new automated systems for sampling, analysis and reporting and the first remote chemical sensing system, the Remote Sensing Chemical Agent Alarm (RSCAAL) A number of chemical companies rotated in and out of the battalion including the 21st, 44th, 46th 59th, 84th, 101st, and 172nd. The 181st Chemical Company did not rotate, but remained with the battalion. Operation Iraqi Freedom to Present There is no known written history of the Red Dragons’ participation in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Some facts are known by direct observation. The Battalion deployed for the initial invasion which began on 19 March 2003. The 44th and 46th Chemical companies advanced with the 4th Infantry Division for provide smoke for river crossings. Several platoons deployed with Foxes. The first vehicle to enter Baghdad Airport was a Red Dragon Fox, to detect and identify chemical agents. A few isolated chemical munitions were identified, but the primary effort involved industrial chemical inventories. Large quantities of nitric acid posed particular problems. After the invasion, Red Dragon platoons were deployed to a variety of locations as far north as Tikrit. They were tasked for guard duty, infantry patrols, convoy escort, and other non-chemical duties. One platoon guarded a Tikrit bridge within a mile of Saddam Husseins “Spider hole.” Another platoon remained in Kuwait providing escort for visiting VIPs. From 2004-2010 companies were almost constantly rotated on deployments. Further, individual soldiers were pulled from undeployed companies and inserted into both chemical and non-chemical units. The demand was high; soldiers meeting the criteria for deployment could be almost certain of individual deployment. During this period beginning in 1990 the M1135 Nuclear Biological Chemical Reconnaissance Vehicle (Stryker) system was deployed to replace the Fox. Some deployments in this period involved identification and assessment of “sensitive sites” which might contain chemical or valuable intelligence. The last company to deploy to Iraq was the 44th Chemical Company in 2010, which upon return went immediately into training with the M1135. In 2014 Red Dragons of the 181st Chemical Company retired the Army's last active Foxes at the National Training Center. In 2007 the Battalion became part of the 48th Chemical Brigade, an operational chemical brigade made up of four chemical battalions. The 48th in turn was subordinate to the 20th CBRNE command at the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground, formerly Edgewood Arsenal. In 2012 the 2d Chemical Battalion took on the national Defense Chemical Response Force (DCRF) mission. Under this concept the battalion, in addition to readiness for overseas deployment, was tasked to respond to major CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear) incidents in the US, whether of foreign or domestic origin. The battalion grew as large as 12 companies at four locations. Two years later the DCRF mission rotated to another chemical unit, and the Battalion returned to it historical makeup of HHC and four operating companies. As of this writing, July 2019, the Red Dragons continue to train to a high state of readiness for diverse missions. In 2018 Red Dragons provided humanitarian relief to the Houston area in the wake of Hurricane Harvey. In September of that year 42 soldiers deployed to San Jose Island Panama to demilitarize a collection of 500-pound phosgene bombs abandoned from a World War II storage facility. This mission was accomplished with no incidents or injuries of any sort. Campaign participation World War I: Flanders, Lys, Lorraine, Aisne-Marne, St. Mihiel, Meuse-Argonne World War II: Sicily (with arrowhead), Naples-Foggia (with arrowhead), Rome-Arno, Southern France (with arrowhead), Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe Korean War: UN Offensive; CCF Intervention; First UN Counteroffensive; CCF Spring Offensive; UN Summer-Fall Offensive; Second Korean Winter; *Korea Summer Fall 1952; and Third Korean Winter campaigns. Southwest Asia: Defense of Saudi Arabia, Liberation and Defense of Kuwait, Ceasefire Unit commendations Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered KUMHWA, KOREA Presidential Unit Citation (Navy), Streamer embroidered WONJU-HWACHON Navy Unit Commendation, Streamer embroidered PANMUNJOM Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered DEFENSE OF KOREA Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered Southwest Asia Traditions The Distinctive Unit Insignia consists of a red dragon on gold background. The dragon clasps a blue lightning bolt symbolizing the unit's role as a combat unit from 1918-1958. The dragon's foot rests on a stylized wheel, representing the unit's 1940 status as a Motorized unit, rare in those days. A motorized unit had sufficient organic transport that it could move itself without vehicles from Quartermasters or other support units. The phrase “Flammis Vincimus” is Latin for “We conquer with Fire,” referring to the units use of dedicated offensive chemical weapons in World War I. It is the only unit in the US Army to have done so. In 2002 a crest or coronet was added to the battalion colors, bearing four flames between five steel spikes. The four flames symbolize the four wars in which the battalion fought (Operation Iraqi Freedom had not yet occurred), and the five spikes represent five unit commendations that the unit has received. The 30th Engineer Battalion was popularly known as “The Hellfire Boys.” In recognition of this, 2d Chemical Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Company has the nickname “Hellfire.” When the unit was a smoke generator battalion LTC Jack Stenger, a battalion commander who was a former mortar company commander was concerned that the men would forget their heritage. He procured a barrel from an M2A1 4.2-inch mortar and a custom was instituted in which four men would hold the barrel while another drank a suitable beverage from the muzzle. At the Red Dragon Centennial in 2017 this custom was revived as “The Fireshot Ceremony.” The name recalls that in a mortar position the platoon leader would order “Fire!” and as soon as the round was on its way, would say into the phone “Shot!” so that the Fire Direction Center could mark the exact time until impact. The motto of the 2D Chemical Battalion (CBRN) is “Second to None.” Notable members During World War I, several Major League Baseball figures served in the 1st Gas Regiment (as it was then called). These included: Branch Rickey, then general manager of the St. Louis Browns (later of the St. Louis Cardinals and Brooklyn Dodgers). Ty Cobb, outfielder for the Detroit Tigers and one of the first five inductees into the Hall of Fame in 1936. Christy Mathewson, pitcher for the New York Giants and one of the first five inductees into the Hall of Fame in 1936. References Addison, James Thayer. The Story of the First Gas Regiment, (Google Books), Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919. Army Regulation AR 220-5 paragraph 2-3 (d) 15 April 2003 Army Technical Manual "TM 3-320 4.2-inch Chemical Mortar M1A1, U.S. War Department 1937 Breaks, Robert W. My Men Had Guts, Chemical Warfare Service Quarterly, Feb-Mar 1944 Brown, Michael T. COL (Ret.) Unpublished article “The Red Dragons of Desert Storm” accessed June 2019 Eighth Army General Orders 4 February 1953 Eldredge, Walter J. Finding My Father's War: A Baby Boomer and the 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion in World War II, PageFree Publishing, Inc., 2004, p. 246, (Google Books (online version) Eldredge, Walter J. “First Shot in Anger,” World War II Magazine, September 1999 Eldredge, Walter J. Red Dragons: The 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalioin in Korea, Dogear Press 2009 Eldredge, Walter J. Unpublished Manuscript, “History of the 2nd Chemical Battalion” Eldredge, Walter, Liberating the Pope, Red Dragons Association Website, www.red-dragons.org Ladson, Robert History of the Second Chemical Mortar Battalion, privately published in Sazlburg, Austria 1946 Langer, William, Gas and Flame in World War I Knopf 1965 Originally published as With E of the First Gas, 1919 Oklahoma History Center, Oklahoma National Guard History, https://www.okhistory.org/historycenter/militaryhof/inductee.php?id=330 accessed 8 July 2019 Moore, William, “Gassing the Gassers”, American Legion Weekly, Vol 4, No 43, October 27, 1922 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion Monument, WW II, bronze plaque in Chemical Corps Memorial Grove, Fort Leonard Wood, MO Smart, Jeffery, unpublished manuscript A Century of Innovation 1917-2017 30th Engineers and 1st Gas Regiment Roll of Honor, Bronze plaque in Chemical Corps Memorial Grove, Fort Leonard Wood, MO The U.S. Army Chemical Mortar Battalions, www.4point2.org accessed June 2019 U.S. Center for Military History, www.army.history.mil Further reading History of 2nd Cml Mortar Bn in WWII, by Bob Ladson First Shot in Anger, 2nd Cml Mortar Bn in Sicily, by Walter J. Eldredge My Army Service in World War II, by Craft Harrison US Army Command Reports, Sep 1950 through Aug 1951 (declassified official reports) History of 2nd Cml Mortar Bn in Korean War, by Richard L. Slick, 1st Sgt, Co B, 2nd Cml Mortar Bn A Soldier's Diary, by Carl H. Hulsman, 2nd Cml Mortar Bn, Korean War Sometimes it was rather cool, by Carl H. Hulsman, 2nd Cml Mortar Bn, Korean War A Commander's Reflections, by Benjamin G. Moore, Col, USA (ret), CO of 2nd Cml Mortar Bn in Korea Gunners help turn the tide at Kap'yong, by New Zealand historian Ian McGibbon 002 002 United States Army units and formations in the Korean War 030 Military units and formations established in 1917

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Mary Stevenson Cassatt (; May 22, 1844June 14, 1926) was an American painter and printmaker. She was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania (now part of Pittsburgh's North Side), but lived much of her adult life in France where she befriended Edgar Degas and exhibited with the Impressionists. Cassatt often created images of the social and private lives of women, with particular emphasis on the intimate bonds between mothers and children. She was described by Gustave Geffroy as one of "les trois grandes dames" (the three great ladies) of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Berthe Morisot. In 1879, Diego Martelli compared her to Degas, as they both sought to depict movement, light, and design in the most modern sense. Early life Cassatt was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which is now part of Pittsburgh. She was born into an upper-middle-class family: Her father, Robert Simpson Cassat (later Cassatt), was a successful stockbroker and land speculator. The ancestral name had been Cossart, with the family descended from French Huguenot Jacques Cossart, who came to New Amsterdam in 1662. Her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, came from a banking family. Katherine Cassatt, educated and well-read, had a profound influence on her daughter. To that effect, Cassatt's lifelong friend Louisine Havemeyer wrote in her memoirs: "Anyone who had the privilege of knowing Mary Cassatt's mother would know at once that it was from her and her alone that [Mary] inherited her ability." A distant cousin of artist Robert Henri, Cassatt was one of seven children, of whom two died in infancy. One brother, Alexander Johnston Cassatt, later became president of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The family moved eastward, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, then to the Philadelphia area, where she started her schooling at the age of six. Cassatt grew up in an environment that viewed travel as integral to education; she spent five years in Europe and visited many of the capitals, including London, Paris, and Berlin. While abroad she learned German and French and had her first lessons in drawing and music. It is likely that her first exposure to French artists Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Camille Corot, and Gustave Courbet was at the Paris World's Fair of 1855. Also in the exhibition were Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro, both of whom were later her colleagues and mentors. Though her family objected to her becoming a professional artist, Cassatt began studying painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia at the early age of 15. Part of her parents' concern may have been Cassatt's exposure to feminist ideas and the bohemian behavior of some of the male students. As such, Cassatt and her network of friends were lifelong advocates of equal rights for the sexes. Although about 20% of the students were female, most viewed art as a socially valuable skill; few of them were determined, as Cassatt was, to make art their career. She continued her studies from 1861 through 1865, the duration of the American Civil War. Thomas Eakins was among her fellow students; later Eakins was forced to resign as director of the Academy. Impatient with the slow pace of instruction and the patronizing attitude of the male students and teachers, she decided to study the old masters on her own. She later said: "There was no teaching" at the Academy. Female students could not use live models, until somewhat later, and the principal training was primarily drawing from casts. Cassatt decided to end her studies: At that time, no degree was granted. After overcoming her father's objections, she moved to Paris in 1866, with her mother and family friends acting as chaperones. Since women could not yet attend the École des Beaux-Arts, Cassatt applied to study privately with masters from the school and was accepted to study with Jean-Léon Gérôme, a highly regarded teacher known for his hyper-realistic technique and his depiction of exotic subjects. (A few months later Gérôme also accepted Eakins as a student.) Cassatt augmented her artistic training with daily copying in the Louvre, obtaining the required permit, which was necessary to control the "copyists", usually low-paid women, who daily filled the museum to paint copies for sale. The museum also served as a social place for Frenchmen and American female students, who, like Cassatt, were not allowed to attend cafes where the avant-garde socialized. In this manner, fellow artist and friend Elizabeth Jane Gardner met and married famed academic painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Toward the end of 1866, she joined a painting class taught by Charles Joshua Chaplin, a genre artist. In 1868, Cassatt also studied with artist Thomas Couture, whose subjects were mostly romantic and urban. On trips to the countryside, the students drew from life, particularly the peasants going about their daily activities. In 1868, one of her paintings, A Mandoline Player, was accepted for the first time by the selection jury for the Paris Salon. With Elizabeth Jane Gardner, whose work was also accepted by the jury that year, Cassatt was one of two American women to first exhibit in the Salon. A Mandoline Player is in the Romantic style of Corot and Couture, and is one of only two paintings from the first decade of her career that is documented today. The French art scene was in a process of change, as radical artists such as Courbet and Édouard Manet tried to break away from accepted Academic tradition and the Impressionists were in their formative years. Cassatt's friend Eliza Haldeman wrote home that artists "are leaving the Academy style and each seeking a new way, consequently just now everything is Chaos." Cassatt, on the other hand, continued to work in the traditional manner, submitting works to the Salon for over ten years, with increasing frustration. Returning to the United States in the late summer of 1870—as the Franco-Prussian War was starting—Cassatt lived with her family in Altoona. Her father continued to resist her chosen vocation, and paid for her basic needs, but not her art supplies. Cassatt placed two of her paintings in a New York gallery and found many admirers but no purchasers. She was also dismayed at the lack of paintings to study while staying at her summer residence. Cassatt even considered giving up art, as she was determined to make an independent living. She wrote in a letter of July 1871, "I have given up my studio & torn up my father's portrait, & have not touched a brush for six weeks nor ever will again until I see some prospect of getting back to Europe. I am very anxious to go out west next fall & get some employment, but I have not yet decided where." Cassatt traveled to Chicago to try her luck, but lost some of her early paintings in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Shortly afterward, her work attracted the attention of Roman Catholic Bishop Michael Domenec of Pittsburgh, who commissioned her to paint two copies of paintings by Correggio in Parma, Italy, advancing her enough money to cover her travel expenses and part of her stay. In her excitement she wrote, "O how wild I am to get to work, my fingers farely itch & my eyes water to see a fine picture again". With Emily Sartain, a fellow artist from a well-regarded artistic family from Philadelphia, Cassatt set out for Europe again. Impressionism Within months of her return to Europe in the autumn of 1871, Cassatt's prospects had brightened. Her painting Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival was well received in the Salon of 1872, and was purchased. She attracted much favorable notice in Parma and was supported and encouraged by the art community there: "All Parma is talking of Miss Cassatt and her picture, and everyone is anxious to know her". After completing her commission for the bishop, Cassatt traveled to Madrid and Seville, where she painted a group of paintings of Spanish subjects, including Spanish Dancer Wearing a Lace Mantilla (1873, in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution). In 1874, she made the decision to take up residence in France. She was joined by her sister Lydia who shared an apartment with her. Cassatt opened a studio in Paris. Louisa May Alcott's sister, Abigail May Alcott, was then an art student in Paris and visited Cassatt. Cassatt continued to express criticism of the politics of the Salon and the conventional taste that prevailed there. She was blunt in her comments, as reported by Sartain, who wrote: "she is entirely too slashing, snubs all modern art, disdains the Salon pictures of Cabanel, Bonnat, all the names we are used to revere". Cassatt saw that works by female artists were often dismissed with contempt unless the artist had a friend or protector on the jury, and she would not flirt with jurors to curry favor. Her cynicism grew when one of the two pictures she submitted in 1875 was refused by the jury, only to be accepted the following year after she darkened the background. She had quarrels with Sartain, who thought Cassatt too outspoken and self-centered, and eventually they parted. Out of her distress and self-criticism, Cassatt decided that she needed to move away from genre paintings and onto more fashionable subjects, in order to attract portrait commissions from American socialites abroad, but that attempt bore little fruit at first. In 1877, both her entries were rejected, and for the first time in seven years she had no works in the Salon. At this low point in her career she was invited by Edgar Degas to show her works with the Impressionists, a group that had begun their own series of independent exhibitions in 1874 with much attendant notoriety. The Impressionists (also known as the "Independents" or "Intransigents") had no formal manifesto and varied considerably in subject matter and technique. They tended to prefer plein air painting and the application of vibrant color in separate strokes with little pre-mixing, which allows the eye to merge the results in an "impressionistic" manner. The Impressionists had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Henry Bacon, a friend of the Cassatts, thought that the Impressionists were so radical that they were "afflicted with some hitherto unknown disease of the eye". They already had one female member, artist Berthe Morisot, who became Cassatt's friend and colleague. Cassatt admired Degas, whose pastels had made a powerful impression on her when she encountered them in an art dealer's window in 1875. "I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his art," she later recalled. "It changed my life. I saw art then as I wanted to see it." She accepted Degas' invitation with enthusiasm and began preparing paintings for the next Impressionist show, planned for 1878, which (after a postponement because of the World's Fair) took place on April 10, 1879. She felt comfortable with the Impressionists and joined their cause enthusiastically, declaring: "we are carrying on a despairing fight & need all our forces". Unable to attend cafes with them without attracting unfavorable attention, she met with them privately and at exhibitions. She now hoped for commercial success selling paintings to the sophisticated Parisians who preferred the avant-garde. Her style had gained a new spontaneity during the intervening two years. Previously a studio-bound artist, she had adopted the practice of carrying a sketchbook with her while out-of-doors or at the theater, and recording the scenes she saw. In 1877, Cassatt was joined in Paris by her father and mother, who returned with her sister Lydia, all eventually to share a large apartment on the fifth floor of 13, Avenue Trudaine, (). Mary valued their companionship, as neither she nor Lydia had married. A case was made that Mary suffered from narcissistic disturbance, never completing the recognition of herself as a person outside of the orbit of her mother. Mary had decided early in life that marriage would be incompatible with her career. Lydia, who was frequently painted by her sister, suffered from recurrent bouts of illness, and her death in 1882 left Cassatt temporarily unable to work. Cassatt's father insisted that her studio and supplies be covered by her sales, which were still meager. Afraid of having to paint "potboilers" to make ends meet, Cassatt applied herself to produce some quality paintings for the next Impressionist exhibition. Three of her most accomplished works from 1878 were Portrait of the Artist (self-portrait), Little Girl in a Blue Armchair, and Reading Le Figaro (portrait of her mother). Degas had considerable influence on Cassatt. Both were highly experimental in their use of materials, trying distemper and metallic paints in many works, such as Woman Standing Holding a Fan, 1878–79 (Amon Carter Museum of American Art). She became extremely proficient in the use of pastels, eventually creating many of her most important works in this medium. Degas also introduced her to etching, of which he was a recognized master. The two worked side by side for a while, and her draftsmanship gained considerable strength under his tutelage. One example of her thoughtful approach to the medium of drypoint as a mode for reflecting on her status as an artist is 'Reflection' of 1889–90, which has recently been interpreted as a self-portrait. Degas in turn depicted Cassatt in a series of etchings recording their trips to the Louvre. She treasured his friendship but learned not to expect too much from his fickle and temperamental nature after a project they were collaborating on at the time, a proposed journal devoted to prints, was abruptly dropped by him. The sophisticated and well-dressed Degas, then forty-five, was a welcome dinner guest at the Cassatt residence, and likewise they at his soirées. The Impressionist exhibit of 1879 was the most successful to date, despite the absence of Renoir, Sisley, Manet and Cézanne, who were attempting once again to gain recognition at the Salon. Through the efforts of Gustave Caillebotte, who organized and underwrote the show, the group made a profit and sold many works, although the criticism continued as harsh as ever. The Revue des Deux Mondes wrote, "M. Degas and Mlle. Cassatt are, nevertheless, the only artists who distinguish themselves... and who offer some attraction and some excuse in the pretentious show of window dressing and infantile daubing". Cassatt displayed eleven works, including Lydia in a Loge, Wearing a Pearl Necklace, (Woman in a Loge). Although critics claimed that Cassatt's colors were too bright and that her portraits were too accurate to be flattering to the subjects, her work was not savaged as was Monet's, whose circumstances were the most desperate of all the Impressionists at that time. She used her share of the profits to purchase a work by Degas and one by Monet. She participated in the Impressionist Exhibitions that followed in 1880 and 1881, and she remained an active member of the Impressionist circle until 1886. In 1886, Cassatt provided two paintings for the first Impressionist exhibition in the US, organized by art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. Her friend Louisine Elder married Harry Havemeyer in 1883, and with Cassatt as advisor, the couple began collecting the Impressionists on a grand scale. Much of their vast collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Cassatt also made several portraits of family members during that period, of which Portrait of Alexander Cassatt and His Son Robert Kelso (1885) is one of her best regarded. Cassatt's style then evolved, and she moved away from Impressionism to a simpler, more straightforward approach. She began to exhibit her works in New York galleries as well. After 1886, Cassatt no longer identified herself with any art movement and experimented with a variety of techniques. Feminist Viewpoints and the "New Woman" Cassatt and her contemporaries enjoyed the wave of feminism that occurred in the 1840s, allowing them access to educational institutions at newly coed colleges and universities, such as Oberlin and the University of Michigan. Likewise, women's colleges such as Vassar, Smith and Wellesley opened their doors during this time. Cassat was an outspoken advocate for women's equality, campaigning with her friends for equal travel scholarships for students in the 1860s, and the right to vote in the 1910s. Mary Cassatt depicted the "New Woman" of the 19th century from the woman's perspective. As a successful, highly trained woman artist who never married, Cassatt—like Ellen Day Hale, Elizabeth Coffin, Elizabeth Nourse and Cecilia Beaux—personified the "New Woman". She "initiated the profound beginnings in recreating the image of the 'new' women", drawn from the influence of her intelligent and active mother, Katherine Cassatt, who believed in educating women to be knowledgeable and socially active. She is depicted in Reading 'Le Figaro' (1878). Although Cassatt did not explicitly make political statements about women's rights in her work, her artistic portrayal of women was consistently done with dignity and the suggestion of a deeper, meaningful inner life. Cassatt objected to being stereotyped as a "woman artist", she supported women's suffrage, and in 1915 showed eighteen works in an exhibition supporting the movement organised by Louisine Havemeyer, a committed and active feminist. The exhibition brought her into conflict with her sister-in-law Eugenie Carter Cassatt, who was anti-suffrage and who boycotted the show along with Philadelphia society in general. Cassatt responded by selling off her work that was otherwise destined for her heirs. In particular The Boating Party, thought to have been inspired by the birth of Eugenie's daughter Ellen Mary, was bought by the National Gallery, Washington DC. Relationship with Degas Cassatt and Degas had a long period of collaboration. The two painters had studios close together, Cassatt at 19, rue Laval, (), Degas at 4, rue Frochot, (), less than a five-minute stroll apart, and Degas developed the habit of looking in at Cassatt's studio and offering her advice and helping her gain models. They had much in common: they shared similar tastes in art and literature, came from affluent backgrounds, had studied painting in Italy, and both were independent, never marrying. The degree of intimacy between them cannot be assessed now, as no letters survive, but it is unlikely they were in a relationship given their conservative social backgrounds and strong moral principles. Several of Vincent van Gogh's letters attest Degas' sexual continence. Degas introduced Cassatt to pastel and engraving, both of which Cassatt quickly mastered, while for her part Cassatt was instrumental in helping Degas sell his paintings and promoting his reputation in America. Both regarded themselves as figure painters, and the art historian George Shackelford suggests they were influenced by the art critic Louis Edmond Duranty's appeal in his pamphlet The New Painting for a revitalization in figure painting: "Let us take leave of the stylized human body, which is treated like a vase. What we need is the characteristic modern person in his clothes, in the midst of his social surroundings, at home or out in the street." After Cassatt's parents and sister Lydia joined Cassatt in Paris in 1877, Degas, Cassatt, and Lydia were often to be seen at the Louvre studying artworks together. Degas produced two prints, notable for their technical innovation, depicting Cassatt at the Louvre looking at artworks while Lydia reads a guidebook. These were destined for a prints journal planned by Degas (together with Camille Pissarro and others), which never came to fruition. Cassatt frequently posed for Degas, notably for his millinery series trying on hats. Around 1884, Degas made a portrait in oils of Cassatt, Mary Cassatt Seated, Holding Cards. A Self-Portrait (c. 1880) by Cassatt depicts her in the identical hat and dress, leading art historian Griselda Pollock to speculate they were executed in a joint painting session in the early years of their acquaintance. Cassatt and Degas worked most closely together in the fall and winter of 1879–80 when Cassatt was mastering her printmaking technique. Degas owned a small printing press, and by day she worked at his studio using his tools and press while in the evening she made studies for the etching plate the next day. However, in April 1880, Degas abruptly withdrew from the prints journal they had been collaborating on, and without his support the project folded. Degas' withdrawal piqued Cassatt who had worked hard at preparing a print, In the Opera Box, in a large edition of fifty impressions, no doubt destined for the journal. Although Cassatt's warm feelings for Degas were to last her entire life, she never again worked with him as closely as she had over the prints journal. Mathews notes that she ceased executing her theater scenes at this time. Degas was forthright in his views, as was Cassatt. They clashed over the Dreyfus affair (early in her career she had executed a portrait of the art collector Moyse Dreyfus, a relative of the court-martialled lieutenant at the center of the affair). Cassatt later expressed satisfaction at the irony of Lousine Havermeyer's 1915 joint exhibition of hers and Degas' work being held in aid of women's suffrage, equally capable of affectionately repeating Degas' antifemale comments as being estranged by them (when viewing her Two Women Picking Fruit for the first time, he had commented "No woman has the right to draw like that"). From the 1890s onwards their relationship took on a decidedly commercial aspect, as in general had Cassatt's other relations with the Impressionist circle; nevertheless they continued to visit each other until Degas died in 1917. Later life Cassatt's reputation is based on an extensive series of rigorously drawn and tenderly observed paintings and prints on the theme of the mother and child. The earliest dated work on this subject is the drypoint Gardner Held by His Mother (an impression inscribed "Jan/88" is in the New York Public Library), although she had painted a few earlier works on the theme. Some of these works depict her own relatives, friends, or clients, although in her later years she generally used professional models in compositions that are often reminiscent of Italian Renaissance depictions of the Madonna and Child. After 1900, she concentrated almost exclusively on mother-and-child subjects, such as Woman with a Sunflower. Viewers may be surprised to find that despite her focus on portraying mother-child pairs in her portraits, "Cassatt rejected the idea of becoming a wife and mother..." The 1890s were Cassatt's busiest and most creative period. She had matured considerably and became more diplomatic and less blunt in her opinions. She also became a role model for young American artists who sought her advice. Among them was Lucy A. Bacon, whom Cassatt introduced to Camille Pissarro. Though the Impressionist group disbanded, Cassatt still had contact with some of the members, including Renoir, Monet, and Pissarro. In 1891, she exhibited a series of highly original colored drypoint and aquatint prints, including Woman Bathing and The Coiffure, inspired by the Japanese masters shown in Paris the year before. (See Japonism) Cassatt was attracted to the simplicity and clarity of Japanese design, and the skillful use of blocks of color. In her interpretation, she used primarily light, delicate pastel colors and avoided black (a "forbidden" color among the Impressionists). Adelyn D. Breeskin, the author of two catalogue raisonnés of Cassatt's work, comments that these colored prints, "now stand as her most original contribution... adding a new chapter to the history of graphic arts...technically, as color prints, they have never been surpassed". Also in 1891, Chicago businesswoman Bertha Palmer approached Cassatt to paint a 12' × 58' mural about "Modern Woman" for the Women's Building for the World's Columbian Exposition to be held in 1893. Cassatt completed the project over the next two years while living in France with her mother. The mural was designed as a triptych. The central theme was titled Young Women Plucking the Fruits of Knowledge or Science. The left panel was Young Girls Pursuing Fame and the right panel Arts, Music, Dancing. The mural displays a community of women apart from their relation to men, as accomplished persons in their own right. Palmer considered Cassatt to be an American treasure and could think of no one better to paint a mural at an exposition that was to do so much to focus the world's attention on the status of women. Unfortunately the mural did not survive following the run of the exhibition when the building was torn down. Cassatt made several studies and paintings on themes similar to those in the mural, so it is possible to see her development of those ideas and images. Cassatt also exhibited other paintings in the Exposition. As the new century arrived, Cassatt served as an advisor to several major art collectors and stipulated that they eventually donate their purchases to American art museums. In recognition of her contributions to the arts, France awarded her the Légion d'honneur in 1904. Although instrumental in advising American collectors, recognition of her art came more slowly in the United States. Even among her family members back in America, she received little recognition and was totally overshadowed by her famous brother. Mary Cassatt's brother, Alexander Cassatt, was president of the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1899 until his death in 1906. She was shaken, as they had been close, but she continued to be very productive in the years leading up to 1910. An increasing sentimentality is apparent in her work of the 1900s; her work was popular with the public and the critics, but she was no longer breaking new ground, and her Impressionist colleagues who once provided stimulation and criticism were dying. She was hostile to such new developments in art as post-Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism. Two of her works appeared in the Armory Show of 1913, both images of a mother and child. A trip to Egypt in 1910 impressed Cassatt with the beauty of its ancient art, but was followed by a crisis of creativity; not only had the trip exhausted her, but she declared herself "crushed by the strength of this Art", saying, "I fought against it but it conquered, it is surely the greatest Art the past has left us ... how are my feeble hands to ever paint the effect on me." Diagnosed with diabetes, rheumatism, neuralgia, and cataracts in 1911, she did not slow down, but after 1914 she was forced to stop painting as she became almost blind. Cassatt died on June 14, 1926 at Château de Beaufresne, near Paris, and was buried in the family vault at Le Mesnil-Théribus, France. Legacy Mary Cassatt inspired many Canadian women artists who were members of the Beaver Hall Group. The SS Mary Cassatt was a World War II Liberty ship, launched May 16, 1943. A quartet of young Juilliard string musicians formed the all-female Cassatt Quartet in 1985, named in honor of the painter. In 2009, the award-winning group recorded String Quartets Nos. 1–3 (Cassatt String Quartet) by composer Dan Welcher; the 3rd quartet on the album was written inspired by the work of Mary Cassatt as well. In 1966, Cassatt's painting The Boating Party was reproduced on a US postage stamp. Later she was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 23-cent Great Americans series postage stamp. In 1973, Cassatt was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 2003, four of her paintings – Young Mother (1888), Children Playing on the Beach (1884), On a Balcony (1878/79) and Child in a Straw Hat (circa 1886) – were reproduced on the third issue in the American Treasures stamp series. On May 22, 2009, she was honored by a Google Doodle in recognition of her birthday. Cassatt's paintings have sold for as much as $4 million, the record price of $4,072,500 being set in 1996 at Christie's, New York, for In the Box. A public garden in the 12th arrondissement of Paris is named 'Jardin Mary Cassatt' in her memory. Gallery Notes References Bibliography (mentions family relationship to Alexander Cassatt) Further reading Adelson, Warren; Bertalan, Sarah; Mathews, Nancy Mowll; Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc (2008). Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Collection of Ambroise Vollard. New York: Adelson Galleries. . Barter, Judith A., et al. Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman. Exhibition catalogue. New York: Art Institute of Chicago in association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998. Breeskin, Adelyn D. Mary Cassatt: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Oils, Pastels, Watercolors, and Drawings. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1970. Conrads, Margaret C. American Paintings and Sculpture at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1990. Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc; Adelson, Warren; Cantor, Jay E.; Shapiro, Barbara Stern (2000). Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Artist's Studio. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. . Pollock, Griselda. Mary Cassatt: Painter of Modern Women. World of Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998. Stratton, Suzanne L. Spain, Espagne, Spanien: Foreign Artists Discover Spain 1800–1900. Exhibition catalogue. New York: The Spanish Institute in association with the Equitable Gallery, 1993. (see index) External links Jennifer A. Thompson, "On the Balcony by Mary Stevenson Cassatt (W1906-1-7)" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication. Mary Cassatt's Cat Paintings A finding aid to the Mary Cassatt letters, 1882–1926 at the Archives of Art, Smithsonian Institution Mary Cassatt at the National Gallery of Art Mary Cassatt Gallery at MuseumSyndicate.com Mary Cassatt at the WebMuseum. Mary Cassatt prints at the National Art History Institut (INHA) in Paris The Havemeyer Family Papers relating to Art Collecting Mary Cassatt was a close personal friend of Louisine Havemeyer and acted as an art collecting advisor and buying agent for the Havemeyer family. This archival collection includes original letters from Mary Cassatt to Louisine and Henry Osborne Havemeyer. The foundation in France for the remembrance of Mary Cassatt, located in the village of Mesnil-Theribus, where Cassatt lived and is buried Bibliothèque numérique de l'INHA – Estampes de Mary Cassatt 1844 births 1926 deaths Artists from Pittsburgh American Impressionist painters American expatriates in France American printmakers American women painters Painters from Pennsylvania American women printmakers American portrait painters 19th-century American painters 20th-century American painters 19th-century American women artists 20th-century American women artists Color engravers Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts alumni Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts Blind people from the United States Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Burials in France

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The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair to be held in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. Officially named the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, it was held in Fairmount Park along the Schuylkill River on fairgrounds designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann. Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exposition, and 37 countries participated in it. Precursor The Great Central Fair on Logan Square in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1864 (also known as the Great Sanitary Fair), was one of the many sanitary fairs held during the Civil War. They provided a creative and communal means for ordinary citizens to promote the welfare of Union soldiers and dedicate themselves to the survival of the nation, and the Great Central Fair bolstered Philadelphia's role as a vital center in the Union war effort. It anticipated the combination of public, private, and commercial investments that were necessary to mount the Centennial Exposition. Both had a similar neo-Gothic appearance, the waving flags, the huge central hall, the "curiosities" and relics, handmade and industrial exhibits, and also a visit from the president and his family. Planning The idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphia Mayor Morton McMichael that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Naysayers argued that the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, and domestic exhibits might compare poorly to foreign ones. The Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. With reference to the numerous events of national importance that were held in the past and related to the city of Philadelphia, the City Council resolved in January 1870 to hold the Centennial Exposition in the city in 1876. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project and seek support of the U.S. Congress. Congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state, and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3, 1871, provided that the U.S. government would not be liable for any expenses. The United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3, 1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commission's commissioners included one representative from each state and territory in the United States. On June 1, 1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money. The board's president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for the Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to $10 million in stock via $10 shares. The board sold $1,784,320 ($ today) worth of shares by February 22, 1873. Philadelphia contributed $1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave $1 million. On February 11, 1876, Congress appropriated $1.5 million in a loan. Originally, the board thought it was a subsidy, but after the exposition ended, the federal government sued for the money back, and the United States Supreme Court ultimately forced repayment. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in the Great Sanitary Fair. A Women's Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised $40,000. When the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, it raised an additional $30,000 for a women's exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the director general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, which was dedicated on July 4, 1873, by Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson. The Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments: agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition. Despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the exposition's grounds. A Centennial Lodging-House Agency made a list of rooms in hotels, boarding houses, and private homes and then sold tickets for the available rooms in cities promoting the Centennial or on trains heading for Philadelphia. Philadelphia streetcars increased service, and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphia's Market Street, New York City, Baltimore, and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia. A small hospital was built on the exposition's grounds by the Centennial's Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass health crises occurred. Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint 500 men as Centennial Guards for the exposition. Among soldiers and local men hired by the city was Frank Geyer, best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, H. H. Holmes. Centennial Guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items, the most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth. Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at six police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom were located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which fostered health issues. Eight guards died while working the Exposition, six from typhoid fever, one from smallpox, and one from organic disease of the heart. The Centennial National Bank was chartered on January 19, 1876, to be the "financial agent of the board at the Centennial Exhibition, receiving and accounting for daily receipts, changing foreign moneys into current funds, etc.," according to an article three days later in The Philadelphia Inquirer. Its main branch, designed by Frank Furness, was opened that April on the southeast corner of Market Street and 32nd Street. A branch office operated during the exposition on the fairgrounds. The Centennial Commission ran out of funds for printing and other expenses. Philadelphia city officials appropriated $50,000 to make up for the shortfall. Herman J. Schwarzmann Herman J. Schwarzmann, an engineer for the Fairmount Park Commission, was appointed the main designer of the exposition. In 1869 Schwarzmann had begun working for the Fairmount Park Commission, which administered the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition. It is one of the great urban parks of America, its importance in landscape history surpassed only by Central Park. Schwarzmann was the chief architect for the Centennial Exposition, designing Memorial Hall, Horticultural Hall, other small buildings, and the landscaping around them. His work for the Centennial Exposition was informed by the Vienna International Exposition in 1873, which Schwarzmann visited to study the buildings and the grounds layout. The Vienna International Exposition in 1873 was marred by disastrous logistic planning and was taken as a cautionary example. At the Vienna Exposition, there was no convenient way for visitors to reach the fairgrounds, and exorbitant rates were charged by carriage drivers. Drawing lessons from this failure, the Philadelphia expo was ready for its visitors, with direct railroad connections to service passenger trains every 30 minutes, trolley lines, street cars, carriage routes, and even docking facilities on the river. Structures More than 200 buildings were constructed within the Exposition's grounds, which were surrounded by a fence nearly three miles long. There were five main buildings in the exposition. They were the Main Exhibition Building, Memorial Hall, Machinery Hall, Agricultural Hall, and Horticultural Hall. Apart from these buildings, there were separate buildings for state, federal, foreign, corporate, and public comfort buildings. This strategy of numerous buildings in one exposition set it apart from the previous fairs around the world that had relied exclusively on having one or a few large buildings. The Centennial Commission sponsored a design competition for the principal buildings, conducted in two rounds; winners of the first round had to have details such as construction cost and time prepared for the runoff on September 20, 1873. After the ten design winners were chosen, it was determined that none of them allowed enough time for construction and limited finances. The architecture of the exposition mainly consisted of two types of building, traditional masonry monuments and buildings with a structural framework of iron and steel. Main Exhibition Building The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer Joseph M. Wilson for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing . It measured in width and in length. It was constructed using prefabricated parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers. Wrought iron roof trusses were supported by the columns of the superstructure. The building took eighteen months to complete and cost $1,580,000. The building was surrounded by portals on all four sides. The east entrance of the building was used as an access way for carriages, and the south entrance of the building served as a primary entrance to the building for streetcars. The north side related the building to the Art Gallery and the west side served as a passageway to the Machinery and Agricultural Halls. In the Main Exhibition Building, columns were placed at a uniform distance of . The entire structure consisted of 672 columns, the shortest column in length and the longest in length. The construction included red and black brick-laid design with stained glass or painted glass decorations. The Interior walls were whitewashed, and woodwork was decorated with shades of green, crimson, blue, and gold. The flooring of the building was made of wooden planks that rested directly on the ground without any air space underneath them. The orientation of the building was east-west in direction, making it well lit, and glass was used between the frames to let in light. Skylights were set over the central aisles of the structure. The corridors of the building were separated by fountains that were attractive and also provided cooling. The structure of the building featured a central avenue with a series of parallel sheds that were wide, long, and high. It was the longest nave ever introduced into an exhibition building up to that time. On both sides of the nave were avenues in width and in length. Aisles wide were located between the nave and the side avenues, and smaller aisles in width were on the outer sides of the building. The exterior of the building featured four towers, each high, at each of the building's corners. These towers had small balconies at different heights that served as observation galleries. Within the building, exhibits were arranged in a grid, in a dual arrangement of type and national origin. Exhibits from the United States were placed in the center of the building, and foreign exhibits were arranged around the center, based on the nation's distance from the United States. Exhibits inside the Main Exhibition Building dealt with mining, metallurgy, manufacturing, education, and science. Offices for foreign commissioners were placed in proximity to the products exhibited along in the aisles along the sides of the building. The walkways leading to the exit doors were ten feet wide. After the Exposition, the structure was turned into a permanent building for the International Exhibition. During the auction held on December 1, 1876, it was bought for $250,000. It quickly ran into financial difficulties but remained open through 1879 and was finally demolished in 1881. Agricultural Hall The third-largest structure at the exposition was Agricultural Hall. Designed by James Windrim, Agricultural Hall was long and wide. Made of wood and glass, the building was designed to look like various barn structures pieced together. The building's exhibits included products and machines used in agriculture and other related businesses. Horticultural Hall Situated high atop a hill presiding over Fountain Avenue, Horticultural Hall epitomized floral achievement, which attracted professional and amateur gardeners. Unlike the other main buildings, it was meant to be permanent. Horticultural Hall had an iron and glass frame on a brick and marble foundation and was long, wide, and tall. The building was designed in the Moorish style and intended as a tribute to the Crystal Palace of London's Great Exhibition of 1851. Inside, nurserymen, florists, and landscape architects exhibited a variety of tropical plants, garden equipment, and garden plans. In dramatic fashion, the exposition introduced the general public to the notion of landscape design, as exemplified the building itself and the grounds surrounding it. A long, sunken parterre leading to Horticultural Hall became the exposition's iconic floral feature, reproduced on countless postcards and other memorabilia. This sunken garden enabled visitors on the raised walkways to see the patterns and shapes of the flowerbeds. After the Exposition, the building continued to be used for horticultural exhibits until it was severely damaged by Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and was subsequently demolished. As a replacement, the Fairmount Park Horticulture Center was built on the site in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial exposition. Machinery Hall Designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Pettit, Machinery Hall was the second largest structure in the exposition and located west of the Main Exhibition Building. With a superstructure made of wood and glass resting on a foundation of massive masonry, it had a main hall painted light blue, 1,402 ft long and 360 ft wide, with a wing of 208 ft by 210 ft attached on the south side of the building. The length of the building was 18 times its height. With eight entrances, it occupied 558,440 square feet, had 1,900 exhibitors, and took six months to construct. The exhibits focused on machines and evolving industries. Machinery Hall was the show case for the state of the art industrial technology that was being produced at the time. The United States of America alone took up two-thirds of the exhibit space in the building. One of the major attractions on display in the building was the Corliss Centennial Steam Engine that ran power to all the machinery in the building as well as other parts of the world's fair. The 1,400 horsepower engine was 45 feet tall, weighed 650 tons, and had one mile of overhead line belts connecting to the machinery in the building. It symbolized the technology that was transforming the United States into an industrial powerhouse. Amenities available to the visitors within the hall were rolling chairs, telegraph offices, and dinner for fifty cents. Machinery Hall had 8,000 operating machines and was filled with a wide assortment of hand tools, machine tools, material handling equipment, and the latest fastener technology. Some of the sandstone that was used to build the hall was from Curwensville, PA. Memorial Hall The Art Gallery building (now known as Memorial Hall) is the only large exhibit building still standing on the exposition site. Constructed of brick, glass, iron, and granite in the beaux-arts style, it was the largest art hall in the country when it opened, with a massive 1.5-acre footprint and a 150-foot dome atop a 59-foot-high structure. The central domed area is surrounded by four pavilions on the corners, with open arcades to the east and west of the main entrance. It provided 75,000 square feet of wall surface for paintings and 20,000 square feet of floor space for sculptures. The exposition received so many art contributions that a separate annex was built to house them all. Another structure was built for the display of photography. Memorial Hall was designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, who basically adopted an art museum plan submitted by Nicholas Félix Escalier to the Prix de Rome competition in 1867–69. Memorial Hall became the prototype, both from a stylistic and organizational standpoint, for other museums such as the Art Institute of Chicago (1892–1893), the Milwaukee Public Museum (1893–1897), the Brooklyn Museum (1893–1924), and the Detroit Institute of Art (1920–1927). Libraries such as the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, and the Free Library of Philadelphia also emulated its form. Finally, Memorial Hall was the architectural inspiration for the German capitol, the Reichstag building in Berlin. After the exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958. The museum school is now the University of the Arts. Used for a time as a police station, the building now houses the Please Touch Museum, which includes a faithful 20x30-foot model of the exposition grounds and 200 buildings. Women's Pavilion The Women's Pavilion was the first structure at an international exposition to highlight the work of women, with exhibits created and operated by women. Female organizers drew upon deep-rooted traditions of separatism and sorority in planning, fundraising, and managing a pavilion devoted entirely to the artistic and industrial pursuits of their gender. They had to build their own structure because they lost their spot in one of the larger pavilions (the Main Building) due to an unexpected increase in the participation of foreign countries. Their aim was to employ only women in the construction of the pavilion and even to power it, and they succeeded with the exception of the design by Hermann J. Schwarzmann. Their overarching goal was to advance women's social, economic, and legal standing, abolish restrictions discriminating against their gender, encourage sexual harmony, and gain influence, leverage, and freedom for all women in and outside of the home by increasing women's confidence and ability to choose. A project of the Women's Centennial Executive Committee, the Women's Pavilion was commissioned in 1873 by the United States Centennial Board of Finance with the expectation that it would generate enthusiasm for the celebration of the fair and increase subscriptions to exposition stock. Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, president of the Women's Centennial Committee, led the effort to gather 82,000 signatures in two days to raise money for the pavilion. Gillespie also helped convince Congress to grant additional funding. It took only four months to raise the funds for the pavilion. Much of the pavilion was devoted to human ecology and home economics. On exhibit were over 80 patented inventions, including a reliance stove, a hand attachment for sewing machines, a dishwasher, a fountain griddle-greaser, a heating iron with removable handle, a frame for stretching and drying lace curtains, and a stocking and glove darner. The Centennial women not only showed domestic production but also employed a popular means for justifying female autonomy outside of the home by demonstrating to visitors the many ways women were making a profitable living. Exhibits demonstrated positive achievements and women's influence in domains such as industrial and fine arts (wood-carvings, furniture-making, and ceramics), fancy articles (clothing and woven goods), and philanthropy as well as philosophy, science, medicine, education, and literature. Mexico participated in the pavilion's exhibits, indicating the growth of a sector of elite women during the Porfirio Díaz regime of the late nineteenth century, with many individual women sending examples of woven textiles and embroidery. Other buildings Eleven nations had their own exhibition buildings, and others contributed small structures, including the Swedish School house referenced below, now in Central Park, New York City. The British buildings were extensive and exhibited the evolved bicycle, with tension spokes and a large front wheel. Two English manufacturers, Bayless Thomas and Rudge, displayed their high-wheel bikes (called "ordinary bikes" or "penny farthings") at the exposition. The bicycle displays inspired Albert Augustus Pope to begin making high-wheel bikes in the United States. He started the Columbia Bike Company and published a journal called "LAW Bulletin and Good Roads", which was the beginning of the Good Roads Movement.. The main British building, also known as St. George's Hall or the English Commission Building, survived at its original site as Fairmount Park offices until it was demolished in 1961. 26 of the 37 U.S. states constructed buildings along States Drive in the exhibition grounds. Only three such state houses are still extant: the Ohio House at its original location in Fairmount Park, the Maryland House, which was moved to Druid Hill Park in Baltimore, MD, where it is extant today, and the Missouri House, which was moved to Spring Lake, New Jersey, along with several other exhibition buildings, some of which are still extant in various Jersey Shore towns. The United States government had a cross-shaped building that held exhibits from various government departments. The remaining structures were corporate exhibitions, administration buildings, restaurants, and other buildings designed for public comfort. Exposition The formal name of the exposition was the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, but the official theme was the celebration of the United States centennial. This was reinforced by promotional tie-ins, such as the publication of Kate Harrington's Centennial, and Other Poems, which celebrated the exposition and the centennial. At the same time, the exposition was designed to show the world the United States' industrial and innovative prowess. The exposition was originally scheduled to open in April, marking the anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, but construction delays caused the date to be pushed back to May 10. Bells rang all over Philadelphia to signal the exposition's opening. The opening ceremony was attended by President Ulysses Grant and his wife as well as Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife. The opening ceremony concluded in Machinery Hall, with Grant and Pedro II turning on the Corliss Steam Engine which powered most of the other machines at the exposition. The official number of first day attendees was 186,272 people, with 110,000 entering with free passes. In the days following the opening ceremony, attendance dropped dramatically, with only 12,720 people visiting the exposition the next day. The average daily attendance for May was 36,000 and for June 39,000. A severe heat wave began in mid-June and continued into July, hurting attendance. The average temperature was , and on ten days during the heat wave the temperature reached . The average daily attendance for July was 35,000, but it rose in August to 42,000 despite the return of high temperatures at the end of the month. Cooling temperatures, news reports, and word of mouth began increasing attendance in the final three months of the exposition, with many of the visitors coming from farther distances. In September the average daily attendance rose to 94,000 and in October to 102,000. The highest attendance date of the entire exposition was September 28. The day, which saw about a quarter of a million people attend, was Pennsylvania Day. It celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, and exposition events included speeches, receptions, and fireworks. The final month of the exposition, November, had an average daily attendance of 115,000. By the time the exposition ended on November 10, a total of 10,164,489 had visited the fair. Among the attendees who were duly impressed by the exposition were Princeton University sophomore Woodrow Wilson and his minister father, Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson, visiting from North Carolina. Although not financially successful for investors, the Centennial Exposition impressed foreigners with the industrial and commercial growth of the country. The level of exports increased, the level of imports decreased, and the trade balance grew in favor of the United States. Inventions The Centennial Monorail featured a steam locomotive and passenger car that straddled a single elevated iron rail. Mass-produced products and new inventions were on display within Machinery Hall. Inventions included the typewriter and electric pen along with new types of mass-produced sewing machines, stoves, lanterns, guns, wagons, carriages, and agricultural equipment. The exposition also featured many well-known products including Alexander Graham Bell's first telephone, set up at opposite ends of Machinery Hall, Thomas Edison's automatic telegraph system, screw-cutting machines that dramatically improved the production of screws and bolts from 8,000 to 100,000 per day, and a universal grinding machine by the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company. Air-powered tools along with a mechanical calculator by George B. Grant were exhibited. John A. Roebling & Sons Company displayed a slice of their 5 ¾ inch diameter cable to be used for the Brooklyn Bridge. New food products such as popcorn and ketchup, along with root beer, were also exhibited. Consumer products first displayed to the public include: Alexander Graham Bell's telephone The Sholes and Glidden typewriter (also known as the Remington No. 1) Heinz Ketchup Wallace-Farmer Electric Dynamo, precursor to electric light Hires Root Beer Kudzu erosion control plant species Exhibits The right arm and torch of the Statue of Liberty were showcased at the exposition. For a fee of 50 cents, visitors could climb the ladder to the balcony, and the money raised this way was used to fund the pedestal for the statue. Technologies introduced at the fair include the Corliss Steam Engine. Pennsylvania Railroad displayed the John Bull steam locomotive that was originally built in 1831. The Waltham Watch Company displayed the first automatic screw-making machinery and won the Gold Medal in the first international watch precision competition. Until the start of 2004, many of the exposition's exhibits were displayed in the Smithsonian Institution's Arts and Industries Building in Washington, D.C., adjacent to the Castle building. Still basking in afterglow of its victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the newly founded German Empire foregrounded its arms industry, especially the powerful Krupp guns and heavy cannons that were sold and exported to numerous nations in the following years. By way of contrast, the craftsmanship of France, which had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, was represented by the Gothic Revival high altar that Edward Sorin, founder of University of Notre Dame, had commissioned from the workshop of Désiré Froc-Robert & Sons in Paris. After the exposition, the altar was installed at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart on Notre Dame's campus where it remains to this day. For Mexico, which was emerging from a long period of internal disorder and foreign invasions, the exposition was an opportunity for the Liberal regime of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada to garner international recognition of his regime and to counter anti-Mexican public opinion in the United States. Prominent Mexican painters including José María Velasco, José Obregón, and Santiago Rebull exhibited there. Velasco's work was greatly admired, gaining him international recognition and enhancing his standing in Mexico. The Swedish Cottage, representing a rural Swedish schoolhouse of traditional style, was re-erected in Central Park, New York, after the exposition closed. It is now the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre. The official State Pavilion of New Jersey was a reconstruction of the Ford Mansion in Morristown, New Jersey, which served as General George Washington's headquarters during the winter of 1779–80. Featuring costumed presenters and a "colonial kitchen" complete with a spinning wheel, the reconstructed mansion was accompanied by a polemical narrative about "old-fashioned domesticity". This quaint hearth-and-home interpretation of the colonial past was counterposed to the theme of progress, with the overarching theme of the exposition serving to reinforce a view of American progress as evolving from a small, hardy colonial stock rather than from a continual influx of multi-ethnic waves of immigration. It sparked an era of "Colonial Revival" in American architecture and house furnishings. Beaver Falls Cutlery Company exhibited the "largest knife and fork in the world" made by Chinese immigrant workers, among others. See also Arts and Industries Building, the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., built in 1879–1881 to house exhibits from the Centennial Exposition Centennial Arboretum Centennial comfort stations Sesquicentennial Exposition, the 150th anniversary of the United States (1926) United States Bicentennial, the 200th anniversary (1976) United States Semiquincentennial, the 250th anniversary (2026) List of world expositions List of world's fairs References Further reading Strahan, Edward, ed. A Century After, Picturesque Glimpses of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Allen, Lane & Scott and J. W. Lauderbach 1875. "Centennial Exhibition: Exhibition Facts." Centennial Exhibition: Exhibition Facts. N.p., 2001. Web. 06 Dec. 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151116042008/http://libwww.library.phila.gov/CenCol/exhibitionfax.htm Weber, Austin. "Then & Now: The 1876 Centennial Exposition." Assembly. Design, CMS, Hosting & Web Development, 1 Sept. 2001. http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/83790-then-now-the-1876-centennial-exposition "Machinery Hall, Centennial Exposition 1876, Philadelphia." 123HelpMe.com. 06 Dec 2015 http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=154804 "Centennial Exhibition: Tours." Centennial Exhibition: Tours. Free Library of Philadelphia, 2001. Web. 06 Dec. 2015. https://libwww.freelibrary.org/CenCol/tours.htm Calney, Mark. "The Centennial Exhibition—The State Buildings." Sci Am Scientific American 34.21 (1876): 322-24. The International Centennial Exhibition of 1876; or Why the British Started a World War. Mark Calney 2010, 7 May 2006. Web. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064854/http://larouchejapan.com/japanese/drupal-6.14/sites/default/files/text/1876-Centennial-Exhibition.pdf Hunt, John Dixon A World of Gardens. London: Reaktion Books, 2012. Bruno Giberti, Designing the Centennial: A History of the 1876 International Exhibition in Philadelphia, University Press of Kentucky, 2002. International Exhibition. 1876, Official Catalogue, John R Nagle and company. Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio, Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Nation. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1996 (Frank Geyer was hired to work as a centennial guard for the Centennial Exposition. He later became famous for his investigation of H. H. Holmes, one of America's first serial killers). External links Expo 1876 Philadelphia at the Bureau International des Expositions United States Centennial Exhibition at the Free Library of Philadelphia Centennial Exposition Described and Illustrated by J. S. Ingram; published by Hubbard Bros., Philadelphia, 1876 (Internet Archive) Centennial International Exhibition – collection at Winterthur Library Centennial Exhibition Collection at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Exhibition 1876 Report to the Federal High Council – horological report by Ed. Favre-Perret at Richard Watkins Horological Books American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876 by Jacques David at Richard Watkins Horological Books Fairmount Park, Along Schuylkill River, Philadelphia – description of Schuylkill River villas and site plans at the Library of Congress Centennial Exhibition Photograph and Ephemera Collection at the Hagley Museum and Library Historical Society of Pennsylvania's collection of paintings (Internet Archive) by David J. Kennedy A collection of stereoviews (Internet Archive) 1876 Philadelphia - approximately 160 links General LeRoy Stone's Centennial Monorail at The Self Site United States historical anniversaries 1876 festivals 1876 in Pennsylvania 1876 in the United States Fairmount Park Regional centennial anniversaries United States Declaration of Independence

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Anti-corruption (or anticorruption) comprise activities that oppose or inhibit corruption. Just as corruption takes many forms, anti-corruption efforts vary in scope and in strategy. A general distinction between preventive and reactive measures is sometimes drawn. In such framework, investigative authorities and their attempts to unveil corrupt practices would be considered reactive, while education on the negative impact of corruption, or firm-internal compliance programs are classified as the former. History Early history The code of Hammurabi (), the Great Edict of Horemheb (), and the Arthasastra (2nd century BC) are among the earliest written proofs of anti-corruption efforts. All of those early texts are condemning bribes in order to influence the decision by civil servants, especially in the judicial sector. During the time of the Roman empire corruption was also inhibited, e.g. by a decree issued by emperor Constantine in 331. In ancient times, moral principles based on religious beliefs were common, as several major religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, and Taoism condemn corrupt conduct in their respective religious texts. The described legal and moral stances were exclusively addressing bribery but were not concerned with other aspects that are considered corruption in the 21st century. Embezzlement, cronyism, nepotism, and other strategies of gaining public assets by office holders were not yet constructed as unlawfully or immoral, as positions of power were regarded a personal possession rather than an entrusted function. With the popularization of the concept of public interest and the development of a professional bureaucracy in the 19th century offices became perceived as trusteeships instead of property of the office holder, leading to legislation against and a negative perception of those additional forms of corruption. Especially in diplomacy and for international trade purposes, corruption remained a generally accepted phenomenon of the political and economic life throughout the 19th and big parts of the 20th century. In contemporary society In the 1990s corruption was increasingly perceived to have a negative impact on economy, democracy, and the rule of law, as was pointed out by Kofi Annan. Those effects claimed by Annan could be proven by a variety of empirical studies, as reported by Juli Bacio Terracino. The increased awareness of corruption was widespread and shared across professional, political, and geographical borders. While an international effort against corruption seemed to be unrealistic during the Cold War, a new discussion on the global impact of corruption became possible, leading to an official condemnation of corruption by governments, companies, and various other stakeholders. The 1990s additionally saw an increase in press freedom, the activism of civil societies, and global communication through an improved communication infrastructure, which paved the way to a more thorough understanding of the global prevalence and negative impact of corruption. In consequence to those developments, international non-governmental organizations (e.g. Transparency International) and inter-governmental organizations and initiatives (e.g. the OECD Working group on bribery) were founded to overcome corruption. Since the 2000s, the discourse became broader in scope. It became more common to refer to corruption as a violation of human rights, which was also discussed by the responsible international bodies. Besides attempting to find a fitting description for corruption, the integration of corruption into a human rights-framework was also motivated by underlining the importance of corruption and educating people on its costs. Legal framework In national and in international legislation, there are laws interpreted as directed against corruption. The laws can stem from resolutions of international organizations, which are implemented by the national governments, who are ratifying those resolutions or be directly issued by the respective national legislative. Laws against corruption are motivated by similar reasons that are generally motivating the existence of criminal law, as those laws are thought to, on the one hand, bring justice by holding individuals accountable for their wrongdoing, justice can be achieved by sanctioning those corrupted individuals, and potential criminals are deterred by having the consequences of their potential actions demonstrated to them. International law Approaching the fight against corruption in an international setting is often seen as preferential over addressing it exclusively in the context of the nation state. The reasons for such preference are multidimensional, ranging from the necessary international cooperation for tracing international corruption scandals, to the binding nature of international treaties, and the loss in relative competitiveness by outlawing an activity that remains legal in other countries. OECD The OECD Anti-Bribery Convention was the first large scale convention targeting an aspect of corruption, when it came in 1999 into force. Ratifying the convention obliges governments to implement it, which is monitored by the OECD Working Group on Bribery. The convention states that it shall be illegal bribing foreign public officials. The convention is currently signed by 43 countries. The scope of the convention is very limited, as it is only concerned with active bribing. It is hence more reduced than other treaties on restricting corruption, to increase – as the working group's chairman Mark Pieth explained – the influence on its specific target. Empirical research by Nathan Jensen and Edmund Malesky suggests that companies based in countries that ratified the convention, are less likely to pay bribes abroad. The results are not exclusively explainable by the regulatory mechanisms and potential sanctions triggered through this process but are equally influenced by less formal mechanisms, e.g. the peer reviews by officials from other signatories and the potentially resulting influences on the respective country's image. Groups like TI, however, also questioned whether the results of the process are sufficient, especially as a significant number of countries is not actively prosecuting cases of bribery. United Nations 20 years before the OECD convention was ratified, the United Nations discussed a draft for a convention on corruption. The draft on an international agreement on illicit payments proposed in 1979 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council did not gain traction in the General Assembly, and was not pursued further. When the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) presented its draft of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) in 2003, it proved more successful. UNCAC was ratified in 2003 and became effective in 2005. It constitutes an international treaty, currently signed by 186 partners, including 182 member states of the United Nations and four non-state signatories. UNCAC has a broader scope than the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, as it does not exclusively focus on public officials but includes inter alia corruption in the private sector and non-bribery corruption, like e.g. money laundering and abuse of power. UNCAC also specifies a variety of mechanisms to combat corruption, e.g. international cooperation in detecting and prosecuting corruption, the cancellation of permits, when connected to corrupt behavior, and the protection of whistleblowers. The implementation of UNCAC is monitored by the International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities (IAACA) International organizations International Anti-Corruption Court Mark Lawrence Wolf floated in 2012 the idea to launch an International Anti-Corruption Court, as either a part of the already existing International Criminal Court, or as an equivalent to it. The suggestion was widely discussed and endorsed by a variety of NGOs including Global Organization of Parliamentarians Against Corruption (GOPAC), Global Witness, Human Rights Watch, the Integrity Initiatives International (III), and TI. An implementation of the concept is currently not scheduled by any organizations with the authority of conducting such step. Existing international organizations In 2011, the International Anti-Corruption Academy was created as an intergovernmental organization by treaty to teach on anti-corruption topics. Many other intergovernmental organizations are working on the reduction of corruption without issuing conventions binding for its members after ratification. Organizations that are active in this field include, but are not limited to, the World Bank (such as through its Independent Evaluation Group), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and regional organizations like the Andean Community (within the framework of the ). Regulations by continental organizations Americas The first convention adopted against corruption by a regional organization was the Organization of American States' (OAS) Inter-American Convention Against Corruption (IACAC). The convention, which targeted both active and passive bribing, came into force in 1997. It is currently ratified by all 34 active OAS-Member States. Europe In 1997 the European Union (EU) adopted the EU Convention against corruption involving officials, which makes it illegal to engage in corrupt activities with officials from the European Union's administrative staff, or with officials from any member state of the EU. It forces the signatories to outlaw both active and passive bribing which involves any aforementioned official. Liability for unlawful actions is extend to the heads of those entities, whose agents were bribing officials. European states also ratified the Council of Europe's Criminal and Civil Law Convention on Corruption, which were adopted in 1999. The former was an addition extended by passing the Additional Protocol to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption. The two conventions on criminal law were signed by Belarus and all Council of Europe members, with the exception of Estonia, which abstains from the Additional Protocol. The Criminal Law Convention is currently by 48 States, while the Additional Protocol is signed by 44 countries. Both conventions are aiming at the protection of judicial authorities against the negative impact of corruption. The convention on Civil Law is currently ratified by 35 countries, all of which are, with the exception of Belarus, members of the Council of Europe. As the name implies, it requires the States Parties to provide remedies for individuals materially harmed by corruption. The individual who was negatively impacted by an act of corruption is entitled to rely on laws to receive compensation from the culprit or the entity represented by the culprit, explicitly including the possibility of compensation from the state, if the corrupt deed was perpetrated by an official. The anti-corruption efforts by the Council of Europe are supervised and supported by the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO) as its main monitoring organization. Membership to GRECO is open to all countries worldwide and is not conditional on membership at CoE. Africa Since its launch in 2003, the African Union's Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption was ratified by 38 States Parties. It represents the consensus of the signatories on minimal standards for combating corruption. The resolution was criticized in the Journal of African Law for disregarding other aspects of the rule of law, like e.g. data protection and the presumption of innocence. National law While bribing domestic officials was criminalized in most countries even before the ratification of international conventions and treaties, many national law systems did not recognize bribing foreign officials, or more sophisticated methods of corruption, as illegal. Only after ratifying and implementing above mentioned conventions the illegal character of those offenses was fully recognized. Where legislation existed prior to the ratification of the OECD convention, the implementation resulted in an increased compliance with the legal framework. Corruption is often addressed by specialized investigative or prosecution authorities, often labelled as anti-corruption agencies (ACA), that are tasked with varying duties and subject to varying degrees of independence from the respective government, regulations, and powers, depending on their role in the architecture of the respective national law enforcement system. One of the earliest precursors of such agencies is the anti-corruption commission of New York City, which was established in 1873. A surge in the numbers of national ACAs can be noted in the last decade of the 20th and the first decade of the 21st century. Armenia In 2019 Armenian Government approved Anti-Corruption Strategy and its implementation plan between 2019 and 2022. Under this strategy the three main directions will be the prevention of corruption, the corruption crimes investigation, anticorruption education and awareness of the corruption and anticorruption strategy. Even before adoption of Anti-Corruption Strategy and implementation plan, after 2018 Velvet Revolution, number of criminal investigation cases of corruption almost doubled in Armenia. As Prosecutor General's Office issued report says, the number of corruption investigations started by law enforcement agencies in the country during the first half of 2018 is more than double compared with the number of the criminal cases against corruption cases started during the first half of 2017. Out of the 786 cases initiated in the beginning of 2018 - 579 resulted in criminal cases. Starting from the first months of the anticorruption plan implementation, Armenia carried out actions in the fight against corruption - which was mainly directed to improve the investment environment of Armenia, and as a result economic indexes were improved. Brazil Brazil's Anti-Corruption Act (officially "Law No. 12,846" and commonly known as the Clean Company Act") was enacted in 2014 to target corrupt practices among business entities doing business in Brazil. It defines civil and administrative penalties, and provides the possibility of reductions in penalties for cooperation with law enforcement under a written leniency agreement signed and agreed to between the business and the government. This had major implications in Operation Car Wash, and resulted in major agreements such as the Odebrecht–Car Wash plea bargain agreements and the recovery of billions of dollars in fines. Canada Canada remained one of the last signatories of the OECD-convention on bribery that did not implement its national laws against bribes for foreign officials. While the Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act (CFPOA) was passed in 1999, it was often not used to prosecute foreign bribery by Canadian companies, as the bill had a provision that the act of bribery had to have a "real and substantial link" with Canada. Such provision was canceled in 2013 by the Bill S-14 (also called Fighting Foreign Corruption Act). Additionally, Bill S-14 banned facilitation payments and increased the possible punishment for violating the CFPOA. An increase in the maximum prison sentence for bribery to 14 years was one of the increases in sanctioning. According to TI's report from 2014, Canada is moderately enforcing the OECD Convention against bribery. China In the wake of economic liberalization, corruption increased in China because anti-corruption laws were insufficiently applied. The anti-corruption campaign that started in 2012, however, changed the relation towards corruption. This campaign led to increased press coverage of the topic and a sharp increase in court cases dedicated to the offense. The campaign was primarily led by the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI), an internal body of the Communist Party and secondarily by the People's Procuratorate. CCDI cooperated with investigative authorities in several ways, such as passing incriminating material detected by its internal investigation, to prosecutors. The underlying legal regulations for the campaign is rooted in provisions of the Anti-Unfair Competition Law and the criminal law. Georgia From 2003 to 2012, Georgia moved from one of the ten most-corrupt countries based on Corruption Perceptions Index rankings to among the top third for clean government. Anti-corruption reforms implemented by president Mikheil Saakashvili resulted in the firing of all 16,000 traffic police officers in a single day, simplification of government bureaucracy, and university entrance based on standardized exams rather than interviews. Laws in Georgia that deal with corruption include Articles 332–342 of its Criminal Code, the Law of Georgia on the Conflict of Interests and Corruption in Public Service, Money Laundering Law, and Law of Georgia on the Conflict of Interests and Corruption in Public Service (Art. 20). The trajectory of Georgia from highly corrupt to much cleaner governance supports the notion that piecemeal anti-corruption reforms are less effective than anti-corruption initiatives with broad scope. Japan After signing the OECD-Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials, Japan implemented the Unfair Competition Prevention Act (UCPA) to comply with the convention. The law states that it is illegal to bribe foreign public officials. The individual who was offering the bribes and the company on whose behalf the bribes were offered may face negative consequences. The Company Act also enables the punishment of senior management if the payment was made possible by their negligence. Transparency International criticized Japan in 2014 for not enforcing the law, hence only complying to the convention on paper and providing no consequences to offenders. Nevertheless, a study conducted by Jensen and Malesky in 2017 provides empirical evidence that Japanese companies are less involved in bribery than companies based in other Asian countries that did not sign the convention. United Kingdom The United Kingdom was a founding member of the OECD working group on bribery and ratified the Anti-Bribery Convention, but faced significant problems in complying to its findings and the convention. It was severely affected by the Al-Yamamah arms deal, in which the British company BAE Systems faced allegations of having bribed members of the Saudi royal family to facilitate an arms deal. British prosecution of BAE Systems was stopped after an intervention by then Prime Minister Tony Blair, which caused the OECD working group to criticize the British anti-corruption laws and investigations. The UK Bribery Act of 2010 came into force on July 1, 2011, and replaced all former bribery-related laws in the United Kingdom. It is targeting bribery and receiving bribes, both towards national and foreign public officials. Furthermore, it is assigning responsibility to organizations whose employees are engaging in bribing and hence obliges companies to enforce compliance-mechanisms to avoid bribing on their behalf. The Bribery Act goes in many points beyond the US-American FCPA, as it also criminalizes facilitation payments and private sector corruption inter alia. Heimann and Pieth are arguing that British policy makers supported the Bribery Act to overcome the damage in reputation caused by the Al-Yamamah deal. Sappho Xenakis and Kalin Ivanov on the other hand claim that the negative impact on the UK's reputation was very limited. Transparency International stated in 2014 that the United Kingdom fully complied to the OECD Convention against Bribery. United States Already at the foundation of the United States discussions on the possibility of preventing corruption were held, leading to increased awareness for corruption's threads. Article 1, Section 9 of the Constitution can be seen as an early anti-corruption law, as it outlawed the acceptance of gifts and other favors from foreign governments and their representatives. Zephyr Teachout argued that giving and receiving presents held an important role in diplomacy but were often seen as potentially dangerous to a politician's integrity. Other early attempts to oppose corruption by law were enacted after the end of World War II. The Bribery and Conflict of Interest Act of 1962 for example regulates the sanctions for bribing national officials, respectively the acceptance of bribes by national officials, and the abuse of power for their personal interest. The Hobbs Act of 1946 is another law frequently applied by US-American prosecutors in anti-corruption cases. Prosecutors are using the act by arguing that the acceptance of benefits for official acts qualifies as an offence against the act. Less frequently laws to prosecute corruption through auxiliary criminal activities include the Mail Fraud Statute and the False Statements Accountability Act. In 1977, the United States of America adopted the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), which criminalized corrupt interactions with foreign officials. Since its implementation, the law served to prosecute domestic and foreign companies, who bribed officials outside of the United States. As no other country implemented a similar law up to the 1990s, US-American companies faced disadvantages for their global operations. In addition to the legal status of corruption abroad, many countries also treated bribes as tax-deductible. Through applying the law to companies with ties to the United States and by working on global conventions against foreign bribery, the government of the US tried to reduce the negative impact of FCPA on US-American companies. Alongside the FCPA, additional laws were implement that are directly influencing anti-corruption activities. Section 922 of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act for instance extents the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 by a new Section 21F that protects whistleblowers from retaliation and grants them financial awards them when collaborating with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Conway-Hatcher et al. (2013) attributed an increase the number of whistleblowers, who are reporting to SEC, inter alia on corruption incidents to the provision. The TI's last report on enforcement of the OECD Convention against bribery published in 2014 concluded that the United States are complying with the convention. In 2011 the American Anti-Corruption Act was drafted, written in part by former Federal Election Commission chairman Trevor Potter, with input from dozens of strategists, reformers and constitutional attorneys from across the ideological divide, as a type of model legislation to limit or outlaw practices which contribute to political corruption. The idea was to craft a blueprint law that could be adapted by numerous jurisdictions at the state and local levels that was consistent with the current constitutional structure and that would make it easier to identify and limit political corruption. It is supported by nonprofit nonpartisan reform organizations such as RepresentUs. Governmental anti-corruption beyond the law Prevention of corruption/anti-corruption Values education is believed to be a possible tool to teach about the negative effects of corruption and to create resilience against acting in a corrupt manner, when the possibility of doing so arises. Another stream of thought on corruption prevention is connected to the economist Robert Klitgaard, who developed an economic theory of corruption that explains the occurrence of corrupt behavior by producing higher gains than the assumed punishment it might provoke. Klitgaard accordingly argues for approaching this rational by increasing the costs of corruption for those involved by making fines more likely and more severe. Good governance As corruption incidences often happen in the interaction between representatives of private sector companies and public officials, a meaningful step against corruption can be taken inside of public administrations. The concept of good governance can accordingly be applied to increase the integrity of administrations, decreasing hence the likelihood that officials will agree on engaging in corrupt behavior. Transparency is one aspect of good governance. Transparency initiatives can help to detect corruption and hold corrupt officials and politicians accountable. Another aspect of good governance as a tool to combat corruption lies in the creation of trust towards state institutions. Gong Ting and Xiao Hanyu for instance argue that citizens, who have a positive perception of state institutions are more likely to report corruption related incidents than those, who espress lower levels of trust. Sanctions Even though sanctions seem to be underwritten by a legal framework, their application often lies outside of a state-sponsored legal system since they are frequently applied by multilateral development banks (MDBs), state agencies, and other organizations, which implement those sanctions not through applying laws, but by relying on their internal bylaws. World Bank, even though reluctant in the 20th century to use sanctions, turned into a major source of this specific kind of applying anti-corruption measures. the involved MDBs are typically applying an administrative process that includes judicial elements, when a suspicion about corruption in regard to the granted projects surfaces. In case of identifying a sanctionable behavior, the respective authority can issue a debarment or milder forms, e.g. mandatory monitoring of the business conduct or the payment of fines. Public sector procurement Excluding companies with a track record of corruption from bidding for contracts, is another form of sanctioning that can be applied by procurement agencies to ensure compliance to external and internal anti-corruption rules. This aspect is of specific importance, as public procurement is both in volume and frequency especially vulnerable for corruption. In addition to setting incentives for companies to comply with anti-corruption standards by threatening their exclusion from future contracts, the internal compliance to anti-corruption rules by the procurement agency has central importance. Such step should according to anti-corruption scholars Adam Graycar and Tim Prenzler include precisely and unambiguously worded rules, a functional protection and support of whistleblowers, and a system that notifies supervisors early about the potential dangers of conflicts of interest or corruption-related incidents. Civil society Michael Johnston, among others, argued that non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), and the media can have an efficient influence on the level of corruption. More over, Bertot et al. (2010) extended the list of potentially involved agents of civil society by introducing the notion of decentralized, non-formally organized anti-corruption activism through social media channels. Taking into consideration that precise and comprehensive definitions of corrupt actions are lacking, the legal perspective is structurally incapable of efficiently ruling out corruption. Combined with a significant variety in national laws, frequently changing regulations, and ambiguously worded laws, it is argued that non-state actors are needed to complement the fight against corruption and structure it in a more holistic way. Ensuring transparency An example for a more inclusive approach to combating corruption that goes beyond the framework set by lawmakers and the foremost role taken by representatives of the civil society is the monitoring of governments, politicians, public officials, and others to increase transparency. Other means to this end might include pressure campaigns against certain organizations, institutions, or companies. Investigative journalism is another way of identifying potentially corrupt dealings by officials. Such monitoring is often combined with reporting about it, in order to create publicity for the observed misbehavior. Those mechanisms are hence increasing the price of corrupt acts, by making them public and negatively impacting the image of the involved official. One example for such strategy of combating corruption by exposing corrupt individuals is the Albanian television show Fiks Fare that repeatedly reported on corruption by airing segments filmed with hidden cameras, in which officials are accepting bribes. Education on corruption Another sphere for engagement of civil society is the prevention by educating about the negative consequences of corruption and a strengthening of ethical values opposing corruption. Framing corruption as a moral issue used to be the predominant way of fighting it but lost importance in the 20th century as other approaches became more influential. The biggest organization in the field of civil societal opposition towards corruption is the globally active NGO Transparency International (TI). NGOs are also providing material to educate practitioners on anti-corruption. Examples for such publications are the rules and suggestions provided by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the World Economic Forum (WEF), and TI. Persistent work by civil societal organizations can also go beyond establishing a knowledge about the negative impact of corruption and serve as way to build up political will to prosecute corruption and engage in counter-corruption measures. Non-state actors in the field of asset recovery One prominent field of activism for non-state actors (NSAs) is the area of international asset recovery, which describes the activity of returning property to its legitimate owners after it was illegally acquired through corrupt actions. The process describes the whole procedure from gathering information on the criminal offence that initiated the transfer of assets, over their confiscation to their return. While recovery is mandated by UNCAC, it is not an activity singularity conducted by governments but attracts actors with different backgrounds, including academia, the media, CSOs, and other non state actors. In this field of anti-corruption activism, representatives of the civil society are often taking a different stance than in other areas, as they are regularly consulted for assisting administrations with their respective expertise and are hence enabling state actions. Such strong role of NSAs was also recognized by UNCAC's States Parties. Corporate anti-corruption approaches Compliance Instead of relying purely on deterrence, as suggested by Robert Klitgaard (see section on prevention), economists are pursuing the implementation of incentive structures that reward compliance and punish the non-fulfillment of compliance rules. By aligning the self-interest of the agent with the societal interest of avoiding corruption, a reduction in corruption can thus be achieved. The field of compliance can generally be perceived as an internalization of external laws in order to avoid their fines. The adoption of laws like the FCPA and the UK Bribery Act of 2010 strengthened the importance of concepts like compliance, as fines for corrupt behavior became more likely and there was a financial increase on these fines. When a company is sued because its employers engaged in corruption, a well-established compliance system can serve as proof that the organization attempted to avoid those acts of corruption. Accordingly, fines can be reduced, which incentivizes the implementation of an efficient compliance system. In 2012, the US-authorities decided not to prosecute Morgan Stanley in a case of bribery in China under FCPA-provisions due to its compliance program. This case demonstrates the relevance of the compliance approach. Collective action Anti-corruption collective action is a form of collective action with the aim of combatting corruption and bribery risks in public procurement. It is a collaborative anti-corruption activity that brings together representatives of the private sector, public sector and civil society. The idea stems from the academic analysis of the prisoner's dilemma in game theory and focuses on establishing rule-abiding practices that benefit every stakeholder, even if unilaterally each stakeholder might have an incentive to circumvent the specific anti-corruption rules. Transparency International first floated a predecessor to modern collective action initiatives in the 1990s with its concept of the Island of Integrity, now known as an integrity pact. According to Transparency International, "collective action is necessary where a problem cannot be solved by individual actors" and therefore requires stakeholders to build trust and share information and resources. The World Bank Institute states that collective action "increases the impact and credibility of individual action, brings vulnerable individual players into an alliance of like-minded organizations and levels the playing field between competitors. Anti-corruption collective action initiatives are varied in type, purpose and stakeholders but are usually targeted at the supply side of bribery. They often take the form of collectively agreed anti-corruption declarations or standard-setting initiatives such as an industry code of conduct. A prominent example is the Wolfsberg Group and in particular its Anti-Money Laundering Principles for Private Banking and Anti-Corruption Guidance, requiring the member banks to adhere to several principles directed against money laundering and corruption. The mechanism is designed to protect individual banks from any negative consequences of complying with the strict rules by collectively enforcing those regulations. The Wolfsberg Group in addition serves as a back-channel for communication between the compliance officers of the participating banks. The World Economic Forum's initiatives against corruption can also be seen in this framework. Other initiatives in the field of collective action include the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), Construction Sector Transparency Initiative/Infrastructure Transparency Initiative (CoST) and International Forum on Business Ethical Conduct (IFBEC). Collective action is included in the national anti-corruption statements of the UK, France and Ghana, delivered at the International Anti-Corruption Conference 2018. The B20 policy interventions are another form of engaging in the anti-corruption discourse, as B20 members are attempting to support the G20 by offering their insights as business leaders, including in regard to strengthening anti-corruption policies, e.g. transparency in government procurement or more comprehensive anti-corruption laws. In 2013, the B20 mandated the Basel Institute on Governance to develop and maintain the B20 Collective Action Hub, an online platform for anti-corruption collective action tools and resources including a database of collective action initiatives around the world. The B20 Collective Action Hub is managed by the Basel Institute's International Centre for Collective Action (ICCA) in partnership with the UN Global Compact. Another tangible outcome of the B20 meetings was the discussion (and implementation as a test case in Colombia) of the High Level Reporting Mechanism (HLRM), which aims to implement a form of ombudsman office in a high-level government position for companies to report possible bribery or corruption issues in public procurement tenders. As well as Colombia, the HLRM concept has been implemented in different ways in Argentina, Ukraine and Panama. Implementation Sylvie Bleker-van Eyk from VU University Amsterdam sees value in the implementation of strong compliance departments in the respective company. Fritz Heimann and Mark Pieth are described the environment where those departments are working, as being in a best cased monitored from outside experts. Another measure that – according to Heimann and Pieth – supports the work of compliance officers is when the company is joining collective action initiatives. Instruments like ethical codes can serve as underlying documents to promote support for anti-corrupt corporate policies. Seumas Miller et al. (2005) also stress the process of reaching the aspired result, which should include an open discussion among the employees of a company, in order to implement steps that are approved by consent inside of the company. Such shift in culture can be implemented through and accompanied by exemplary behavior by top management, regularly conducted training programs on anti-corruption and a constant monitoring of the development in those sections. In culture International Anti-Corruption Day has been annually observed on December 9 since the United Nations established it in 2003 to underline the importance of anti-corruption and provide visible sign for anti-corruption campaigns. See also ISO 37001 Anti-bribery management systems Group of States Against Corruption International Anti-Corruption Academy International Anti-Corruption Day United Nations Convention against Corruption OECD Anti-Bribery Convention Preventing fraud in subsidies RepresentUs Notes References Sources

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Venturing into the environment of space can have negative effects on the human body. Significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton (spaceflight osteopenia). Other significant effects include a slowing of cardiovascular system functions, decreased production of red blood cells (space anemia), balance disorders, eyesight disorders and changes in the immune system. Additional symptoms include fluid redistribution (causing the "moon-face" appearance typical in pictures of astronauts experiencing weightlessness), loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and excess flatulence. Overall, NASA refers to the various deleterious effects of spaceflight on the human body by the acronym RIDGE (i.e., "space radiation, isolation and confinement, distance from Earth, gravity fields, and hostile and closed environments"). The engineering problems associated with leaving Earth and developing space propulsion systems have been examined for over a century, and millions of hours of research have been spent on them. In recent years there has been an increase in research on the issue of how humans can survive and work in space for extended and possibly indefinite periods of time. This question requires input from the physical and biological sciences and has now become the greatest challenge (other than funding) facing human space exploration. A fundamental step in overcoming this challenge is trying to understand the effects and impact of long-term space travel on the human body. In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars. On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results, from the Astronaut Twin Study, where one astronaut twin spent a year in space on the International Space Station, while the other twin spent the year on Earth, which demonstrated several long-lasting changes, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other. In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the International Space Station, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers. Physiological effects Many of the environmental conditions experienced by humans during spaceflight are very different from those in which humans evolved; however, technology such as that offered by a spaceship or spacesuit is able to shield people from the harshest conditions. The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by a life support system, a group of devices that allow human beings to survive in outer space. The life support system supplies air, water and food. It must also maintain temperature and pressure within acceptable limits and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites is also necessary. Some hazards are difficult to mitigate, such as weightlessness, also defined as a microgravity environment. Living in this type of environment impacts the body in three important ways: loss of proprioception, changes in fluid distribution, and deterioration of the musculoskeletal system. On November 2, 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes. In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely. In March 2019, NASA reported that latent viruses in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions. Research Space medicine is a developing medical practice that studies the health of astronauts living in outer space. The main purpose of this academic pursuit is to discover how well and for how long people can survive the extreme conditions in space, and how fast they can re-adapt to the Earth's environment after returning from space. Space medicine also seeks to develop preventive and palliative measures to ease the suffering caused by living in an environment to which humans are not well adapted. Ascent and re-entry During takeoff and re-entry space travelers can experience several times normal gravity. An untrained person can usually withstand about 3g, but can black out at 4 to 6g. G-force in the vertical direction is more difficult to tolerate than a force perpendicular to the spine because blood flows away from the brain and eyes. First the person experiences a temporary loss of vision and then at higher g-forces loses consciousness. G-force training and a G-suit which constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits. Space environments The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of space exposure can result in ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia, and decompression sickness. In addition to these, there is also cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and sub-atomic particles that are present in the surroundings. Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) of astronauts. Current Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMUs, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of . In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization. Vacuum Human physiology is adapted to living within the atmosphere of Earth, and a certain amount of oxygen is required in the air we breathe. If the body does not get enough oxygen, then the astronaut is at risk of becoming unconscious and dying from hypoxia. In the vacuum of space, gas exchange in the lungs continues as normal but results in the removal of all gases, including oxygen, from the bloodstream. After 9 to 12 seconds, the deoxygenated blood reaches the brain, and it results in the loss of consciousness. Exposure to vacuum for up to 30 seconds is unlikely to cause permanent physical damage. Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is normal for exposures shorter than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful. There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired. In December 1966, aerospace engineer and test subject Jim LeBlanc of NASA was participating in a test to see how well a pressurized space suit prototype would perform in vacuum conditions. To simulate the effects of space, NASA constructed a massive vacuum chamber from which all air could be pumped. At some point during the test, LeBlanc's pressurization hose became detached from the space suit. Even though this caused his suit pressure to drop from to in less than 10 seconds, LeBlanc remained conscious for about 14 seconds before losing consciousness due to hypoxia; the much lower pressure outside the body causes rapid de-oxygenation of the blood. "As I stumbled backwards, I could feel the saliva on my tongue starting to bubble just before I went unconscious and that's the last thing I remember", recalls LeBlanc. A colleague entered the chamber within 25 seconds and gave LeBlanc oxygen. The chamber was repressurized in 1 minute instead of the normal 30 minutes. LeBlanc recovered almost immediately with just an earache and no permanent damage. Another effect from a vacuum is a condition called ebullism which results from the formation of bubbles in body fluids due to reduced ambient pressure, the steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Technically, ebullism is considered to begin at an elevation of around or pressures less than 6.3 kPa (47 mm Hg), known as the Armstrong limit. Experiments with other animals have revealed an array of symptoms that could also apply to humans. The least severe of these is the freezing of bodily secretions due to evaporative cooling. Severe symptoms, such as loss of oxygen in tissue, followed by circulatory failure and flaccid paralysis would occur in about 30 seconds. The lungs also collapse in this process, but will continue to release water vapour leading to cooling and ice formation in the respiratory tract. A rough estimate is that a human will have about 90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may be unavoidable. Swelling from ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit which are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. During the Space Shuttle program astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called a Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevented ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 mm Hg). The only humans known to have died of exposure to vacuum in space are the three crew-members of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft; Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski, and Viktor Patsayev. During preparations for re-entry from orbit on June 30, 1971, a pressure-equalisation valve in the spacecraft's descent module unexpectedly opened at an altitude of , causing rapid depressurisation and the subsequent death of the entire crew. Temperature In a vacuum, there is no medium for removing heat from the body by conduction or convection. Loss of heat is by radiation from the 310 K temperature of a person to the 3 K of outer space. This is a slow process, especially in a clothed person, so there is no danger of immediately freezing. Rapid evaporative cooling of skin moisture in a vacuum may create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard. Exposure to the intense radiation of direct, unfiltered sunlight would lead to local heating, though that would likely be well distributed by the body's conductivity and blood circulation. Other solar radiation, particularly ultraviolet rays, however, may cause severe sunburn. Radiation Without the protection of Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere astronauts are exposed to high levels of radiation. High levels of radiation damage lymphocytes, cells heavily involved in maintaining the immune system; this damage contributes to the lowered immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also recently been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Outside the protection of low Earth orbit, galactic cosmic rays present further challenges to human spaceflight, as the health threat from cosmic rays significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade or more of exposure. A NASA-supported study reported that radiation may harm the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Solar flare events (though rare) can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes. It is thought that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower the risks to an acceptable level. Crew living on the International Space Station (ISS) are partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field, as the magnetosphere deflects solar wind around the earth and the ISS. Nevertheless, solar flares are powerful enough to warp and penetrate the magnetic defences, and so are still a hazard to the crew. The crew of Expedition 10 took shelter as a precaution in 2005 in a more heavily shielded part of the station designed for this purpose. However, beyond the limited protection of Earth's magnetosphere, interplanetary human missions are much more vulnerable. Lawrence Townsend of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the most powerful solar flare ever recorded. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a flare of this magnitude could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death. There is scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and cause both short and long-term damage to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. In particular, it causes 'chromosomal aberrations' in lymphocytes. As these cells are central to the immune system, any damage weakens the immune system, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, viruses already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active. In space, T-cells (a form of lymphocyte) are less able to reproduce properly, and the T-cells that do reproduce are less able to fight off infection. Over time immunodeficiency results in the rapid spread of infection among crew members, especially in the confined areas of space flight systems. On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible human mission to Mars may involve a great radiation risk based on the amount of energetic particle radiation detected by the RAD on the Mars Science Laboratory while traveling from the Earth to Mars in 2011–2012. In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month. Weightlessness Following the advent of space stations that can be inhabited for long periods of time, exposure to weightlessness has been demonstrated to have some deleterious effects on human health. Humans are well-adapted to the physical conditions at the surface of the earth, and so in response to weightlessness, various physiological systems begin to change, and in some cases, atrophy. Though these changes are usually temporary, some do have a long-term impact on human health. Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health problems, one of the most significant being loss of bone and muscle mass. Over time these deconditioning effects can impair astronauts' performance, increase their risk of injury, reduce their aerobic capacity, and slow down their cardiovascular system. As the human body consists mostly of fluids, gravity tends to force them into the lower half of the body, and our bodies have many systems to balance this situation. When released from the pull of gravity, these systems continue to work, causing a general redistribution of fluids into the upper half of the body. This is the cause of the round-faced 'puffiness' seen in astronauts. Redistributing fluids around the body itself causes balance disorders, distorted vision, and a loss of taste and smell. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. Motion sickness The most common problem experienced by humans in the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space adaptation syndrome or SAS, commonly referred to as space sickness. It is related to motion sickness, and arises as the vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Symptoms of SAS include nausea and vomiting, vertigo, headaches, lethargy, and overall malaise. The first case of SAS was reported by cosmonaut Gherman Titov in 1961. Since then, roughly 45% of all people who have flown in space have suffered from this condition. Bone and muscle deterioration A major effect of long-term weightlessness involves the loss of bone and muscle mass. Without the effects of gravity, skeletal muscle is no longer required to maintain posture and the muscle groups used in moving around in a weightless environment differ from those required in terrestrial locomotion. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. Consequently, some muscles atrophy rapidly, and without regular exercise astronauts can lose up to 20% of their muscle mass in just 5 to 11 days. The types of muscle fibre prominent in muscles also change. Slow-twitch endurance fibres used to maintain posture are replaced by fast-twitch rapidly contracting fibres that are insufficient for any heavy labour. Advances in research on exercise, hormone supplements, and medication may help maintain muscle and body mass. Bone metabolism also changes. Normally, bone is laid down in the direction of mechanical stress. However, in a microgravity environment, there is very little mechanical stress. This results in a loss of bone tissue approximately 1.5% per month especially from the lower vertebrae, hip, and femur. Due to microgravity and the decreased load on the bones, there is a rapid increase in bone loss, from 3% cortical bone loss per decade to about 1% every month the body is exposed to microgravity, for an otherwise healthy adult. The rapid change in bone density is dramatic, making bones frail and resulting in symptoms that resemble those of osteoporosis. On Earth, the bones are constantly being shed and regenerated through a well-balanced system which involves signaling of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. These systems are coupled, so that whenever bone is broken down, newly formed layers take its place—neither should happen without the other, in a healthy adult. In space, however, there is an increase in osteoclast activity due to microgravity. This is a problem because osteoclasts break down the bones into minerals that are reabsorbed by the body. Osteoblasts are not consecutively active with the osteoclasts, causing the bone to be constantly diminished with no recovery. This increase in osteoclasts activity has been seen particularly in the pelvic region because this is the region that carries the biggest load with gravity present. A study demonstrated that in healthy mice, osteoclasts appearance increased by 197%, accompanied by a down-regulation of osteoblasts and growth factors that are known to help with the formation of new bone, after only sixteen days of exposure to microgravity. Elevated blood calcium levels from the lost bone result in dangerous calcification of soft tissues and potential kidney stone formation. It is still unknown whether bone recovers completely. Unlike people with osteoporosis, astronauts eventually regain their bone density. After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density. New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover faster. Research on diet, exercise, and medication may hold the potential to aid the process of growing new bone. To prevent some of these adverse physiological effects, the ISS is equipped with two treadmills (including the COLBERT), and the aRED (advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enable various weight-lifting exercises which add muscle but do nothing for bone density, and a stationary bicycle; each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. Astronauts subject to long periods of weightlessness wear pants with elastic bands attached between waistband and cuffs to compress the leg bones and reduce osteopenia. Currently, NASA is using advanced computational tools to understand how to best counteract the bone and muscle atrophy experienced by astronauts in microgravity environments for prolonged periods of time. The Human Research Program's Human Health Countermeasures Element chartered the Digital Astronaut Project to investigate targeted questions about exercise countermeasure regimes. NASA is focusing on integrating a model of the advanced Resistive Exercise Device (ARED) currently on board the International Space Station with OpenSim musculoskeletal models of humans exercising with the device. The goal of this work is to use inverse dynamics to estimate joint torques and muscle forces resulting from using the ARED, and thus more accurately prescribe exercise regimens for the astronauts. These joint torques and muscle forces could be used in conjunction with more fundamental computational simulations of bone remodeling and muscle adaptation in order to more completely model the end effects of such countermeasures, and determine whether a proposed exercise regime would be sufficient to sustain astronaut musculoskeletal health. Fluid redistribution In space, astronauts lose fluid volume—including up to 22% of their blood volume. Because it has less blood to pump, the heart will atrophy. A weakened heart results in low blood pressure and can produce a problem with "orthostatic tolerance", or the body's ability to send enough oxygen to the brain without the astronaut's fainting or becoming dizzy. "Under the effects of the earth's gravity, blood and other body fluids are pulled towards the lower body. When gravity is taken away or reduced during space exploration, the blood tends to collect in the upper body instead, resulting in facial edema and other unwelcome side effects. Upon return to earth, the blood begins to pool in the lower extremities again, resulting in orthostatic hypotension." Disruption of senses Vision In 2013 NASA published a study that found changes to the eyes and eyesight of monkeys with spaceflights longer than 6 months. Noted changes included a flattening of the eyeball and changes to the retina. Space traveler's eye-sight can become blurry after too much time in space. Another effect is known as cosmic ray visual phenomena. Since dust can not settle in zero gravity, small pieces of dead skin or metal can get in the eye, causing irritation and increasing the risk of infection. Long spaceflights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements (particularly the vestibulo-ocular reflex). Intracranial pressure Because weightlessness increases the amount of fluid in the upper part of the body, astronauts experience increased intracranial pressure. This appears to increase pressure on the backs of the eyeballs, affecting their shape and slightly crushing the optic nerve. This effect was noticed in 2012 in a study using MRI scans of astronauts who had returned to Earth following at least one month in space. Such eyesight problems could be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a crewed mission to the planet Mars. If indeed elevated intracranial pressure is the cause, artificial gravity might present one solution, as it would for many human health risks in space. However, such artificial gravitational systems have yet to be proven. More, even with sophisticated artificial gravity, a state of relative microgravity may remain, the risks of which remain unknown. Taste One effect of weightlessness on humans is that some astronauts report a change in their sense of taste when in space. Some astronauts find that their food is bland, others find that their favorite foods no longer taste as good (one who enjoyed coffee disliked the taste so much on a mission that he stopped drinking it after returning to Earth); some astronauts enjoy eating certain foods that they would not normally eat, and some experience no change whatsoever. Multiple tests have not identified the cause, and several theories have been suggested, including food degradation, and psychological changes such as boredom. Astronauts often choose strong-tasting food to combat the loss of taste. Additional physiological effects Within one month the human skeleton fully extends in weightlessness, causing height to increase by an inch. After two months, calluses on the bottoms of feet molt and fall off from lack of use, leaving soft new skin. Tops of feet become, by contrast, raw and painfully sensitive, as they rub against the handrails feet are hooked into for stability. Tears cannot be shed while crying, as they stick together into a ball. In microgravity odors quickly permeate the environment, and NASA found in a test that the smell of cream sherry triggered the gag reflex. Various other physical discomforts such as back and abdominal pain are common because of the readjustment to gravity, where in space there was no gravity and these muscles could freely stretch. These may be part of the asthenization syndrome reported by cosmonauts living in space over an extended period of time, but regarded as anecdotal by astronauts. Fatigue, listlessness, and psychosomatic worries are also part of the syndrome. The data is inconclusive; however, the syndrome does appear to exist as a manifestation of the internal and external stress crews in space must face. Psychological effects Research The psychological effects of living in space have not been clearly analyzed but analogies on Earth do exist, such as Arctic research stations and submarines. The enormous stress on the crew, coupled with the body adapting to other environmental changes, can result in anxiety, insomnia and depression. Stress There has been considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, twice Hero of the Soviet Union, quotes this passage from "The Handbook of Hymen" by O. Henry in his autobiographical book about the Salyut 6 mission: "If you want to instigate the art of manslaughter just shut two men up in an eighteen by twenty-foot cabin for a month. Human nature won't stand it." NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of stress in early American missions included maintaining high performance while under public scrutiny, as well as isolation from peers and family. On the ISS, the latter is still often a cause of stress, such as when NASA Astronaut Daniel Tani's mother died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. Sleep The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the spacecraft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have profound effects on the neurobehavioural responses of the crew and aggravate the psychological stresses they already experience (see Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight for more information). Sleep is disturbed on the ISS regularly due to mission demands, such as the scheduling of incoming or departing space vehicles. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high because the atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon; fans are required at all times to allow processing of the atmosphere, which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-g) environment. Fifty percent of space shuttle astronauts took sleeping pills and still got 2 hours less sleep each night in space than they did on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion. Duration of space travel A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks represent a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. While Skylab's three crews remained in space 1, 2, and 3 months respectively, long-term crews on Salyut 6, Salyut 7, and the ISS remain about 5–6 months, while MIR expeditions often lasted longer. The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak different languages. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language, while 2nd and 3rd generation stations have crews from many cultures who speak many languages. The ISS is unique because visitors are not classed automatically into 'host' or 'guest' categories as with previous stations and spacecraft, and may not suffer from feelings of isolation in the same way. Future use The sum of human experience has resulted in the accumulation of 58 solar years in space and a much better understanding of how the human body adapts. In the future, industrialisation of space and exploration of inner and outer planets will require humans to endure longer and longer periods in space. The majority of current data comes from missions of short duration and so some of the long-term physiological effects of living in space are still unknown. A round trip to Mars with current technology is estimated to involve at least 18 months in transit alone. Knowing how the human body reacts to such time periods in space is a vital part of the preparation for such journeys. On-board medical facilities need to be adequate for coping with any type of trauma or emergency as well as contain a huge variety of diagnostic and medical instruments in order to keep a crew healthy over a long period of time, as these will be the only facilities available on board a spacecraft for coping not only with trauma but also with the adaptive responses of the human body in space. At the moment only rigorously tested humans have experienced the conditions of space. If off-world colonization someday begins, many types of people will be exposed to these dangers, and the effects on the very young are completely unknown. On October 29, 1998, John Glenn, one of the original Mercury 7, returned to space at the age of 77. His space flight, which lasted 9 days, provided NASA with important information about the effects of space flight on older people. Factors such as nutritional requirements and physical environments which have so far not been examined will become important. Overall, there is little data on the manifold effects of living in space, and this makes attempts toward mitigating the risks during a lengthy space habitation difficult. Testbeds such as the ISS are currently being utilized to research some of these risks. The environment of space is still largely unknown, and there will likely be as-yet-unknown hazards. Meanwhile, future technologies such as artificial gravity and more complex bioregenerative life support systems may someday be capable of mitigating some risks. See also Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight Food systems on space exploration missions Ionizing radiation#Spaceflight Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight Locomotion in space Mars Analog Habitats Medical treatment during spaceflight Overview effect Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space Renal stone formation in space Environmental control system Space colonization Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure References Further reading NASA Report: Space Travel 'Inherently Hazardous' to Human Health. Leonard David. 2001 Space Physiology and Medicine. Third edition. A. E. Nicogossian, C. L. Huntoon and S. L. Pool. Lea & Febiger, 1993. L.-F. Zhang. Vascular adaptation to microgravity: What have we learned?. Journal of Applied Physiology. 91(6) (pp 2415–2430), 2001. G. Carmeliet, Vico. L, Bouillon R. Critical Reviews in Eukaryotic Gene Expression. Vol 11(1–3) (pp 131–144), 2001. Styf, Jorma R.; Hutchinson, Karen; Carlsson, Sven G. & Hargens, Alan R. (November–December 2001). "Depression, Mood State, and Back Pain During Microgravity Simulated by Bed Rest". Psychosomatic Medicine. 63 (6): 862–4. Altitude Decompression Sickness Susceptibility, MacPherson, G; Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, Volume 78, Number 6, June 2007, pp. 630–631(2) Human spaceflight Space medicine Articles containing video clips

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The Armenian alphabet (, or , ; Eastern Armenian: ; Western Armenian: ) is an alphabetic writing system used to write Armenian. It was developed around 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader. The system originally had 36 letters; eventually, three more were adopted. The alphabet was also in wide use in the Ottoman Empire around the 18th and 19th centuries. The Armenian word for "alphabet" is (), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet: and . Armenian is written horizontally, left to right. Alphabet {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan="3" | Forms ! colspan="5" | Name ! colspan="5" | Letter ! rowspan="3" | Numericalvalue ! rowspan="3" |Greek corresponding |- ! rowspan="2" | Classical ! rowspan="2" | Reformed ! colspan="3" | Pronunciation ! colspan="3" | Pronunciation ! colspan="2" | Transliteration |- ! | Classical ! | Eastern ! | Western ! | Classical ! | Eastern ! | Western ! | Classical ! | ISO 9985 |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ա • ա | colspan="2" | այբ ayb | colspan="2" | || | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 1 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Բ • բ | colspan="2" | բեն ben | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 2 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Գ • գ | colspan="2" | գիմ gim | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 3 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Դ • դ | colspan="2" | դա da | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 4 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ե • ե | colspan="2" | եչ yech’ | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | , word-initially | colspan="2" | | 5 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Զ • զ | colspan="2" | զա za | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 6 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Է • է | colspan="2" | է ē | || colspan="2" | | || colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | 7 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ը • ը | colspan="2" | ըթ ët| colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | || | 8 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Թ • թ | թօ t'ò || թո t'o | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | || | 9 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ժ • ժ | ժէ zhē|| ժե zhe | || colspan="2" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 10 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ի • ի | colspan="2" | ինի ini | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 20 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Լ • լ | լիւն liwn || լյուն lyown | || || | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 30 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Խ • խ | խէ khē || խե khe | || colspan="2" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 40 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ծ • ծ | colspan="2" | ծա tsa | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | c || ç | 50 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Կ • կ | colspan="2" | կեն ken | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 60 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Հ • հ | հօ hò || հո ho | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 70 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ձ • ձ | colspan="2" | ձա dza | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 80 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ղ • ղ | colspan="2" | ղատ ghat | || || | || colspan="2" | | || | 90 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ճ • ճ | ճէ chē || ճե che | || || | colspan="2" | || | č || | 100 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Մ • մ | colspan="2" | մեն men | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 200 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Յ • յ | յի yi || հի hi | || colspan="2" | | || colspan="2" | , | colspan="2" | | 300 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ն • ն | colspan="2" | նու now | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 400 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Շ • շ | colspan="2" | շա sha | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 500 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ո • ո | colspan="2" | ո vo | || colspan="2" | | colspan="3" | , word-initially | colspan="2" | | 600 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Չ • չ | colspan="2" | չա ch’a | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | || | 700 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Պ • պ | պէ pē || պե pe | || || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 800 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ջ • ջ | ջէ jē || ջե je | || || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 900 |Ϻ ϻ |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ռ • ռ | colspan="2" | ռա ṙa | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 1000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ս • ս | սէ sē || սե se | || colspan="2" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 2000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Վ • վ | վեւ vew || վեվ vev | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="2" | | 3000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Տ • տ | տիւն tiwn || տյուն tyown | || || | colspan="2" | || | colspan="2" | | 4000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ր • ր | րէ rē || րե re | || colspan="2"| | || colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | r | 5000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ց • ց | ցօ ts'ò || ցո ts'o | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | || | 6000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ւ • ւ | հիւն hiwn || վյուն vyun | colspan="3" | | || colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | 7000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Փ • փ | փիւր p'iwr || փյուր p'yowr | || || | colspan="3" | | || | 8000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ք • ք | քէ k'ē || քե k'e | || colspan="2" | | colspan="3" | | || | 9000 | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Օ • օ | colspan="2" | օ ò | — || colspan="2" | | — || colspan="2" | | || | — | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|Ֆ • ֆ | ֆէ fē || ֆե fe | — || colspan="2" | | — || colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | — | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|ու | colspan="2" | ու ow | — || colspan="2" | | — || colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | — | |---- |style="font-size:133%;"|և | colspan="2" | և jew | — || colspan="2" | | — || colspan="2" | , word-initially | colspan="2" | | — | |- |} Listen to the pronunciation of the letters in or in .Notes:''' Primarily used in classical orthography; after the reform used word-initially and in some compound words. Except in ով "who" and ովքեր "those (people)" in Eastern Armenian. Iranian Armenians (who speak a subbranch of Eastern Armenian) pronounce this letter as , like in Classical Armenian. In classical orthography, ու and և are considered a digraph (ո + ւ) and a ligature (ե + ւ), respectively. In reformed orthography, they are separate letters of the alphabet. In reformed orthography, the letter ւ appears only as a component of ու. In classical orthography, the letter usually represents , except in the digraph իւ . The spelling reform in Soviet Armenia replaced իւ with the trigraph յու. Except in the present tense of "to be": եմ "I am", ես "you are (sing.)", ենք "we are", եք "you are (pl.)", են "they are". The letter ը is generally used only at the start or end of a word, and so the sound /ə/ is typically unwritten between consonants. One exception is մըն (indefinite article, when followed by a word beginning with a vowel), e.g. մէյ մըն ալ "one more time". The ligature և has no majuscule form; when capitalized it is written as two letters Եւ (classical) or Եվ (reformed). Ligatures Ancient Armenian manuscripts used many ligatures. Some of the commonly used ligatures are: ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬖ (վ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), և (ե+ւ), etc. Armenian print typefaces also include many ligatures. In the new orthography, the character և is no longer a typographical ligature, but a distinct letter, placed in the new alphabetic sequence, before "o". Punctuation Armenian punctuation marks outside a word: [ «  » ] The čakertner are used as ordinary quotation marks and they are placed like French guillemets: just above the baseline (preferably vertically centered in the middle of the x-height of Armenian lowercase letters). The computer-induced use of English-style single or double quotes (vertical, diagonal or curly forms, placed above the baseline near the M-height of uppercase or tall lowercase letters and at the same level as accents) is strongly discouraged in Armenian as they look too much like other – unrelated – Armenian punctuations. [ , ] The storaket is used as a comma, and placed as in English. [ ՝ ] The boot (which looks like a comma-shaped reversed apostrophe) is used as a short stop, and placed in the same manner as the semicolon, to indicate a pause that is longer than that of a comma, but shorter than that of a colon; in many texts it is replaced by the single opening single quote (a 6-shaped, or mirrored 9-shaped, or descending-wedge-shaped elevated comma), or by a spacing grave accent. [ ․ ] The mijaket (whose single dot on the baseline looks like a Latin full stop) is used like an ordinary colon, mainly to separate two closely related (but still independent) clauses, or when a long list of items follows. [ ։ ] The verjaket (whose vertically stacked two dots look like a Latin colon) is used as the ordinary full stop, and placed at the end of the sentence (many texts in Armenian replace the verjaket by the Latin colon as the difference is almost invisible at low resolution for normal texts, but the difference may be visible in headings and titles as the dots are often thicker to match the same optical weight as vertical strokes of letters, the dots filling the common x-height of Armenian letters). The following Armenian punctuation marks placed above and slightly to the right of the vowel whose tone is modified, in order to reflect intonation: [ ՜ ] The yerkaratsman nshan (which looks like a diagonally rising tilde) is used as an exclamation mark. [ ՛ ] The shesht (which looks like a non-spacing acute accent) is used as an emphasis mark. [ ՞ ] The hartsakan nshan is used as a question mark. Armenian punctuation marks used inside a word: [ ֊ ] The yent'amna is used as the ordinary Armenian hyphen. [ ՟ ] The pativ was used as an Armenian abbreviation mark, and was placed on top of an abbreviated word to indicate that it was abbreviated. It is now obsolete. [ ՚ ] The apat'arts is used as a spacing apostrophe (which looks either like a vertical stick or wedge pointing down, or as an elevated 9-shaped comma, or as a small superscript left-to-right closing parenthesis or half ring), only in Western Armenian, to indicate elision of a vowel, usually . Transliteration The letter ւ (w) is rarely used. It is part of a digraph and it is also used in ligatures, which are the only parts where ւ is used. ISO 9985 (1996) transliterates the Armenian alphabet for modern Armenian as follows: In the linguistic literature on Classical Armenian, slightly different systems are in use. History and development Possible antecedents One of the classical accounts about the existence of an Armenian alphabet before Mesrop Mashtots, comes from Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE – 50 CE), who in his writings notes that the work of the Greek philosopher and historian Metrodorus of Scepsis (ca. 145 BCE – 70 BCE), On Animals, was translated into Armenian. Metrodorus was a close friend and a court historian of the Armenian emperor Tigranes the Great and also wrote his biography. A third century Roman theologian, Hippolytus of Rome (170–235 CE), in his Chronicle, while writing about his contemporary, Emperor Severus Alexander (reigned 208–235 CE), mentions that the Armenians are amongst those nations who have their own distinct alphabet. Philostratus the Athenian, a sophist of the second and third centuries CE, wrote: According to the fifth century Armenian historian Movses of Khoren, Bardesanes of Edessa (154–222 CE), who founded the Gnostic current of the Bardaisanites, went to the Armenian castle of Ani and there read the work of a pre-Christian Armenian priest named Voghyump, written in the Mithraic (Mehean or Mihrean lit. of Mihr or of Mithra – the Armenian national God of Light, Truth and the Sun) script of the Armenian temples in which, amongst other histories, an episode was noted of the Armenian King Tigranes VII (reigned from 144–161, and again 164–186 CE) erecting a monument on the tomb of his brother, the Mithraic High Priest of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia, Mazhan. Movses of Khoren notes that Bardesanes translated this Armenian book into Syriac (Aramaic), and later also into Greek. Another important evidence for the existence of a pre-Mashtotsian alphabet is the fact that the pantheon of the ancient Armenians included Tir, who was the Patron God of Writing and Science. A 13th century Armenian historian, Vardan Areveltsi, in his History, notes that during the reign of the Armenian King Leo the Magnificent (reigned 1187–1219), artifacts were found bearing "Armenian inscriptions of the heathen kings of the ancient times". The evidence that the Armenian scholars of the Middle Ages knew about the existence of a pre-Mashtotsian alphabet can also be found in other medieval works, including the first book composed in the Mashtotsian alphabet by the pupil of Mashtots, Koriwn, in the first half of the fifth century. Koriwn notes that Mashtots was told of the existence of ancient Armenian letters which he was initially trying to integrate into his own alphabet. Creation by Mashtots The Armenian alphabet was introduced by Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia (Sahak Partev) in 405 CE. Medieval Armenian sources also claim that Mashtots invented the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets around the same time. However, most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia, a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli. The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430, contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet. Traditionally, the following phrase translated from Solomon's Book of Proverbs is said to be the first sentence to be written down in Armenian by Mashtots: Various scripts have been credited with being the prototype for the Armenian alphabet. Pahlavi was the priestly script in Armenia before the introduction of Christianity, and Syriac, along with Greek, was one of the alphabets of Christian scripture. Armenian shows some similarities to both. However, the general consensus is that Armenian is modeled after the Greek alphabet, supplemented with letters from a different source or sources for Armenian sounds not found in Greek. This is suggested by the Greek order of the Armenian alphabet; the ow ligature for the vowel , as in Greek; the similarity of the letter /i/ in shape and sound value to Cyrillic Ии and (Modern) Greek Ηη; and the shapes of letters which "seem derived from a variety of cursive Greek", including Greek/Armenian pairs Θ/թ, Φ/փ, and Β/բ. It has been speculated by some scholars in African studies, following Dimitri Olderogge, that the Ge'ez script had an influence on certain letter shapes, but this has not been supported by any experts in Armenian studies. There are four principal calligraphic hands of the script. Erkatagir, or "ironclad letters", seen as Mesrop's original, was used in manuscripts from the 5th to 13th century and is still preferred for epigraphic inscriptions. Bolorgir, or "cursive", was invented in the 10th century and became popular in the 13th. It has been the standard printed form since the 16th century. Notrgir, or "minuscule", invented initially for speed, was extensively used in the Armenian diaspora in the 16th to 18th centuries, and later became popular in printing. Sheghagir, or "slanted writing", is now the most common form. The earliest known example of the script's usage was a dedicatory inscription over the west door of the church of Saint Sarkis in Tekor. Based on the known individuals mentioned in the inscription, it has been dated to the 480s. The earliest known surviving example of usage outside of Armenia is a mid-6th century mosaic inscription in the chapel of St Polyeuctos in Jerusalem. A papyrus discovered in 1892 at Fayyum and containing Greek words written in Armenian script has been dated on historical grounds to before the Arab conquest of Egypt, i.e. before 640, and on paleographic grounds to the 6th century and perhaps even the late 5th century. It is now in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. The earliest surviving manuscripts written in Armenian using Armenian script date from the 7th–8th century. Certain shifts in the language were at first not reflected in the orthography. The digraph աւ (au) followed by a consonant used to be pronounced [au] (as in luau) in Classical Armenian, but due to a sound shift it came to be pronounced , and has since the 13th century been written օ (ō). For example, classical աւր (awr, , "day") became pronounced , and is now written օր (ōr). (One word has kept aw, now pronounced /av/: աղաւնի (ałavni) "pigeon", and there are a few proper names still having aw before a consonant: Տաւրոս Taurus, Փաւստոս Faustus, etc.) For this reason, today there are native Armenian words beginning with the letter օ (ō) although this letter was taken from the Greek alphabet to write foreign words beginning with o . The number and order of the letters have changed over time. In the Middle Ages, two new letters (օ , ֆ ) were introduced in order to better represent foreign sounds; this increased the number of letters from 36 to 38. From 1922 to 1924, Soviet Armenia adopted a reformed spelling of the Armenian language. The reform changed the digraph ու and the ligature և into two new letters, but it generally did not change the pronunciation of individual letters. Those outside of the Soviet sphere (including all Western Armenians as well as Eastern Armenians in Iran) have rejected the reformed spellings, and continue to use the traditional Armenian orthography. They criticize some aspects of the reforms (see the footnotes of the chart) and allege political motives behind them. Use for other languages For about 250 years, from the early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2,000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian alphabet. Not only did Armenians read this Turkish in Armenian script, so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. An American correspondent in Marash in 1864 calls the alphabet "Armeno-Turkish", describing it as consisting of 31 Armenian letters and "infinitely superior" to the Arabic or Greek alphabets for rendering Turkish. This Armenian script was used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish language. For instance, the first novel to be written in Turkish in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 Akabi Hikayesi, written in the Armenian script. When the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in Armenian script but in the Turkish language. From the middle of the 19th century, the Armenian alphabet was also used for books written in the Kurdish language in the Ottoman Empire. The Armenian script was also used by Turkish-speaking assimilated Armenians between the 1840s and 1890s. Constantinople was the main center of Armenian-scripted Turkish press. This portion of the Armenian press declined in the early twentieth century but continued until the Armenian genocide of 1915. In areas inhabited by both Armenians and Assyrians, Syriac texts were occasionally written in the Armenian script, although the opposite phenomenon, Armenian texts written in Serto, the Western Syriac script, is more common. The Kipchak-speaking Armenian Christians of Podolia and Galicia used an Armenian alphabet to produce an extensive amount of literature between 1524 and 1669. The Armenian script, along with the Georgian, was used by the poet Sayat-Nova in his Armenian poems. An Armenian alphabet was an official script for the Kurdish language in 1921–1928 in Soviet Armenia. Character encodings The Armenian alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in version 1.0, in October 1991. It is assigned the range U+0530–058F. Five Armenian ligatures are encoded in the "Alphabetic presentation forms" block (code point range U+FB13–FB17). On 15 June 2011, the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) accepted the Armenian dram sign for inclusion in the future versions of the Unicode Standard and assigned a code for the sign – U+058F (֏). In 2012 the sign was finally adopted in the Armenian block of ISO and Unicode international standards. The Armenian eternity sign, since 2013, is assigned Unicode U+058D (֍ – RIGHT-FACING ARMENIAN ETERNITY SIGN) and, for its left-facing variant, U+058E (֎ – LEFT-FACING ARMENIAN ETERNITY SIGN). Legacy ArmSCII ArmSCII is a character encoding developed between 1991 and 1999. ArmSCII was popular on the Windows 9x operating systems. With the development of the Unicode standard and its availability on modern operating systems, it has been rendered obsolete. Arasan-compatible Arasan-compatible fonts are based on the encoding of the original Arasan font by Hrant Papazian (he started encoding in use since 1986), which simply replaces the Latin characters (among others) of the ASCII encoding with Armenian ones. For example, the ASCII code for the Latin character (65) represents the Armenian character . While Arasan-compatible fonts were popular among many users on Windows 9x, the encoding has been deprecated by the Unicode standard. Keyboard layouts The standard Eastern and Western Armenian keyboards are based on the layout of the font Arasan. These keyboard layouts are mostly a phonetic transliteration of the Latin QWERTY layout and allow direct access to every character in the alphabet. Because there are more characters in the Armenian alphabet (39) than in Latin (26), some Armenian characters appear on non-alphabetic keys on a conventional QWERTY keyboard (for example, շ maps to ,). The phonetic layout is not very performant, due to the letter frequency difference between the Armenian and English languages, although it is easier to learn and use. See also Armenian braille Armenian calendar Armenian numerals Classical Armenian orthography Reformed Armenian orthography Romanization of Armenian (includes ISO 9985) References External links armenian-alphabet.com - animated interactive handwritten Armenian alphabet. բառարան.հայ – Armenian dictionary. Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) Church Library Online (in English, Armenian, and Russian) Information on Armenian character set encoding.Armenian Phonetic Keyboard Layout Phonetic Keyboard Layout for Eastern ArmenianArmenian Transliteration English / French script to Armenian Transliteration Hayadar.com – Online, Latin to Armenian transliteration engine. Latin-Armenian Transliteration Converts Latin letters into Armenian and vice versa. Supports multiple transliteration tables and spell checking. Transliteration schemes for the Armenian alphabet (transliteration.eki.ee)Armenian Orthography converters''' Nayiri.com (integrated orthography converter: reformed to classical) 4th century in Armenia Keyboard layouts Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

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The Kingdom of Sicily (; ; ) was a state that existed in the south of the Italian peninsula and for a time the region of Ifriqiya from its founding by Roger II of Sicily in 1130 until 1816. It was a successor state of the County of Sicily, which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of the southern peninsula. The island was divided into three regions: Val di Mazara, Val Demone and Val di Noto; val being the apocopic form of the word vallo, derived from the Arabic word wilāya (meaning 'district'). In 1282, a revolt against Angevin rule, known as the Sicilian Vespers, threw off Charles of Anjou's rule of the island of Sicily. The Angevins managed to maintain control in the mainland part of the kingdom, which became a separate entity also styled Kingdom of Sicily, although it is commonly referred to as the Kingdom of Naples, after its capital. From 1282 to 1409 the island was ruled by the Spanish Crown of Aragon as an independent kingdom, then it was added permanently to the Crown. After 1302, the island kingdom was sometimes called the Kingdom of Trinacria. In 1816, the island Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1861, the Two Sicilies were invaded and conquered by an Expedition Corps (Expedition of the Thousand) led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, who later transferred them to the house of Savoy, to form, after a referendum, with the Kingdom of Sardinia itself (i.e. Savoy, Piedmont and Sardinia) and several northern city-states and duchies, the new Kingdom of Italy. History Norman conquest By the 11th century, mainland southern Lombard and Byzantine powers were hiring Norman mercenaries, who were descendants of French and Vikings; it was the Normans under Roger I who conquered Sicily, taking it away from the Amazigh Muslims. After taking Apulia and Calabria, Roger occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger I of Sicily and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo, which led to Sicily being completely under Norman control by 1091. Norman kingdom The Norman Kingdom was created on Christmas Day, 1130, by Roger II of Sicily, with the agreement of Pope Innocent II. Roger II united the lands he had inherited from his father, Roger I of Sicily. These areas included the Maltese Archipelago, which was conquered from the Arabs of the Emirates of Sicily; the Duchy of Apulia and the County of Sicily, which had belonged to his cousin William II, Duke of Apulia, until William's death in 1127; and the other Norman vassals. Roger declared his support for the Antipope Anacletus II, who enthroned him as King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130. In 1136, the rival of Anacletus, Pope Innocent II, convinced Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor to attack the Kingdom of Sicily with help from the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus. Two main armies, one led by Lothair, the other by Duke of Bavaria Henry the Proud, invaded Sicily. On the river Tronto, William of Loritello surrendered to Lothair and opened the gates of Termoli to him. This was followed by Count Hugh II of Molise. The two armies were united at Bari, from where in 1137 they continued their campaign. Roger offered to give Apulia as a fief to the Empire, which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent. At the same period, the army of Lothair revolted. Lothair, who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily, then gave Capua and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Roger's enemies. Innocent protested, claiming that Apulia fell under papal claims. Lothair turned north, but died while crossing the Alps on 4 December 1137. At the Second Council of the Lateran in April 1139, Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a schismatic attitude. On 22 March 1139, at Galluccio, Roger's son Roger III, Duke of Apulia, ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope. On 25 March 1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and possessions of Roger with the Treaty of Mignano. Roger spent most of the decade, beginning with his coronation and ending with the Assizes of Ariano, enacting a series of laws with which Roger intended to centralise the government. He also fended off several invasions and quelled rebellions by his premier vassals: Grimoald of Bari, Robert II of Capua, Ranulf of Alife, Sergius VII of Naples and others. It was through his admiral George of Antioch that Roger then conquered the littoral of Ifriqiya from the Zirids, taking the unofficial title "King of Africa" and marking the foundation of the Norman Kingdom of Africa. At the same time, Roger's fleet also attacked the Byzantine Empire, making Sicily a leading maritime power in the Mediterranean Sea for almost a century. Roger's son and successor was William I of Sicily, known as "William the Bad", though his nickname derived primarily from his lack of popularity with the chroniclers, who supported the baronial revolts which William suppressed. In the mid-1150s, William lost the majority of his African possessions to a series of revolts by local North African lords. Then, in 1160, the final Norman African stronghold of Mahdia was taken by Almohads. His reign ended in peace in 1166. His elder son Roger had been killed in previous revolts, and his son, William II, was a minor. Until the end of the boy's regency by his mother Margaret of Navarre in 1172, turmoil in the kingdom almost brought the ruling family down. The reign of William II is remembered as two decades of almost continual peace and prosperity. For this more than anything, he is nicknamed "the Good". However he had no issue, which event marked a succession crisis: his aunt Constance, the sole heir to the throne as the daughter of Roger II, was long confined in a monastery as a nun with her marriage beyond consideration due to a prediction that "her marriage would destroy Sicily" until 1184 when she was betrothed to Henry eldest son of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor and the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. William named Constance and Henry the heirs to the throne and had the noblemen swear oath, but the officials did not want to be ruled by a German, so the death of William in 1189 led the kingdom to decline. With the support of the officials, Tancred of Lecce seized the throne. He had to contend with the revolt of his distant cousin Roger of Andria, a former contender who supported Henry and Constance but was tricked to execution in 1190, and the invasion of King Henry of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor since 1191 on behalf of his wife in the same year. Henry had to retreat after his attack failed, with Empress Constance captured and only released under the pressure of the Pope. Tancred died in 1194, and Constance and Henry prevailed and the kingdom fell in 1194 to the House of Hohenstaufen. William III of Sicily, the young son of Tancred, was deposed, and Henry and Constance were crowned as king and queen. Through Constance, the Hauteville blood was passed to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Hohenstaufen kingdom The accession of Frederick in 1197, a child who would then become also the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1220, greatly affected the immediate future of Sicily. For a land so used to centralised royal authority, the king's young age caused a serious power vacuum. His uncle Philip of Swabia moved to secure Frederick's inheritance by appointing Markward von Anweiler, margrave of Ancona, regent in 1198. Meanwhile, Pope Innocent III had reasserted papal authority in Sicily, but recognised Frederick's rights. The pope was to see papal power decrease steadily over the next decade and was unsure about which side to back at many junctures. The Hohenstaufen's grip on power, however, was not secure. Walter III of Brienne had married the daughter of Tancred of Sicily. She was sister and heiress of the deposed King William III of Sicily. In 1201, William decided to claim the kingdom. In 1202, an army led by the chancellor Walter of Palearia and Dipold of Vohburg was defeated by Walter III of Brienne. Markward was killed, and Frederick fell under the control of William of Capparone, an ally of the Pisans. Dipold continued the war against Walter on the mainland until the claimant's death in 1205. Dipold finally wrested Frederick from Capparone in 1206 and gave him over to the guardianship of the chancellor, Walter of Palearia. Walter and Dipold then had a falling out, and the latter captured the royal palace, where he was besieged and captured by Walter in 1207. After a decade, the wars over the regency and the throne itself had ceased. The reform of the laws began with the Assizes of Ariano in 1140 by Roger II. Frederick continued the reformation with the Assizes of Capua (1220) and the promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi (1231, also known as Liber Augustalis), a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time. The Constitutions of Melfi were created in order to establish a centralized state. For example, citizens were not allowed to carry weapons or wear armour in public unless they were under royal command. As a result, rebellions were reduced. The Constitutions made the Kingdom of Sicily an absolute monarchy, the first centralized state in Europe to emerge from feudalism; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law. With relatively small modifications, the Liber Augustalis remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819. During this period, he also built the Castel del Monte, and in 1224, he founded the University of Naples, now called Università Federico II. Frederick had to beat off a papal invasion of Sicily in the War of the Keys (1228–1230). After the his death, the kingdom was ruled by Conrad IV of Germany. The next legitimate heir was Conrad II, who was too young at the period to rule. Manfred of Sicily, the illegitimate son of Frederick, took power and ruled the kingdom for fifteen years while other Hohenstaufen heirs were ruling various areas in Germany. After long wars against the Papal States, the Kingdom managed to defend its possessions, but the Papacy declared the Kingdom escheated because of disloyalty of the Hohenstaufen. Under this pretext, he came to an agreement with Louis IX, King of France. Louis's brother, Charles of Anjou, would become king of Sicily. In exchange, Charles recognized the overlordship of the Pope in the Kingdom, paid a portion of the papal debt, and agreed to pay annual tribute to the Papal States. The Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily ended after the 1266 Angevin invasion and the death of Conradin, the last male heir of Hohenstaufen, in 1268. Angevin Sicily In 1266, conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy led to Sicily's conquest by Charles I, Duke of Anjou. With the usurpation of the Sicilian throne from Conradin by Manfred of Sicily in 1258, the relationship between the Papacy and the Hohenstaufen had changed again. Instead of the boy Conradin, safely sequestered across the Alps, the Papacy now faced an able military leader who had greatly supported the Ghibelline cause at the battle of Montaperti in 1260. Accordingly, when negotiations broke down with Manfred in 1262, Pope Urban IV again took up the scheme of disseising the Hohenstaufen from the kingdom, and offered the crown to Charles of Anjou again. With Papal and Guelph support Charles descended into Italy and defeated Manfred at the battle of Benevento in 1266 and in 1268 Conradin at the battle of Taglicozzo. Opposition to French officialdom and taxation combined with incitement of rebellion by agents from the Crown of Aragon and the Byzantine Empire led to the successful insurrection of the Sicilian Vespers followed by the invitation and intervention by king Peter III of Aragon in 1282. The resulting War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, dividing the old Kingdom of Sicily in two. The island of Sicily, called the "Kingdom of Sicily beyond the Lighthouse" or the Kingdom of Trinacria, went to Frederick III of the house of Aragon, who had been ruling it. The peninsular territories (the Mezzogiorno), contemporaneously called the Kingdom of Sicily but called the Kingdom of Naples by modern scholarship, went to Charles II of the house of Anjou, who had likewise been ruling it. Thus, the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy status quo. The division in the kingdom became permanent in 1372, with the Treaty of Villeneuve. Though the king of Spain was able to seize both crowns in the 16th century, the administrations of the two halves of the Kingdom of Sicily remained separated until 1816, when they were reunited in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. The insular kingdom of Sicily under the Crown of Aragon and Spain Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives or cadet branch of the house of Aragon until 1409 and thence as part of the Crown of Aragon. The Kingdom of Naples was ruled by the Angevin ruler René of Anjou until the two thrones were reunited by Alfonso V of Aragon, after the successful siege of Naples and the defeat of René on 6 June 1443. Alfonso of Aragon divided the two kingdoms during his rule. He gave the rule of Naples to his illegitimate son Ferdinand I of Naples, who ruled from 1458 to 1494, and the rest of the Crown of Aragon and Sicily to his brother John II of Aragon. From 1494 to 1503, successive kings of France Charles VIII and Louis XII, who were heirs of Angevins, tried to conquer Naples (see Italian Wars) but failed. Eventually, the Kingdom of Naples was reunited with the Crown of Aragon. The titles were held by the Aragonese kings of the Crown of Aragon and Kingdom of Spain until the end of the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg in 1700. Malta under the Knights In 1530, in an effort to protect Rome from Ottoman invasion from the south, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, as Charles I of Spain, gave the Islands of Malta and Gozo to the Knights Hospitaller in perpetual fiefdom, in exchange for an annual fee of two Maltese falcons, which they were to send on All Souls' Day to the Viceroy of Sicily. The Maltese Islands had formed part of the county, and later the Kingdom of Sicily, since 1091. The feudal relationship between Malta and the Kingdom of Sicily was continued throughout the rule of the Knights, until the French occupation of Malta in 1798. The occupation was not recognized, and Malta was de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily from 1798 to 1814. After the Maltese rebellion against the French, Malta was under British protection until it became a British crown colony in 1813. This was officially recognized by the Treaty of Paris of 1814, which marked the end of Malta's 700-year relationship with Sicily. After the War of the Spanish Succession (Savoy and Habsburg rule) From 1713 until 1720, the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled briefly by the House of Savoy, which had received it by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, which brought an end to the War of the Spanish Succession. The kingdom was a reward to the Savoyards, who were thus elevated to royal rank. The new king, Victor Amadeus II, travelled to Sicily in 1713 and remained a year before returning to his mainland capital, Turin, where his son the Prince of Piedmont had been acting as regent. In Spain, the results of the war had not been truly accepted, and the War of the Quadruple Alliance was the result. Sicily was occupied by Spain in 1718. When it became evident that Savoy had not the strength to defend as remote a country as Sicily, Austria stepped in and exchanged its Kingdom of Sardinia for Sicily. Victor Amadeus protested this exchange, Sicily being a rich country of over one million inhabitants and Sardinia a poor country of a few hundred thousand, but he was unable to resist his "allies". Spain was finally defeated in 1720, and the Treaty of the Hague ratified the changeover. Sicily belonged to the Austrian Habsburgs, who already ruled Naples. Victor Amadeus, for his part, continued to protest for three years, and only in 1723 decided to recognize the exchange and desist from using the Sicilian royal title and its subsidiary titles (such as King of Cyprus and Jerusalem). The two kingdoms under the house of Bourbon of Spain In 1734, Naples was reconquered by King Philip V of Spain, a Bourbon, who installed his younger son, Duke Charles of Parma, as King Charles VII of Naples, starting a cadet branch of the house of Bourbon. Adding to his Neapolitan possessions, he became also King of Sicily with the name of Charles V of Sicily the next year after Austria gave up Sicily and her pretensions to Naples in exchange for the Duchy of Parma and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. This change of hands opened up a period of economic flourishing and social and political reforms, with many public projects and cultural initiatives directly started or inspired by the king. He remained King of Sicily until his accession to the Spanish throne as Charles III of Spain in 1759, the treaties with Austria forbidding a union of the Italian domains with the crown of Spain. Charles III abdicated in favour of Ferdinand, his third son, who acceded to the thrones with the names of Ferdinand IV of Naples and III of Sicily. Still a minor, Ferdinand grew up amongst pleasures and leisure while the real power was safely held by Bernardo Tanucci, the president of the regency council. During this period most of the reform process initiated by Charles came to a halt, with the king mostly absent or uninterested in the matters of state and the political helm steered by Queen Maria Carolina and prime ministers Tanucci (until 1777) and John Acton. The latter tried to distance Naples and Sicily from the influence of Spain and Austria and to place them nearer to Great Britain, then represented by ambassador William Hamilton. This is the period of the Grand Tour, and Sicily with its many natural and historical attractions is visited by a score of intellectuals from all over Europe that on one side bring to the island the winds of the Enlightenment, and on the other side will spread the fame of its beauty in the continent. In 1799, Napoleon conquered Naples, forcing king Ferdinand and the court to flee to Sicily under the protection of the British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson. While Naples was formed into the Parthenopaean Republic with French support and later again a kingdom under French protection and influence, Sicily became the British base of operation in the Mediterranean in the long struggle against Napoleon. Under British guidance, especially from Lord William Bentinck who was commander of British troops in Sicily, Sicily tried to modernise its constitutional apparatus, forcing the King to ratify a Constitution moulded over the British system. The island was under British occupation from 1806 to 1814. The main feature of the new system was that a two-chamber parliament was formed (instead of the three of the existing one). The formation of the parliament brought the end of feudalism in the Kingdom. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Ferdinand repealed all reforms and even erased the Kingdom of Sicily from the map (after a history of 800 years) by creating the brand-new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies with Naples as its capital in 1816. The people of Sicily rebelled to this violation of its centuries-old statutes (which every king, including Ferdinand, had sworn to respect) but were defeated by the Neapolitan and Austrian forces in 1820. In 1848–49, another Sicilian revolution of independence occurred, which was put down by the new king Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, who was nicknamed Re Bomba after his 5-day bombardment of Messina. The increased hostility of the peoples and the elites of Sicily towards Naples and the Bourbon dynasty created a very unstable equilibrium, kept under control only by an increasingly oppressive police-state, political executions and exiles. Unification with the Kingdom of Italy On 4 April 1860, the latest revolt against the Bourbon regime broke out. Giuseppe Garibaldi, funded and directed by the Piedmontese prime minister Cavour, assisted the revolt with his forces, launching the so-called Expedition of the Thousand. He arrived at Marsala on 11 May 1860 with ca. 1,000 Redshirts. Garibaldi announced that he was assuming dictatorship over Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. On 15 May, the Redshirts fought the Battle of Calatafimi and within weeks Palermo was freed from the troops of general Lanza, who even being superior in number, inexplicably retreated. Francis II of the Two Sicilies tried to regain control of the Kingdom. On 25 June 1860, he restored the constitution of the Kingdom, adopted the Italian tricolour as the national flag, and promised special institutions for the Kingdom. On 21 October 1860, a plebiscite regarding the unification with Italy was conducted. The outcome of the referendum was 432,053 (99%) in favour and only 667 in opposition to the unification. With three separate armies still fighting within the Kingdom, this outcome was far from an accurate depiction of public opinion. Substantial inconsistencies as well as the absence of secret ballot further complicate the interpretation of the referendum, which Denis Mack Smith describes as being "obviously rigged". Most Sicilians viewed the unification as acceptance of the House of Savoy, to which belonged Victor Emmanuel II, the first king of Italy. Society During the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, the local communities maintained their privileges. The rulers of the Hohenstaufen Kingdom replaced the local nobility with lords from northern Italy, leading to clashes and rebellions against the new nobility in many cities and rural communities. These revolts resulted in the destruction of many agrarian areas and the rise of middle class nationalism, which eventually led to urban dwellers becoming allies of the Aragonese. This situation was continued during the short rule of the Angevin until their overthrowing during the Sicilian Vespers. The Angevin began feudalising the country, increasing the power of the nobility by granting them jurisdiction over high justice. During the 15th century due to the isolation of the Kingdom, the Renaissance had no impact on it. At the same period, the feudalisation of the Kingdom of Sicily was intensified, through the enforcement of feudal bonds and relations among its subjects. The 1669 Etna eruption destroyed Catania. In 1693, 5% of the Kingdom's population was killed because of earthquakes. During that period, there were also plague outbreaks. The 17th and 18th century were an era of decline of the Kingdom. Corruption was prevalent among the upper and middle classes of the society. Widespread corruption and mistreatment of the lower classes by the feudal lords led to the creation of groups of brigands, attacking the nobility and destroying their fiefs. These groups, which were self-named "Mafia", were the foundation of the modern Sicilian Mafia. The escalation of revolts against the monarchy eventually led to the unification with Italy. Demographics During the reign of Frederick II (1198-1250), the kingdom had a population of about 2.5 million. During the Hohenstaufen era, the Kingdom had 3 towns with a population of over 20,000 each. After the loss of the northern provinces in 1282 during the Sicilian Vespers and several natural disasters like the 1669 Etna eruption, the population of the Kingdom of Sicily was reduced. In 1803, the population of the Kingdom was 1,656,000. The main cities of the Kingdom at that time were Palermo, Catania, Messina, Modica, Syracuse. Economy The high fertility of the land led the Norman kings to bring settlers from neighbouring regions or to resettle farmers to areas where cultivation of land was needed. This led to an increase in agricultural production. The main sources of wealth for the Kingdom of Sicily in that time were its maritime cities, most important of which were the ancient port cities of Naples and its nearby counterpart Amalfi, from which local products were exported. The main export was durum wheat, with other exports including nuts, timber, oil, bacon, cheese, furs, hides, hemp and cloth. Grain and other dry products were measured in salme, which was equivalent to 275.08 litres in the western part of the Kingdom, and 3.3 litres in the eastern part. The salma was divided in 16 tumoli. One tumolo was equivalent to 17,193 litres. Weight was measured in cantari. One cantaro was equivalent to and was divided in one hundred rottoli. Cloth was measured in canne. One canna was 2.06 meters long. By the end of the 12th century, Messina had become one of the leading commercial cities of the kingdom. Under the Kingdom, Sicily's products went to many different lands. Among these were Genoa, Pisa, the Byzantine Empire, and Egypt. Over the course of the 12th century, Sicily became an important source of raw materials for north Italian cities such as Genoa. As the centuries went on, however, this economic relationship became less advantageous to Sicily, and some modern scholars see the relationship as definitely exploitative. Furthermore, many scholars believe that Sicily went into decline in the Late Middle Ages, though they do not agree about when this decline occurred. Clifford Backman argues that it is a mistake to see the economic history of Sicily in terms of victimization, and contends that the decline really began in the second part of the reign of Frederick III, in contrast to earlier scholars who believed that Sicilian decline had set in earlier. Where earlier scholars saw late medieval Sicily in continuous decline, Stephen Epstein argued that Sicilian society experienced something of a revival in the 15th century. Various treaties with Genoa secured and strengthened the commercial power of Sicily. The feudalisation of society during the Angevin rule reduced royal wealth and treasury. The dependence of the Angevin on north Italian commerce and financing by Florentine bankers were the main factors which led to the decline of the Kingdom's economy. The continuation of the economic decline combined with the increased population and urbanization led to decrease of agrarian production. In 1800, one-third of the available crops was cultivated with obsolete methods, exacerbating the problem. In the later period of Spanish rule, the trading system was also inefficient compared with previous periods because of high taxes on exports and monopolising corporations which had total control of prices. Coinage The Norman kings in the 12th century used the tari, which had been used in Sicily from 913 as the basic coin. One tari weighed about one gram and was carats of gold. The Arab dinar was worth four tari, and the Byzantine solidus six tari. In the kingdom, one onza was equivalent to thirty tari or five florins. One tari was worth twenty grani. One grana was equivalent to six denari. After 1140, the circulation of the copper coin romesina stopped and it was replaced by the follaris. Twenty-four follari were equivalent to one Byzantine miliaresion. After defeating the Tunisians in 1231, king Frederick II minted the augustalis. It was minted in carats and weighed 5.28 grams. In 1490, the triumphi were minted in Sicily. They were equivalent to the Venetian ducat. One triumpho was worth aquilae. One aquila was worth twenty grani. In transactions tari and pichuli were mainly used. Religion During the Norman reign, several different religious communities coexisted in the Kingdom of Sicily. These included Latin Christians (Roman Catholics), Greek-speaking Christians (Greek Catholic), Muslims and Jews. Although local religious practices were not interrupted, the fact that Latin Christians were in power tended to favor Latin Christianity (Roman Catholicism). Bishops of the Greek rite were obliged to recognize the claims of the Latin Church in Sicily, while Muslim communities were no longer ruled by local emirs. Greek-speaking Christians, Latin Christians, and Muslims interacted on a regular basis, and were involved in each other's lives, economically, linguistically, and culturally. Some intermarried. Christians living in an Arabic-speaking area might adopt Arabic or even Muslim names. In many cities, each religious community had its own administrative and judicial order. In Palermo, Muslims were allowed to publicly call for prayer in mosques, and their legal issues were settled by qadis, judges who ruled in accordance with Islamic law. Since the 12th century, the Kingdom of Sicily recognized Christianity as the state religion. After the establishment of Hohenstaufen authority, Latin- and Greek-speaking Christians maintained their privileges, but the Muslim population was increasingly oppressed. The settlements of Italians brought from northern Italy (who wanted Muslim property for their own) led many Muslim communities to revolt or resettle in mountainous areas of Sicily. These revolts resulted in some acts of violence, and the eventual deportation of Muslims, which began under Frederick II. Eventually, the government removed the entire Muslim population to Lucera in Apulia and Girifalco in Calabria, where they paid taxes and served as agricultural laborers, craftsmen, and crossbowmen for the benefit of the king. The colony at Lucera was finally disbanded in 1300 under Charles II of Naples, and many of its inhabitants sold into slavery. The Jewish community was expelled after the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition from 1493 to 1513 in Sicily. The remaining Jews were gradually assimilated, and most of them converted to Roman Catholicism. See also Angelo da Furci Arab-Norman culture County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos Emirate of Sicily Expedition of the Thousand Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily Kingdom of Naples Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy List of Sicilian monarchs Norman conquest of southern Italy Redshirts Sicilian Parliament War of the Sicilian Vespers References Sources Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor, 1988. Abulafia, David. The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes, Cambridge University Press, 1977. Abulafia, David. The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms 1200–1500: The Struggle for Dominion, Longman, 1997. (a political history) Alio, Jacqueline. Queens of Sicily 1061-1266: The Queens Consort, Regent and Regnant of the Norman-Swabian Era of the Kingdom of Sicily, Trinacria, 2018. Aubé, Pierre. « Les Empires normands d’Orient, XIe-XIIIe siècles », Paris, rééd. Perrin, 2006. Aubé, Pierre. « Roger II de Sicile. Un Normand en Méditerranée », Paris 2001, rééd. Perrin, 2006. Johns, Jeremy. Arabic administration in Norman Sicily : the royal dīwān, Cambridge University Press, 2002. Mendola, Louis. The Kingdom of Sicily 1130-1860, Trinacria Editions, New York, 2015. Metcalfe, Alex. Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily: Arabic Speakers and the End of Islam, Routledge, 2002. Metcalfe, Alex. The Muslims of Medieval Italy, 2009. Norwich, John Julius. Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History, 2015. Runciman, Steven. The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Late 13th Century, Cambridge University Press, 1958. Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Sicily Christian states Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily 1130 establishments in Europe 12th-century establishments in Italy Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily Former monarchies of Europe Kingdom of Sicily Former countries

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Bokurano: Ours is a Japanese science fiction manga series written and illustrated by Mohiro Kitoh serialized in the monthly manga magazine Ikki from 2003 to 2009; chapters have been collected in ten tankōbon volumes published by Shogakukan, with the 11th and final volume scheduled for fall 2009. The series has been adapted as an anime television series called Bokurano directed by Hiroyuki Morita and produced by Gonzo that aired in 2007 and a light novel series called Bokura no: Alternative written by Renji Ōki, both with alternative storylines. In all incarnations, the series is about a group of middle-school students who unwillingly assume the task of piloting a giant mecha named Zearth in a series of battles against mechas from parallel worlds, where the survival of Earth is dependent on their continuing to win at the cost of the life of the pilot of each battle. The following is a list of characters from the manga and anime versions, including those exclusive to the anime. Main characters Kokopelli was the man who involved the children with Zearth, as well as the first pilot of the series. When the children first encountered him, he was hiding in a cave by the bay where the children were exploring. He seemed surprised to find them but persuaded the children into becoming pilots of Zearth by telling them he was looking for volunteers for a new game. Later, when the first battle takes place, he appears before the children within Zearth's cockpit, wearing a jet-black jumpsuit and sitting in a chair. From there, he teaches the children how to pilot Zearth as he destroys the first robot. During the battle, he explains that he is a human but not from their planet and that he has no concern for the lives of those who are killed in the crossfire. After the battle, he tells the children that it is now their responsibility to protect the Earth. As they are teleported out of the cockpit, Komo hears him start to whisper "I'm sorry." Kokopelli is later revealed to be a teacher from the same alternate world as Koyemshi and Machi, named and nicknamed . Takashi Waku , nicknamed , was an energetic and confident young boy. He was previously a talented soccer player and is considered popular. He wanted to become a professional player and his friends thought he had the talent for it. However, he found out that his salary-man father was a soccer player just like him in his youth and even played at the national level. The fact that someone just like him didn't make it shook Waku's resolve and he stopped playing soccer. He was chosen to become the first pilot of the children. After his battle, the children celebrated on Zearth's chest. When Ushiro patted Waku on the back, he fell off the side into the ocean. They thought that Ushiro accidentally pushed him, but he actually died a moment before, when his time as a pilot ended. Masaru Kodaka , nicknamed , is the boy chosen to pilot Zearth during the third battle. He is a relatively quiet boy who likes to keep to himself. His father is a wary individual who runs a civilian contracting company. Kodama's two gifted older brothers hate their father and try to go towards a different path, however Kodama looks up to him and his status as a "chosen" man. Being raised by his father seems to have warped Kodama's sense of ethics and morality to the point where he enjoys to take shots at stray cats with a pellet gun. During his time as a pilot, he makes no attempt to avoid casualties and marvels at the death he causes. This sense of wonder is cut short when he is sent crashing down on top of his beloved father's car, killing his father instantly. For a moment, he is left completely stunned, but manages to shake himself out of it in time to defeat his opponent. He dies unceremoniously a moment later. Kodama's death alerts the other pilots to their fate. Daiichi Yamura , nicknamed , was a hard-working and responsible boy despite his gruff "no-nonsense" exterior. He dedicatedly took care of his three younger siblings: Futaba, Santa and Yoshi. He accepted this task because their mother had died much earlier, and their father abandoned them for unknown reasons three years ago. Their uncle on their father's side made up for his brother's disappearance by renting a home for the four siblings to live in, and paying for all expenses. Daichi earned his keep by working as a mail and newspaper boy, and for his uncle's landscaping business on his days off. He chose to live separately from his uncle with his siblings so that his father would have a place to return to if he ever decided to. During the fourth battle, Daichi refused to move until the citizens had sufficient time to escape, a practice later adopted by all future pilots. When the battle began, Daichi's will to protect his family gave him the strength to subdue his opponent long enough to carry it to the bay where no one else could get hurt. His last request to the group was for Ushiro to stop abusing Kana and take care of her, and for Koyemshi to discreetly dispose of his body so that his family would not mourn him. His story ends with his siblings going to the amusement park Daichi had protected during the battle with the tickets he had obtained for them. Following his death, his father returned. Mako Nakarai , nicknamed , is a girl who focuses all of her energy on living honestly and being an active benefit to the community in hopes that others would see her as a responsible and dependable person. Despite this, the well-known fact that her mother is a prostitute and her humorless, over-responsible attitude leaves her with no friends. Ever since elementary school, any kind of hatred or dishonesty tortures her, so much that she can't even raise a clenched fist at all of the kids who bully her, constantly having to keep to her duty and not protest in the slightest. Regardless, she looks up to her mother, and hopes to be able to stand proudly like she does. It was her mother's idea that she go to the nature school so that she would finally make some friends. Ever since the first battle, Mako has secretly been making uniforms for herself and the other pilots, but when she finds out that she would be the fifth pilot she is hard pressed for time and money to complete them. She feels the quickest way to attain the necessary money is to prostitute herself and manages to convince her mother's pimp to arrange a John for her. Much to her surprise, the man she meets is an old acquaintance of her mother's who drives her home after buying her dinner. Her mother, having found out about the plan gives Nakama her needlework money that she has been saving so that she wouldn't have to resort to such drastic measures. When the fifth battle begins, her opponent allows the populace time to evacuate which coincidentally gives Nakama the time she needs to finish the uniforms, though some are incomplete. Before returning to the cockpit, she finds out that one of the girls who bullies her is missing and uses Zearth's powers to locate her and teleport her out of harms way, after finally standing up to her. After defeating the enemy robot, she states that, if she is reincarnated, she wishes to return as a person just like her mother. Her story arc ends with the girls who bullied her finally helping clean the classroom. Isao Kako , nicknamed , was a troubled youth with many problems. He acted as an errand boy for a group of bullies to avoid being the subject of their abuse, and his parents would let him get away with just about anything, much to his older sister's chagrin. Kako's only "friend" was Kirie who also went to his school. Kako would constantly boss Kirie around since it made him feel less like a loser and Kirie would take this abuse without complaint. Kako in fact made Kirie accompany him to the nature school for this very reason. When he first entered the game, Kako was excited, hoping that his piloting Zearth would make him famous, but upon learning the price of piloting, he suffered a mental breakdown and hid in his room. His mental state was made even worse when Koyemshi visited him and told him that the other pilots were leaving him out of the loop and that he had so little time left. This pushed Kako overboard, and he went over to Chizu's house with every intention of raping her, but she stopped him at knifepoint. Moments later, he and the other pilots were retrieved by the army. While being held there, Kako experienced graphic nightmares involving him beating up on the bullies who would use him and raping the female one, or beating his sister and Chizu while they mocked him. While piloting Zearth, Kako hoped that the interference of the army would mean he wouldn't need to pilot and die. This hope was dashed when the futility of the army's attempts was made apparent. Kako then panicked and started running from the battle with no intention of stopping. The group was at a loss trying to find a way to get Kako to fight, but it was Kirie who finally spoke up and made a comment implying Kako's cowardice. This comment drove Kako into a rage and he began to mercilessly beat Kirie. Chizu stepped forward and stopped this display by stabbing her knife into Kako's throat and slitting his jugular. In the TV series, Kako did not even pilot Zearth. After he was visited by Koyemshi, he tried to make a move on Chizu by inviting her to visit an aquarium together, but she refused. When he was selected as the following pilot, he panicked and disappeared. Chizu found him in the aquarium and tried to cheer him up, but when he tried to force his way on her, she pushed him and he fell from a stair, rendered unconscious. Chizu fled away from the aquarium leaving him behind, when it was destroyed by a missile fired during the battle between the military and the enemy robot, and Kako, just after recovering his senses, was killed by the debris. The children discovered what happened when his lifeless body was teleported to Zearth's cockpit with them, and Chizu claimed the responsibility for his death, before being selected to replace him. Chizuru Honda , nicknamed , was relatively calm and a bit quiet, yet particularly disgusted by the one-track minds of her male classmates. Her chair was black and fancy, carefully designed, shapely, and looked very old. While at school Chizu was in love with her teacher, but was being deceived. He lured her into a date and then blackmailed her to being gang-raped by his friends. For this reason she began to carry a knife with her at all times. During the combat she revealed she was pregnant and used Zearth's power to kill all of the men who assaulted her, resulting in many civilian deaths in the process - except the teacher , because her older sister, who was in love with him too, stopped her. After she finished the battle, just before she dies, she laments at how her baby was to go to her instead of being born in her sister, and asks Koyemshi to put her body and that of her baby into one of the many spots in Zearth. After her death, the rest of children figured that Chizu's baby (who died with her) was also listed in the contract, which means that one of them, besides Kana, was not bound to it. Just like Kako's story, Chizu's scenario had a lot of changes in the TV series. She was seduced by her teacher just like in the manga, but instead of being blackmailed by him, he sold some pictures of them having sex which ended appearing on the internet. Despite having the faces digitally altered, they were identified by her classmates, which led to him being punished by the school's principal. He begged for Chizu's forgiveness, and just after she accepted his apologies, she discovered he was also dating her older sister. After Kako's death, she was chosen to assume his place. Kunihiko Moji , nicknamed , is a boy whose great intuition helped some of the previous pilots to defeat their enemies. Moji was kind and insightful, often ready to give advice and wisdom to his comrades when they needed it. The other children often came to him for advice. He had two childhood friends: a girl named Tsubasa Hiiragi and a boy named Nagi Namoto, who had a heart disease. Upon checking, Moji found out that his heart was a perfect match for Nagi. After his victory, Moji has Koyemshi transport him to a hospital where Nagi could receive his heart. His chair was a plastic chair with a metal frame back that curved around into a semicircle, which was the same chair in the hospital's room where Nagi was being kept. Moji had wanted to give his heart to Nagi so that Nagi and Tsubasa could be together, despite his own feelings for Tsubasa. Ironically, Tsubasa was actually in love with Moji and only stayed by Nagi so that he wouldn't feel alone, which Nagi knew from the beginning, and as such urged her to go after Moji once he was better. Maki Ano , nicknamed , is the adopted daughter of an anime otaku, and is expecting a baby brother. Due to her father's interests, she is extremely knowledgeable about military equipment, vehicles and practices; when she was younger, she and her father used to play transforming heroes and transforming robots. She also has some experience with sewing, though by her own admission she isn't very good, and she and Komo finish the costumes that Nakama was unable to complete. Before her battle, she goes to Ushiro to tell him he has to protect Kana for the sake of his family, and the next day she goes out with Komo and gets a complete feminine makeover at a beauty salon. This leads to a lament about how she wished she had never been a girl because she was scared of reflecting the possibilities of her birth mother's behavior, but now that she would have a brother she had to leave an image of herself as a girl. Though she loves her family, she is insecure about having been adopted. When she tells her father that he shouldn't be watching anime while his first child is being born, he replies matter-of-factly that she is his first child. Her battle begins the night after her mother enters labour. During the battle, she discovers that the robots that they have been fighting are in fact piloted by humans of parallel universes, and that the battles are the method for choosing which ones survive, and which ones don't. With every victory, 10 billion people from another universe die. As she finishes her battle, she uses Zearth's powers to see the birth of her baby brother. Later, it is revealed that Maki's family was not informed of her fate and continued to look for her, until they were personally visited by Machi and Ushiro. Yōsuke Kirie , nicknamed , was a fat boy who was often bullied. His depressed hikikomori cousin Kazuko, who was bulimic and cut her own wrists, made him wonder about the worth of his life and that of others. Yet after Chizu's battle he stabbed, non-fatally, the teacher who had abused her, with the knife that she had given him. He discussed his views about the lack of importance of individual human lives with Tanaka, as well as about sacrifices. He wondered if he could bring himself the courage to fight and kill another human, even knowing that the entire world's fate depend on it, and asks Tanaka to kill him and replace him if he fails to it. Before his battle starts, he shows himself to the opponent robot, and its pilot, a girl, does likewise, showing him the many cuts and slits along her arm. After this moment, Kirie finally finds his resolve to fight. His chair is fancy with 3 curved wooden legs, based on the one from Kazu's makeup desk. In the TV series, after being chosen as the next pilot, Kirie discovers his mother attempting suicide after months of unemployment and abandonment by her husband. Growing angry at the world that drove his mother to try to kill herself, he refused to fight when it was his turn. However, his opponent commits suicide in front of Zearth, ripping out and crushing its own cockpit. Despite the technical win, Kirie does not die, and in fact remains pilot for a second match. During the period between his two fights, his father returns to his mother after receiving news of her suicide attempt, and Tamotsu helps her find a job as a waitress. Seeing the world give his mother another chance at happiness, he decides to give the world another chance as well, which cements his resolve to fight in his second battle. Kirie is revealed to be a natural in piloting Zearth as he quickly and swiftly overwhelms the enemy robot. Before dying, Kirie confirms his suspicions about Machi and unveils her true identity as Koyemshi's sister. Takami Komoda , nicknamed , was the only daughter of a Navy official. It is through Komo that the army discovers the kids' involvement with Zearth. She was Maki's best friend since childhood. At first, Komo was rather quiet and bored by the world, preferring to read and play the piano alone, and secretly wondering if her father would have preferred a son instead. But as the time of her battle draws near, she goes outside to observe the world more closely and comes to appreciate how lively and beautiful it is. She almost loses her battle, but is saved when the enemy pilot discovers that Takami is the same age as his recently killed daughter, causing him to abandon his robot and runs away. The Japanese government sets up a plan to lure him up to a piano recital held by Komo after revealing to the world some bits of information regarding Zearth and its pilot's name. In the end, the enemy pilot attends the recital and is so moved by Komo's performance that he allows himself to be killed by her father a few minutes before the time limit. Komo's setup is far simpler in the TV series, as she simply defeats her enemy by herself. Her father, whose position was changed to a politician, plays a more significant role in the story, as he tries to use his influence to reveal to the world the truth behind Zearth and the children, which ends up costing him not only his career, but his life as well. Aiko Tokosumi , nicknamed , is the daughter of a newscaster who discovered her involvement with Zearth. Outgoing and energetic, though not very smart, Anko dreamed of being an idol singer. She told her father all of the truth when questioned by him, except about her ultimate fate. Anko's father and the military attempted to fabricate a story about Zearth and the children to soothe the public opinion. However, they were preempted by Karita, a boy who appeared on TV earlier falsely claiming he was a Zearth pilot and whose comments raised the public opinion's hate for Zearth, culminating in his assassination. Afterward, Anko's father received an authorization to broadcast his daughter's battle from inside the cockpit to the whole world. Even when seeing Anko in grave danger as the acid flowing from enemy's piercing needles managed to breach the cockpit, almost killing her and Machi, her father did not stop the transmission despite objections from the others. However, after sending these images to the world, messages supporting his daughter came to the station and he used them to encourage her to fight back. She managed to turn the tide of the battle by using the same needles the enemy robot pierced at Zearth's body to knock it down, and after the match was decided, her father revealed to her that he kept his cool at that moment because he was told about her inevitable death. After sending a message to the world apologizing for the casualties occurred during Zearth's battles, Anko sealed her victory by destroying the enemy cockpit, and died in her father's arms. Thanks to Anko's declaration, the army managed to create its official version of the story, claiming that Zearth's only pilots are Komo, Anko and the deceased Karita, in spite of all three now being dead. Anko's story is much different in the TV series. Her father is a journalist who is working with Komo's father and Kanji's mother not only to find a way to save the children from the contract, but also to reveal the truth about Zearth to the whole world, despite the government's efforts to hide it. He is forced to resign after his affair with a famous model is disclosed. Thanks to Kanji, with whom she became very close, she found the strength to bear the whole scandal, fight her enemy head-on and obtain a quick victory before passing on happily in his arms. Kanji Yoshikawa , nicknamed , is Ushiro's schoolmate and friend. Before his fight begins, he reveals to Ushiro that despite seeing him hurting Kana, he did not intervene because she asked him not to. He also reveals to him a secret that makes Ushiro start to change his point of view about her, and asks him to watch out for Machi. Kanji's opponent is by far one of the strangest who appeared in the manga as it first launches itself into the sky then lands in a very far away place - Hawaii to be exact, then starts to fire shots across the Pacific Ocean at Zearth, using needles it launched at the start of the battle as markers. After Japan attempts to defeat the enemy with a nuclear bomb and fails, Ushiro suggests to Kanji to use the lasers to target the enemy. Although Kanji could not directly target the enemy, a human soul could be used as a target, and Seki immediately volunteers. Koyemshi teleports Seki and 22 soldiers to where the enemy is, and Seki valiantly reaches the enemy in time for Kanji to fire, thus defeating it. After the victory, Kanji requests Koyemshi to teleport him to the top of the Chūtenrō tower where he contemplates who the next pilot will be in his final moments. Following his death, Kanji's father is prosecuted for the construction faults in Chūtenrō Tower, and he reveals to Machi and Ushiro that it will be demolished. Kanji's role in the story is far more elaborated in the TV series. Not only he is the son of Mitsue Yoshikawa, a lead researcher with the task of unlocking the secrets behind Zearth's technology, but he also ends up emotionally involved with Anko when her family is shaken by a scandal. It was by his support that Anko managed to gain strength enough to bear with her situation and defeat her enemy, and while he sadly holds her body as she passes out, he has a vision of some mysterious people whom he believes to be the masterminds behind the whole battles they have to fight. Koyemshi once stated to Machi that he chose Kanji to be the pilot for the final battle, but he changed his mind and had him battle earlier. Kana Ushiro , nicknamed , is Ushiro's younger sister. When the children entered into the contract, they were told that they would be "testing a game," and Ushiro prevented Kana from joining as he didn't want her to have fun. However, it is later revealed that Kana had actually entered into the contract after Kokopelli's battle, before the children discovered the consequences of it. Despite being considered too kind to harm others even at the cost of herself, Koyemshi stated that she could stand a chance in the battle as younger the pilot, stronger is the vital energy provided to the robot, thus increasing its capabilities. She does so and dies. In the TV series, it is revealed that Ushiro and Kana are actually second cousins (her father is Tanaka's cousin), and Koyemshi tries to make her sign the contract too after Tanaka's death, but this fails due to Ushiro and Machi's combined efforts and Koyemshi's death. She ends up being the only child to survive in the end; the last episode features her entering middle school and befriending Daiichi's siblings, whom she tells the story of the Zearth battles. Yōko Machi Little is known about , nicknamed . Her parents are fishermen and she has described her older brother as being similar to Ushiro in behavior. She was the one who discovered Kokopelli's cave, and she was reluctant to sign the contract, but Waku pushing her hand onto the sensor forced her to become a part of it. Machi feels guilty about the deaths of all of the previous pilots because she was the one who led all the children into Kokopelli's cave. Machi is eventually revealed to be Koyemshi's younger sister, a human girl from a parallel Earth. It turns out that because Kokopelli and her home world's battle for existence was still taking place, Machi did not become a part of the contract since you cannot be part of 2 contracts at once. The usual chair she sits on actually belonged to Maki, but Machi signs the contract after Kana's victory, agreeing to fight for her adopted Earth. It turns out that Machi had a crush on Ushiro since the first time they met, confessing to him after their trip to visit all their friends' families. She is shot in the head shortly afterward by a mysterious man and ends up in a coma; Koyemshi decided to end her life himself since he thought it would have been the best choice, leaving Ushiro to take her place for the next battle. In the end, it turns out that a version of Machi already existed on this Earth, and was apparently replaced by the Machi from the parallel Earth. After the parallel Earth Machi's death, Koyemshi then returns this Earth's Machi to her family; she was in some sort of stasis and believed it was still the start of summer vacation shortly before the nature trip, which was most likely when the parallel Earth Machi replaced her. In the TV series, tired of seeing the same story of suffering and death being repeated at each world she passes as well as disagreeing heavily with Koyemshi's callous treatment of the Ushiro siblings, Machi ends up killing Koyemshi and helping Ushiro protect his sister by becoming one of the pilots, instead of Kana, like Koyemshi had planned. After winning her fight, she reaches some snowy ruins and dies while laying on the snow in front of Koyemshi's mutilated body, wishing that things had been different. Jun Ushiro , nicknamed , is a boy with a short fuse. Whenever he is upset by anything, the first thing he does is beat Kana, his younger sister. Ushiro's mother died giving birth to Kana, which would explain his hatred toward her. It is later revealed that Ushiro and Kana are not related, as Ushiro is actually Tanaka's son. Prior to Kanji's fight, Ushiro confides to him that he hadn't joined the contract with the others, revealing himself to be the one who is exempt from the contract. The chair he usually sits on actually belonged to Kana. After Kana's victory, Ushiro enters into the contract along with Machi, wanting to involve himself as opposed to "outsiders". Machi is chosen for the next battle, leaving Ushiro to fight the final battle. But after Machi's premature death during their trip to visit all their friends' families, Ushiro had to take her place for the 14th battle. In Ushiro's fight, the battle takes place on the opposing enemy's world. After a short battle, Ushiro defeats the enemy robot, but is tricked into opening the enemy cockpit which allows the pilots inside to teleport away and hide among the population of the city. Realizing with horror the enemy pilot does not have any intentions to win the battle or let herself be found, and due to the 48-hour limit rule for a winner, Ushiro has no choice but to kill everyone on the planet. After preparing himself mentally with Koyemshi, Ushiro launches the start of his genocide attack; he has a short freak out in the middle of it, throwing up on his own lap, but recovers and ultimately succeeds on his attack and destruction of the other planet, passing away shortly afterwards. He is shown to have joined the group of children in a dream sequence. In the TV series, Ushiro did enter into the contract along with the other children, and is eventually revealed to be the orphaned son of Tanaka and Ichirou, a murdered Yakuza heir and a friend of Sakakibara. After Kanji's battle, Koyemshi asks him to ask Kana to sign the contract in exchange for him becoming the very last pilot, who, according to the rules, has a chance to survive the battle if winning. However, Ushiro decides not to involve Kana in the contract, and asks Machi to help him get her free. After Machi's killing of Koyemshi and subsequent victory, Ushiro demands Seki let him become the next pilot and destroy Zearth after winning, relieving both of the successor's duty, and potentially sparing other parallel universes from the same ordeal. After a long 30-hour battle, Ushiro manages to defeat his enemy and save the Earth for good, dying alone but peacefully. Koyemshi A weird creature who calls himself and becomes the children's tutor after Kokopelli's disappearance. He is able to communicate verbally, and is usually very sarcastic. He responds to the children's call, and is able to teleport them, as well as others from the outside world to the cockpit, and vice versa. However, he cannot teleport directly between two places, and must go through the cockpit beforehand. Between battles, he can be seen conversing with an unknown party who is later revealed to be his younger sister, Machi. Like her, Koyemshi was once a human being involved in the battles for the survival of a parallel Earth. Koyemshi isn't a unique creature; there seems to be one for every Earth involved in the "game". At the end of the series, as a sort of atonement to Machi, Koyemshi returns to his human form and enters into his supporting Earth's contract in order to participate in the 15th and final battle for its existence, which also serves as the tutorial battle for the next set of pilots of the next world: in effect, becoming the next "Kokopelli". In the TV series, Koyemshi proves to be much more cruel than in the manga, mocking and demeaning the kids openly. By the end he tries to manipulate Kana into becoming the pilot by threatening to force Ushiro into doing so if she doesn't agree; however, he ends up being shot to death by Machi, who gets tired of his machinations and works against him upon Ushiro's requests. The TV series also reveals that, back when he was a human being called , he tried to amuse their guide in order to become the successor, thus being able to survive, but in the end, another child was chosen. He then begged for a chance to survive and the guide decided to accept his request by turning him into her replacement and giving him his current "Koyemshi" appearance. Masamitsu Seki is one of the officers who befriended the children and assumed one of the empty places in Zearth's group. He joined the military thanks to his fascination with Idol Defense Force Hummingbird. During Kanji's battle, Seki sacrifices himself in order for Kanji to defeat the enemy robot, creating another empty seat in the group. In the TV series, Seki threatened Koyemshi with a gun and had his right arm cut off by him, when he teleported his whole body, except for the hand which was holding the weapon to another place. By the time he signed the contract along Tanaka, it was already replaced with a mechanical prosthesis, which hides some sensors planted by Kanji's mother in order to gain access to information regarding Zearth's technology. In the end, he becomes the only contracted pilot to survive the battles. Misumi Tanaka is the other officer who befriended the children and assumed one of the empty places in Zearth's group. An intelligent and perceptive woman, she is married, with a 10-year-old daughter. Prior to her marriage, her name was , and she is actually Ushiro's mother. She left him with Kana's father (an old teacher of hers) thirteen years ago, as she didn't feel she had the right to raise him herself. To aid Kana in her battle, and foreseeing a battle outside their home world, she convinced Koyemshi to allow an advanced fighter jet to be teleported into the cockpit, and used it to shoot down the unmanned fighters deployed by the enemy world's army to help their robot. In the end, she is shot down and, after ejecting, is captured by the enemy robot. Fearing Kana would stop fighting to not harm her, she ends up killing herself with her own gun, just after Ushiro is told that she is his real mother. After her death her daughter Miku is seen visiting the remains of the fighter jet. In the TV series, Tanaka's husband was a Yakuza heir who was murdered by retaliation of his rivals. She left Ushiro at Kana's father's care, as he is a cousin of hers in the anime. She joined the military in hopes of becoming dependable enough to raise her child by herself, until her son was selected as a Zearth pilot and she was forced to intervene. She dies before having the chance to pilot Zearth, killed while facing the assassins of Komo's father. Other characters Sasami A member of the Department of Defense, is effectively Seki and Tanaka's boss, and the coordinator of everything Zearth-related in the Government. He arranged to have the kids picked up by the military after Komo's information of their relation to Zearth, and he has played various behind-the-scenes roles in the story. He has even appeared in Zearth's cockpit a few times to check up on things. Sasami was there to witness and support Ushiro's battle and reacts in horror to Ushiro's revelation over what he must do. After the final battle, Sasami takes on the role of Koyemshi to guide the next set of people in the next world. In an extra in the artbook released after the ending, it was shown that Sasami has finished supporting the next universe and safely made it back to his universe. Tate is often seen accompanying Sasami, and can only be assumed to be one of his head assistants. Tate's appearances in the manga have been infrequent so far. After his initial appearance in Kako's storyline, he was seen accompanying Komo at her rehearsal, and during Kanji's 32 hour battle, he appeared in Zearth's cockpit asking the kids and Tanaka if anyone needed a bathroom break. Akira Tokosumi is the journalist father of Anko. Kunio Shōji is one of the officers who were to supervise the children. He has a number of fingers severed after threatening Koyemshi at gunpoint during their first encounter. Due to his injuries and Koyemshi's enmity towards him, he does not take a role as one of the children's caretakers. It is later revealed that his fingers have been successfully reattached. Tamotsu Sakakibara is a convicted Yakuza who recently left prison after carrying a 10-year sentence and works for Ushiro's grandfather. He was also friends with his father to the point of feeling himself responsible for his death in part. By Tanaka's request, he assumed the task of aiding her to protect the children from harm. He also knows about Ushiro's connection with his employers, but hides the truth from him, despite sometimes accidentally calling him "botchan" ("little boss"). He appears only in the TV series. See also List of Bokurano: Ours chapters List of Bokurano episodes References External links Official Ikki-Para Bokurano: Ours manga website Official Gonzo Bokurano anime website Official Shogakukan Bokura no: Alternative light novel website Bokurano

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The 1951 Pittsburgh Pirates season was the 70th season of the Pittsburgh Pirates franchise; the 65th in the National League. The Pirates finished seventh in the league standings with a record of 64–90. Offseason November 16, 1950: Catfish Metkovich was drafted by the Pirates from the Oakland Oaks in the 1950 rule 5 draft. Regular season Season standings Record vs. opponents Game log |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 1 || April 16 || @ Reds || 4–3 || Chambers (1–0) || Blackwell || Werle (1) || 30,441 || 1–0 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 2 || April 17 || Cardinals || 5–4 || Dickson (1–0) || Poholsky || Werle (2) || 25,894 || 2–0 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 3 || April 21 || @ Reds || 3–8 || Fox || Chambers (1–1) || — || 4,180 || 2–1 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 4 || April 22 || @ Reds || 7–5 || Werle (1–0) || Blackwell || — || 7,254 || 3–1 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 5 || April 23 || @ Cubs || 1–2 || Hiller || Queen (0–1) || — || 7,899 || 3–2 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 6 || April 24 || @ Cubs || 6–4 || Law (1–0) || Lown || Werle (3) || 7,750 || 4–2 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 7 || April 25 || @ Cardinals || 0–4 || Poholsky || Chambers (1–2) || — || 9,628 || 4–3 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 8 || April 27 || Reds || 5–7 || Blackwell || Muir (0–1) || Fox || 27,135 || 4–4 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 9 || April 28 || Reds || 2–4 || Wehmeier || Dempsey (0–1) || Smith || 10,657 || 4–5 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 10 || April 29 || Reds || 9–8 (13) || Dickson (2–0) || Smith || — || || 5–5 |- bgcolor="ffffff" | 11 || April 29 || Reds || 1–1 (10) || || || — || 23,601 || 5–5 |- |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 12 || May 1 || @ Dodgers || 6–2 || Chambers (2–2) || Palica || — || 6,716 || 6–5 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 13 || May 2 || @ Dodgers || 4–3 || Dickson (3–0) || Newcombe || — || 6,238 || 7–5 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 14 || May 3 || @ Giants || 7–4 (10) || Queen (1–1) || Jones || Werle (4) || 9,649 || 8–5 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 15 || May 4 || @ Giants || 1–5 || Maglie || Dempsey (0–2) || — || 3,947 || 8–6 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 16 || May 5 || @ Giants || 3–8 || Bowman || Koski (0–1) || — || 10,265 || 8–7 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 17 || May 6 || @ Braves || 0–6 || Spahn || Dickson (3–1) || — || || 8–8 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 18 || May 6 || @ Braves || 3–0 || Chambers (3–2) || Estock || — || 15,492 || 9–8 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 19 || May 8 || @ Phillies || 9–3 || Queen (2–1) || Heintzelman || Werle (5) || 13,700 || 10–8 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 20 || May 9 || @ Phillies || 5–6 (10) || Konstanty || Muir (0–2) || — || 14,134 || 10–9 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 21 || May 10 || @ Phillies || 2–0 || Dickson (4–1) || Church || — || 3,562 || 11–9 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 22 || May 11 || Cubs || 4–10 || Rush || Chambers (3–3) || — || 22,760 || 11–10 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 23 || May 12 || Cubs || 4–8 || Hiller || Law (1–1) || Minner || 7,528 || 11–11 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 24 || May 13 || Cubs || 2–1 || Queen (3–1) || Schultz || — || || 12–11 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 25 || May 13 || Cubs || 0–6 || Klippstein || Dickson (4–2) || — || 25,434 || 12–12 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 26 || May 15 || Giants || 7–3 || Werle (2–0) || Spencer || Law (1) || 25,838 || 13–12 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 27 || May 16 || Giants || 1–2 || Hearn || Walsh (0–1) || — || 24,103 || 13–13 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 28 || May 17 || Giants || 12–7 || Dickson (5–2) || Kennedy || — || 13,926 || 14–13 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 29 || May 18 || Braves || 3–12 || Surkont || Queen (3–2) || — || 30,890 || 14–14 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 30 || May 19 || Braves || 2–6 || Bickford || Law (1–2) || — || 13,217 || 14–15 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 31 || May 20 || Phillies || 0–17 || Meyer || Dickson (5–3) || — || || 14–16 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 32 || May 20 || Phillies || 4–12 || Roberts || Dusak (0–1) || — || 36,166 || 14–17 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 33 || May 22 || Dodgers || 8–17 || Erskine || Friend (0–1) || Branca || 22,360 || 14–18 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 34 || May 23 || Dodgers || 4–11 || Newcombe || Queen (3–3) || — || 15,759 || 14–19 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 35 || May 25 || @ Cubs || 10–1 || Dickson (6–3) || Hiller || — || 8,143 || 15–19 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 36 || May 26 || @ Cubs || 4–5 (10) || Schmitz || Walsh (0–2) || — || 9,006 || 15–20 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 37 || May 28 || @ Cardinals || 5–6 (10) || Poholsky || LaPalme (0–1) || — || 9,757 || 15–21 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 38 || May 30 || @ Cardinals || 3–4 || Presko || Dickson (6–4) || Wilks || || 15–22 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 39 || May 30 || @ Cardinals || 3–7 || Munger || Queen (3–4) || — || 26,952 || 15–23 |- |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 40 || June 1 || @ Giants || 2–8 || Maglie || Chambers (3–4) || — || 16,875 || 15–24 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 41 || June 2 || @ Giants || 3–14 || Hearn || LaPalme (0–2) || — || 7,003 || 15–25 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 42 || June 3 || @ Phillies || 2–11 || Roberts || Queen (3–5) || — || || 15–26 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 43 || June 3 || @ Phillies || 3–8 || Church || Dickson (6–5) || — || 19,325 || 15–27 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 44 || June 4 || @ Phillies || 12–4 || Friend (1–1) || Meyer || Dickson (1) || 2,343 || 16–27 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 45 || June 5 || @ Braves || 8–0 || LaPalme (1–2) || Sain || — || 4,302 || 17–27 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 46 || June 6 || @ Braves || 2–5 || Spahn || Chambers (3–5) || — || 5,030 || 17–28 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 47 || June 7 || @ Braves || 0–5 || Bickford || Queen (3–6) || — || 4,916 || 17–29 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 48 || June 9 || @ Dodgers || 4–1 || Dickson (7–5) || Newcombe || — || 11,462 || 18–29 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 49 || June 10 || @ Dodgers || 1–2 || Branca || Friend (1–2) || — || || 18–30 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 50 || June 10 || @ Dodgers || 5–4 (11) || Werle (3–0) || Erskine || — || 24,602 || 19–30 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 51 || June 12 || Braves || 3–13 || Sain || Chambers (3–6) || — || 16,054 || 19–31 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 52 || June 14 || Braves || 9–4 || Dickson (8–5) || Bickford || — || 4,277 || 20–31 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 53 || June 15 || Giants || 6–11 || Hearn || Friend (1–3) || — || 22,746 || 20–32 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 54 || June 16 || Giants || 1–6 || Maglie || LaPalme (1–3) || — || 8,673 || 20–33 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 55 || June 17 || Giants || 11–5 || Pollet (1–0) || Bowman || Werle (6) || || 21–33 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 56 || June 17 || Giants || 6–7 (10) || Jansen || Dickson (8–6) || — || 25,090 || 21–34 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 57 || June 19 || Phillies || 2–9 || Meyer || Dickson (8–7) || — || 16,601 || 21–35 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 58 || June 20 || Phillies || 0–1 || Church || Friend (1–4) || — || 12,751 || 21–36 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 59 || June 21 || Phillies || 5–10 || Roberts || LaPalme (1–4) || — || 5,682 || 21–37 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 60 || June 22 || Dodgers || 4–8 || King || Wilks (0–1) || — || 24,966 || 21–38 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 61 || June 23 || Dodgers || 1–13 || Newcombe || Werle (3–1) || — || 9,937 || 21–39 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 62 || June 24 || Dodgers || 10–7 || Dickson (9–7) || Erskine || — || || 22–39 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 63 || June 24 || Dodgers || 5–4 || Wilks (1–1) || King || — || 31,435 || 23–39 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 64 || June 26 || @ Reds || 3–2 || Pollet (2–0) || Perkowski || — || 8,313 || 24–39 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 65 || June 27 || @ Reds || 1–2 || Ramsdell || Friend (1–5) || — || 5,788 || 24–40 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 66 || June 28 || @ Reds || 7–5 || Werle (4–1) || Raffensberger || Wilks (2) || 7,568 || 25–40 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 67 || June 30 || @ Cardinals || 4–8 || Chambers || Dickson (9–8) || — || 13,479 || 25–41 |- |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 68 || July 1 || @ Cardinals || 4–5 (12) || Staley || Pollet (2–1) || — || 21,195 || 25–42 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 69 || July 2 || Cubs || 7–2 || Dickson (10–8) || Hiller || — || 12,661 || 26–42 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 70 || July 3 || Cubs || 2–0 || Law (2–2) || Rush || — || 4,650 || 27–42 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 71 || July 4 || Reds || 4–1 || Friend (2–5) || Blackwell || Wilks (3) || || 28–42 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 72 || July 4 || Reds || 16–4 (6) || Werle (5–1) || Ramsdell || — || 16,061 || 29–42 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 73 || July 5 || Reds || 0–4 || Fox || Pollet (2–2) || — || 2,212 || 29–43 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 74 || July 6 || Cardinals || 2–3 || Munger || Dickson (10–9) || — || 24,532 || 29–44 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 75 || July 7 || Cardinals || 5–1 || Law (3–2) || Lanier || — || 10,127 || 30–44 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 76 || July 8 || Cardinals || 6–2 || Friend (3–5) || Staley || Wilks (4) || || 31–44 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 77 || July 8 || Cardinals || 8–9 || Chambers || Wilks (1–2) || Staley || 31,085 || 31–45 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 78 || July 12 || @ Phillies || 6–11 || Meyer || Dickson (10–10) || — || 10,618 || 31–46 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 79 || July 13 || @ Phillies || 2–3 || Roberts || Pollet (2–3) || — || 7,786 || 31–47 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 80 || July 14 || @ Phillies || 0–2 || Church || Law (3–3) || — || 4,106 || 31–48 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 81 || July 15 || @ Giants || 7–6 (12) || Dickson (11–10) || Koslo || — || || 32–48 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 82 || July 15 || @ Giants || 3–8 || Hearn || Werle (5–2) || — || 17,945 || 32–49 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 83 || July 16 || @ Giants || 6–7 || Spencer || Werle (5–3) || — || 3,390 || 32–50 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 84 || July 17 || @ Dodgers || 4–3 || Pollet (3–3) || Podbielan || Wilks (5) || 18,097 || 33–50 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 85 || July 18 || @ Dodgers || 13–12 || Walsh (1–2) || Palica || Wilks (6) || 7,083 || 34–50 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 86 || July 20 || @ Braves || 6–11 || Spahn || Law (3–4) || — || 5,767 || 34–51 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 87 || July 21 || @ Braves || 6–11 || Bickford || Law (3–5) || — || 3,263 || 34–52 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 88 || July 22 || @ Braves || 3–5 || Chipman || Wilks (1–3) || — || || 34–53 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 89 || July 22 || @ Braves || 5–2 || Dickson (12–10) || Wilson || — || 8,514 || 35–53 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 90 || July 23 || Braves || 14–15 || Paine || Law (3–6) || Chipman || 8,112 || 35–54 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 91 || July 24 || Giants || 3–4 (10) || Maglie || Friend (3–6) || — || 17,858 || 35–55 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 92 || July 25 || Giants || 5–4 || Wilks (2–3) || Spencer || — || 8,718 || 36–55 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 93 || July 27 || Braves || 8–4 || Pollet (4–3) || Surkont || — || 17,256 || 37–55 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 94 || July 28 || Braves || 8–4 || Dickson (13–10) || Spahn || — || 6,848 || 38–55 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 95 || July 29 || Braves || 6–2 || Friend (4–6) || Sain || — || || 39–55 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 96 || July 29 || Braves || 4–5 || Wilson || Queen (3–7) || Estock || 17,881 || 39–56 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 97 || July 31 || Dodgers || 3–8 || Newcombe || Pollet (4–4) || — || 26,132 || 39–57 |- |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 98 || August 1 || Dodgers || 12–9 || Werle (6–3) || King || Wilks (7) || 19,502 || 40–57 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 99 || August 2 || Dodgers || 5–10 || Erskine || Friend (4–7) || — || 10,986 || 40–58 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 100 || August 3 || Phillies || 4–5 || Roberts || Law (3–7) || — || 13,607 || 40–59 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 101 || August 4 || Phillies || 7–3 || Dickson (14–10) || Johnson || — || 7,206 || 41–59 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 102 || August 5 || Phillies || 1–5 || Church || Friend (4–8) || — || || 41–60 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 103 || August 5 || Phillies || 7–12 || Heintzelman || Wilks (2–4) || Konstanty || 20,049 || 41–61 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 104 || August 7 || @ Cardinals || 7–16 || Boyer || LaPalme (1–5) || Brazle || 7,465 || 41–62 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 105 || August 8 || @ Cardinals || 10–7 || Dickson (15–10) || Poholsky || Wilks (8) || 7,482 || 42–62 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 106 || August 9 || @ Cardinals || 0–4 || Chambers || Pollet (4–5) || — || 6,855 || 42–63 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 107 || August 10 || @ Cubs || 3–0 || Queen (4–7) || McLish || — || 7,703 || 43–63 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 108 || August 11 || @ Cubs || 3–4 || Kelly || Law (3–8) || — || || 43–64 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 109 || August 11 || @ Cubs || 2–1 || Friend (5–8) || Rush || — || 20,522 || 44–64 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 110 || August 12 || @ Cubs || 1–0 || Dickson (16–10) || Hatten || — || || 45–64 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 111 || August 12 || @ Cubs || 0–6 || Minner || Werle (6–4) || — || 25,891 || 45–65 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 112 || August 13 || @ Reds || 0–2 || Fox || Pollet (4–6) || — || || 45–66 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 113 || August 13 || @ Reds || 1–7 || Blackwell || Walsh (1–3) || — || 9,992 || 45–67 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 114 || August 15 || Cardinals || 7–0 || Friend (6–8) || Staley || — || 17,853 || 46–67 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 115 || August 16 || Cardinals || 6–9 || Staley || Dickson (16–11) || — || 6,619 || 46–68 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 116 || August 17 || Cubs || 8–3 || Queen (5–7) || Minner || — || 10,007 || 47–68 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 117 || August 18 || Cubs || 5–11 || Kelly || Pollet (4–7) || Leonard || 6,212 || 47–69 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 118 || August 19 || Cubs || 4–2 || Carlsen (1–0) || Hatten || — || || 48–69 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 119 || August 19 || Cubs || 5–4 || Law (4–8) || Leonard || — || 16,434 || 49–69 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 120 || August 21 || @ Braves || 1–3 || Wilson || Friend (6–9) || — || 3,289 || 49–70 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 121 || August 22 || @ Braves || 4–5 (10) || Chipman || Werle (6–5) || — || 4,585 || 49–71 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 122 || August 24 || @ Phillies || 5–1 || Dickson (17–11) || Thompson || — || 8,847 || 50–71 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 123 || August 25 || @ Phillies || 3–2 (12) || Carlsen (2–0) || Konstanty || — || 5,276 || 51–71 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 124 || August 26 || @ Dodgers || 12–11 || Law (5–8) || King || Dickson (2) || || 52–71 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 125 || August 26 || @ Dodgers || 3–4 (10) || Roe || Wilks (2–5) || — || 30,189 || 52–72 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 126 || August 27 || @ Dodgers || 0–5 || Branca || Queen (5–8) || — || || 52–73 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 127 || August 27 || @ Dodgers || 5–2 || Werle (7–5) || Palica || Law (2) || 32,561 || 53–73 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 128 || August 28 || @ Giants || 2–0 || Pollet (5–7) || Jones || — || 8,803 || 54–73 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 129 || August 29 || @ Giants || 1–3 || Hearn || Dickson (17–12) || — || 7,678 || 54–74 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 130 || August 30 || @ Giants || 10–9 || Dickson (18–12) || Jansen || — || 8,230 || 55–74 |- |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 131 || September 1 || @ Cardinals || 2–6 || Chambers || Carlsen (2–1) || — || 11,637 || 55–75 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 132 || September 2 || @ Cardinals || 1–6 || Poholsky || Pollet (5–8) || — || 12,852 || 55–76 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 133 || September 3 || @ Cubs || 10–11 (12) || Dubiel || Law (5–9) || — || || 55–77 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 134 || September 3 || @ Cubs || 4–3 (7) || Wilks (3–5) || Lown || — || 20,242 || 56–77 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 135 || September 5 || Reds || 3–6 || Wehmeier || Werle (7–6) || Raffensberger || 9,086 || 56–78 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 136 || September 6 || Reds || 7–4 || Pollet (6–8) || Fox || Wilks (9) || 4,222 || 57–78 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 137 || September 7 || Cardinals || 4–11 || Bokelmann || Carlsen (2–2) || — || 7,371 || 57–79 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 138 || September 8 || Cardinals || 2–4 || Brazle || Queen (5–9) || — || 5,511 || 57–80 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 139 || September 9 || Cardinals || 1–2 (10) || Lanier || Dickson (18–13) || — || || 57–81 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 140 || September 9 || Cardinals || 4–7 || Bokelmann || Walsh (1–4) || — || 17,456 || 57–82 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 141 || September 11 || Phillies || 2–3 || Roberts || Carlsen (2–3) || — || 8,152 || 57–83 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 142 || September 12 || Phillies || 8–6 || Law (6–9) || Hansen || Wilks (10) || 2,364 || 58–83 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 143 || September 14 || Dodgers || 1–3 || Roe || Dickson (18–14) || — || 18,050 || 58–84 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 144 || September 15 || Dodgers || 11–4 || Queen (6–9) || Branca || Wilks (11) || 11,098 || 59–84 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 145 || September 16 || Giants || 1–7 || Jansen || Pollet (6–9) || — || || 59–85 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 146 || September 16 || Giants || 4–6 || Maglie || Dickson (18–15) || — || 24,990 || 59–86 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 147 || September 18 || Braves || 6–5 || Yochim (1–0) || Wilson || Wilks (12) || 8,036 || 60–86 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 148 || September 19 || Braves || 7–3 || Dickson (19–15) || Nichols || — || 2,793 || 61–86 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 149 || September 22 || @ Reds || 0–9 || Wehmeier || Friend (6–10) || — || 1,093 || 61–87 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 150 || September 23 || @ Reds || 3–0 || Dickson (20–15) || Blackwell || — || || 62–87 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 151 || September 23 || @ Reds || 0–2 || Fox || Pollet (6–10) || — || 6,152 || 62–88 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 152 || September 25 || Cubs || 6–3 || Queen (7–9) || Lown || Wilks (13) || 6,063 || 63–88 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 153 || September 28 || Reds || 3–4 || Wehmeier || Yochim (1–1) || — || 4,250 || 63–89 |- bgcolor="ffbbbb" | 154 || September 29 || Reds || 2–4 || Blackwell || Dickson (20–16) || Smith || 13,843 || 63–90 |- bgcolor="ccffcc" | 155 || September 30 || Reds || 8–4 (11) || Werle (8–6) || Smith || — || 9,068 || 64–90 |- |- | Legend:      = Win      = Loss      = TieBold = Pirates team member Opening Day lineup Notable transactions June 15, 1951: Cliff Chambers and Wally Westlake were traded by the Pirates to the St. Louis Cardinals for Joe Garagiola, Dick Cole, Bill Howerton, Howie Pollet, and Ted Wilks. Roster Player stats Batting Starters by position Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Other batters Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Pitching Starting pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Other pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Relief pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Farm system References External links 1951 Pittsburgh Pirates team page at Baseball Reference 1951 Pittsburgh Pirates Page at Baseball Almanac Pittsburgh Pirates seasons Pittsburgh Pirates season Pittsburg Pir

doc-en-16837_0

Information Operations is a category of direct and indirect support operations for the United States Military. By definition in Joint Publication 3-13, "IO are described as the integrated employment of electronic warfare (EW), computer network operations (CNO), psychological operations (PSYOP), military deception (MILDEC), and operations security (OPSEC), in concert with specified supporting and related capabilities, to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp adversarial human and automated decision making while protecting our own." Information Operations (IO) are actions taken to affect adversary information and information systems while defending one's own information and information systems. Information Operations (IO) Electronic Warfare (EW) Electronic warfare (EW) refers to any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum. The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, and can target communication, radar, or other services. EW includes three major subdivisions: Electronic Attack (EA), Electronic Protection (EP), and Electronic warfare Support (ES). EW as an IO Core Capability. EW contributes to the success of IO by using offensive and defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and exploit adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that spectrum. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum for informational purposes increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in IO. The increasing prevalence of wireless telephone and computer usage extends both the utility and threat of EW, offering opportunities to exploit an adversary's electronic vulnerabilities and a requirement to identify and protect our own from similar exploitation. As the use of the EM spectrum has become universal in military operations, so has EW become involved in all aspects of IO. All of the core, supporting, and related IO capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW. In order to coordinate and deconflict EW, and more broadly all military usage of the EM spectrum, an electronic warfare coordination cell (EWCC) should be established by the JFC to reside with the component commander most appropriate to the operation. In addition, all joint operations require a joint restricted frequency list (JRFL). This list specifies protected, guarded, and taboo frequencies that should not normally be disrupted without prior coordination and planning, either because of friendly use or friendly exploitation. This is maintained and promulgated by the communications system directorate of a joint staff (J-6) in coordination with J-3 and the joint commander's electronic warfare staff (or EWCC, if delegated). Domination of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. DOD now emphasizes maximum control of the entire electromagnetic spectrum, including the capability to disrupt all current and future communication systems, sensors, and weapons systems. This may include: (1) navigation warfare, including methods for offensive space operations where global positioning satellites may be disrupted; or, (2) methods to control adversary radio systems; and, (3) methods to place false images onto radar systems, block directed energy weapons, and misdirect unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or robots operated by adversaries. Computer Network Operations (CNO) CNO as an IO Core Capability. The increasing reliance of unsophisticated militaries and terrorist groups on computers and computer networks to pass information to C2 forces reinforces the importance of CNO in IO plans and activities. As the capability of computers and the range of their employment broadens, new vulnerabilities and opportunities will continue to develop. This offers both opportunities to attack and exploit an adversary's computer system weaknesses and a requirement to identify and protect our own from similar attack or exploitation. Computer network attack (CNA). Actions are taken through the use of computer networks to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information resident in computers and computer networks, or the computers and networks themselves. Also called CNA. Computer network defense (CND). Actions are taken through the use of computer networks to protect, monitor, analyze, detect and respond to unauthorized activity within the Department of Defense information systems and computer networks. Also called CND. computer network exploitation. Enabling operations and intelligence collection capabilities conducted through the use of computer networks to gather data from target or adversary automated information systems or networks. Also called CNE. Psychological Operations (PSYOP) PSYOP as an IO Core Capability. PSYOP has a central role in the achievement of IO objectives in support of the JFC. In today's information environment even PSYOP conducted at the tactical level can have strategic effects. Therefore, PSYOP has an approval process that must be understood and the necessity for timely decisions is fundamental to effective PSYOP and IO. This is particularly important in the early stages of an operation given the time it takes to develop, design, produce, distribute, disseminate, and evaluate PSYOP products and actions. All PSYOP are conducted under the authority of interagency-coordinated and OSD approved PSYOP programs. The PSYOP program approval process at the national level requires time for sufficient coordination and resolution of issues; hence, JFCs should begin PSYOP planning as early as possible to ensure the execution of PSYOP in support of operations. A JFC must have an approved PSYOP program, execution authority, and delegation of product approval authority before PSYOP execution can begin. JFCs should request PSYOP planners immediately during the initial crisis stages to ensure the JFC has plenty of lead time to obtain the proper authority to execute PSYOP. PSYOP assets may be of particular value to the JFC in pre-/post-combat operations when other means of influence are restrained or not authorized. PSYOP must be coordinated with CI, MILDEC, and OPSEC to ensure deconfliction and control, CI operations are not compromised, and that all capabilities within IO are coordinated to achieve the objectives established in planning. There must be close cooperation and coordination between PSYOP and PA staffs in order to maintain credibility with their respective audiences, which is the purpose of the IO cell. PSYOP efforts are most effective when personnel with a thorough understanding of the language and culture of the TA are included in the review of PSYOP materials and messages. As the information environment evolves, the dissemination of PSYOP products is expanding from traditional print and broadcast to more sophisticated use of the Internet, facsimile messaging, text messaging, and other emerging media. The effectiveness of PSYOP is enhanced by the synchronization and coordination of the core, supporting, and related capabilities of IO; particularly public affairs (PA), MILDEC, CNO, civil-military operations (CMO), and EW. Psychological operations are planned operations to convey selected information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals. 4th Psychological Operations Group Military Deception (MILDEC) MILDEC is described as being those actions executed to deliberately mislead adversary decision makers as to friendly military capabilities, intentions, and operations, thereby causing the adversary to take specific actions (or inactions) that will contribute to the accomplishment of the friendly forces’ mission. MILDEC and OPSEC are complementary activities — MILDEC seeks to encourage incorrect analysis, causing the adversary to arrive at specific false deductions, while OPSEC seeks to deny real information to an adversary, and prevent correct deduction of friendly plans. To be effective, a MILDEC operation must be susceptible to adversary collection systems and "seen" as credible to the enemy commander and staff. A plausible approach to MILDEC planning is to employ a friendly course of action (COA) that can be executed by friendly forces and that adversary intelligence can verify. However, MILDEC planners must not fall into the trap of ascribing to the adversary particular attitudes, values, and reactions that "mirror image" likely friendly actions in the same situation, i.e., assuming that the adversary will respond or act in a particular manner based on how we would respond. There are always competing priorities for the resources required for deception and the resources required for the real operation. For this reason, the deception plan should be developed concurrently with the real plan, starting with the commander's and staff's initial estimate, to ensure proper resourcing of both. To encourage incorrect analysis by the adversary, it is usually more efficient and effective to provide a false purpose for real activity than to create false activity. OPSEC of the deception plan is at least as important as OPSEC of the real plan, since compromise of the deception may expose the real plan. This requirement for close hold planning while ensuring detailed coordination is the greatest challenge to MILDEC planners. On joint staffs, MILDEC planning and oversight responsibility is normally organized as a staff deception element in the operations directorate of a joint staff (J-3). MILDEC as an IO Core Capability. MILDEC is fundamental to successful IO. It exploits the adversary's information systems, processes, and capabilities. MILDEC relies upon understanding how the adversary commander and supporting staff think and plan and how both use information management to support their efforts. This requires a high degree of coordination with all elements of friendly forces’ activities in the information environment as well as with physical activities. Each of the core, supporting, and related capabilities has a part to play in the development of successful MILDEC and in maintaining its credibility over time. While PA should not be involved in the provision of false information, it must be aware of the intent and purpose of MILDEC in order not to inadvertently compromise it. A message targeted to exploit a fissure between a key member of the adversary's leadership who has a contentious relationship with another key decision maker is an example. That message could cause internal strife resulting in the adversary foregoing an intended course of action and adopting a position more favorable to our interests. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470825&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Operations Security (OPSEC) OPSEC as an IO Core Capability. OPSEC denies the adversary the information needed to correctly assess friendly capabilities and intentions. In particular, OPSEC complements MILDEC by denying an adversary information required to both assess a real plan and to disprove a deception plan. For those IO capabilities that exploit new opportunities and vulnerabilities, such as EW and CNO, OPSEC is essential to ensure friendly capabilities are not compromised. The process of identifying essential elements of friendly information and taking measures to mask them from disclosure to adversaries is only one part of a defense-in-depth approach to securing friendly information. To be effective, other types of security must complement OPSEC. Examples of other types of security include physical security, IA programs, computer network defense (CND), and personnel programs that screen personnel and limit authorized access. What occurs, often, is that data is either leaked, stolen, or hacked online and the enemy has access to and can decipher what that information may say. This is especially true for defensive operational security. US servicemen and servicewomen may have Facebook, multiple blogs, or upload photos, which can lead to the enemy knowing troop movements and locations. With this information, setting up ambush and wreaking havoc on US and support personnel becomes much easier. Geo-tagging features of cellular phones especially, may cause this type of breach in OPSEC. Equipment methods and tactics EW EC-130 The EC-130E Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) was based on a basic C-130E platform and provided tactical airborne command post capabilities to air commanders and ground commanders in low air threat environments. This EC-130E ABCCC has since been retired. The EC-130E Commando Solo was an earlier version of a U.S. Air Force and Air National Guard psychological operations (PSYOPS) aircraft. This aircraft also employed a C-130E airframe, but was modified by using the mission electronic equipment from the retired EC-121S Coronet Solo aircraft. This airframe served during the first Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm), the second Gulf War (Operation Iraqi Freedom) and in Operation Enduring Freedom. The EC-130E was eventually replaced by the EC-130J Commando Solo and was retired in 2006. The EC-130J Commando Solo is a modified C-130J Hercules used to conduct psychological operations (PSYOP) and civil affairs broadcast missions in the standard AM, FM, HF, TV, and military communications bands. Missions are flown at the maximum altitudes possible to ensure optimum propagation patterns. The EC-130J flies during either day or night scenarios with equal success, and is air-refuelable. A typical mission consists of a single-ship orbit which is offset from the desired target audience. The targets may be either military or civilian personnel. The Commando Solo is operated exclusively by the Air National Guard, specifically the 193d Special Operations Wing (193 SOW), a unit of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard operationally gained by the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC). The 193 AOW is based at the Harrisburg Air National Guard Base (former Olmstead AFB) at Harrisburg International Airport in Middletown, Pennsylvania. The U.S. Navy's EC-130Q Hercules TACAMO ("Take Charge and Move Out") aircraft was a land-based naval aviation platform that served as a SIOP strategic communications link aircraft for the U.S. Navy's Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarine force and as a backup communications link for the USAF manned strategic bomber and intercontinental ballistic missile forces. To ensure survivability, TACAMO operated as a solo platform, well away from and not interacting with other major naval forces such as sea-based aircraft carrier strike groups and their carrier air wings or land-based maritime patrol aircraft Operated by Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron THREE (VQ-3) and Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron FOUR (VQ-4), the EC-130Q was eventually replaced by the U.S. Navy's current TACAMO platform, the Boeing 707-based E-6 Mercury. Computer network operations Stuxnet Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010. It initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial software and equipment. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit. In May 2011, the PBS program Need To Know cited a statement by Gary Samore, White House Coordinator for Arms Control and Weapons of Mass Destruction, in which he said, "we're glad they [the Iranians] are having trouble with their centrifuge machine and that we – the US and its allies – are doing everything we can to make sure that we complicate matters for them", offering "winking acknowledgement" of US involvement in Stuxnet. According to the British Daily Telegraph, a showreel that was played at a retirement party for the head of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Gabi Ashkenazi, included references to Stuxnet as one of his operational successes as the IDF chief of staff. Suter Suter is a military computer program developed by BAE Systems that attacks computer networks and communications systems belonging to an enemy. Development of the program has been managed by Big Safari, a secret unit of the United States Air Force. It is specialised to interfere with the computers of integrated air defence systems. Suter was integrated into US unmanned aircraft by L-3 Communications. Three generations of Suter have been developed. Suter 1 allows its operators to monitor what enemy radar operators can see. Suter 2 lets them take control of the enemy's networks and direct their sensors. Suter 3, tested in Summer 2006, enables the invasion of links to time-critical targets such as battlefield ballistic missile launchers or mobile surface-to-air missile launchers. The program has been tested with aircraft such as the EC-130, RC-135, and F-16CJ. It has been used in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2006. U.S. Air Force officials have speculated that a technology similar to Suter was used by the Israeli Air Force to thwart Syrian radars and sneak into their airspace undetected in Operation Orchard on 6 September 2007. The evasion of air defence radar was otherwise unlikely because the F-15s and F-16s used by the IAF were not equipped with stealth technology. PSYOP B (SOMS-B) Special Operation Media Systems - B (SOMS-B) --The SOMS-B is a ground-based HMMWV mounted radio and television broadcast system. Like the EC-130C/J it can broadcast on AM, FM, SW and VHF television frequencies. The SOMS-B also has the capability to produce programming or radio and television broadcasts Other/Integrated Radio Radio Free Afghanistan Radio Free Afghanistan (RFA) is the Afghan branch of Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty's (RFE/RL) broadcast services. It broadcasts 12 hours daily as part of a 24-hour stream of programming in conjunction with Voice of America (VOA). RFA first aired in Afghanistan from 1985 to 1993 and was re-launched in January 2002. RFA produces a variety of cultural, political, and informational programs that are transmitted to listeners via shortwave, satellite and AM and FM signals provided by the International Broadcasting Bureau. RFA's mission is "to promote and sustain democratic values and institutions in Afghanistan by disseminating news, factual information and ideas". Radio in a Box Radio is the dominant information tool to reach wide audiences in isolated, mountainous regions. The US military has deployed RIABs throughout Afghanistan in order to communicate with the residents. Due to a 70 percent illiteracy rate and lack of education in Afghanistan, radio is a vital communications tool used to broadcast information where radio ownership exceeds 80 percent. The United States military operates approximately 100 RIABs and hire local Afghan DJs in Afghanistan to broadcast information and host call-in shows. The United States Army employed RIAB systems to broadcast anti-Taliban and anti-Al Qaeda messages and countered Taliban propaganda by pushing onto Taliban frequencies in Paktia Province. One advantage of employing RIAB systems is the ability to broadcast vital information immediately to a large audience in the event of a crisis. One Afghan DJ has 50,000 listeners. Nawa District Governor Abdul Manaf uses the local RIAB station to conduct weekly call-in shows and believes the RIAB system is one of his best communication tools to inform a large audience. In Afghanistan's Paktika province, which has a literacy rate of two percent, an estimated 92 percent of the residents listen to the radio every day. Radio programs transmitted using RIAB systems provide beneficial information to Afghan farmers in remote areas. In the isolated, mountainous Wazi Kwah district of Paktika Province, a RIAB system supplies the only source of outside news. Afghan National Army commanders use the RIAB to communicate to villagers and elders and provide thoughts to the community. Afghans can use information distributed by the United States military such as how to react to an approaching military convoy or purpose or use of U.S.-sponsored agriculture programs. For general news, Afghans can also use other information outlets such as the BBC or VOA because RIAB systems are controlled by the US military. Special Operations first employed RIAB systems in Afghanistan in 2005 which improved their ability to supply information to and communicate with the local population in their areas of operation. Terrorists (IO from US Perspective) "Terrorists are adept at integrating their physical acts of violence with IO. They make audio and video recordings of the incidents for distribution over the Internet and on television. Their violence becomes theater, staged for its psychological impact, and replayed over and over again in the media as IO." "Terrorists employ all the IO capabilities of U.S. military doctrine, including the five core capabilities of PSYOP, military deception, EW, CNO, and OPSEC, and the supporting and related capabilities. They use IO to support both offensive operations (acts of terrorism) and defensive operations (e.g., protecting their hiding places). They use IO strategically in support of broad objectives. While terrorists do not speak and write of “IO,” they demonstrate an understanding of the value and methods of IO capabilities. Terrorists appear to be particularly adept at PSYOP, PA, counterpropaganda, and certain forms of OPSEC and deception, driven by their desire to simultaneously reach desired audiences and hide from their enemies. They recognize the value of various media, including the Internet, and exploit it to support their cause. Terrorists and their supporters have a CNO capability, with CNA manifesting itself as “electronic jihad” rather than as acts of terror." Computer network operations There are many examples of CNA and are generally done in support of other operations. Terrorists have integrated cyber attacks into their thinking, strategies, and operations as an extremely cost-effective way to harm the US and other adversaries. The same can be said for CNE, which is about penetrating computer networks before actually attacking them. Gaining access to specific networks is seen to be as part of the CNA process for terrorists (they do not distinguish between the two). As for CND, terrorists are aware of keeping data secure and websites running because they use the Internet. Hamas and Hizballaha have had to defend their websites from Israeli hackers who in the past have defaced them. The methods they use include access controls, encryption, authentication, firewalls, intrusion detection, anti-viral tools, audits, security management, and security awareness and training. "The Taliban have in recent months waged an intensifying information war with NATO forces in the country, distributing anti-government messages on mobile phone networks and using Twitter to claim largely improbable successes as most foreign combat troops look to leave the country by 2014. A day rarely passes without a Taliban spokesman using Twitter to claim the destruction of numerous NATO armoured vehicles and the deaths of scores of Western or Afghan security forces, with NATO quickly countering in its own Twitter feeds. The Taliban also employ a sophisticated network of spokesmen to distribute messages and even have their own mobile radio broadcast service, which frequently moves location to avoid the threat of retaliatory airstrikes by NATO warplanes." The Taliban HAVE to rely on CNO and integrate it into their IO campaign as it is the most cost-effective method of disrupting Western forces. This is a prime example of how CNO is used in conjunction with PSYOP to achieve their objectives. Steganography When one considers that messages could be encrypted steganographically in e-mail messages, particularly e-mail spam, the notion of junk e-mail takes on a whole new light. Coupled with the "chaffing and winnowing" technique, a sender could get messages out and cover their tracks all at once. Rumors about terrorists using steganography started first in the daily newspaper USA Today on 5 February 2001 in two articles titled "Terrorist instructions hidden online" and "Terror groups hide behind Web encryption". In July the same year, an article was titled even more precisely: "Militants wire Web with links to jihad". A citation from the article: "Lately, al-Qaeda operatives have been sending hundreds of encrypted messages that have been hidden in files on digital photographs on the auction site eBay.com". Other media worldwide cited these rumors many times, especially after the terrorist attack of 9/11, without ever showing proof. The Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera reported that an Al Qaeda cell which had been captured at the Via Quaranta mosque in Milan had pornographic images on their computers, and that these images had been used to hide secret messages (although no other Italian paper ever covered the story). The USA Today articles were written by veteran foreign correspondent Jack Kelley, who in 2004 was fired after allegations emerged that he had fabricated stories and sources. In October 2001, The New York Times published an article claiming that al-Qaeda had used steganography to encode messages into images, and then transported these via e-mail and possibly via USENET to prepare and execute the 11 September 2001 terrorist attack. The Federal Plan for Cyber Security and Information Assurance Research and Development, published in April 2006 makes the following statements: "...immediate concerns also include the use of cyberspace for covert communications, particularly by terrorists but also by foreign intelligence services; espionage against sensitive but poorly defended data in government and industry systems; subversion by insiders, including vendors and contractors; criminal activity, primarily involving fraud and theft of financial or identity information, by hackers and organized crime groups..." (p. 9–10) "International interest in R&D for steganography technologies and their commercialization and application has exploded in recent years. These technologies pose a potential threat to national security. Because steganography secretly embeds additional, and nearly undetectable, information content in digital products, the potential for covert dissemination of malicious software, mobile code, or information is great." (p. 41–42) "The threat posed by steganography has been documented in numerous intelligence reports." (p. 42) Moreover, an online "terrorist training manual", the "Technical Mujahid, a Training Manual for Jihadis" contained a section entitled "Covert Communications and Hiding Secrets Inside Images." By early 2002, a Cranfield University MSc thesis developed the first practical implementation of an online real-time Counter Terrorist Steganography Search Engine. This was designed to detect the most likely image steganography in transit and thereby provide UK Ministry of Defence Intelligence Staff a realistic approach to "narrowing the field", suggesting that interception capacity was never the difficulty but rather prioritising the target media. Military deception A police search of a British, al-Qaeda member's home, uncovered what is now called "The al-Qaeda Training Manual", a techniques instruction book on deception, forgery, "blending in", hiding places, and the use of covers to blend into the terrorist area of operation (usually cities with large civilian populations). The philosophy the MILDEC is for the concealment of activities rather than misleading adversaries. PSYOP Terrorist PSYOP differs from American PSYOP in one two major areas. First, US PSYOP targets foreign adversaries and information is coordinated with many other agencies and screened before it is published. Second, while PSYOP by US and coalition forces is "designed to bring an end to violence and save lives, terrorist PSYOP is frequently directed toward promoting violence and threatening civilian populations with death and destruction. Suicide bombers are portrayed as martyrs rather than killers of innocent people." The Internet is the main resource to spread propaganda with al-Aqaeda and other terrorist groups. "According to Bruce Hoffman, before it was taken down, al-Qaeda's website Alneda.com emphasized three themes: 1)the West is implacably hostile to Islam, 2) the only way to address this threat and the only language the West understands is the logic of violence, and 3) jihad is the only option" Terrorists also like to use the Internet to recruit and persuade children to their cause. As Dorothy Denning has found, "Children are being taught to hate Jews and Westerners, and to take up arms against them [through cartoons and comic-book style web pages, bedtime stories, and computer games]". OPSEC All terrorists practice a high level of OPSEC since their need to be secret is how they can be successful. Whether it is the al-Qaeda training manual, online magazines targeted for the world, or the training of youth in Jihad camps, OPSEC is one of the first priorities for terrorists. Secure communications are big as well. The 11 September hijackers, for example, accessed anonymous Hotmail and Yahoo! accounts from computers at Kinko's and at a public library. Messages are also coded. Three weeks before the attacks, Mohamed Atta reportedly received a coded email message that read: "The semester begins in three more weeks. We've obtained 19 confirmations for studies in the faculty of law, the faculty of urban planning, the faculty of fine arts, and the faculty of engineering." The faculties referred to the four targets (twin towers, Pentagon, and Capitol). The list of methods goes on and on and is very similar to the methods used in organized crime around the world. Criticism "In [stability, reconstruction, and COIN operations], the most important targets of influence are not enemy commanders, but individuals and groups, both local and international, whose cooperation is vital to the mission’s success. Granted, joint and Army IO doctrine publications do not ignore these targets – PSYOP and counterpropaganda can be designed to influence them. But it is notable that the activities most directly aimed at influencing local and international audiences – functions such as public affairs, civil affairs, CMOs, and defense support to public diplomacy – are treated only as ‘related activities’ in IO doctrine, if they are mentioned at all" "There must be a fundamental change of culture in how ISAF approaches operations. StratCom should not be a separate Line of Operation, but rather an integral and fully embedded part of policy development, planning processes, and the execution of operations. Analyzing and maximizing StratCom effects must be central to the formulation of schemes of maneuver and during the execution of operations. In order to affect this paradigm shift, ISAF HQ must synchronize all stratCom stakeholders. Implicit in this change of culture is the clear recognition that modern strategic communication is about credible dialogue, not a monologue where we design our systems and resources to deliver messages to target audiences in the most effective manner. This is now a population centric campaign and no effort should be spared to ensure that the Afghan people are part of the conversation. Receiving, understanding, and amending behavior as a result of messages received from audiences can be an effective method of gaining genuine trust and credibility. This would improve the likelihood of the population accepting ISAF messages and changing their behavior as a result." See also Fifth Dimension Operations Radicalization Cyberware Electronic warfare Black propaganda Cyberwarfare Communications security Command and control warfare Disinformation Historical revisionism Gatekeeper (politics) Industrial espionage Irregular Warfare iWar Network-centric warfare Political Warfare Psychological warfare Public affairs (military) Information Operations Roadmap Propaganda in the Mexican Drug War The Institute of World Politics Bolivarian propaganda References Bibliography External links Information Operations Roadmap (DOD 2003) Information Operations (JP 3-13 2006) Operations Security (JP 3-13.3) Military Deception (JP 3-13.4) Joint Doctrine for PSYOPS (JP 3-53 2003) Joint Doctrine for Public Affairs (JP 3-61 2005) Destabilizing Terrorist Networks: Disrupting and Manipulating Information Flows in the Global War on Terrorism, Yale Information Society Project Conference Paper (2005). Seeking Symmetry in Fourth Generation Warfare: Information Operations in the War of Ideas, Presentation (PDF slides) to the Bantle - Institute for National Security and Counterterrorism (INSCT) Symposium, Syracuse University (2006). K. A. Taipale, Seeking Symmetry on the Information Front: Confronting Global Jihad on the Internet, 16 National Strategy F. Rev. 14 (Summer 2007). White House FAQ about the WoT CIA and the WoT U.S. National Military Strategic Plan for the WoT Information operations and warfare Psychological warfare

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George Joseph Herriman III (August 22, 1880 – April 25, 1944) was an American cartoonist best known for the comic strip Krazy Kat (1913–1944). More influential than popular, Krazy Kat had an appreciative audience among those in the arts. Gilbert Seldes' article "The Krazy Kat Who Walks by Himself" was the earliest example of a critic from the high arts giving serious attention to a comic strip. The Comics Journal placed the strip first on its list of the greatest comics of the 20th century. Herriman's work has been a primary influence on cartoonists such as Will Eisner, Charles M. Schulz, Robert Crumb, Art Spiegelman, Bill Watterson, and Chris Ware. Herriman was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to mixed-race Creole parents, and grew up in Los Angeles. After he graduated from high school in 1897, he worked in the newspaper industry as an illustrator and engraver. He moved on to cartooning and comic strips—a medium then in its infancy—and drew a variety of strips until he introduced his most famous character, Krazy Kat, in his strip The Dingbat Family in 1910. A Krazy Kat daily strip began in 1913, and from 1916 the strip also appeared on Sundays. It was noted for its poetic, dialect-heavy dialogue; its fantastic, shifting backgrounds; and its bold, experimental page layouts. In the strip's main motif and dynamic, Ignatz Mouse pelted Krazy with bricks, which the naïve, androgynous Kat interpreted as symbols of love. As the strip progressed, a love triangle developed between Krazy, Ignatz, and Offisa Pupp. Pupp made it his mission to prevent Ignatz from throwing bricks at Krazy, or to jail him for having done so, but his efforts were perpetually impeded because Krazy wished to be struck by Ignatz's bricks. Herriman lived most of his life in Los Angeles, but made frequent trips to the Navajo deserts in the Southwestern United States He was drawn to the landscapes of Monument Valley and the Enchanted Mesa, and made Coconino County the location of his Krazy Kat strips. His artwork made much use of Navajo and Mexican themes and motifs against shifting desert backgrounds. He was a prolific cartoonist who produced a large number of strips and illustrated Don Marquis's books of poetry about Archy and Mehitabel, an alley cat and a cockroach. Newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst was a proponent of Herriman and gave him a lifetime contract with King Features Syndicate, which guaranteed Herriman a comfortable living and an outlet for his work despite its lack of popularity. Biography 1880–1900: Early life George Joseph Herriman was born at 348 Villere Street in New Orleans on August 22, 1880. He came from a line of French-speaking Louisiana Creole mulattoes who were considered free people of color, and were reportedly active in the early abolitionist movement. His , owned a tailor shop on Royal Street in New Orleans. His maternal grandmother was born in Havana, Cuba. His parents were (1850–1923), born in New Orleans, and Clara Morel Herriman (1857–1911), born in Iberville. The family attended St. Augustine Catholic Church in New Orleans' Tremé neighborhood. When he was ten, Herriman and his family moved to Los Angeles, where he grew up south of downtown near Main Street and Washington Boulevard. His father worked there as a tailor. Herriman attended the Catholic boys' school St. Vincent's College (now Loyola High School). Soon after graduating in 1897, he sold a sketch of the Hotel Petrolia in Santa Paula to the Los Angeles Herald. This landed him a $2-per-week job there as an assistant in the engraving department, where he occasionally did drawings for advertisements and political cartoons. 1900–1905: Early career in New York When he was 20, Herriman snuck aboard a freight train bound for New York City, hoping his chances as an artist would be better there. He was unsuccessful at first, and survived by working as a barker and billboard painter at Coney Island, until one of the leading humor magazines of the day, Judge, accepted some of his cartoons. Between June 15 and October 26, 1901, eleven of his cartoons appeared in that magazine's pages, in the heavily crosshatched style of the day. He often used sequential images in his cartoons, as in the emerging comic strip medium. On September 29 that year, his first real comic strips were published, one in the Pulitzer chain of newspapers on a non-contractual, one-shot basis and another on a continuing basis in the Philadelphia North American Syndicate's first comic strip supplement. His first color comic strips appeared in the T. C. McClure Syndicate beginning October 20. His success with these syndicated strips convinced Herriman to give up on magazine submissions. For the Pulitzer papers on February 16, 1902, he began his first strip that had a continuing character, Musical Mose. The strip featured an African-American musician who impersonated other ethnicities, only to suffer the consequences when discovered by his audience. Professor Otto and his Auto, about a terrifyingly dangerous driver, followed in March, and Acrobatic Archie, a "kid strip" with a child protagonist, first appeared in April. With his future as a cartoonist seemingly assured, Herriman traveled back to Los Angeles to marry his childhood sweetheart and returned with her to New York. In the November 1902 issue of the literary magazine The Bookman, Herriman wrote of his profession self-deprecatingly, while poet La Touche Hancock, in an article in that issue titled "The American Comic and Caricature Art", wrote, "Art and poetry is the characteristic of George Herriman. Were his drawings not so well known one would think he had mistaken his vocation." Herriman's work was increasing in popularity, and he occasionally had front-page, full-color strips for the Pulitzer supplements, such as Two Jolly Jackies about two unemployed sailors, which began in January 1903. He began drawing the cowboy strip Lariat Pete in September for the McClure syndicate after Two Jolly Jackies was ended. In June, Herriman was employed by the New York World. There, he illustrated Roy McCardell's commentaries on local events, beginning June 28 and running to the year's end. Herriman still produced syndicate work, such as Major Ozone's Fresh Air Crusade for the World Color Printing Company beginning January 2, 1904. Another of Herriman's obsessive characters, the Major traveled the world in an unsuccessful search for the purest air and spouted poetic dialogue. Major Ozone was so popular that it soon was given the supplement's front page. The same month, Herriman moved from the World to the New York Daily News, where he was given a larger quantity and variety of work, including cartoon reporting on sports and politics. In February and March, he had a short-lived continuing character comic strip about domestic life called Home Sweet Home. That spring, he began illustrating a series of articles written by Walter Murphy called Bubblespikers. Rudolph Block hired Herriman for the Hearst papers with "a salary commensurate with his talents", starting April 22 at the New York American, which ran no daily comic strips at the time. Herriman drew sports cartoons in an office alongside Frederick Burr Opper, James Swinnerton, and Tad Dorgan, who was popularly known as "Tad" and was considered a star at another Hearst paper, the New York Evening Journal. Tad and Herriman were often assigned to cover the same sporting events and became close friends. In 1924, Tad called Herriman "one of the best sporting artists in the world" and regretted that Herriman no longer did that kind of work. Herriman continued with Hearst until June 1905, when he left the paper, possibly because of the new sports editor's unsympathetic attitude to cartoonists. He returned to Los Angeles in the latter half of 1905. 1905–1910: Return to California In California, Herriman continued to mail in work to the World Color Printing Company. He revived Major Ozone and produced Grandma's Girl—Likewise Bud Smith, which he combined from two earlier strips, and a two-tiered children's strip, Rosy Posy—Mama's Girl. He began to work with the Los Angeles Times on January 8, 1906, before returning to Hearst that summer. Accompanying a front-page illustration in Hearst's Los Angeles Examiner, Herriman was announced as "the Examiners cartoonist" on August 21. His artwork began to appear on nearly every page, resulting in greatly increased sales for the newspaper. In October, he stopped working for World Color. Following the success of Bud Fisher's daily strip A. Mutt, which debuted in late 1907, Herriman began a similarly sports-themed daily strip starting December 10 called Mr. Proones the Plunger. The strip was not as successful as Fisher's, and it ceased to appear after December 26. His next comic strip, Baron Mooch, starring the titular freeloader, debuted in the Examiner on October 12, 1909. Herriman began two more strips in November 1909 with the World Color Printing Company—Alexander the Cat and Daniel and Pansy, which both appeared in color. Daniel and Pansy was Herriman's first strip to feature an all-animal cast. This was followed in the Examiner on December 20 by the short-lived Mary's Home from College, a precursor to the "girl strips" such as Cliff Sterrett's Polly and Her Pals and John Held Jr.'s Merely Margie, and on December 23 by Gooseberry Sprig, about an aristocratic, cigar-smoking duck who had previously and popularly appeared in Herriman's sports cartoons. The bird-populated fantasy was a precursor to Krazy Kat, and many of its characters reappeared in the later strip. 1910–1922: New York again, and Krazy Kat In 1910, the sports editor of the New York Evening Journal called Herriman back to New York to cover for Tad Dorgan who was in San Francisco covering the "Fight of the Century" between Jack Johnson and Jim Jeffries. Six days after arriving in New York, Herriman began The Dingbat Family, starring E. Pluribus Dingbat and his family. Herriman used typed lettering on the strip on July 26, 1910, but quickly went back to hand-lettering. On August 10, 1910, Herriman retitled the strip The Family Upstairs. The original title returned after the strip of November 15, 1911, when the Dingbats' building was demolished to make room for a department store and they and their upstairs nemeses parted paths. Critics do not regard the strip highly, but it provided the vehicle for a fruitful situation: in the July 26 episode, a mouse threw a brick at the family cat—called "Kat"—which hit the cat on the head. The antics of this mouse and "Kat" continued to appear in the bottom portion of The Dingbat Family. Herriman said he did this "to fill up the waste space". About a month after its first appearance, the "Kat" crept up on the sleeping mouse and kissed it loudly. The mouse awoke saying, "I dreamed an angel kissed me", while the "Kat" crept away and said, "Sweet thing". The gender of "Kat" was unclear from the start. Herriman experimented with a decision about the character's gender, but it remained ambiguous and he would refer to "Kat" as "he" or "she" as he saw fit. Herriman incorporated unusual details into the mini-strip's backgrounds—cacti, pagodas, fanciful vegetation, or anything else that struck his fancy; this became a signature of the later Krazy Kat strip. The cast grew and soon included the mainstay character Bull Pupp and characters from the Gooseberry Sprigg strip. The strip's characters, relations and situations grew organically during its lifetime, encouraged by Herriman's colleagues. The cat-and-mouse substrip was gaining in popularity; instead of filling up space in the bottom of The Dingbat Familys panels, it began to occupy a tier of panels of its own. In July 1912, while Herriman had the Dingbats on vacation, Krazy Kat and Ignatz Mouse took over the strip, which was retitled Krazy Kat and I. Mouse for the duration. On October 28, 1913, Krazy Kat debuted as an independent strip on the daily comics page. During the first few years of publication, Krazy Kats humor changed from slapstick to a more vaudevillian kind. The shifting backgrounds became increasingly bizarre, presaging things to come. The strip expanded to a full-page black-and-white Sunday strip on April 23, 1916. Herriman made full use of his imagination and used the whole page in the strip's layout. The strips were unlike anything else on the comics page; spontaneous, formally daring, yet impeccably composed. Herriman visited Monument Valley in Arizona and similar places in New Mexico and southern Utah, and incorporated the distinct forms of the desert landscape into his strips. The Enchanted Mesa of New Mexico first appeared in Krazy Kat in the summer of 1916. Herriman may have visited after reading an article by Theodore Roosevelt in 1913, but he may have gone earlier—the desert Coconino County, Arizona, that became the backdrop to Krazy Kat was first mentioned in a 1911 The Dingbat Family strip, though the real Coconino County was located further southwest than Herriman's fanciful version. The Dingbat Family finished in 1916 and was replaced by Baron Beans debut the next day. The strip's title character, The Baron, was an impoverished English nobleman, a tramp inspired by Charles Dickens and Charlie Chaplin. He and his valet Grimes would plot ways to get by. Herriman later introduced the main characters' wives, and after a run as a domestic strip, with occasional appearances of characters from Krazy Kat's world, it ended in January 1919. It was replaced the next day by Now Listen Mabel, which was about a young man courting a young woman; he would be caught in a compromising situation, which he would try to explain away with "Now listen Mabel ..." The strip lasted until that December. Krazy Kat gained an appreciative audience in the world of the arts. The character debuted in film in 1916. The first animated films starring a cat were produced by Hearst's International Film Service, though without Herriman's direct involvement. In 1922, Adolph Bolm choreographed a jazz-pantomime Krazy Kat ballet written by John Alden Carpenter. It was first performed in New York in 1922 by Ballet Intime, and Herriman illustrated the libretto and designed the costumes and scenario. While it was not a great success, the critics Deems Taylor, Stark Young and Henrietta Straus wrote favorably about it. The strip itself was the subject of an article by literary critic Gilbert Seldes called "Golla, Golla the Comic Strip's Art", which appeared in the May 1922 issue of Vanity Fair. Seldes expanded this article as part of his book on the popular arts, The Seven Lively Arts (1924), in which Seldes argued against conservative tendencies that excluded artists in the popular arts, such as Herriman and Chaplin, from being considered alongside traditional artists. Krazy Kat was the subject of a chapter entitled "The Krazy Kat That Walks by Himself", which is the most famous piece of writing about the strip and the earliest example of a critic from the world of high art giving legitimacy to the comic strip medium. Vanity Fair inducted Herriman into its Hall of Fame in the April 1923 issue. 1922–1944: California again, later career and death Hearst, an admirer of Krazy Kat, had given Herriman a lifetime contract with his company King Features Syndicate, which gave Herriman the security to live anywhere he wanted. In 1922, he moved back to Hollywood, into a two-story Spanish-style home at 1617 North Sierra Bonita, from where he made frequent visits to the Arizona desert. Herriman developed ties with members of the film industry; he knew Hal Roach Studio members Tom McNamara and "Beanie" Walker from their newspaper days. Walker, Herriman's best friend, was the head writer on the Our Gang shorts. In the early 1920s, Herriman occasionally drew his strips at the Roach Studio. He met celebrities, including Will Rogers and Frank Capra, and presented them with hand-colored drawings. He loved Charlie Chaplin's films, and reviewed The Gold Rush in the magazine Motion Picture Classics in October 1925. Autumn 1922 saw the first daily installment of Stumble Inn, the first non-Krazy Kat strip Herriman had drawn since 1919. A verbose strip whose Sundays were often overrun with prose, its lead characters were Uriah and Ida Stumble, who rented rooms to an assortment of strange characters. The daily strip was short-lived, but the Sundays edition lasted three years. From August 1925 until September 1929, King Features required that Herriman design the Krazy Kat Sundays so that they could be run either as a full Sunday page or as two four-panel dailies. Herriman lamented intrusion on his page designs, and the artwork of the period took on a rushed look. He was made to focus on the strip's characterization, and during this period, the Krazy—Ignatz—Offisa Pupp love triangle for which the strip is remembered became fully developed. Pupp pined for Krazy, Krazy loved Ignatz, and Ignatz hated Krazy and pelted the annoying "Kat" with a brick, and Pupp imprisoned Ignatz. Throughout the late 1920s, Herriman made frequent trips to Kayenta, Arizona, in Navajo country about from Monument Valley. He also made winter trips to Mexico. The desert, Navajo artwork, and Mexican pottery and architecture became more prominent in Herriman's strips, and he sometimes used Spanish vocabulary in the dialogue. Herriman did little work on these excursions, and it is likely that he drew his strips in hurried bursts when in Hollywood. Stumble Inn finished in late 1925, and it was replaced with the domestic strip Us Husbands (with Mistakes Will Happen as a "topper" strip), which ran until the end of that year. In 1928, Herriman took over the strip Embarrassing Moments, which had begun in 1922 and had been drawn by several cartoonists. The strip eventually became Bernie Burns, in which embarrassing moments would happen to the title character. The strip appeared in few papers, and after it ended in 1932, Herriman worked only on Krazy Kat, although he provided illustrations for Don Marquis' popular Archy and Mehitabel, a series of books of poetry about a cat and a cockroach. In 1930, Herriman sold his first Hollywood home to a friend and moved his family to 2217 Maravilla Drive, a Spanish-style mansion atop a hill. It was adorned with paintings of Southwest and Native themes, and had a Mexican-style garden paved with flagstones and decorated with painted pots and tropical plants. Herriman later bought the lot across the street and turned it into a public park. The 1930s were a period of tragedy for Herriman. On September 29, 1931, his wife Mabel died after an automobile accident, and in 1939, his youngest daughter Bobbie died unexpectedly at 30. After his wife's death, Herriman never remarried and lived in Los Angeles with his cats and dogs. He developed a close relationship with cartoonist James Swinnerton's first wife Louise, with whom he frequently exchanged letters. Herriman underwent a kidney operation in spring 1938, and during his ten-week convalescence King Features reran old Krazy Kat strips. Krazy Kats popularity fell considerably over the years, and by the 1930s it was running in only thirty-five newspapers, while its contemporaries such as Bringing Up Father were reportedly running in up to a thousand. Herriman realized his $750-per-week salary from Hearst's King Features Syndicate was far more than the revenue the strip could be generating, but Hearst refused Herriman's offer to take a pay cut. Hearst let it be known that Herriman was to continue the strip as long as he liked. From 1935, Krazy Kat appeared in color, of which Herriman made bold use. He reduced the amount of hatchwork and used larger, more open panels. Herriman died in his sleep in his home near Hollywood on April 25, 1944, after a long illness. An incompletely inked penciling of a week's worth of daily strips was found on his drawing board. On his death certificate, the cause of death was listed as "non-alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver", and despite his mixed-race heritage, he was listed as "caucasian". The New York Journal-American ran a front-page obituary. His funeral at Little Church of Flowers at Forest Lawn Memorial Park was attended by few. Cartoonist Harry Hershfield spoke at the funeral, saying, "If ever there was a saint on earth, it was George Herriman". According to his request, his body was cremated and his remains were scattered over Monument Valley. On June 25, 1944, two months after Herriman's death, the last of his completed Krazy Kat strips, a full-page Sunday, was printed. At the time, Hearst usually engaged new cartoonists when the artists of popular strips quit or died, but he made an exception for Herriman, as he felt that no one could take his place. Personal life Herriman was described as self-deprecatingly modest, and he disliked being photographed. The New York Journal-Americans obituary described him as a devoted husband and father, of slight build, mild-mannered and an anonymous contributor to charities. He was generous to his friends, and sold his first Hollywood house, which he had bought for $50,000, to a friend for $40,000. Though a private person, he was said to be an entertaining host to his friends. He would sometimes stay silent during social occasions and would often leave the room to wash dishes, which he said he enjoyed as it gave him the opportunity to think. His favorite game was poker, which he particularly enjoyed playing with his fellow cartoonists. Herriman had a great love of animals, and had a large number of dogs and cats; he had five dogs and thirteen cats in 1934. He usually kept to a vegetarian diet, except when it made him feel too weak, and he refused to ride horses. He so admired Henry Ford's pacifist stance that he would only buy Ford automobiles. He purchased a new model annually. Herriman married his childhood sweetheart Mabel Lillian Bridge in Los Angeles on July 7, 1902. They had two daughters: Mabel (b. 1903), nicknamed "Toodles", later "Toots") and Barbara (b. 1909), nicknamed "Bobbie", who had epilepsy and died unexpectedly in 1939 at the age of 30. Race and identity Herriman was born to mixed-race parents, and his birth certificate lists Herriman as "colored". In the post–Plessy v. Ferguson U.S., in which "separate but equal" racial segregation was enshrined, people of mixed race had to choose to identify themselves as either black or white. Herriman seems to have identified himself as white. According to comics academic Jeet Heer, his early work is "replete with black caricatures", such as Musical Mose, in which the lead character, an African-American musician, wishes his "color would fade". Racial ambivalence crept into Krazy Kat, such as on two occasions where Krazy's black fur was dyed white. Ignatz falls in love with the whitened Krazy, only to return to hatred and brick-throwing when the truth is revealed. Similarly, in an oft-repeated joke, Ignatz would accidentally become covered with coal dust and would be spurned by the normally love-struck Krazy. In one such episode, a brick thrown by the blackened Ignatz hits Krazy, who declares, "A lil Eetiopium Mice, black like a month from midnights. Fuwi!" Once Ignatz reverts to his white self, Krazy loves him again. Herriman's ethnic heritage was unknown to his colleagues. Fellow cartoonist Tad Dorgan nicknamed him "the Greek", a label which stuck and was taken up by his biographers and the press, who called him the son of a Greek baker. At other times, he was identified as French, Irish, and Turkish. He told a friend that he was Creole, and speculated that he may have "Negro blood" in him, as he had "kinky hair". The friend said that Herriman wore a hat to hide his hair, which may have been an attempt to pass as white. Herriman said that he dreamed of being reborn a Navajo. On his death certificate, he was listed as "Caucasian", and his daughter Mabel had his father's birthplace listed as Paris and his mother's as Alsace-Lorraine. Sociologist Arthur Asa Berger made Herriman's mixed-race heritage known in 1971. While researching for Herriman's entry for the Dictionary of American Biography, Berger discovered the cartoonist's race was listed as "colored" on his birth certificate obtained from the New Orleans Board of Health. The 1880 census for New Orleans listed his parents as "mulatto". On reading this, African-American poet Ishmael Reed dedicated his 1972 novel Mumbo Jumbo to "George Herriman, Afro-American, who created Krazy Kat". Herriman came to be identified as Black or Creole in comics literature, including his first book-length biography, Krazy Kat: The Comic Art of George Herriman (1986), while the "Greek" label stuck with some biographers, and was used by Bill Blackbeard in his introductions to the Krazy and Ignatz volumes in the early 2000s. Later research at the New Orleans Public Library by cartoonist Brian Nelson showed that Herriman's maternal grandmother was born in Havana, Cuba, that all his relatives were listed as "mulatto" on the 1890 census, and that Herriman may also have had Spanish or Native American ancestry. Reception and legacy Krazy Kat was popular with intellectuals, artists and critics, and in the 1920s Herriman's modernist touches received praise. In 1921, composer John Alden Carpenter, who had long been an admirer of Herriman's work, approached him to collaborate on a Krazy Kat ballet. President Woodrow Wilson refused to miss any installment of Krazy Kat, and would take it into cabinet meetings. Writer E. B. White praised Herriman's illustrations for Archy and Mehitabel. Cartoonist Edward Sorel wrote that Krazy Kats lack of popularity later in its run was largely due to Hearst's editorial policies, in that the "lowbrow" readership at whom he aimed his papers was unlikely to appreciate Herriman's style of work, though Hearst personally championed the strip. Following Herriman's death, the strip was discontinued, unlike most popular strips which were continued by other cartoonists after their creators' deaths. His stature was such that decades after his death, his work was displayed in art galleries. Critics found Herriman's work difficult to classify and contextualize; Seldes, , and writers Adam Gopnik and Robert Warshow were among critics who tempered their enthusiasm for the strip with qualifications about its perceived naïveté and its "lowbrow" origins on the comic strip page. The strip has had a lasting influence on a large number of cartoonists. Mutts creator Patrick McDonnell calls Krazy Kat one of his foremost influences, and is co-author of Krazy Kat: The Comic Art of George Herriman (1986). Will Eisner discovered Herriman's comics when he was selling newspapers in the 1930s and called Krazy Kat "the big strong influence" on his own work. Art Spiegelman called Herriman one of his "conscious influences". Herriman's widespread influence on American , particularly his shape-shifting, psychedelic backgrounds, lack of respect for convention and his irreverence, is evident in the work of Robert Crumb, Denis Kitchen, and Bobby London. Journalist Paul Krassner called Crumb "the illegitimate offspring of Krazy Kat". Cartoonist Chris Ware was so taken with Herriman's work he made a pilgrimage to Monument Valley to see the desert landscapes that inspired much of Herriman's art. Krazy Kat was a primary influence on other cartoonists such as Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts, Bill Watterson of Calvin and Hobbes, and the Italian Massimo Mattioli. Walt Kelly paid homage to Herriman in some of his Pogo strips. Dr. Seuss expressed fondness for Krazy Kat, and children's literature scholar Philip Nel has detected Herriman's influence in Seuss's works, especially in his zig-zagging, Coconino County-like backgrounds. Multimedia artist Öyvind Fahlström appropriated Krazy Kat in a series of works from 1963 to 1965. Jay Cantor published a postmodern novel in 1987 called Krazy Kat: A Novel in Five Panels, in which the retired Krazy and Ignatz contemplate a comeback in a post-atomic world. Since 1997, the Small Press Expo has held the annual Ignatz Awards in honor of Herriman's mouse from Krazy Kat. It recognizes talent in independent comics publishing. Krazy Kat was ranked first on The Comics Journals list of the greatest comics of the twentieth century. The Society of Illustrators inducted Herriman into its Hall of Fame in 2013. Work Style Within the seeming strictures of the strip—the recurring characters, the Krazy–Ignatz–Offisa Pupp love triangle—Herriman improvised freely with the story, the shifting backgrounds, and the sex of the Krazy Kats title character. Among the multicultural influences Herriman mixed in his work were those of the Navajo and Mexican. He made creative use of language with a poetical sense, employing multilingual puns in a fanciful mix of dialects from different ethnic backgrounds. Herriman used metafictional techniques associated with postmodernism; his characters were self-aware, he frequently drew attention to himself and his drawings as drawings in his strips, and he emphasized the subjectivity of language and experience. Herriman drew with what cartoonist Edward Sorel called a "liberated, spontaneous-looking style  ...  a cartoon counterpart of expressionism". It was organic, and his pen strokes had a dynamic, thick-and-thin range which Sorel describes as instantly recognizable and difficult to imitate. The Krazy Kat Sunday pages showed Herriman experimenting most freely—each had a unique panel layout and logo, and the jumbled panels could be circles, irregular shapes, or borderless. In his last few years, Herriman's arthritis led to an ever-scratchier style of art; he used a knife to scratch out whites from inked surfaces, giving the artwork the look of a woodcut. Collections Krazy Kat has been collected in a variety of formats over the years, though Herriman's other strips have been less frequently reprinted. George Herriman's Krazy Kat (1946) was the first Krazy Kat collection; it featured an introduction by poet . Comics historian Bill Blackbeard began compiling a complete collection of Krazy Kat Sundays beginning in 1988, but the publisher Eclipse Comics went bankrupt in 1992, before the series was complete. Blackbeard's thirteen-volume Krazy and Ignatz series was published by Fantagraphics Books beginning in 2002, and was designed by Chris Ware. In 2010, Sunday Press Books released Krazy Kat: A Celebration of Sundays, which reprinted a selection of Krazy Kat Sundays and some of Herriman's pre-Krazy Kat work in a format, which approximated the original printed size of the strips. In 2012, IDW began issuing a three-volume Baron Bean reprinting, and Fantagraphics will release George Herriman's Stumble Inn. Fantagraphics has also announced plans to collect the complete Krazy Kat dailies at an unspecified time. List of comic strips Notes References Works cited Books Journals and magazines Newspapers Alt URL Web Further reading External links ignatzmouse.net, "The only website dedicated to 'Ignatz Mouse'" Comic Strip Library collection of public domain Krazy Kat strips Baron Mooch collection at Barnacle Press Herriman's Krazy Kountry at Coconino World has selections from Mary's Home from College Video tour of George Herriman's New Orleans 1880 births 1944 deaths African-American comics creators American comics creators American comics artists American comic strip cartoonists American surrealist artists Artists from New Orleans Hearst Communications people Louisiana Creole people Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees Krazy Kat

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432 Park Avenue is a residential skyscraper at 57th Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, overlooking Central Park. The tower was developed by CIM Group and Harry B. Macklowe and designed by Rafael Viñoly. A part of Billionaires' Row, 432 Park Avenue has some of the most expensive residences in the city, with the median unit selling for tens of millions of dollars. At the time of its completion, 432 Park Avenue was the third-tallest building in the United States and the tallest residential building in the world. , it is the sixth-tallest building in the United States, the fifth-tallest building in New York City, and the third-tallest residential building in the world. 432 Park Avenue has 84 numbered stories and a mezzanine above ground. The tower's exterior is a lattice of poured-in-place concrete made from white Portland cement. The tower is segmented into 12-story blocks separated by open double-story mechanical spaces that allow wind gusts to pass through the building. It features 125 condominiums and amenities such as a private restaurant for residents. The skyscraper has received mixed reviews from both professionals and the public, with commentary about both its slenderness and its symbolism as a residence for the ultra-wealthy. 432 Park Avenue is located on the site of the former Drake Hotel, which was sold to Macklowe in 2006. The project faced delays for five years because of lack of financing as well as difficulties in acquiring the properties on the site. Construction plans were approved for 432 Park Avenue in 2011 and excavations began the next year. Sales within 432 Park Avenue were launched in 2013; the building topped out during October 2014 and was officially completed in 2015. After the building's completion, residents complained of mechanical and structural problems, leading to a lawsuit in late 2021. Site The building is located in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is in the middle of the block bounded by 56th Street to the south, Madison Avenue to the west, 57th Street to the north, and Park Avenue to the east. The roughly L-shaped lot encompasses . The tower is centered within the block, while its base extends east along 56th Street to Park Avenue. The base has a frontage of on Park Avenue, though its main entrance is on 56th Street. Nearby buildings include Park Avenue Tower to the south, 550 Madison Avenue to the southwest, 590 Madison Avenue to the west, the Fuller Building and Four Seasons Hotel New York to the north, Ritz Tower to the northeast, and 425 Park Avenue to the east. Design 432 Park Avenue was designed by Rafael Viñoly, and SLCE Architects served as the architect of record. The interiors are designed by Deborah Berke and the firm Bentel & Bentel. Other firms involved in construction included structural engineer WSP Cantor Seinuk and general contractor Lendlease. The project was developed by Harry B. Macklowe's company, Macklowe Properties. Form and facade 432 Park Avenue has a mezzanine and 84 numbered stories. Five two-story windbreaks, spaced every 12 floors from the top, are unenclosed and serve to reduce the tower's wind load. The windbreaks contain modular mechanical services for the six floors above and below to reduce required ducting. The floor numbering system includes mechanical levels near the building's base, so the top story is numbered as floor 96. When 432 Park Avenue officially topped out at , it became the second-tallest building in New York City after One World Trade Center and the fifteenth-tallest building in the world. By roof height, 432 Park is the tallest building in the city , as it surpasses the rooftop of One World Trade Center. The building is so tall, even compared to others in New York City, that its construction required approval from Federal Aviation Administration. , 432 Park Avenue is the sixth-tallest building in the United States, the fifth-tallest building in New York City, and the third-tallest residential building in the world when topped-out buildings are included. At 15:1, the height-to-width ratio of 432 Park is one of the most slender in the world. The building's height was permitted by the city's zoning regulations partly because nearly a quarter of the building's floor area is devoted to structural and mechanical equipment, which is excluded from floor area ratio calculations. Due to its slenderness, the building has been characterized as part of a new breed of New York City "pencil towers". The tower's exterior is a lattice of poured-in-place concrete made from white Portland cement that forms a regular grid of apertures. Each usable floor features six windows per face, and each double-story windbreak features twelve unglazed openings per face. The base is clad with limestone, but no additional finishes were applied to the tower. Viñoly said that the regular lattice was inspired by a 1905 trash can by Austrian designer Josef Hoffmann. Structural features The superstructure is composed of a square reinforced concrete core with walls and an outer shell of columns that taper from wide at the bottom of the tower to at the top. The core houses the elevator shafts and mechanical services. The distance between the tower's core and the exterior is on all sides. The floor plates of the tower stories are square with sides, giving each floor a usable area of . The floor-to-floor height of each story is , of which at least is the depth of the floor slabs. Upper floors have slabs up to thick to add more mass, which dampens acceleration from wind loads. The foundation of the building contains about 60 rock anchors that descend into the underlying bedrock, providing stability. To mitigate swaying further, the top of the tower contains two tuned mass dampers, and several additional dampers are located in the outriggers of some of the mechanical floors. Interior The finalized plans called for 147 apartments in total: 122 luxury condominium units of one to six bedrooms between floors 34 and 96, and 25 studio units on floors 28 and 29. The penthouse units, on floors 91 through 96, contain layouts that differ from those of the units on the floors below. The tower's condominium units feature -high ceilings. The smallest unit is a studio, while the largest unit is the , six-bedroom, seven-bath penthouse on floor 96, with its own library. A sample medium-sized unit, #35B, covers with three bedrooms and four-and-a-half baths, facing south and west with views of Central Park. Macklowe initially placed thick frames on some of the windows, as he wanted to highlight the views of Central Park, but some tenants removed these frames because they took up interior space. The building's amenities include ceilings, golf training facilities, and private dining and screening rooms. On floor 12 is an private restaurant with a private terrace, which has been led by Michelin-starred chef Shaun Hergatt . Floors 12 through 16 comprise a "club unit" with a fitness center; a swimming complex with a pool, whirlpool, sauna, and steam room; private meeting rooms, including a 14-seat boardroom; and a library curated by Assouline Publishing. History Macklowe acquisition and financial crisis The 21-story, 495-room Drake Hotel had been constructed in 1926 at the corner of Park Avenue and 56th Street. In January 2006, the hotel's owner, Host Hotels & Resorts, was intending to sell the property "in the mid-$400 million range", primarily marketing the site with the prospect of replacing the aging hotel with a mixed-use skyscraper. Harry Macklowe purchased the Drake in 2006 for $418 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Following his acquisition of the hotel, Macklowe paid French delicatessen company Fauchon $4 million to shorten the terms of their lease on the ground floor of the Drake Hotel and vacate in April 2007 instead of 2016. Shortly after the agreement was reached, Fauchon sued Macklowe in New York Supreme Court claiming that the developer was harassing the store to leave by blocking their entrance with scaffolding and threatening to cut off air conditioning and access to the hotel's bathrooms. In April 2007, Macklowe purchased the Buccellati store at 46 East 57th Street for $47.5 million. This followed Macklowe's purchase of the Audemars Piguet store at 40 East 57th Street for $19.2 million, the Franck Muller store at 38 East 57th Street for $60 million, as well as 44 and 50 East 57th Street for $41 million. Following over 14 months of negotiations, Macklowe also had to pay Audemars Piguet $16.6 million to end their lease early and move across the street to 137 East 57th Street. The total cost of additional nearby parcels and air rights brought the acquisition cost to over $724 million and yielded a large L-shaped site between 56th and 57th Streets. In early 2007, Macklowe Properties secured a $543 million mortgage from Deutsche Bank on the site. Macklowe was said to be planning a 65-story Armani-branded tower that would consist of three stories of retail, offices until the 20th floor, topped by a 10-story hotel and 33 floors of residential space. Additionally, Nordstrom had signed a letter of intent to open their first New York store, a flagship, at the building's base. Macklowe had been in contract to purchase the Turnbull & Asser storefront at 42 East 57th Street for $33 million but the company's owner executed a call option in the store's lease to allow him to buy the building for $31.5 million instead. Jacob & Co's founder Jacob Arabo also demanded $100 million for the store's building at 50 East 57th Street, a price Macklowe was unable to pay. These holdouts meant Macklowe was unable to connect the other buildings he owned on East 57th Street, depriving Nordstrom of the space needed for the store's ground floor entrance. Nordstrom also reportedly required a ceiling, which was not feasible at the site. This caused Nordstrom to back out of the deal and instead open their flagship in Central Park Tower several blocks west on 57th Street. In October 2007, the New York City Department of Buildings issued demolition permits for the site; at the time, the demolition cost was estimated at $6 million, or roughly . During the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Macklowe defaulted on the Deutsche Bank loan which was due in November 2007. In October 2007, Harry Macklowe personally repaid $156.3 million of Macklowe Property's debt on the site, bringing his personal investment in the project to over $250 million. The repayment included $38 million of mezzanine loans with a 15 percent interest rate that were held by Vornado Realty Trust. In May 2008, hotelier Kirk Kerkorian and investment company Dubai World reportedly considered purchasing the site for $200 million in addition to assuming the existing debt on the property. The bank sued in August 2008 to begin foreclosure on the loan (which had amortized down to $482 million at the time) and take control of the development site. Deutsche Bank had divided the loan into 21 tranches and sold much of the debt to ten different investors including Highland Capital Management and Sorin Capital Management, earning tens of millions of dollars in fees. The bank retained just $12 million of the loan on its own balance sheet. During the height of the recession in November 2008, one of the investors, iStar Financial, was unable to find any buyers for its $224 million tranche of the debt for $160 million, representing just over 71 cents on the dollar. Initially, over 20 bidders were believed to be interested including Apollo Global Management, The Related Companies, and Silverstein Properties. Only a half-dozen bidders eventually offered between $100 million and roughly $130 million, or 45 and 58 cents on the dollar respectively. Paul Manafort and CMZ Ventures In late 2007, Joseph Sitt, founder of Thor Equities, introduced Macklowe to an investment firm named CMZ Ventures. The letters "CMZ" represented Arthur G. Cohen, a New York real estate developer; Paul Manafort, a former lobbyist, political consultant, and lawyer; and Brad Zackson, a frequent partner of Manafort and Fred Trump. In 2008, CMZ Ventures agreed to pay $850 million for the development site which would fully pay off the Deutsche Bank loan and represent a small profit on top of Macklowe's total acquisition price. In fact, the purchase price was higher even than the appraised value of $780 million, a premium of over 10 percent which was unheard of for development site purchases. The partners wanted to build a 65-story building with a Bulgari-branded luxury hotel, condominiums, a private club, and a vertical mall. In late 2008, Dmytro Firtash, a Ukrainian natural gas oligarch and alleged associate of Russian organized crime, agreed to fund $112 million in equity and paid Manafort a deposit of $25 million. The deposit was wired from a Raiffeisen Zentralbank account that U.S. officials alleged was a front for Russian organized crime "boss of bosses" Semion Mogilevich. Manafort had met Firtash while consulting for the pro-Russia Party of Regions, at the time the ruling political party in Ukraine. French fund Inovalis also agreed to arrange another $500 million of equity for the project from various backers. Ultimately, the bid fell apart when CMZ could not arrange the necessary financing. In 2011, the former prime minister of Ukraine, Yulia Tymoshenko, alleged in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York that Firtash violated the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act. Specifically, Tymoshenko stated that Firtash had used CMZ as a front organization for funds that he skimmed unlawfully from RosUkrEnergo, the natural gas company that he jointly controlled with Russian state-owned enterprise Gazprom. Tymoshenko also alleged that Firtash planned to use the money for political purposes, rather than as a real estate investment; specifically, she claimed that the money would go to help her opponent, Victor Yanukovych, who became Ukraine's president in 2010. Another CMZ Ventures investor was Oleg Deripaska, a sanctioned Russian oligarch and leader of the world's second-largest aluminum company Rusal. Deripaska agreed to invest $56 million into 432 Park Avenue through an investment fund named Pericles which was managed by Rick Gates, a Manafort partner who has since pleaded guilty to conspiracy against the United States and making false statements in the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. CIM Group investment In January 2010, CIM Group agreed to pay $305 million for the complete development site including 434 Park Avenue and 38, 40, 44 and 50 East 57th Street while keeping Macklowe involved as a partner. The investment by CIM allowed Macklowe to repay the senior-most tranche 90 cents on the dollar while the junior-most tranches were completely wiped out. At the time, the site was considered one of New York's most valuable due to its location between East 56th and 57th Streets on the west side of Park Avenue. Citigroup's private banking arm raised an additional $415 million in equity for the project from high-net-worth individuals who invested $1 million to $5 million each. Another $100 million in equity came from CIM's existing institutional investor clients. Following the investment, CIM continued to expand the development site, purchasing 46 East 57th Street for $42.5 million in January 2011. CIM and Macklowe were sued by Franck Muller in September 2010 after the company tried to evict the watch retailer from their space at 38 East 57th Street that Macklowe had purchased several years earlier for over $60 million. The building was master-leased to a real estate investment company, Sovereign Partners, who in turn had subleased the ground floor and mezzanine space to Franck Muller until 2018. CIM and Macklowe had purchased that master lease for $5.35 million in November 2008, making a CIM-owned company Franck Muller's new landlord. Subsequently, CIM and Macklowe had the building reappraised by Cushman & Wakefield who determined that the fair market rent for the space was $1.4 million per year, higher than the rent initially agreed to by Sovereign Partners. However, the CIM-owned company that had purchased Sovereign Partner's lease failed to pay this increased rent, leading to an event of default under the lease and allowing CIM and Macklowe to begin the eviction process. Franck Muller objected, claiming that CIM was essentially choosing not to pay itself the increased rent and manufacturing an excuse to evict the CIM-owned master lessee and in turn Franck Muller, the sublessee. In October, a New York Supreme Court ordered the case be determined through arbitration instead. The developers received a $30 million mortgage from Pacific Northwestern Bank on the site in early April 2011. Later that month, CIM filed dummy permits for a 5-story office building in order to begin excavation work on the site and by the following month had hired Rafael Viñoly to design the new tower. Macklowe, speaking at a real estate conference in New York, claimed the building would be "monumental" and a "capstone" to his career. In October, plans were revealed for a tall condominium tower on the site using the address 432 Park Avenue. Previously, CIM had reportedly considered using the building's lower floors as a luxury hotel similar to nearby One57 and spoken to operators including Mandarin Oriental Hotel Group, Taj Hotels, and One&Only Resorts. The next month, CIM purchased Turnbull & Asser's storefront at 42 East 57th Street for $32.4 million and concurrently sold the nearby 50 East 57th Street to the clothier for $31.5 million, allowing CIM to expand their development site and Turnbull & Asser to remain on the same block. In December 2011, LVMH reportedly considered investing in the site for an expansion of the company's "Cheval Blanc" luxury hotel chain, creating a campus with the company's nearby LVMH Tower. Construction Excavation for the building's foundations began in early 2012. In March, CIM filed plans for the full building, revealing its 82-story, height. The New York City Department of Buildings issued the construction permit two months later. By September 2012, the building's concrete foundation had been completed and the tower crane had been installed. The building passed street level by the end of the year. As construction progressed, 432 Park's developers raised asking prices for the building's units several times. A brochure in June 2012 indicated that units would cost , but that rate had increased to by September 2012. By March 2013, asking prices had reached . The project's second crane was installed in early 2012. In October 2012, the development also received $400 million in construction financing from hedge fund The Children's Investment Fund Management. The construction loan carried a low loan-to-value ratio of under 40 percent but an unusually high interest rate of over 10 percent per year. However, the loan was also nonrecourse meaning that the lender could not go after CIM or Macklowe's other assets if they defaulted on the construction loan. Construction was temporarily halted in February 2013 after crews damaged a neighboring building and the Department of Buildings gave the project several safety violations. Though work resumed within the month, a worker was injured in an on-site construction accident that March, when a piece of wood dropped from the fifth story. In mid-2013, developers filed a revision to the plan to add another floor. This was achieved by converting floor 95, a formerly double-height story, into two separate stories of standard height. Also in March, sales officially launched from an office at the nearby General Motors Building, with units being listed at between $20 million to $82.5 million apiece. At the time, the developers claimed more than a third of the building's units were already under contract. To assist with marketing, Macklowe spent $1 million on a four-minute film that would air exclusively in the sales center. The film, directed by Danny Forster and filmed at Silvercup Studios, follows a young woman leaving her English country house in a 1957 Rolls-Royce and taking a Learjet to her new home at 432 Park Avenue. The film also featured famed French high-wire artist Philippe Petit dangling from a helicopter, music by Cass Elliot, references to Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion and the Pantheon, and depictions of King Kong, Le Corbusier, Al Capone, and Anna May Wong. 432 Park Avenue passed the mark in June 2014. The topping out ceremony was held on October 10, 2014, signifying that the building had reached its maximum height. 432 Park Avenue was nearly completed in January 2015 when work was temporarily halted again after another construction accident. In November 2015, Macklowe added a team from brokerage Douglas Elliman to supplement the developer's internal sales team tasked with selling the tower's units. By early 2016, several websites reported that 432 Park had been officially completed on December 23, 2015. Post-opening 2010s In June 2016, Macklowe Properties agreed to pay $411.1 million to acquire the building's retail component from CIM. Several months later, it was announced that boutique watch store Richard Mille would occupy part of the ground-floor retail space. The , two-story store opened in October 2018. At the time, Richard Mille was the only retail tenant. Two months later, auction house Phillips signed a contract for retail space, consisting of at the base of the building, as well as underground, with plans to move into the space in May 2020. By the end of 2018, John Barrett also agreed to open a salon on the building's second floor and boutique perfumery Amaffi leased on the ground floor. Joanne Podell, broker for Cushman & Wakefield, stated in 2019 that she had to promise lower rents in order to attract retail tenants. In 2016, Linda Macklowe filed for divorce from Harry Macklowe. As part of the divorce proceedings, she filed a lawsuit in September 2017 claiming that Harry illegally shrunk a condo on the building's 78th floor that Linda had agreed to purchase for $14.4 million. The couple initially agreed to purchase "his and hers" condominiums on the 78th floor in 2013, with Linda occupying the smaller "A" unit and Harry purchasing the larger "B" unit. After paying a deposit of $2.2 million, Linda claimed that the developers delayed closing four times and shrunk her unit from to , giving the additional space to Harry's neighboring "B" unit. The divorce court judge ordered the tower's developers to give Linda until December 21, 2017, to decide whether to purchase the downsized unit. Linda instead chose to remain at the couple's penthouse in the nearby Plaza Hotel and dropped her lawsuit over the unit's shrinkage in exchange for the return of her $2.2 million deposit. The divorce trial also revealed that Macklowe earned just $2.5 million from his investment in 432 Park Avenue and held only a $15.7 million equity stake in the retail portion of the development. Following his subsequent marriage to Patricia Landeau, Macklowe installed a portrait of the couple taken by Studio Harcourt on the northwest corner of the tower's retail space in March 2019. The wedding's 200-person reception took place on the building's 78th floor in a condo that was turned into a temporary ballroom. The building also hosted an event for theater director Robert Wilson's Watermill Center as part of the Park Avenue Armory's "Armory Week" of art sales in January 2018. The event, attended by Macklowe, Zac Posen, and Claude Grunitzky, was notable for employing multiple nude performers in a departure from the more classically focused events of Armory Week which centered on 18th and 19th century art. 2020s Allegations of defects and complaints by residents were published by The New York Times in early 2021. According to the report, a leak at a mechanical floor forced two elevators out of service for several weeks in 2018. Flood damage has been reported in several apartments, and at least one would-be buyer reneged due to that issue. Other complaints have included high wind trapping a resident inside an elevator and causing "creaking, banging and clicking noises", which, according to structural engineers, are issues that have been affecting multiple supertall skyscrapers. A study commissioned by a group of residents found 73 percent of mechanical, plumbing, or electrical infrastructure in the building was not built to plans. In response, general contractor Lendlease said they had contacted CIM and Macklowe about the issues. Residents have also taken issue with the high annual costs of the private restaurant service (which rose from $1,200 per household in 2015 to $15,000 in 2020) as well as the 300 percent increase in insurance costs during a two-year period. Due to these and other issues with the building, the condo board sued CIM Group and Macklowe Properties in September 2021. An engineer hired by the board discovered an alleged 1,500 flaws in the building. At the time of the lawsuit, only one apartment sale at the building had been finalized since the beginning of 2021, even though there were 11 vacant units. Prior to Labor Day in 2021, the entire building had to be vacated for two entire days for extensive repairs in the building's electrical system. CIM filed its answer to the lawsuit that December, claiming that the safety complaints were "vastly exaggerated". Residents As early as 2012, a dozen potential clients were described as being interested in occupying units at 432 Park, and by the next year, tenants had signed contracts for over a third of the units. The following year, that proportion had risen above 50%, with all of the tenants collectively paying an estimated $1 billion. By the end of 2015, close to 90 percent of the apartments had been sold, with almost half of those owned by a foreign citizen, "part of a global elite that collects residences like art." Many of the buyers were wealthy Chinese, though there were also numerous Brazilian and Russian clients. The German newspaper Der Spiegel estimated that the majority of the units would remain unoccupied for more than ten months a year. Notable residents include Lewis A. Sanders, Bennett LeBow, Ye Jianming, David Chu, Hely Nahmad, Jennifer Lopez, and Alex Rodriguez. Other wealthy residents include Bridgewater Associates executive Bob Prince and Douglas Elliman owner Howard Lorber. Apartment selling prices In 2016, 81 of the 104 units were sold at a median price of $18.4 million; by the following year, the remaining unsold units were put for sale at prices between $6.5 and $82 million. The first sale to be completed was that of apartment #35B, which was reported in January 2016 for $18.116 million, more than the $17.75 million asking price. Ten additional apartments were available at that time, ranging from $17.4 to $44.25 million. The median penthouse units were more expensive than the other units. Two penthouses on floor 91 were sold for $60 million in 2018 to Caryl Schechter, the wife of hedge-fund manager Israel Englander, while three penthouse units on floors 92 and 93 were sold in 2017 for a combined $91 million. The 94th-floor penthouse was sold for $32.4 million in 2019, about 25 percent lower than the original asking price. The 95th-floor penthouse, originally listed for $82 million, was split in half in 2018 and the individual units were sold at $30 million. The highest unit, on floor 96, was listed at $95 million but actually sold to Saudi businessman Fawaz Alhokair for $88 million in 2016. The sale of all of the units was expected to bring in a total of $3.1 billion, the highest aggregate sales price of any building in New York City. , almost all of the units had been sold. After the structural issues at 432 Park Avenue were publicized, Alhokair placed his apartment for sale in June 2021 with an asking price of $169 million. Critical reception The skyscraper has received mixed reviews from both professionals and the public. 432 Park's slenderness and simplicity have been the subject of both praise and criticism. For example, Jonathan Margolis of the Financial Times said, "I have become obsessed by the almost childlike simplicity of 432 Park Ave". Aaron Betsky of Architect magazine called 432 Park "a gridded tube abstracting and punctuating the more leaden masses of the lesser boxes around it", while James Gardner of The Real Deal said that "the sense of pure geometry, the almost polemical denial of scale, only enhances the sense of immensity." Conversely, the architecture critic for New York magazine, Justin Davidson, wrote that the building is nothing more than "stacked cubbyhole units" and questioned the creative value of the building. The fashion consultant Tim Gunn described the building as "just a thin column. It needs a little cap." Some critics have cited 432 Park Avenue as a representation of New York's increasing cost of living and ostentatious wealth. A critic for the Los Angeles Times called the skyscraper an "architectural emblem of rising inequality", while New York magazine called the building's units "fancy prisons for billionaires". 432 Park's association to wealth inequality was also remarked upon by the building's own architect, Viñoly, who commented that "There are only two markets, ultraluxury and subsidized housing." Several residents of nearby buildings said that the influx of rich residents at 432 Park Avenue would increase the worth of their own properties. Though Viñoly and Macklowe were friends, they often insulted each other over the various perceived flaws in the design. Viñoly called Macklowe "a truck driver with an education in aesthetics", while Macklowe said that Viñoly's supertall design was motivated by "penis envy" among the city's developers, who were vying to build the tallest structures. In 2016, Viñoly reportedly joked that the design had a "couple of screw-ups", such as Macklowe's window frames, the placement of the restrooms, and Berke's interior design; he later apologized for his comments. See also 125 Greenwich Street List of tallest buildings in New York City List of tallest buildings in the United States List of tallest residential buildings References Notes Citations External links 2015 establishments in New York City Condominiums and housing cooperatives in Manhattan Midtown Manhattan Park Avenue Pencil towers in New York City Rafael Viñoly buildings Residential buildings completed in 2015 Residential condominiums in New York City Residential skyscrapers in Manhattan Skyscrapers on 57th Street (Manhattan) Structures with tuned mass dampers 2010s in Manhattan

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Henry James Redknapp (born 2 March 1947) is an English former football manager and player. He has previously managed AFC Bournemouth, West Ham United, Portsmouth, Southampton, Tottenham Hotspur, Queens Park Rangers and Birmingham City. In his second spell at Portsmouth, he managed the side that won the 2008 FA Cup. At the conclusion of the 2009–10 season, he guided Tottenham into the UEFA Champions League. Redknapp announced his retirement from football management in 2017. His son, Jamie Redknapp, played under him at Bournemouth and Southampton. He is also uncle to Frank Lampard, who played under him at West Ham United. Early life Redknapp was born in Poplar, London, the only child of Henry Joseph William Redknapp (1922–1996) and Violet May Brown (1924–2001). At age 11, while Redknapp was playing for East London Schools football, he was spotted by Dickie Walker, a Tottenham Hotspur scout. From there, Redknapp grew in the Tottenham youth ranks playing at Cheshunt, meeting the likes of Bill Nicholson, Dave Mackay and Danny Blanchflower. At age 15, Redknapp moved to West Ham United and played alongside Bobby Moore. In a 2008 interview, Redknapp stated as part of a tribute to Tom Finney, "I was a big Arsenal fan as a kid and I remember seeing him play against Tommy Docherty one night." After being appointed Tottenham manager later in 2008, Redknapp stressed his Tottenham connections as well, stating:I am a big follower of the history of the game and Tottenham have been a great club over the years. I followed Tottenham, I trained there as an 11-year-old, 12-year-old so I know the history of the club. It is a big, big club. Club career West Ham United During his playing career, Redknapp played as a midfielder. He began his career with Tottenham Hotspur, playing for the youth team until he was 15 years old, when he moved to West Ham United. He first broke into the first team at West Ham in the 1965–66 season, making seven appearances and scoring one goal. He made his debut for West Ham in a 1–1 draw at home to Sunderland on 23 August 1965. His first goal came in a 4–1 away win over Tottenham on 8 April 1966. Redknapp made his first start of the 1966–67 season, and scored his second goal for the club, on 3 December 1966 in a 3–0 win over West Bromwich Albion. Redknapp made 12 League appearances scoring once during his second season. During the 1967–68 season, he made 28 League appearances and scored twice, the first in a 4–2 home win over Burnley on 21 August 1967 and the second in a 5–1 away win over Sunderland on 6 September 1967. During the 1968–69 season, Redknapp made 42 appearances and scored three times, with 36 appearances coming in the league (along with two goals), three in the FA Cup appearances and three in the League Cup (along with one goal). His first league goal of the season came in a 4–0 win over West Brom on 31 August 1968, while the next came in a match in the League Cup against Bolton Wanderers, which West Ham won 4–0. Redknapp received a red card in a 2–0 away defeat at Leeds United on 12 October 1968. He had been booked for fouling Billy Bremner and was dismissed by the referee for dissent. His third goal of the season came in a 4–3 win over Queens Park Rangers on 2 November 1968. Redknapp made his first appearance of the 1969–70 season on 9 August 1969 in a 1–0 home win over Newcastle United, while his first goal of the season came in a 3–0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday on 2 September 1969. Redknapp made 26 total appearances and scored one goal; 23 of his appearances came in the league. During the 1970–71 season, Redknapp made 21 league appearances with one more coming in the League Cup. He then made a further 35 appearances during the 1971–72 season with 22 of them coming in the league. This would be his last season at the club before he moved to AFC Bournemouth for the 1972–73 season. He made 175 total appearances in both league and cup action for West Ham, scoring eight times over seven seasons. AFC Bournemouth Redknapp joined Division 3 AFC Bournemouth in 1972 from West Ham. He spent four seasons with the south coast side between 1972 and 1976. In the 1972–73 season, Redknapp made 37 appearances with 34 of them coming in the league scoring once in the league and Bournemouth finished seventh in the league. He made a further 46 appearances scoring five times during the 1973–74 season with 39 appearances in the league. Redknapp made 19 (all league) appearances during the 1974–75 season as Bournemouth were relegated to the Fourth Division. In 1975–76, he only managed nine appearances. At the end of the 1975–76 season, he moved to then Fourth Division side Brentford, where he made one appearance during the 1976–77 season. Seattle Sounders In 1976, Redknapp joined North American Soccer League (NASL) club Seattle Sounders as a player-coach. He made 15 appearances during the 1976 season as they reached the playoffs after finishing second in the Pacific Conference, Western Division, before losing to the Minnesota Kicks in the Division Championship. Before returning to Seattle, he appeared briefly for AP Leamington in the Southern League Premier Division. Redknapp then made five appearances during the 1977 season as they finished third in the Pacific Conference, Western Division, before losing out in Soccer Bowl '77 to Pelé's New York Cosmos, 2–1. Redknapp went on to make three appearances in the 1978 season and just the one in the 1979 season, before joining up with old teammate and 1966 World Cup-winning captain Bobby Moore. In 1980 he was contracted to play with ASL expansion team the Phoenix Fire, but the team folded in pre-season. International career Redknapp represented England at youth level when he was 17. He was in the side that won the 1964 UEFA European Under-18 Championship after defeating Spain 4–0 in the final. Management and coaching career Seattle Sounders and Oxford City Redknapp began his management career as player-assistant manager of NASL club Seattle Sounders from 1976 to 1979 under Jimmy Gabriel. During his time with Seattle, Redknapp made 24 appearances, helping the side to second place in the Pacific Conference, Western Division, in his first season as player-coach, and then to third place in the Pacific Conference, Western Division, for the 1977 season, taking them to the final of the Soccer Bowl before losing to Pelé's New York Cosmos. During the 1978 season, Redknapp helped Seattle to a third-place finish in the National Conference, Western Division, before they lost in the first round of the playoffs, again to the New York Cosmos. In his final year in Seattle, he helped them to another third-place finish in the National Conference, Western Division, but this time they failed to qualify for the playoffs. Redknapp then assisted his former West Ham teammate Bobby Moore at Isthmian League club Oxford City. AFC Bournemouth At the beginning of the 1982–83 season, Redknapp took up his first major coaching role as assistant manager to David Webb at AFC Bournemouth, six years after leaving the club as a player. Redknapp applied for the manager's job when Webb moved to Torquay United partway through that season, but was overlooked in favour of Don Megson. Megson was sacked in late 1983 as Bournemouth were in the Third Division relegation places, and Redknapp was hired as his replacement in October 1983. In his first season at the helm, Redknapp helped Bournemouth avoid relegation to the Fourth Division. Bournemouth also caused a shock in the FA Cup when they defeated holders Manchester United 2–0 in the third round. He led Bournemouth to victory in the inaugural Associate Members' Cup by beating Hull City in the final. Bournemouth won the Third Division title in 1987 with 97 points, breaking the club's record for the most points accumulated in a season. After two years at this level, Bournemouth were relegated at the end of their third season. Bournemouth were in 13th position on 3 March, but injuries which depleted the squad, combined with a catastrophic loss of form, meant they won only one more match that season, and were relegated on 5 May after a 1–0 defeat at Dean Court against Leeds United. Road accident In June 1990, while in Italy to watch the 1990 FIFA World Cup, Redknapp was involved in a road accident along with Michael Sinclair, the chairman of York City, Fred Whitehouse, the chairman of Aston Villa, and Bournemouth's managing director, Brian Tiler. Travelling through Latina, south of Rome, at night, their chauffeur-driven minibus was in a head-on collision with a car containing three Italian soldiers. The minibus was flipped onto its roof and skidded 50 yards along the road. Sitting in the seat where Redknapp had usually sat during the trip, Tiler was killed, as were the three occupants of the other vehicle. Redknapp was doused in petrol and pulled clear of the accident by Sinclair. Redknapp suffered a fractured skull, a broken nose, cracked ribs and a gash in his left leg. Ambulance services arriving at the scene believed him dead and placed a blanket over his head. Unconscious for two days, Redknapp was flown home two weeks later in a special air ambulance paid for by Bournemouth. Though he made a full recovery, apart from losing his sense of smell and gaining a facial tic, he eventually quit Bournemouth at the end of the 1991–92 season. West Ham United For the next season, Redknapp was appointed assistant manager to Billy Bonds at West Ham, another of his former clubs. However, in August 1994, the club board of directors opted to turn control of the team over to Redknapp and move Bonds into an administrative role. Bonds eventually resigned outright from the club, leaving Redknapp solely in charge. Just months before being promoted to the manager's seat at Upton Park, Redknapp was linked with the managerial vacancy at Southampton after the departure of previous manager Ian Branfoot, but the job went to Alan Ball instead. Redknapp helped to establish the club in the FA Premier League and introduced a number of young players from the club's academy, including Michael Carrick, Joe Cole, Rio Ferdinand and Frank Lampard. The signings of Stuart Pearce, Paolo Di Canio and Trevor Sinclair helped them re-establish their careers having been signed by Redknapp. He also made mistakes in the transfer market, particularly with overseas players, including Marco Boogers, Florin Raducioiu and Paulo Futre. Nevertheless, West Ham finished in eighth position in 1998 and fifth in 1999, which saw them qualify for the UEFA Intertoto Cup in what was their second-best ever season in the top division. In the 1999–2000 season, West Ham won the Intertoto Cup and qualified for the UEFA Cup but failed to match their performances in the Premier League. Redknapp left West Ham on 9 May 2001, one match before the end of the 2000–01 season. For some time, it was unconfirmed whether he resigned or was sacked but Redknapp shed new light on the true circumstances in October 2007: Portsmouth Redknapp became director of football for Portsmouth in 2001, and when the Leicester City manager's job became vacant with the dismissal of Peter Taylor that autumn, Redknapp was widely tipped to take over at the East Midlands club, but stayed loyal to Pompey, with the Leicester job going to Dave Bassett. Ironically, it was reported in the national media that had Redknapp taken over, Bassett would have been on his coaching staff at the East Midlands club. However, after the club's poor form, he replaced manager Graham Rix in March 2002. Redknapp managed the club to the Division One title in the 2002–03 season, gaining promotion to the Premier League, replacing his former club West Ham. Redknapp kept Portsmouth in the Premier League in the 2003–04 season, but had a dispute with Portsmouth owner Milan Mandarić over his assistant Jim Smith. Redknapp had another disagreement with Mandarić over the appointment of Velimir Zajec as director of football and resigned as manager in November 2004. Southampton A few weeks after his departure at Portsmouth, Redknapp became manager of Southampton, a move which infuriated Portsmouth's supporters, as the two clubs are fierce local rivals. Some fans even bore T-shirts which referred to Redknapp as "Scummer" and "Judas" and called for him to "Rot in Hell". Redknapp was tasked with keeping Southampton in the Premier League – a similar task to the one Redknapp was facing with Portsmouth, and a familiar one at the club over the previous 15 years, which he would have faced had he accepted the offer to take over a decade earlier – but ultimately was unable to achieve this, ending Southampton's 27-year spell in the top flight. Redknapp remained in charge for the 2005–06 Championship season but was unable to establish consistency needed to make Southampton promotion contenders. Redknapp was also unhappy with chairman Rupert Lowe's appointment of Clive Woodward to the club's coaching staff. After being repeatedly linked with a return to Portsmouth after they sacked Alain Perrin, Redknapp resigned as Southampton's manager in early December 2005. Lowe quoted Redknapp as referring to Portsmouth as his "spiritual home". Return to Portsmouth Redknapp returned to Portsmouth on 7 December 2005 with the club threatened by relegation to the Championship, although not in the relegation zone. At first it looked like Redknapp would be heading for a second successive relegation, but a fine run of form at the end of the season, aided by the takeover of Portsmouth by Alexandre Gaydamak (which provided Redknapp with more money), ensured Portsmouth's survival. In the following season, Redknapp led Portsmouth to a ninth-placed finish which was the club's highest league finish since the 1950s. In October 2007, Redknapp signed a new contract at Portsmouth lasting until 2011. In January 2008, it emerged through the media that Redknapp was offered the vacant manager's job at Newcastle United following the sacking of Sam Allardyce. Redknapp had apparently declined the job, stating, "I have a job to do to take this club forward and to walk away would not have been the right thing to do." It was later stated by Newcastle chairman Christopher Mort that Redknapp "was interviewed for the job but he was only one of a number of people we were speaking to at that time", and at the time of Redknapp's interview the club had already been in secret talks with the eventual appointee, Kevin Keegan, for a week. On 8 March 2008, Redknapp led Portsmouth to an FA Cup quarter-final victory over Manchester United, completing a hat-trick of FA Cup wins over Manchester United, and followed this with a semi-final victory over West Bromwich Albion at Wembley Stadium on 5 April. He guided the club to their first FA Cup Final in 69 years, where they defeated Cardiff City on 17 May 2008 to win The FA Cup 1–0, thanks to a goal scored by Nwankwo Kanu. He is the last English manager to win a major English trophy. Redknapp returned to Portsmouth to receive the Freedom of the City in a ceremony on 28 October 2008. As this event took place two days after his departure for Tottenham Hotspur, he received a mixed reception from the Portsmouth fans, despite having led the club to a long-awaited trophy in the 2008 FA Cup. Tottenham Hotspur In October 2008, following the sacking of Juande Ramos by Tottenham Hotspur, the club announced Redknapp had agreed to take over as the new manager at Spurs, the club where he began his playing career. Tottenham paid £5 million in compensation to Portsmouth for releasing Redknapp. Spurs had secured only two points from the first eight matches of the season prior to Redknapp's arrival and lay bottom of the Premier League table, but in his first two weeks in charge, he took the club out of the relegation zone, winning 10 out of the 12 points available after wins against Bolton Wanderers, Liverpool and Manchester City, as well as a remarkable 4–4 draw against North London rivals Arsenal. In January 2009, Redknapp signed five new players in order to add quality and much-needed depth to his squad. He brought back Jermain Defoe from his old club Portsmouth for £15.75 million and Honduran midfielder Wilson Palacios from Wigan Athletic for £12 million. Long-serving Chelsea goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini also joined on a free transfer; former Spurs player Pascal Chimbonda returned to White Hart Lane from Sunderland for a fee in the region of £3 million; and Robbie Keane, who like Chimbonda and Defoe had only left Spurs within the last year, re-joined after an unsuccessful spell at Liverpool for an initial fee of £12 million. In the second half of the season, Spurs gradually moved up the league table after a significant improvement in form. In March 2009, Redknapp led Spurs to the League Cup final, which they lost on penalties to Manchester United. Spurs eventually finished in eighth position with 51 points, narrowly missing out on a UEFA Europa League place. Redknapp made significant alterations to the squad in the summer of 2009. Striker Darren Bent was sold to Sunderland for an initial fee of £10 million, while midfielder Didier Zokora departed for Sevilla for £7.75 million. In came England international striker Peter Crouch and Croatia midfielder Niko Kranjčar from Portsmouth for £9 million and £2 million respectively along with defender Sébastien Bassong from Newcastle United for £8 million. In 2009–10, his first full campaign with the club, Redknapp guided Spurs to one of their most successful Premier League campaigns to date. Beginning with four consecutive wins, Spurs went on to finish in fourth place with 70 points, therefore gaining the chance to qualify for the UEFA Champions League via a play-off. As a result of his efforts, he won the Premier League Manager of the Year award, only the second manager to do so in a season when his side did not win the title. On 13 July 2010, it was confirmed Spurs had extended Redknapp's contract until the end of the 2013 season. On 25 August 2010, Spurs confirmed their position in the Champions League group stage by overturning a first-leg deficit to defeat Swiss team Young Boys at White Hart Lane in the Champions League play-off. After a surprising run to the quarter-finals, Spurs were eliminated in April 2011 after a 5–0 aggregate defeat to Real Madrid. Spurs ended the Premier League season in fifth position with 62 points. Although not enough to secure a second year of Champions League football, this finish instead meant that Redknapp's Spurs qualified for the Europa League. In the 2011–12 season, Redknapp signed 40-year-old goalkeeper Brad Friedel after his contract expired with Aston Villa. He also made a season-long loan move for Manchester City striker Emmanuel Adebayor. On transfer deadline day, he signed English midfielder Scott Parker for an undisclosed fee from West Ham. Redknapp then went on to win the Premier League Manager of the Month award for September and November. Despite leading Tottenham to their second fourth-placed finish in three years and missing out on UEFA Champions League qualification only due to Chelsea winning the competition, Redknapp was sacked by Tottenham on 13 June 2012, after reportedly failing to agree terms on a new contract. Queens Park Rangers On 24 November 2012, Redknapp, who had been working at former club Bournemouth in an advisory role, was appointed as manager of Queens Park Rangers, taking over from Mark Hughes, whose contract was terminated the previous day. QPR were bottom with only four points from 12 matches. His first match in charge of QPR came on 27 November, a 0–0 draw away to Sunderland. Redknapp earned his first win as QPR manager, and the club's first Premier League victory of the 2012–13 season, on 15 December after defeating Fulham 2–1 at Loftus Road. On 2 January 2013, Redknapp led QPR to a 1–0 victory away from home against reigning European champions Chelsea. This was QPR's first away win in the Premier League since November 2011 and their first top flight victory at Stamford Bridge since March 1979. His first match against Tottenham since being sacked by the North London club came on 12 January 2013, with Redknapp leading QPR to a 0–0 draw at Loftus Road. On 28 April 2013, after a 0–0 draw against fellow relegation rivals Reading, and with three matches of the season to play, QPR were relegated from the Premier League to the Championship after two seasons in the top flight. After a single season in the Championship, Redknapp managed QPR to a 1–0 victory in the Play-off Final against Derby County on 24 May 2014 at Wembley Stadium, returning the club to the Premier League. On 3 February 2015, Redknapp resigned as manager of QPR. With an imminent knee operation, Redknapp said that he could not give 100% to the job and that it would be better for someone else to take over as manager. Les Ferdinand and Chris Ramsey were placed in temporary charge. In April 2015, Redknapp expanded on his reasons for leaving QPR, stating he had also left the club because he "no longer knew who was on my side". At his time of departure, QPR were in second-last position in the Premier League with 19 points from 23 matches and a record zero points from away matches. Jordan In March 2016, Redknapp was appointed manager of Jordan national team alongside his former assistant, Kevin Bond, for the country's next two qualifying matches for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Redknapp's first match as Jordan manager, on 24 March, ended in an 8–0 win over Bangladesh. This was followed by a 5–1 defeat to Australia. Birmingham City and retirement On 18 April 2017, Redknapp was announced as the manager of Birmingham City until the end of the season after the resignation of Gianfranco Zola. His first match in charge was a 1–0 loss to local rivals Aston Villa. The final two matches of the season saw Redknapp's team beat Huddersfield Town 2–0, followed by a 1–0 away win at Bristol City, allowing Birmingham to escape any threat of relegation. In May 2017, Redknapp signed a one-year deal to continue as Birmingham manager for another season. Kevin Bond was reunited with Redknapp as assistant manager, replacing the outgoing Steve Cotterill. His first signings were David Stockdale, Marc Roberts and Cheikh N'Doye. On 16 September 2017, after five straight league defeats that left the team second bottom in the table, a statement from Birmingham City said the club were "left with no choice but to terminate the contract of the manager with immediate effect". After his sacking, Redknapp said that there was "every chance" his role as Birmingham manager would be his last managerial job. A month later, Redknapp confirmed his retirement from management after 34 years in the dugout. Other roles In January 2016, Redknapp made a return to football as a director at Wimborne Town. In March 2016, he was named as a football advisor for Derby County until the end of the 2015–16 season. On 29 April 2016, it was announced that Redknapp was to join Australian side Central Coast Mariners as a football consultant. In October 2017, following his departure from Birmingham City, Redknapp briefly joined League Two club Yeovil Town in a voluntary advisory role to manager Darren Way. On 8 February 2021, Redknapp returned to Bournemouth to assist caretaker manager Jonathan Woodgate. On 9 July 2021, Redknapp made a small cameo appearance in the popular British soap opera, East Enders. Corruption allegations and arrest On 19 September 2006, Redknapp was shown on camera by BBC Panorama taking part in what appeared to be an interest in approaching a player in a manner forbidden by FA rules. Redknapp denied that his conversation about then-Blackburn Rovers player Andy Todd with the football agent Peter Harrison amounted to "tapping up" or improperly approaching the player. Redknapp referred to Todd as a "tough bastard" during the conversation and suggested he would be interested in signing the player on a full-time basis if he was available. Redknapp told the BBC he has never taken a bung and had given Kevin Bond no reason to think otherwise and that he considers himself to be "one million percent innocent". In the final report of the Stevens inquiry, published in June 2007, the only criticism of Redknapp concerned his ownership of a racehorse named Double Fantasy thought to have been given to him by the agent Willie McKay, which has aroused some suspicion. Redknapp told the inquiry it was possible he did own the horse but insisted he had not made any money out of it because the horse was a failure and never won a race. On 28 November 2007, Redknapp, along with Portsmouth's managing director Peter Storrie, former Portsmouth chairman Milan Mandarić, agent Willie McKay and footballer Amdy Faye had been arrested by City of London Police on suspicion of conspiracy to defraud and false accounting. Redknapp was later released without charge and announced his intention to sue the police because of his arrest, considering it as the reason for the failure of the FA to consider him for manager of the England national team after the sacking of Steve McClaren. The High Court ruled in May 2008 that the raid by City of London Police officers, on Redknapp's home in Poole, was illegal and quashed the search warrants, calling their actions "wholly unacceptable" and ordering them to pay £1,000 damages to Redknapp as well as part of his legal costs. Following further investigation by HM Revenue & Customs as part of the corruption enquiry, in January 2010, Redknapp was charged with two counts of cheating the public revenue, along with Milan Mandarić. The charge related to a £189,000 payment from Mandarić to Redknapp via a bank account in Monaco. The trial began at Southwark Crown Court on 23 January 2012. Part of Redknapp's defence was that he was both dyscalculic and dyslexic and therefore had difficulty in dealing with transfer contracts. He was found not guilty on both counts on 8 February 2012. England manager's job Redknapp's acquittal came just hours before the resignation of England national team head coach Fabio Capello. Two days later, he refused to rule himself out of the running for the job, but said it would be very difficult to combine the role with his then position as Tottenham manager. A few weeks later, the FA appointed Roy Hodgson as manager. Personal life Redknapp and his wife Sandra have two sons: Jamie, a football pundit and former professional footballer; and Mark, a model. Jamie made his professional debut under his father at Bournemouth in 1990 before moving on to Liverpool and later Tottenham Hotspur and lastly Southampton before retiring in 2005. Harry's grandson via his son Mark, also called Harry Redknapp, signed for Bournemouth during May 2014. His nephew is former England midfielder Frank Lampard, Jr. whose parents are Sandra's late twin sister, Patricia, and Harry's former teammate and managerial assistant Frank Lampard, Sr. Redknapp and his wife are the fundraising presidents for the Southampton-based charity Leukaemia Busters, a role they took over in 2004 previously held by former cricketer David Gower and his wife Thorunn. Redknapp and his wife also own a property development company, Pierfront Developments. In August 2011, it was announced that a housing development their company was building in Southsea, Hampshire, would go ahead without affordable housing. The £600,000 they offered to the council to build affordable homes elsewhere, was accepted by the council. Opponents of the scheme estimated this will only be enough to build eight homes instead of the 28 that council policy says they should be building in this development. In October 2019, planning permission was granted for the company to convert a homeless shelter in Bournemouth into flats, despite pleas from residents who told planning authorities that the development would exacerbate homelessness and put their welfare at risk. In January 2011, Redknapp was mugged while attending a football match in Madrid. On 2 November 2011, he had an operation to unblock coronary arteries. Redknapp wrote for the online gambling company, Betfair, as its "Euro 2012 columnist". In 1998 Redknapp published his autobiography, Harry Redknapp: My Autobiography. It was co-written with Derek McGovern. His second autobiography, Always Managing, was published in 2013. It was ghostwritten by journalist Martin Samuel. Redknapp was a contestant in the 2018 series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! He subsequently won the show, and was crowned 'King of the Jungle'. Career statistics Player Manager Honours Player England U18 UEFA European Under-18 Championship: 1964 Manager AFC Bournemouth Associate Members' Cup: 1983–84 West Ham United UEFA Intertoto Cup: 1999 Portsmouth Football League First Division: 2002–03 FA Cup: 2007–08 Tottenham Hotspur Football League Cup runner-up: 2008–09 Queens Park Rangers Football League Championship play-offs: 2014 Individual Premier League Manager of the Season: 2009–10 Premier League Manager of the Month: November 1998, April 2004, October 2004, March 2005, April 2006, August 2009, September 2011, November 2011 Bibliography Autobiography Harry Redknapp: My Autobiography (CollinsWillow, 1998) Always Managing: My Autobiography (Ebury Press, 2013) A Man Walks On To a Pitch: Stories from a Life in Football (Ebury Press, 2014) It Shouldn't Happen to a Manager (Ebury Press, 2016) References External links Harry Redknapp West Ham United statistics Harry Hotspur – The Start of a revolution Shelfside Spurs 1947 births Living people Footballers from Poplar, London English footballers England youth international footballers Association football midfielders Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players West Ham United F.C. players AFC Bournemouth players Brentford F.C. players Seattle Sounders (1974–1983) players Leamington F.C. players English Football League players North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players English expatriate footballers English expatriate sportspeople in the United States Expatriate soccer players in the United States English football managers West Ham United F.C. managers AFC Bournemouth managers Portsmouth F.C. managers Southampton F.C. managers Tottenham Hotspur F.C. managers Queens Park Rangers F.C. managers Jordan national football team managers Derby County F.C. non-playing staff Birmingham City F.C. managers Yeovil Town F.C. non-playing staff AFC Bournemouth non-playing staff English Football League managers Premier League managers English expatriate football managers English expatriate sportspeople in Jordan Expatriate football managers in Jordan I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) winners English autobiographers English businesspeople English businesspeople in property British real estate businesspeople People with dyslexia Harry Phoenix Fire (soccer) players West Ham United F.C. non-playing staff FA Cup winning managers Association football coaches

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Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. (PPFA), or Planned Parenthood, is a nonprofit organization that provides reproductive health care in the United States and globally. It is a tax-exempt corporation under Internal Revenue Code section 501(c)(3) and a member association of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). PPFA has its roots in Brooklyn, New York, where Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in 1916. Sanger founded the American Birth Control League in 1921, which changed its name to Planned Parenthood in 1942. Planned Parenthood consists of 159 medical and non-medical affiliates, which operate over 600 health clinics in the U.S. It partners with organizations in 12 countries globally. The organization directly provides a variety of reproductive health services and sexual education, contributes to research in reproductive technology and advocates for the protection and expansion of reproductive rights. Research shows that closures of Planned Parenthood clinics lead to increases in maternal mortality rates. PPFA is the largest single provider of reproductive health services, including abortion, in the U.S. In their 2014 Annual Report, PPFA reported seeing over 2.5million patients in over 4million clinical visits and performing a total of nearly 9.5million discrete services including 324,000 abortions. Its combined annual revenue is , including approximately in government funding such as Medicaid reimbursements. Throughout its history, PPFA and its member clinics have experienced support, controversy, protests, and violent attacks. History Origins The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16, 1916, when Margaret Sanger, her sister Ethel Byrne, and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of the New York borough of Brooklyn. They distributed birth control, birth control advice, and birth control information. All three women were arrested and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act, accused of distributing obscene materials at the clinic. The so-called Brownsville trials brought national attention and support to their cause. Sanger and her co-defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges, which they appealed through two subsequent appeals courts. While the convictions were not overturned, the judge who issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician-prescribed birth control. The women's campaign led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States. In 1921, the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League, the core of the only national birth-control organization in the U.S. until the 1960s. By 1941, it was operating 222 centers and had served 49,000 clients. In 1923, Sanger opened the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau (BCCRB) for the purposes of dispensing contraceptives under the supervision of licensed physicians and studying their effectiveness. Some found the ABCL's title offensive and "against families", so the League began discussions for a new name. In 1938, a group of private citizens organized the Citizens Committee for Planned Parenthood to aid the American Birth Control League in spreading scientific knowledge about birth control to the general public. The BCCRB merged with the ABCL in 1939 to form the Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA). In 1942 the name of the BCFA was changed to the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. 1940s – 1960s Under the leadership of National Director D. Kenneth Rose, the PPFA expanded its programs and services through the 1940s, adding affiliate organizations throughout the country. By the end of World War II, the Federation was no longer solely a center for birth control services or a clearing house for contraceptive information but had emerged as a major national health organization. PPFA's programs included a full range of family planning services including marriage education and counseling, and infertility services. The leadership of the PPFA, largely consisting of businessmen and male physicians, endeavored to incorporate its contraceptive services unofficially into regional and national public health programs by emphasizing less politicized aspects such as child spacing. During the 1950s, the Federation further adjusted its programs and message to appeal to a family-centered, more conservative post war populace, while continuing to function, through its affiliated clinics, as the more reliable source of contraceptives in the country. From 1942 to 1962, PPFA concentrated its efforts on strengthening its ties to affiliates, expanding public education programs, and improving its medical and research work. By 1960, visitors to PPFA centers across the nation numbered over 300,000 per year. Largely relying on a volunteer workforce, by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country. Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay (now Mumbai), India, in 1952. In 1961, the population crisis debate, along with funding shortages, convinced PPFA to merge with the World Population Emergency Campaign, a citizens fund-raising organization to become PPFA-World Population. Both Planned Parenthood and Margaret Sanger are strongly associated with the abortion issue today. For much of the organization's history, however, and throughout Sanger's life, abortion was illegal in the U.S., and discussions of the issue were often censored. During this period, Sanger – like other American advocates of birth control – publicly condemned abortion, arguing that it would not be needed if every woman had access to birth control. 1960s – present Following Margaret Sanger, Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood, serving from 1962 until 1974. During his tenure, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the sale of the original birth control pill, giving rise to new attitudes towards women's reproductive freedom. Also during his presidency, Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health, culminating with President Richard Nixon's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low-income women to access family planning services. The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi-autonomous division during this time. The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977. Planned Parenthood began to advocate abortion law reform beginning in 1955, when the organization's medical director, Mary Calderone, convened a national conference of medical professionals on the issue. The conference was the first instance of physicians and other professionals advocating reform of the laws which criminalized abortion, and it played a key role in creating a movement for the reform of abortion laws in the U.S. Focusing, at first, on legalizing therapeutic abortion, Planned Parenthood became an increasingly vocal proponent of liberalized abortion laws during the 1960s, culminating in its call for the repeal of all anti-abortion laws in 1969. In the years that followed, the organization played a key role in landmark abortion rights cases such as Roe v Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v Casey (1992). Once abortion was legalized during the early 1970s, Planned Parenthood also began acting as an abortion provider. Faye Wattleton became the first African American president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978. Wattleton, who was also the youngest president in Planned Parenthood's history, served in this role until 1992. During her term, Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country, providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates, whose activities were spread across 50 states. From 1996 to 2006, Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt. Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF), the organization's political action committee, launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history. The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan political advocacy arm of PPFA. It engages in educational and electoral activity, including legislative advocacy, voter education, and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission. Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda, a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies, improve quality of reproductive care, and ensure access to safe and legal abortions. Another initiative was the commencement of a "Global Partnership Program", with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning. On February 15, 2006, Cecile Richards, the daughter of former Texas governor Ann Richards, and formerly the deputy chief of staff to the U.S. Rep. Nancy Pelosi (the Democratic Leader in the United States House of Representatives), became president of the organization. In 2012, Richards was voted one of Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in the World. Richards' tenure as president of the organization ended on April 30, 2018. Current Planned Parenthood board member Joe Solmonese was appointed as transition chair to temporarily oversee day-to-day operations of Planned Parenthood after Richards’ departure. On September 12, 2018, the organization announced that Leana Wen would take over as president, effective November 2018. Wen was removed as president of Planned Parenthood by the organization's board of directors on July 16, 2019. Alexis McGill Johnson, a board member and former chairwoman, became the organization's acting president. Data breaches In October 2021, a hacker gained access to the Los Angeles branch of Planned Parenthood network and obtained the personal information of approximately 400,000 patients. On December 1, 2021, The Washington Post reported that the breach was a ransomware attack. The organization did not say if they paid the ransom or if the perpetrators made any demands. There was no indication as to who was responsible for the hack. The Metropolitan Washington branch of Planned Parenthood was also hacked in 2020 with donor and patient information compromised, including dates of birth, social security numbers, financial information, and medical data. Margaret Sanger Awards In 1966, PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor, in their words, "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights." In the first year, it was awarded to four men: Carl G. Hartman, William Henry Draper Jr., Lyndon B. Johnson, and Martin Luther King Jr. Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III, Katharine Hepburn, Jane Fonda, Hillary Clinton, and Ted Turner. Services The services provided by PPFA affiliates vary by location, with just over half of all Planned Parenthood affiliates in the U.S. performing abortions. Services provided by PPFA include birth control and long-acting reversible contraception; emergency contraception; clinical breast examinations; cervical cancer screening; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling; prenatal care; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted infections; sex education; vasectomies; LGBT services; and abortion. Contrary to the assumption of some, Planned Parenthood conducts cancer screenings but does not provide mammograms. In 2013, PPFA reported seeing 2.7million patients in 4.6million clinical visits. Roughly 16% of its clients are teenagers. According to PPFA, in 2014 the organization provided 3.6million contraceptive services, 4.5million sexually transmitted infection services, about 1million cancer related services, over 1million pregnancy tests and prenatal services, over 324,000 abortion services, and over 100,000 other services, for a total of 9.5million discrete services. PPFA is well known for providing services to minorities and to poor people; according to PPFA, approximately four out of five of their clients have incomes at or below 150percent of the federal poverty level. Services for men's health include STD testing and treatment, vasectomy procedures, and erectile dysfunction services. Education is available regarding male birth control and lowering the risk of sexually transmitted diseases. Planned Parenthood won the 2020 Webby Award for Machine Learning and Bots for their Sex Education chatbot. Facilities PPFA has two national offices in the United States: one in Washington, D.C., and one in New York City. It has three international offices, including a hub office in London, England. It has 68 medical and related affiliates and 101 other affiliates including 34 political action committees. These affiliates together operate more than 700 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. PPFA owns about in property, including real estate. In addition, PPFA spends a little over per year for rented space. The largest facility, a , structure, was completed in Houston, Texas, in May 2010. Worldwide availability PPFA's international outreach and other activities are performed by Planned Parenthood Global, a division of PPFA, and by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) which now consists of more than 149 Member Associations working in more than 189 countries. The IPPF is further associated with International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates in the Caribbean and the Americas, and IPPF European Network, as well as other organizations like Family Planning Queensland, Pro Familia (Germany) (de) and mouvement français pour le planning familial (French Movement for Family Planning) (fr). Offices are located in New York, NY; Washington, D.C.; Miami, FL; Guatemala City, Guatemala; Abuja, Nigeria; and Nairobi, Kenya. The organization's focus countries are Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya. The Bloomberg Philanthropies donated for Planned Parenthood Global's reproductive health and family planning efforts in Tanzania, Nicaragua, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Uganda. Among specific countries and territories serviced by Planned Parenthood Global's reproductive planning outreach are Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Guyana, Cape Verde and Samoa. Funding Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970, when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act, amending the Public Health Service Act. Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services, including contraception and family planning information. The law had support from both Republicans and Democrats. Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that "no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition." Donors to Planned Parenthood have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Buffett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Turner Foundation, the Cullmans, and others. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions. Some donors, such as the Buffett Foundation, have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services. Pro-life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood. Corporate donors include CREDO Mobile. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2014, total revenue was : non-government health services revenue was , government revenue (such as Medicaid reimbursements) was , private contributions totaled , and came from other operating revenue. According to Planned Parenthood, 59% of the group's revenue is put towards the provision of health services, while non-medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 15%; management expenses, fundraising, and international family planning programs account for about 16%, and 10% of the revenue in 2013–2014 was not spent. Planned Parenthood receives over a third of its money in government grants and contracts (about in 2014). By law (Hyde Amendment), federal funding cannot be allocated for abortions (except in rare cases), but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services allows other funds to be reallocated for abortions. A coalition of national and local anti-abortion groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood. As a result, federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels. Eight statesAlabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Utahhave enacted such proposals. In some cases, the courts have overturned such actions, citing conflict with federal or state laws; in others the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states. In some states, Planned Parenthood was completely or partially defunded. In August 2015, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal attempted to end Louisiana's contract with Planned Parenthood to treat Medicaid patients at a time when there was an epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases in Louisiana. Planned Parenthood and three patients sued the state of Louisiana, with the United States Department of Justice siding with Planned Parenthood. On February 2, 2016, the U.S. House failed to override President Obama's veto of (Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation Act of 2015) which would have prohibited Planned Parenthood from receiving any federal Medicaid funds for one year. Late in 2016, the Obama administration issued a rule effective in January 2017 banning U.S. states from withholding federal family-planning funds from health clinics that give abortions, including Planned Parenthood affiliates; this rule mandates that local and state governments give federal funds for services related to sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy care, fertility, contraception, and breast and cervical cancer screening to qualified health providers whether or not they give abortions. However, this rule was blocked by a federal judge the day before it would have taken effect. In 2017, it was overturned by new legislation. The proposed American Health Care Act (), announced by Congressional Republicans in March 2017, would have made Planned Parenthood "ineligible for Medicaid reimbursements or federal family planning grants." On August 19, 2019, Planned Parenthood voluntarily withdrew from Title X funding due to a regulatory gag order stating that medical institutions that receive Title X funding cannot refer patients for abortions. Political advocacy Planned Parenthood is an advocate for the legal and political protection of reproductive rights. This advocacy includes helping to sponsor abortion rights and women's rights events. The Federation opposes restrictions on women's reproductive health services, including parental consent laws for minors. To justify this position, Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell, who died following an illegal abortion rather than seek parental consent for a legal one. Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion can be performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds. The organization opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions, stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain. Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions, and bans on late-term abortions including intact dilation and extraction, which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003. Planned Parenthood supports the wide availability of emergency contraception such as the PlanB pill. It opposes conscience clauses, which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs. Planned Parenthood has been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to emergency contraception for rape victims. Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education, Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence-only education in public schools. Instead, Planned Parenthood is a provider of, and endorses, comprehensive sex education, which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control. Planned Parenthood's advocacy activities are executed by the Planned Parenthood Action Fund, which is registered as a 501(c)(4) charity, and files financial information jointly with PPFA. The committee was founded in 1996, by then-president Gloria Feldt, for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset. In the 2012 election cycle, the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates. Although the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF) shares some leadership with the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, the president of PPAF, Cecile Richards, testified before Congress in September 2015 that she did not manage the organization. The Planned Parenthood Action Fund has 58 active, separately incorporated chapters in 41 states and maintains national headquarters in New York and Washington, D.C. Planned Parenthood has received grants from the Obama administration to help promote the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, or ObamaCare. Political spending Planned Parenthood spends money on politics and elections through the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (its federal political action committee), through its Super PAC, and through a variety of related 501(c)(4) entities. Planned Parenthood endorsed Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections. In the 2014 election cycle, Planned Parenthood spent on contributions to candidates and political parties (overwhelmingly to Democrats) and on independent expenditures. Before the U.S. Supreme Court Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts. A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court. Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard. In this case, "Planned Parenthood" was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter, and "Casey" was Robert Casey, the governor of Pennsylvania. The ultimate ruling was split, and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions. The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions, but found no "undue burden"—an alternative to strict scrutiny, which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution—from the other statutory requirements. Dissenting were William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Byron White. Blackmun, Rehnquist, and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case, and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion. Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety. Other related cases include: Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth (1976). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, spousal consent, clinic bookkeeping and allowed abortion methods. Portions of the challenged law were held to be constitutional, others not. Planned Parenthood Association of Kansas City v. Ashcroft (1983). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, clinic record keeping, and hospitalization requirements. Most of the challenged law was held to be constitutional. Planned Parenthood v. ACLA (2001). The American Coalition of Life Activists (ACLA) released a flier and "Wanted" posters with complete personal information about doctors who performed abortions. A civil jury and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals both found that the materials were indeed "true threats" and not protected speech. Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood (2003). Planned Parenthood sued U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales for an injunction against the enforcement of the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003. Planned Parenthood argued the act was unconstitutional because it violated the Fifth Amendment, namely in that it was overly vague, violated women's constitutional right to have access to abortion, and did not include language for exceptions for the health of the mother. Both the district court and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals agreed, but that decision was overturned in a 54 ruling by the Supreme Court. Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England (2006). Planned Parenthood et al. challenged the constitutionality of a New Hampshire parental notification law related to access to abortion. In Sandra Day O'Connor's final decision before retirement, the Supreme Court sent the case back to lower courts with instructions to seek a remedy short of wholesale invalidation of the statute. New Hampshire ended up repealing the statute via the legislative process. Other court cases Some state attorneys general have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records, citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records. In 2006, Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline, a Republican, released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public. His actions were described as "troubling" by the state Supreme Court, but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records, albeit with more stringent court-mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved. In 2007 Kline's successor, Paul J. Morrison, a Democrat, notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three-year investigation, as "an objective, unbiased and thorough examination" showed no wrongdoing. Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the Attorney General's office. In 2012, a Kansas district attorney found that the practices of the Kansas City-area Planned Parenthood clinic were "within accepted practices in the medical community" and dropped all of the remaining criminal charges. In all, the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors, all of which were ultimately dismissed. In 2006, the Indiana Court of Appeals ruled that Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse. In 2005, Planned Parenthood Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota was fined for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law. In 2012, a Texas state court judge, Gary Harger, denied Planned Parenthood request for a temporary restraining order against the State of Texas, concluding that the State may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights. Impact A 2020 study found that closures of Planned Parenthood clinics resulted in increases in the maternal mortality rate: "Planned Parenthood clinic closures negatively impacted all women, increasing mortality by 6%–15% across racial/ethnic groups." A 2016 study found that the exclusion of Planned Parenthood-affiliated clinics from Texas's Medicaid fee-for-service family-planning program was linked to reductions in the provision of contraception and an increase in child-bearing for women who used injectable contraceptives and who were covered by Medicaid. Debate and opposition Margaret Sanger and eugenics In the 1920s, various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the U.S. In her campaign to promote birth control, Sanger teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society, although she argued against many of their positions. Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary, and not based on race. Sanger advocated for "voluntary motherhood"—the right to choose when to be pregnant—for all women, as an important element of women's rights. As part of her efforts to promote birth control, however, Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics, believing that she and they both sought to "assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit". Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it, and birth control, with the more negative modern view of eugenics. Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable, disabling, or hereditary conditions, and limits on the immigration of the diseased. The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood "finds these views objectionable and outmoded" but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because "anti-family planning activists continue to attack Sanger[...] because she is an easier target" than Planned Parenthood. Abortion Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S., and has been among the most prominent targets of the U.S. pro-life movement for decades. Some members of Congress, overwhelmingly Republican, have attempted since the 1980s to end federal funding of the organization, nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011. Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services, but pro-life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are, in turn, used to provide abortions. Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S., but pro-choice advocates have argued that the organization's family planning services reduce the need for abortions; in the words of Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune, Planned Parenthood could be "characterized as America's largest abortion preventer". Pro-life activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency. Undercover videos by anti-abortion activists Periodically, pro-life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws. The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape, minors who by law need parental notification before abortion, racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African-American population, or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes. As a result of some of these videos, several Planned Parenthood workers have been disciplined or fired. However, a 2005 review by the Bush administration's Department of Health and Human Services "yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse, child molestation, sexual abuse, rape or incest". Live Action videos Beginning in 2010, Live Action released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers. Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at many affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring, advising patients on how to procure sex-selective abortions, while one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing. No criminal convictions resulted, but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure, and the organization committed to retraining its staff. Additionally, one center was placed on probation. Center for Medical Progress videos Violence by anti-abortion activists In the U.S., abortion providers have been threatened with death, and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized. Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti-abortion activists, including bombing, arson and attacks with chemical weaponry. In 1994, John Salvi entered a Brookline, Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire, murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others. He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others. In 2012, a Grand Chute, Wisconsin, Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual. In 2015, a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman, Washington was heavily damaged by arson. 2015 shooting On November 27, 2015, a gunman shot and killed two civilians and a police officer during a five-hour gun battle at the Colorado Springs, Colorado clinic. The 57-year-old gunman, Robert Dear, surrendered to police and was taken into custody. During his arrest, he gave a "rambling" interview in which, at one point, he said "no more baby parts", echoing language used in the news media about the clinic following the Center for Medical Progress videos. Dear was declared incompetent to stand trial for the shooting, citing experts' finding that he suffers from "delusional disorder, persecutory type." See also Timeline of reproductive rights legislation United States abortion-rights movement Notes References Further reading Manon Perry, Broadcasting Birth Control: Mass Media and Family Planning. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013. External links Planned Parenthood Action Fund Planned Parenthood Federation of America Records, 19181974 at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections Planned Parenthood Federation of America Records, 19282009 at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections Planned Parenthood at OpenSecrets.org United Nations: Every Woman Every Child 501(c)(3) organizations American abortion providers Health and disability rights organizations in the United States Health charities in the United States Non-profit organizations based in New York City Organizations established in 1916 Abortion-rights organizations in the United States Women's health International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates

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The history of bisexuality concerns the history of the bisexual sexual orientation. Ancient and medieval history of bisexuality, when the term did not exist as such, consists of anecdotes of sexual behaviour and relationships between people of the same and different sexes. A modern definition of bisexuality began to take shape in the mid-nineteenth century within three interconnected domains of knowledge: biology, psychology and sexuality. In modern Western culture, the term bisexual was first defined in a binary approach as a person with romantic or sexual attraction to both men and women. The term bisexual is defined later in the twentieth century (for example by Robin Ochs) as a person who is sexually and/or romantically attracted to both males and females, or as a person who is sexually and/or romantically attracted to people regardless of sex or gender identity, which is sometimes termed pansexuality. The first use of the word "bisexual" with the meaning of sexual attraction to both men and women dates back to the 19th century, when the German psychologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing used it to refer to the gender of individuals whom he believed exhibited both feminine and masculine behaviours. In English the word was used in 1892 by Charles Gilbert Chaddock, an American neurologist, when he translated the 7th edition of Krafft-Ebing's book Psychopathia Sexualis. Prior to Krafft-Ebing, "bisexual" usually meant having both female and male parts as in hermaphroditic or monoicous plants, or in the sense of mixed-sex education, meaning inclusive of both males and females. From the 1970s onwards, bisexuality as a distinct sexual orientation gained visibility in Western literature, academia and activism. Despite a wave of research and activism around bisexuality, bisexual people have often been marginalised in literature, film and research. Societal attitudes towards bisexuality vary by culture and history; however, there is no substantial evidence that the rate of same-sex attraction has varied across time. Prior to the contemporary discussion of sexuality as a phenomenon associated with personal identity, ancient and medieval culture viewed bisexuality as the experience of homosexual and heterosexual relationships. The cultures of ancient Greece and Rome accepted that adult men were involved in homosexual relationships, as long as they took the active role of penetration. Ancient history Ancient cultures and societies have conceptualised sexual desire and behaviour in a variety of ways throughout history, which are subject to debates. Homosexual relationships between men are more visible and recorded than those between women in literature and hisorical texts. Sexual relations between women are, however, present in the literature of ancient China. Ancient Greece Ancient Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic. Same sex relationships between boys and men as a part of rituals in pre-city Greece were researched and confirmed by scholars. The sexual and romantic relationship between males were not recorded explicitly by Iliad or Odyssey. The Greeks did not distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate practices, but had a concept of aphrodisia, sexual acts that give pleasure, regardless of whether they are performed with a man or a woman. There was, however, a notion of (active) subject and (passive) object in the relationship between two persons, one of whom is an object and necessarily dominated by the other. However, Plato and Aristotle disagree on the place of men and women. For Plato, both men and women can be subjects or objects, whereas for Aristotle women are necessarily passive objects. For both philosophers, however, the male hierarchy is unquestioned. Ancient Rome In Ancient Rome a freeborn Roman performing the penetrative role could have sex with male and female partners as it was considered socially acceptable. The social status of the partners was more important to judge the moral aspects than their sex. Once married, a man was supposed to have sexual relations only with prostitutes, slaves and infames. Having sex with another freeborn man's wife, his marriageable daughter, his underage son, or with the man himself was not socially accepted and was considered immoral. Sexual use of another man's slave was subject to the owner's permission. The crucial factor was the capacity of performing self control and managing one's sex life to prove that a freeborn was capable of governing others. Giving too much focus on sensual pleasure could undermine the man's standing and his identity as a cultured person. Ancient Japan The existence of men having sex with men in Japan has been documented since ancient times. There were few laws restricting sexual behaviors in Japan before the early modern period. Anal sodomy was prohibited by law in 1872, but the provision was not repealed until seven years later by the Penal Code of 1880 in accordance with the Napoleonic Code. Historical practices identified by research as homosexual include shudō (衆 道), wakashudō (若 衆 道) and nanshoku (男 色). Several authors have noted a strong historical tradition of open bisexuality and homosexuality among male Buddhist institutions in Japan. Genshin, a Tendai priest criticised homosexuality in severe terms, but the condemnation had more to do with condemning the practice with a man that was not under one's authority some interpreted his position as a condemnation of practices with an acolyte who was not under his authority. A wakashū (headscarf-wearing) sneaks a kiss to a prostitute behind his boss' back. Nishikawa Sukenobu, ca. 1716-1735. Hand-coloured shunga print. These practices are recounted in countless literary works, most of which have yet to be translated. English translations are available, however, for Ihara Saikaku, who featured a bisexual man in The Life of a Man in Love (1682), for Jippensha Ikku's account of the first gay relationship in the post-publication 'Preface' to Shank's Mare (1802 et seq), and Ueda Akinari's portrayal of a gay Buddhist monk in Tales of Moonlight and Rain (1776). Similarly, many of the greatest artists of the period, such as Hokusai and Hiroshige, took pride in documenting such love affairs in their prints, known as Ukiyo-e, pictures of the floating world, where they adopt an erotic tone, shunga or springtime pictures. Nanshoku was not considered incompatible with heterosexuality; books of erotic prints dedicated to nanshoku often featured erotic images of young women (concubines, mekake or prostitutes, jōrō) as well as attractive teenagers (wakashū) and young cross-dressers (onnagata). Similarly, women were seen as particularly attracted to wakashū and onnagata, and it was assumed that these young men would return this interest. Nanshoku practitioners and the young men they desired would be considered bisexual in modern terminology. Ancient China In Ancient China, there are many historical records about same sex relationships between upper-class people. The writings on sexuality in literature and historical records in ancient China are often allusive and implied, using phrases and words only recognizable for people who are familiar with the literary culture and background. Words like "Long Yang (龙阳 lóngyáng)" and "male trend (男風; nánfēng)" are created to describe men who are engaged in a sexual or romantic relationship with men. Although women's same sex relationships are less recorded compared to men's, some researchers believe that societal attitude towards same sex relationship between women are more stable compared to that of men's. People who engage in sexual or romantic relationships with the same sex typically also engage in heterosexual relationships. For example, emperors who have male concubines also have female concubines and offspring. In addition, the concept of sexual identity was not present in ancient China before Westerners' introduction of the idea. One example that produced the word that describes a homosexual relationship - Duànxiù, or "breaking the sleeve" - happened between the Han Emperor Ai and his male lover Dong Xian (董賢). Emperor Ai was so devoted to his male lover that he attempted to pass the throne on to him. When Emperor Ai had to leave early in the morning, the Emperor carefully cut off his sleeve to not waken Dongxian, who had fallen asleep on top of it. People in China will imitate the cutting of sleeves to express their love for same sex lovers. One of the most well-known historical stories about same sex relationships in ancient China is the story of "YuTao (余桃 yútáo)", the "leftover peach", as documented in the Intrigues of the Warring States. The book is a collection of political idioms and historical stories written by Han Fei (280 - 233 BC), a Chinese philosopher. Han Fei recorded this story between Mi Zixia (彌子瑕) and Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公). His male lover Mi found a very sweet peach in the garden; after tasting it, he shared the remaining half with Emperor Ling. As more Western and Central Asian visitors came to China during the Tang Dynasty, China became increasingly influenced by the sexual moral conduct of foreigners. Female companions of emperors began accumulating political power which only male companions could gain in the past. Same-sex relationships became more allusive and less recorded in the Tang Dynasty. From the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, stories about female same-sex companions between Buddhist and Taoist nuns were first discovered. Modern history According to Dutch anthropologist Gert Hekma, the term bisexual was used in Dutch for the first time in 1877, to refer to a hermaphrodite who had their sexual career as both a heterosexual woman and a heterosexual man. Later, the term bisexuality is used to represent both the double sexual-object choice and androgyny. Since the 19th century, bisexuality became a term with at least three different yet interconnected meanings. In the field of biology and anatomy, it referred to biological organisms that are sexually undifferentiated between male and female. By the early 20th century, in the field of psychology, bisexuality is used to describe a combination of masculinity and femininity in people psychologically instead of biologically. In the late 20th century, particularly since the AIDS epidemic, bisexuality is seen as sexual attraction to both male and female. Therefore, the contemporary history of bisexuality involved many intellectual, conceptual and sociocultural changes. Freudian theory In 1905, Sigmund Freud presented his theory of psychosexual development in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. In the book, he wished to demonstrate that bisexuality was the baseline sexual orientation for humans. Freud established his theory on a biological development basis that children in the pregenital phasedo not make a diffference between female and male sexes, but believe that both parents have the same reproductive powers and identical genitalia. When children reach the phallic stage, their gender identity becomes stable, and heterosexuality is the gradual result of the repression of an initial bisexuality. According to Freud, during the phallic stage, children develop an Oedipus complex where they have an inconscious sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite gender and feel jalousy towards the parent of the same gender. This situation transforms later into unconscious transference and conscious identification with the hated parent, providing a structural model which appeases sexual impulse towards the parnet asribed to the same sex by also provoking a fear of castration by the parent of the opposite sex to appease sexual impulses. Carl Jung criticized the notion of bisexuality lying at the basis for psychic life, and the fact that Freud did not according to him give an adequate description of the female child. In 1913 he proposed the Electra complex. Freud rejected this suggestion. Kinsey reports In 1948, American biologist Alfred C. Kinsey, who was himself bisexual, published two books on human sexual behaviors, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, which are widely known as the "Kinsey reports". Kinsey and his team conducted 1,600 interviews with people about their sexual histories. Kinsey rejected the notion of a clear-cut line between different sexualities. Instead of assigning people to different categories of sexualities, Kinsey and his colleagues developed a seven-level Kinsey scale. The scale considered people between K=1 and K=5 as "ambisexual" or "bisexual". According to the Kinsey Institute, the books Kinsey published sold nearly a million copies around the world and were influential in revolutionizing the public perception of sexuality. Their research found that 11.6% of white males in United States (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response throughout their adult lives, and that 7% of single females (ages 20–35) and 4% of previously married females (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response for this period of their lives. As a result of this research, the earlier meanings of the word "bisexual" were largely displaced by the meaning of being attracted to both sexes. However, Kinsey himself disliked the use of the term bisexual to describe individuals who engage in sexual activity with both sexes, preferring to use "bisexual" in its original, biological sense as hermaphroditic, and saying, "Until it is demonstrated [that] taste in a sexual relation is dependent upon the individual containing within his [sic] anatomy both male and female structures, or male and female physiological capacities, it is unfortunate to call such individuals bisexual". In the United States 1850 to 1950 The first English-language use of the word "bisexual", in the sense of being sexually attracted to both women and men, was by the American neurologist Charles Gilbert Chaddock in his 1892 translation of the same term used in the same way in the 7th edition of Krafft-Ebing's seminal work Psychopathia Sexualis. Prior to Krafft-Ebing, "bisexual" was usually used to mean having both female and male parts as in hermaphroditic or monoicous plants, or to mean inclusive of both males and females as in the sense of mixed-sex education. Under any label, openly bisexual people were rare in early American life. One notable exception was the openly bisexual poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, who received the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver in 1923. Furthermore, the poet Walt Whitman is usually described by biographers as either bisexual or homosexual in his feelings and attractions. Early film, being a cutting-edge medium, also provided opportunity for bisexuality to be expressed. In 1914 the first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in A Florida Enchantment, by Sidney Drew. However, due to the censorship legally required by the Hays Code, the word bisexual could not be mentioned and almost no bisexual characters appeared in American film from 1934 until 1968. 1960s LGBT political activism became more prominent in this decade. The first public protests for equal rights for gay and lesbian people were staged at governmental offices and historic landmarks in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. between 1965 and 1969. In DC, protesters picketed in front of the White House, Pentagon, and the U.S. Civil Service Commission. Two of the protesters at the second White House picket, Judith "J.D." Kuch and Kris "Gene" Kleeberg, identified themselves as bisexual. In 1966 the Student Homophile League at New York University and Columbia University was founded by Stephen Donaldson (aka Donny the Punk), a bisexual activist.Columbia University officially recognized this group in 1967 and it became the official first gay student group college in the United States to be officially recognize by a university. Activism on behalf of bisexuals in particular also began to grow, especially in San Francisco. Still in San Francisco, in 1967 Frank Esposito and Margo Rila and founded one of the earliest organizations for bisexuals, the Sexual Freedom League in. In 1969 protests erupted during a police raid at the Stonewall bar. Police raids were frequent in queer bars, and people grew tired of being controlled and harassed by the police.The protesters were Bar patrons and them were bisexeals. One of the main figure who started the rebellion was These events are known as The Stonewall Rebellion and are usually accepted as a milestone marking the beginning of the LGBT rights movement. In commemoration of this, the next year the first LGBT pride march was held. Brenda Howard, a bisexual activist coordinated the first LGBT Pride march and later became celebrated as the "Mother of Pride". She came up with the idea for organising events over one week around Pride Day which later generated the annual LGBT Pride celebrations that are now held around the world every June. Brenda Howard, with the bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) and gay activist L. Craig Schoonmaker were instrumental in disseminating the word "Pride" for these festivities.Tom Limoncelli, another bisexual activist later said "The next time someone asks you why LGBT Pride marches exist or why [LGBT] Pride Month is June tell them 'A bisexual woman named Brenda Howard thought it should be. 1970s Bisexuals became more prominent in the media in the 1970s. In New York City, Don Fass founded the National Bisexual Liberation group in 1972, which issued The Bisexual Expression, most likely the earliest bisexual newsletter. In 1973 bisexual activist Woody Glenn was interviewed by a radio show of the National Organization for Women on WICC in Bridgeport, Connecticut. In 1974, both Newsweek and Time ran stories on "bisexual chic", bringing bisexuality to mainstream attention as never before. In 1976 the landmark book View from Another Closet: Exploring Bisexuality in Women, by Janet Mode, was published. In a September 1976 interview with Playboy, androgynous glam rock musician and pop star David Bowie discussed being bisexual; his wife, Angie Bowie, was also public in her assertions of bisexuality during this time. Bisexuals were also important contributors to the larger LGBT rights movement. In 1972, Bill Beasley, who was a bisexual activist in the Civil Rights Movement and well as the LGBT movement, was organized the first Gay Pride March in Los Angeles. He was also active with the Gay Liberation Front. In 1975, activist Carol Queen came out as bisexual and organized GAYouth in Eugene, Ore. in Dade County, Florida in 1977 the psychologist Alan Rockway, who was bisexual, was the co-author of a county ordinance that banned discrimination in areas of housing, employment, and public accommodation based on sexual orientation.It was the first LGBT rights ordinance to be voted and achieve success in America. Anita Bryant led an ati-gay campaign called Save our children against the ordinance, and Rockway began a boycott of Florida orange juice, which she advertised, in response. A press conference was orrganized in opposition to Bryant with Del Martin, Phyllis Lyon and Benjamin Spock by the San Francisco Bisexual Center. Alexei Guren founded the Gay Teen Task Force in response to Bryant's campaign in Miami. The Florida Citrus Commission canceled her contract as a direct response to this pressure. Also in 1979, Dr. Marvin Colter founded ARETE, a support and social group for bisexuals in Whittier, Calif., which marched in the 1983 Los Angeles Gay Pride Parade and had a newsletter. The bisexual movement had its own successes as well. Most notably, in 1972 a Quaker group issued the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality" supporting bisexuals. The Statement, which may have been "the first public declaration of the bisexual movement" and "was certainly the first statement on bisexuality issued by an American religious assembly", appeared in the Quaker Friends Journal and The Advocate in 1972. In 1976 the San Francisco Bisexual Center was founded by Maggi Rubensteinand Harriet Levi. The community center offered support and counselling to Bay Area bisexuals, and published a newsletter from 1976 to 1984, called The Bi Monthly. It was the longest surviving community center for bisexuals. In 1978, the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid was introduced by Fritz Klein inThe Bisexual Option. Bisexual activism also began to spread beyond the coasts, a fnd in from 1978 until 1979, several Midwestern bisexual groups were created: BI Women Welcome in Minneapolis, One To Five (by Gary Lingen and Scott Bartell for Minneapolis/St.Paul, Minn), BI Ways in Chicago, and The BI Married Men's Group in Detroit. 1980s In the 1980s AIDS began to affect the LGBT community, and bisexual people took an important role in combating it. San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein appointed David Lourea to a role on her AIDS advisory committee, resulting in the inclusion of bisexual men in official AIDS statisctics by the Department of Public Health in San Francisco. Health departments throughout the United States began to recognize bisexual men because of this, whereas before they had mostly only recognized gay men. The first American bisexual newsletter published at national scale was edited in 1988 by Gary North, and it was called Bisexuality: News, Views, and Networking. In 1989 Cliff Arnesen testified concerning bisexual, lesbian, and gay veterans' issues. He was the first veteran to do so on such issues as well as the first outed LGBT veteran to testify before the Congress about general issues concerning veterans. He testified on May 3, 1989, during formal hearings held before the U.S. House Committee on Veterans Affairs: Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. He also testified before the same Subcommittee on May 16, 1990, as part of an HIV/AIDS panel. Bisexual people also continued to be active in the larger LGBT movement. The first BiCon UK (a get-together in the United Kingdom for bisexuals, allies and friends) was held in 1984. In 1986 in San Francisco Autumn Courtney (from BiPOL) became co-chair of Lesbian Gay Freedom Day Pride Parade Committee; she was the first openly bisexual person to be elected to this sort of position in the United States. In 1987 75 bisexuals activists formed a group to march in the first ever nationwide bisexual gathering, the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. Lani Ka'ahumanu published an article for the march: "The Bisexual Movement: Are We Visible Yet?". It was the first article about bisexuals and the emerging bisexual movement to be published in a national lesbian or gay publication. The foundation of the North American Bisexual Network (NABN), was evoked during this gathering though not founded until three years later. It would later become BiNet USA. Also in 1987, Barney Frank became the first U.S. congressman to come out as gay of his own volition; he was inspired in part by the death of Stewart McKinney, a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut. Barney Frank revealed to The Washington Post that after McKinney's death there was a debate on whether he was LGBT or not and that he did not want this to happen to him. 1990s The oldest national bisexuality organization in the United States, BiNet USA (former NAMBN), was founded in 1990. It had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco, and sponsored by BiPOL. Bisexual health was included in the workshops at the conference, and the "NAMES Project" quilt included with bisexual quilt pieces. More than 450 people attended and the mayor of San Francisco declared that June 23, 1990 was the Bisexual Pride Day. The conference also inspired attendees to found the first bisexual group in their hometown, called BiNet Dallas. The bisexual movement also became more accepted as part of established institutions. In 1990, Susan Carlton offered the first university course on bisexuality in America at UC Berkeley, and in 1991, Sari Dworkin and Ron Fox, two psycologists were the founding co-chairs of the Task Force on Bisexual Issues of Division 44 in the LGBT group of the American Psychological Association. In 1997, bisexual activist and psychologist Pat Ashbrook produced for the first time a national model for LGBT support groups within the Veterans Administration hospital. Bisexual literature became more prominent in the 1990s. In 1991, the Bay Area Bisexual Network began publishing Anything That Moves: Beyond The Myths Of Bisexuality, founded by Karla Rossi, who was the managing editor of the editorial collective until 1993. It was the first national bisexual quarterly magazine.1991 also saw the publication of one of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement, Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu. After this anthology was forced to compete (and lost) in the Lambda Literary Awards under the category Lesbian Anthology, and in 2005, Directed by Desire: Collected Poems a posthumous collection of the bisexual Jamaican American writer June Jordan's work had to compete (and won) in the category "Lesbian Poetry", BiNet USA led the bisexual community in a multi-year campaign eventually resulting in the addition of a Bisexual category, starting with the 2006 Awards. In 1995, Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made the academic case for bisexuality with her book Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for "repression, religion, repugnance, denial, laziness, shyness, lack of opportunity, premature specialization, a failure of imagination, or a life already full to the brim with erotic experiences, albeit with only one person, or only one gender." Bi Community News began publishing as a monthly print journal in the UK in 1995. In 1997, bisexual activist Dr. Fritz Klein founded the first academic journal on bisexuality: Journal of Bisexuality. However, other media proved more mixed in terms of representing bisexuals. In 1990, a film with a relationship between two bisexual women, called Henry and June, became the first film to receive the NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). But in 1993, bisexual activist Sheela Lambert wrote, produced, and hosted the first television series not only for bisexuals but made by bisexuals, called Bisexual Network. Regional organizations in the bisexual movement also began to have more impact. Between 1992 and 1993 several "first" annual regional bisexual conference took place in Minnesota, Florida and Seattle: Bisexual Empowerment Conference: A Uniting, Supportive Experience (usually called BECAUSE) was the first in 1992, followed by First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference. Minnesota also changed its State Civil Rights Law, obtaining the most progressive civil rights protections for LGBT people in the country. The bisexual community in Minnesota's lobbied with LGBT groups to obtain this. Also in 1992 the First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference was organized, then in 1993 the first Northwest regional conference in Seattle. In the UK, BiPhoria was formed in 1994, the oldest bi organisation in the UK today. In 1993 the March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation took place and is considered an important moment for bisexuality rights in the USA. As a result of lobbying by BiPOL (San Francisco), openly bisexual people took leadership roles in the local and regional organization, and the word "bisexual" was included in the name of the March for the first time. Lani Ka'ahumanu spoke at the rally, and over 1,000 people marched with the bisexual group. Coinciding with the March in Washington, DC, 600 people attended the Second National Conference Celebrating Bisexuality held with the help of the Alliance of Multicultural Bisexuals, BiNet USA, and the Bisexual Resource Center. It was the largest Bisexual Conference ever held at the time. Several important surveys concerning bisexuality were conducted around this time. In 1993, Ron Fox wrote the first large scale academic study on bisexual identity, and maintained an exhaustive bibliography on bi research. Also in 1993, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior showed that 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women considered themselves bisexual. In 1995 BiNet USA Bisexual Youth Initiative, Fayetteville, N.C., developed a national LGBT youth survey, which was published and sent to communities, to improve services to bisexual youth. In 1992, Colorado voters approved by initiative an amendment to the Colorado state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize bisexuals or gay people as a protected class. This led to the 1996 Supreme Court Case Romer v. Evans, in which the Court ruled in a 6–3 decision that the state constitutional amendment in Colorado preventing protected status based upon bisexuality or homosexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause. The majority opinion in Romer stated that the amendment lacked "a rational relationship to legitimate state interests", and the dissent stated that the majority "evidently agrees that 'rational basis'—the normal test for compliance with the Equal Protection Clause—is the governing standard". The state constitutional amendment failed rational basis review. The concept of bisexual pride became more widespread in the late 1990s. At an LGBT PrideFest in Connecticut in 1997, Evelyn Mantilla came out as America's first openly bisexual state official. The next year, the Bisexual Pride flag was designed by Michael Page (it was unveiled on Dec 5th, 1998 ), and in 1999 the first Celebrate Bisexuality Day took place. It was organized by Gigi Raven Wilbur, Wendy Curry and Michael Page, and became an interrnational event held every year on September 23. In France In France, there is little research or documentation specifically related to bisexuality. One of the leading works is Catherine Deschamps' 2002 study entitled Le miroir bisexuel. In 1995 a group of four women, including Catherine Deschamps, from the Act Up-Paris movement or from lesbian associations met at the (CGL) in Paris to work on an article on bisexuality for the newspaper Le 3 Keller. In the wake of this, they created a mixed group at the CGL, and in 1997 , the first bisexual association in France, was founded from this group. In Switzerland French-speaking Switzerland In Switzerland, Stéphanie Pache founded Infobi - Antenne bisexuelle romande in Lausanne in 1997, the first bisexual association in French-speaking Switzerland. A feminist activist and involved in the LGBT movement, she was aware of her bisexuality and looked for resources and books on the issue in Switzerland, but found nothing except a book by sexologist Charlotte Wolff published in 1980. She founded a bi-group within the Vogay association, which was created on 1 July 1996 in Lausanne. The association 360 in Geneva created in 1998 also responds to the need of LGBTIQ people with the wish to have a perspective of openness integrated in its statutes to tackle for the problem with a monolith perception of gay and lesbian identities. The newspaper 360° was created at the same time. Within this association, the bi discussion group was founded, which later became the Bipan group in 2021. The group organised its first public conference on 9 October 2013 entitled "Un soupçon de liberté: la bisexualité décomplexée" at the Maison des Associations in Geneva, inviting Karl Mengel, author of the book Pour et contre la bisexualité - Libre traité d'ambivalence érotique" published by Musardines in 2009. References Bisexuality

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Peerage of England |Duke of Cornwall (1337)||Edward of Westminster||1453||1471|| |- |rowspan="2"|Duke of York (1385)||Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York||1426||1460|| |- |Edward Plantagenet, 4th Duke of York||1460||1461||Proclaimed King, and all his honours merged in the Crown |- |rowspan="2"|Duke of Norfolk (1397)||John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk||1432||1461||Died |- |John de Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk||1461||1476|| |- |Duke of Exeter (1443)||Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter||1447||1461||Attainted, and his honours became forfeited |- |rowspan="2"|Duke of Buckingham (1444)||Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham||1444||1460|| |- |Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham||1460||1483|| |- |rowspan="2"|Duke of Somerset (1448)||Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset||1455||1464||Attainted in 1461; restored in 1463; Died |- |Edmund Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset||1464||1471|| |- |Duke of Suffolk (1448)||John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk||1450||1491||Title recognized in 1463 |- |Duke of Clarence (1461)||George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence||1461||1478||New creation |- |Duke of Gloucester (1461)||Richard Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Gloucester||1461||1483||New creation |- |Earl of Warwick (1088)||Anne Neville, 16th Countess of Warwick and Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick||14481449||14921471|| |- |Earl of Arundel (1138)||William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel||1438||1487|| |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Oxford (1142)||John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford||1417||1462||Died |- |John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford||1462||1474|| |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Devon (1335)||Thomas Courtenay, 6th Earl of Devon||1458||1461||Attainted, and his honours became forfeited |- |none||1461||1470||Attainted |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Salisbury (1337)||Alice Montacute, 5th Countess of Salisbury and Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury||14281442||14621460||Died |- |Richard Neville, 6th Earl of Salisbury||1462||1471|| |- |Earl of Westmorland (1397)||Ralph Neville, 2nd Earl of Westmorland||1425||1484|| |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Northumberland (1416)||Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland||1455||1461||Attainted, and his honours became forfeited |- |none||1461||1470||Attainted |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Shrewsbury (1442)||John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury||1453||1460||Died |- |John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury||1460||1473|| |- |Earl of Kendal (1446)||John de Foix, 1st Earl of Kendal||1446||1462||Surrendered the peerage |- |Earl of Wiltshire (1449)||James Butler, 1st Earl of Wiltshire||1449||1461||Died, title extinct |- |Earl of Worcester (1449)||John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester||1449||1470|| |- |Earl of Surrey (1451)||John de Mowbray, 1st Earl of Surrey||1451||1476||Succeeded as the 4th Duke of Norfolk in 1461, see above |- |Earl of Richmond (1452)||Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond||1456||1485||(Attainted in 1461) |- |Earl of Pembroke (1452)||Jasper Tudor, 1st Earl of Pembroke||1452||1461||Attainted |- |Earl of Essex (1461)||Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex||1461||1483||New creation |- |Earl of Kent (1461)||William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent||1461||1463||New creation; died, title extinct |- |Earl of Kent (1465)||Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent||1465||1490||New creation |- |rowspan="2"|Earl Rivers (1465)||Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers||1466||1469||New creation; died |- |Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers||1469||1483|| |- |Earl of Lincoln (1467)||John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln||1467||1487||New creation |- |Earl of Northumberland (1465)||John Neville, 1st Earl of Northumberland||1465||1469||New creation; cancelled in chancery |- |rowspan="2"|Earl of Pembroke (1469)||William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke||1469||1469||New creation; created Baron Herbert in 1461; died |- |William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke||1469||1479|| |- |Earl of Devon (1469)||Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon||1469||1469||New creation; forfeited |- |rowspan="2"|Viscount Beaumont (1440)||John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont||1440||1460||Died |- |William Beaumont, 2nd Viscount Beaumont||1460||1507||Attainted 1461-1470 |- |Viscount Bourchier (1446)||Henry Bourchier, 1st Viscount Bourchier||1446||1483||Created Earl of Essex, see above |- |Viscount Lisle (1451)||Thomas Talbot, 2nd Viscount Lisle||1453||1470|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron de Ros (1264)||Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros||1421||1464||Attainted in 1461; Died |- |Edmund de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros||1464||1508||Under attainder until 1485 |- |Baron Dynham (1295)||John Dynham, 8th or 1st Baron Dynham||1467||1501|| |- |Baron Fauconberg (1295)||Joan Neville, 6th Baroness Fauconberg||1429||1490|| |- |Baron FitzWalter (1295)||Elizabeth Radcliffe, suo jure Baroness FitzWalter||1431||1485|| |- |Baron FitzWarine (1295)||Thomazine FitzWarine, suo jure Baroness FitzWarine||1433||1471|| |- |Baron Grey de Wilton (1295)||Reginald Grey, 7th Baron Grey de Wilton||1442||1493|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Clinton (1299)||John de Clinton, 5th Baron Clinton||1431||1464||Died |- |John Clinton, 6th Baron Clinton||1464||1488|| |- |Baron De La Warr (1299)||Richard West, 7th Baron De La Warr||1450||1476|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Ferrers of Chartley (1299)||Anne Ferrers, 8th Baroness Ferrers of Chartley||1450||1468||Died |- |John Devereux, 9th Baron Ferrers of Chartley||1468||1501|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Lovel (1299)||John Lovel, 8th Baron Lovel||1455||1465||Died |- |Francis Lovel, 9th Baron Lovel||1465||1485|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Scales (1299)||Thomas de Scales, 7th Baron Scales||1419||1460||Died |- |Elizabeth de Scales Woodville, Baroness Scales||1460||1473|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Welles (1299)||Lionel de Welles, 6th Baron Welles||1421||1461||Died, attainted and his honours were forfeited |- |Richard de Welles, 7th Baron Welles||1468||1469||Died, attainted and his honours were forfeited |- |Baron de Clifford (1299)||John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford||1455||1461||Died, attainted and his honours were forfeited |- |Baron Ferrers of Groby (1299)||Elizabeth Ferrers, 6th Baroness Ferrers of Groby||1445||1483|| |- |Baron Morley (1299)||Alianore Lovel, 7th Baroness Morley||1442||1476|| |- |Baron Strange of Knockyn (1299)||John le Strange, 8th Baron Strange||1449||1470|| |- |rowspan="3"|Baron Zouche of Haryngworth (1308)||William la Zouche, 5th Baron Zouche||1415||1463||Died |- |William la Zouche, 6th Baron Zouche||1463||1468||Died |- |John la Zouche, 7th Baron Zouche||1468||1526|| |- |Baron Audley of Heleigh (1313)||John Tuchet, 6th Baron Audley||1459||1490|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Cobham of Kent (1313)||Edward Brooke, 6th Baron Cobham||1442||1464||Died |- |John Brooke, 7th Baron Cobham||1464||1512|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Willoughby de Eresby (1313)||Joan Willoughby, 7th Baroness Willoughby de Eresby||1452||1462||Died |- |Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby||1462||1470|| |- |Baron Dacre (1321)||Joan Dacre, 7th Baroness Dacre||1458||1486|| |- |Baron FitzHugh (1321)||Henry FitzHugh, 5th Baron FitzHugh||1452||1472|| |- |Baron Greystock (1321)||Ralph de Greystock, 5th Baron Greystock||1436||1487|| |- |Baron Grey of Ruthyn (1325)||Edmund Grey, 4th Baron Grey de Ruthyn||1441||1490||Created Earl of Kent, see above |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Harington (1326)||William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington||1458||1460||Died |- |Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington||1460||1530|| |- |Baron Poynings (1337)||Eleanor Percy, 6th Baroness Poynings||1446||1482|| |- |Baron Scrope of Masham (1350)||Thomas Scrope, 5th Baron Scrope of Masham||1455||1475|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Botreaux (1368)||William de Botreaux, 3rd Baron Botreaux||1392||1462||Died |- |Margaret Hungerford, 4th Baroness Botreaux||1462||1477|| |- |Baron Scrope of Bolton (1371)||John Scrope, 5th Baron Scrope of Bolton||1459||1498|| |- |Baron Lumley (1384)||Thomas Lumley, 2nd Baron Lumley||1461||1480||Restored |- |Baron Bergavenny (1392)||George Neville, 4th Baron Bergavenny||1447||1492|| |- |Baron Grey of Codnor (1397)||Henry Grey, 4th Baron Grey of Codnor||1444||1496|| |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Berkeley (1421)||James Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley||1421||1463||Died |- |William de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley||1463||1492|| |- |Baron Hungerford (1426)||Robert Hungerford, 3rd Baron Hungerford||1459||1461||Attainted |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Latimer (1432)||George Neville, 1st Baron Latimer||1432||1469||Died |- |Richard Neville, 2nd Baron Latimer||1469||1530|| |- |Baron Dudley (1440)||John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley||1440||1487|| |- |Baron Sudeley (1441)||Ralph Boteler, 1st Baron Sudeley||1441||1473|| |- |Baron Saye and Sele (1447)||William Fiennes, 2nd Baron Saye and Sele||1450||1471|| |- |Baron Beauchamp of Powick (1447)||John Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp of Powick||1447||1475|| |- |Baron Rivers (1448)||Richard Woodville, 1st Baron Rivers||1448||1469||Created Earl Rivers in 1466, title held by his heirs until 1491, when it became extinct |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Stourton (1448)||John Stourton, 1st Baron Stourton||1448||1462||Died |- |William Stourton, 2nd Baron Stourton||1462||1479|| |- |Baron Vessy (1449)||Henry Bromflete, 1st Baron Vessy||1449||1469||Died, Barony became extinct |- |Baron Bonville (1449)||William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville||1449||1461||Died, title succeeded by the more senior Baroness Harington, and held by her heirs until 1554, when it was forfeited |- |Baron Egremont (1449)||Thomas Percy, 1st Baron Egremont||1449||1460||Died, title extinct |- |Baron Bergavenny (1450)||Edward Nevill, 1st Baron Bergavenny||1450||1476|| |- |Baron Richemount (1450)||Thomas Grey, 1st Baron Richemount||1450||1461||Attainted, and his honours were forfeited |- |Baron Berners (1455)||John Bourchier, 1st Baron Berners||1455||1474|| |- |Baron Stanley (1456)||Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley||1459||1504|| |- |Baron Dacre of Gilsland (1459)||Randolph Dacre, 1st Baron Dacre||1459||1461||Died, title extinct |- |Baron Neville (1459)||John Neville, Baron Neville||1459||1461||Died, attainted and title forfeited |- |Baron Montagu (1461)||John Neville, 1st Baron Montagu||1461||1471||New creation |- |Baron Cromwell (1461)||Humphrey Bourchier, 1st Baron Cromwell||1461||1471||New creation |- |Baron Hastings de Hastings (1461)||William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings||1461||1483||New creation |- |rowspan="2"|Baron Ogle (1461)||Robert Ogle, 1st Baron Ogle||1461||1469||New creation, died |- |Owen Ogle, 2nd Baron Ogle||1469||1485|| |- |Baron Wenlock (1461)||John Wenlock, 1st Baron Wenlock||1461||1471||New creation |- |Baron Mountjoy (1465)||Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy||1465||1474||New creation |- |} Peerage of Scotland |Duke of Rothesay (1398)||James Stewart, Duke of Rothesay||1452||1460||Acceeded to the Throne of Scotland |- |Duke of Albany (1456)||Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany||1456||1483|| |- |Earl of Ross (1215)||John of Islay, Earl of Ross||1449||1476|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl of Sutherland (1235)||John de Moravia, 7th Earl of Sutherland||1427||1460||Died |- |John de Moravia, 8th Earl of Sutherland||1460||1508|| |- |Earl of Orkney (1379)||William Sinclair, Earl of Orkney||1410||1476|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl of Angus (1389)||George Douglas, 4th Earl of Angus||1446||1463||Died |- |Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus||1463||1513|| |- |Earl of Crawford (1398)||David Lindsay, 5th Earl of Crawford||1453||1495|| |- |Earl of Menteith (1427)||Malise Graham, 1st Earl of Menteith||1427||1490|| |- |Earl of Huntly (1445)||Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly||1445||1470|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl of Erroll (1452)||William Hay, 1st Earl of Erroll||1452||1462||Died |- |Nicholas Hay, 2nd Earl of Erroll||1462||1470|| |- |Earl of Caithness (1455)||William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness||1455||1476|| |- |Earl of Argyll (1457)||Colin Campbell, 1st Earl of Argyll||1457||1493|| |- |Earl of Atholl (1457)||John Stewart, 1st Earl of Atholl||1457||1512|| |- |Earl of Morton (1458)||James Douglas, 1st Earl of Morton||1458||1493|| |- |Earl of Rothes (1458)||George Leslie, 1st Earl of Rothes||1458||1490|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl Marischal (1458)||William Keith, 1st Earl Marischal||1458||1463||Died |- |William Keith, 2nd Earl Marischal||1463||1483|| |- |Earl of Mar and Garioch (1459)||John Stewart, Earl of Mar and Garioch||1459||1479|| |- |Earl of Arran (1467)||Thomas Boyd, Earl of Arran||1467||1469||New creation; attainted |- |Earl of Buchan (1469)||James Stewart, 1st Earl of Buchan||1469||1499||New creation |- |Lord Erskine (1429)||Thomas Erskine, 2nd Lord Erskine||1453||1494||de jure Earl of Mar |- |Lord Somerville (1430)||John Somerville, 3rd Lord Somerville||1456||1491|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Lorne (1439)||John Stewart, 2nd Lord of Lorne||1449||1463||Died |- |William Stewart, 3rd Lord of Lorne||1463||1469||Resigned the lordship to his nephew-in-law, the 1st Earl of Argyll |- |Lord Haliburton of Dirleton (1441)||George Haliburton, 4th Lord Haliburton of Dirleton||1459||1492|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Forbes (1442)||James Forbes, 2nd Lord Forbes||1448||1462||Died |- |William Forbes, 3rd Lord Forbes||1462||1483|| |- |Lord Crichton (1443)||William Crichton, 3rd Lord Crichton||1454||1484|| |- |Lord Hamilton (1445)||James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton||1445||1479|| |- |Lord Maxwell (1445)||Robert Maxwell, 2nd Lord Maxwell||1454||1485|| |- |Lord Glamis (1445)||Alexander Lyon, 2nd Lord Glamis||1459||1486|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Graham (1445)||Patrick Graham, 1st Lord Graham||1445||1466||Died |- |William Graham, 2nd Lord Graham||1466||1472|| |- |Lord Lindsay of the Byres (1445)||John Lindsay, 1st Lord Lindsay||1445||1482|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Saltoun (1445)||Lawrence Abernethy, 1st Lord Saltoun||1445||1460||Died |- |William Abernethy, 2nd Lord Saltoun||1460||1488|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Gray (1445)||Andrew Gray, 1st Lord Gray||1445||1469||Died |- |Andrew Gray, 2nd Lord Gray||1469||1514|| |- |Lord Montgomerie (1449)||Alexander Montgomerie, 1st Lord Montgomerie||1449||1470|| |- |Lord Fleming (1451)||Robert Fleming, 1st Lord Fleming||1451||1494|| |- |Lord Seton (1451)||George Seton, 1st Lord Seton||1451||1478|| |- |Lord Borthwick (1452)||William Borthwick, 1st Lord Borthwick||1452||1470|| |- |Lord Boyd (1454)||Robert Boyd, 1st Lord Boyd||1454||1482|| |- |Lord Oliphant (1455)||Laurence Oliphant, 1st Lord Oliphant||1455||1498||New creation |- |Lord Kennedy (1457)||Gilbert Kennedy, 1st Lord Kennedy||1457||1489|| |- |rowspan=2|Lord Livingston (1458)||James Livingston, 1st Lord Livingston||1458||1467||Died |- |James Livingston, 2nd Lord Livingston||1467||1497|| |- |Lord Hailes (1458)||Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes||1458||1483|| |- |Lord Avandale (1459)||Andrew Stewart, 1st Lord Avandale||1459||1488|| |- |Lord Cathcart (1460)||Alan Cathcart, 1st Lord Cathcart||1460||1497||New creation |- |Lord Darnley (1460)||John Stewart, 1st Baron Darnley||1460||1495||New creation |- |Lord Lovat (1464)||Hugh Fraser, 1st Lord Lovat||1464||1500||New creation |- |} Peerage of Ireland |rowspan=2|Earl of Ulster (1264)||Richard of York, 8th Earl of Ulster||1425||1460||Died |- |Edward of York, 9th Earl of Ulster||1460||1461||Title merged in the Crown |- |Earl of Kildare (1316)||Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare||1434||1478|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl of Ormond (1328)||James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond||1452||1461||Died |- |John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond||1461||1478|| |- |rowspan=3|Earl of Desmond (1329)||James FitzGerald, 6th Earl of Desmond||1420||1463||Died |- |Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond||1463||1468||Died |- |James FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Desmond||1468||1487|| |- |rowspan=2|Earl of Waterford (1446)||John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Waterford||1453||1460||Died |- |John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Waterford||1460||1473|| |- |Baron Athenry (1172)||Thomas II de Bermingham||1428||1473|| |- |rowspan=2|Baron Kingsale (1223)||Patrick de Courcy, 11th Baron Kingsale||1430||1460||Died |- |Nicholas de Courcy, 12th Baron Kingsale||1460||1476|| |- |rowspan=2|Baron Kerry (1223)||Thomas Fitzmaurice, 8th Baron Kerry||1410||1469||Died |- |Edmond Fitzmaurice, 9th Baron Kerry||1469||1498|| |- |Baron Barry (1261)||William Barry, 8th Baron Barry||1420||1480|| |- |Baron Gormanston (1370)||Robert Preston, 4th Baron Gormanston||1450||1503|| |- |rowspan=2|Baron Slane (1370)||David Fleming, 5th Baron Slane||1457||1463||Died |- |Thomas Fleming, 6th Baron Slane||1463||1470|| |- |rowspan=2|Baron Howth (1425)||Christopher St Lawrence, 2nd Baron Howth||1430||1465||Died |- |Robert St Lawrence, 3rd Baron Howth||1465||1485|| |- |rowspan=3|Baron Killeen (1449)||Christopher Plunkett, 2nd Baron Killeen||1455||1462||Died |- |Christopher Plunkett, 3rd Baron Killeen||1462||1469||Died |- |Edmond Plunkett, 4th Baron Killeen||1469||1510|| |- |Baron Trimlestown (1461)||Robert Barnewall, 1st Baron Trimlestown||1461||1470||New creation |- |rowspan=2|Baron Dunsany (1462)||Christopher Plunkett, 1st Baron of Dunsany||1462||1463||New creation; died |- |Richard Plunkett, 2nd Baron of Dunsany||1463||1480|| |- |Baron Portlester (1462)||Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester||1462||1496||New creation |- |Baron Ratoath (1468)||Robert Bold, 1st Baron Ratoath||1468||1479||New creation |- |} References Lists of peers by decade 1460s in England 1460s in Ireland 15th century in England 15th century in Scotland 15th century in Ireland 15th-century English nobility 15th-century Scottish peers 15th-century Irish people Peers

doc-en-17306_0

Air France Flight 8969 was an Air France flight that was hijacked on 24 December 1994 by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA) at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers. The terrorists murdered three passengers and their intention was either to blow up the plane over the Eiffel Tower in Paris or crash the plane into it. When the aircraft reached Marseille, the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (GIGN), a counter-terror unit of the French National Gendarmerie, stormed the plane and killed all four hijackers. This was the second Air France Airbus A300 to be hijacked since Air France Flight 139 in Entebbe, Uganda, in 1976, known as Operation Entebbe. Background Algeria was in a state of civil war at the time of the hijacking. Aircraft flying to Algeria faced the possibility of missile attacks. As a result, Air France's flights to Algeria had crews entirely made of people who volunteered for the route. Air France had asked government officials if it absolutely had to continue flying to Algeria; by the time of the hijacking, they had not received a reply. 51-year-old Bernard Delhemme was the captain of the flight. Jean-Paul Borderie was the copilot, and Alain Bossuat was the flight engineer. The Airbus A300B2-1C, registered F-GBEC, had first flown on 28 February 1980. Hijacking 24 December On 24 December 1994, at Houari Boumedienne Airport in Algiers, four armed men boarded Air France Flight 8969 which was due to depart for Orly Airport, Paris at 11:15a.m. The men were dressed as Algerian presidential police; they wore blue uniforms with Air Algérie logos. Their presence originally did not cause any alarm. Two of the men began inspecting the passengers' passports while one went into the cockpit and the fourth stood guard. Claude Burgniard, a flight attendant, recalled noticing that the "police" were armed and one of them had dynamite showing, which she considered to be unusual as the Algerian police were not normally armed when carrying out checks. The Algerian military felt suspicious on noticing that the Air France flight appeared to have an unauthorised delay, so they began surrounding the aircraft. Zahida Kakachi, a passenger, recalled seeing members of the Special Intervention Group (GIS), known as "ninjas", outside the aircraft. Kakachi recalled hearing one of the "police" say "Tāghūt ()," an Arabic word for "tyrant", upon seeing the GIS men gathering outside the A300; she then realised that the four men on board the plane were terrorists. The four hijackers then revealed that they were not police, but mujahideen seeking to establish an Islamic state in Algeria. They had hijacked the aircraft because the national airline Air France was a symbol of France, which they viewed as infidel foreign invaders. The leader, Abdul Abdullah Yahia, already a notorious murderer, and the other three members of the Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Armé, or GIA) brandished firearms and explosives and announced their allegiance to the GIA, demanding co-operation from the 220 passengers and 12 flight crew. The hijackers had Kalashnikov assault rifles, Uzi submachine guns, pistols, homemade hand grenades and two 10-stick dynamite packs. Later, at one point during the flight, the men placed one pack of dynamite in the cockpit and one pack under a seat in the middle of the aircraft, then linked them with detonator wire. They also took the uniforms of the pilots to confuse Algerian army snipers. Burgniard recalled that the hijackers, in particular one called "Lotfi", disliked seeing a lack of adherence to their Islamic beliefs; according to Burgniard, the hijackers objected to men and women sitting together and sharing the same toilets and women having their heads uncovered. Once they had taken control of the aircraft, the hijackers forced the women to cover their heads, including the cabin crew members. Women who did not have veils used aircraft blankets as head coverings. An elderly Algerian man told the TF1 network that the hijackers "had a kind of art in their terror. Twenty minutes of relaxation and twenty minutes of torture. You never knew what was next." The men stated over the aircraft's cockpit radio: Abderrahmane Meziane Chérif, the Minister of the Interior of Algeria, came to the airport control tower to begin negotiating with the hijackers, who were using the captain to speak for them. They demanded the release of two Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) political party leaders, Abassi Madani and Ali Belhadj, who were under house arrest; the FIS was banned in Algeria in 1992. Chérif demanded that the hijackers begin releasing children and the elderly if they wanted to talk to the Algerian government. The media began arriving at the airport to cover the crisis. At noon, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alain Juppé, organised a crisis team meeting (similar to UK’s COBRA emergency crisis meeting), and Charles Pasqua, Interior Minister of France, met his aides. French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur was recalled from his Christmas holiday in Chamonix, France, and other government officials were also summoned from their vacations. Balladur recollected spending the entire afternoon on the telephone, trying to determine what was happening and feeling confused. According to Balladur, the Algerian authorities wanted to crack down on the terrorists and Balladur himself encountered difficulties discussing the events. At one point, the hijackers dropped the demand for the release of the FIS party leaders. Two hours into the hijacking, the men told the captain to depart for Paris so that they could hold a press conference there. The captain could not take off because the aircraft boarding stairs were still attached to the plane and the Algerian authorities were blocking the runway with parked vehicles. When the hijackers forced the captain to ask for the boarding stairs to be removed, the Algerian authorities refused, determined not to give in to any of the hijackers' demands. The GIA men announced that they would detonate the aircraft unless the Algerian authorities followed their orders. During the passport check, the hijackers had noticed that one of the passengers on the flight was an Algerian police officer. In order to force the Algerian government to comply with their demands, the hijackers approached the police officer and told him to follow them. Kakachi remembered that the police officer, seated two rows behind her, was hesitant as he did not know what they were going to do. Several passengers recalled him pleading "Don't kill me, I have a wife and child!" The hijackers shot the police officer in the head at the top of the boarding stairs. The pilots and most of the passengers were not aware at first that the man had been killed. Captain Delhemme recalled that his first contact with the passenger cabin during the hijacking was when a flight attendant, allowed into the cockpit, asked the pilots if they needed anything. According to Delhemme, he asked for a glass of water from the attendant to ease the pilots' parched throats. At this point, the attendant whispered to Delhemme that the hijackers had killed a passenger. The Algerian authorities still refused to agree to the hijackers' demands. Burgniard recalled that he and the other occupants began to realise that "things were going wrong" when the hijackers came to collect another passenger. They selected 48-year-old Bui Giang To, a commercial attaché at the Embassy of Vietnam in Algeria. Burgniard described To as "the real foreigner on this plane". She remembered that To was not intimidated by the hijackers and she believed that this attitude upset the hijackers. The Vietnamese diplomat may have thought he was about to be released because he was a foreigner; instead he was shot dead on the boarding stairs. Delhemme recalled that when the flight attendant next appeared with refreshments, she whispered to him that two passengers, not one, had died. The French government wanted to bring French military personnel into Algeria to safely resolve the hijacking, but the Algerian government would not allow foreign military to land on Algerian soil to resolve an Algerian political crisis. Prime Minister Balladur said that he asked the Algerian government "extremely forcefully and urgently" to give permission for the aircraft to take off. He felt that the French government held responsibility for solving the problem as the aircraft belonged to a French airline and almost a third of the passengers were French. Seven hours into the hijacking, the cabin was calm but tense; at that point, few of the passengers knew that two people had been killed. It had grown dark outside and the aircraft was surrounded by spotlights. The pilots now attempted to defuse the situation by talking to the hijackers and trying to gain their trust. Delhemme explained that the beginning of a hijacking is violent, so the role of the pilot is to keep the participants calm, "buy time", show the hijackers who the crew are as people, and find out details about the hijackers; then the pilot has to try gaining the trust of the hijackers. During the night, Spanish authorities allowed the French military to send its forces to Majorca, Spain, which was as close to Algeria as was possible without being accused of interfering in the situation. At 8:00p.m., Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN) operatives boarded an Airbus A300 aircraft similar to F-GBEC, the hijacked plane, at a military base in France. En route to Majorca, the GIGN operatives were able to familiarise themselves with the A300 in preparation for storming the aircraft. After the GIGN's plane arrived at Palma de Mallorca Airport, the Algerian government made it clear that French forces were not welcome in Algeria. 25 December Captain Delhemme made a tour of the cabin at about 2:00a.m. the next morning to check on the situation; he said that the cabin was "calm" during that time. He noticed two of the hijackers asleep on the floor. In the morning, French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur flew to Paris. New information arrived at the Consulate General of France in Oran, Algeria, via a mole in the GIA: Police confirmed this plan after a raid on a safe house. The hijackers released some of the passengers, mainly women with young children and those with severe medical conditions. Over 170 people still remained on board the plane. The hijackers offered to release the remaining Algerian passengers, but the Algerians refused to leave the aircraft. Delhemme recalled that one passenger who was refusing to leave said that he thought the crew would be killed if he did, and Delhemme believes that the passengers' motives were sincere. By the end of 25 December, the hijackers had freed a total of 63 passengers. The Algerian police used night vision devices to identify the lead hijacker, who was Abdul Abdullah Yahia. The French government sent Yahia's mother to plead for him to release the passengers, in the hope that she could persuade her son to give in, but the tactic backfired. One passenger, Kakachi, recalled Yahia becoming enraged by this move. At this point, the hijackers began targeting the French passengers; there were two staff members of the French Embassy in Algiers on board the flight, a secretary and a chef. The hijackers forced the chef, Yannick Beugnet, to plead into the microphone. Through Beugnet, they demanded that unless the Algerian government cleared the A300 for takeoff before 9:30p.m., they would kill one passenger every 30 minutes, starting with Beugnet. They threatened to shoot him and throw him out of the door. The Algerian passengers assured him that the hijackers were bluffing while the French passengers were demanding that the aircraft be allowed to take off. When the 9:30p.m. deadline passed, the hijackers shot the chef and threw his body outside. The door open warning light in the cockpit indicated to the pilots that another passenger had been murdered. Enraged, Captain Delhemme yelled at the Algerian authorities, "See what you get when you play tough?!" The airline knew that the chef had been murdered as it was listening in on the conversations between the aircraft and the control tower. Philippe Legorjus, a former Air France security adviser, said in an interview that the airline employees "lived through [the event] with great emotion". Zahida Kakachi recalled Lotfi calmly trying to convert her and another stewardess to Islam, though Kakachi was only pretending so that she would not enrage him. The French government were informed of the events. Balladur spoke on the telephone to the Prime Minister of Algeria, Mokdad Sifi; he told him that the French government would hold the Algerian government responsible for the outcome if it did not authorise them to intervene in the situation. Just before midnight, Balladur told the President of Algeria, Liamine Zéroual, that France was ready to receive the Air France flight. As a result of Balladur's demands, 39 hours after the start of the hijacking, Zéroual allowed the aircraft to leave Algiers. Flight attendant Claude Burgniard recalled that everyone was relieved when the aircraft departed because they thought the crisis was over. There was insufficient fuel on board the plane to reach Paris, because the auxiliary power unit had been running since the hijackers took over the plane, so a refuelling stop was scheduled at Marseille Provence Airport. Delhemme confronted Yahia to find out whether he planned to blow up the aircraft between Algiers and Marseille. Yahia insisted that the plane would fly to Marseille, take on fuel, then fly to Paris for the press conference; reassured, Delhemme prepared for takeoff. In an interview, Delhemme suggested that the hijackers would probably have said this anyway to prevent the crew from taking action against them. Burgniard recalled that the hijackers, in the cockpit, seemed excited and "like kids". 26 December The aircraft approached Marseille during the early hours of 26 December. The hijackers did not know that Major Denis Favier's GIGN squad was already in Marseille, having flown from Majorca to a military base near Marseille, and planned to storm the aircraft while it was in Marseille. The GIGN squad practised entering the A300 before Flight 8969 arrived in Marseille. Favier explained in an interview that the enemy was arriving in friendly territory, and the power difference would be a key element in the struggle. Flight 8969 landed at 3:33a.m. Steward Claude Burgniard said that the hijackers felt that the landing in Marseille was a "magic moment" as they had arrived in France. Burgniard recalled that the airport was dark and that she only saw the lights of the A300 and a car that the A300 followed. The French authorities deliberately led the aircraft away from the terminal and into a remote corner of the airport. By 26 December, the French government had received information stating that the hijackers had planned to attack Paris. Favier planned to appear conciliatory and prolong the negotiations as long as possible. He believed that the hijackers were tired, so he planned to wear them down. Alain Gehin, the Chief of Police of Marseille, spoke to the group of hijackers in the control tower. Gehin implemented Favier's strategy. While using Delhemme to speak for them, the hijackers asked for 27 tons of fuel; the aircraft needed approximately 9 tons to fly to Paris from Marseille. The request indicated to the French authorities that the aircraft was going to be used as a firebomb or to fly the aircraft to an Islamic country sympathetic to the hijackers' cause. Hours later, the authorities received word of the firebomb plot. Passengers who were released in Algiers stated that the A300 had been rigged with explosives. Demolition experts determined that the plane was likely rigged in a way that would cause it to explode. Charles Pasqua said in an interview that the French government had decided that the aircraft was not going to leave Marseille, regardless of the consequences. At around 8:00a.m., the hijackers demanded that the forces let the aircraft take off by 9:40a.m. The negotiators delayed the ultimatum by giving the aircraft additional food and water, emptying the toilet tanks, and providing vacuum cleaners. The GIGN operatives servicing the aircraft were disguised as airport personnel. They discovered the aircraft doors were not blocked or booby trapped. The men planted eavesdropping devices while others trained long-range "cannon" microphones on the A300's fuselage and windows. Favier's group asked the hijackers if they would rather do a press conference in Marseille instead of Paris, since all of the major media outlets had offices in Marseille. The hijackers agreed to hold a press conference on the A300. The negotiators requested that the front of the aircraft be cleared for the press conference. This was to create an area for the GIGN during the storming of the aircraft. Favier explained in an interview that the press conference was an important tactic as it allowed the passengers to be moved to the rear of the aircraft. The hijackers did not realise that the doors of the A300 could be opened from the outside. Twelve hours after the A300 arrived at Marseille, the GIGN knew how many hijackers were on board and their location on the aircraft with the help of eavesdropping devices, infrared vision equipment, and "cannon" microphones. It intended to wait until sunset to take advantage of the darkness. The occupants of the aircraft were unaware of the GIGN's true motives, and the militants were confused about why the press had not yet arrived. Yahia, frustrated by the absence of the press and sensing the authorities were up to something, ordered the pilot to move the aircraft. Delhemme parked the aircraft at the foot of the airport control tower and in close proximity to the terminal and other aircraft. An explosion in this position would result in many more casualties than in the earlier, remote location. This was a tactical disadvantage for the GIGN; the positions were based on the aircraft being parked where the French authorities ordered the placement of the A300. When the aircraft moved, the GIGN had to quickly reorganise its forces. Favier placed snipers on the roof so they would have a view of the cockpit. He organised a group of thirty men with three passenger boarding stairs to rush the aircraft and take it over. Favier planned to have two teams, each with 11 people, open the rear left and rear right doors of the A300. A third team of eight would open the front right door. The forces planned to isolate the cockpit, with Yahia, from the rest of the aircraft. By 5:00p.m., the authorities had not delivered any amount of fuel to the A300. Yahia entered the cabin to choose a fourth person to kill. He selected the youngest member of the Air France crew, who had told the hijackers that he was an atheist. Yahia felt reluctant to kill a fourth passenger at that point, saying "I don't want to do this. But I have no choice." Burgniard stated in an interview that she did not know whether Yahia had decided not to execute the crew member; she knew that he kept delaying the execution. Instead, the hijackers opened the door and fired around the aircraft. Zahida Kakachi, a passenger, recalled that the hijackers began reciting verses from the Quran on the public address system. The verses were prayers for the dead. According to Kakachi, the passengers were silent and began to feel panicked. The hijackers knew the negotiators were in the control tower, so through the side window of the cockpit, they began to fire automatic machine guns towards the control tower. Philippe Legorjus, who at the time was the airline's security adviser, recalled that glass shattered all around the negotiators. Captain Delhemme said that throughout the time in Marseille, there had been tension, but "nothing like what seemed to be about to happen". Balladur allowed Favier to take whatever actions he felt were necessary; after the hijackers fired at the control tower, Favier decided to begin the raid. Raid Once the hijackers noticed the boarding stairs moving towards them, they recognised the imminent assault. Through the cockpit window, a hijacker fired upon the stairs containing the forward GIGN team. As the first stairs reached the front starboard (right) door, it became apparent that it was elevated too high relative to the door frame for a uniform entry into the aircraft. The GIGN had trained on an empty aircraft, in which the suspension system of the plane was not as compressed, leading to an overestimation of the necessary height of the boarding stairs. After a short delay in repositioning the stairs, GIGN forces were able to enter. The hijackers returned fire, attacking the GIGN forces. One hijacker was killed instantly. Then, the two other units entered the rear of the aircraft. The participants fired hundreds of bullets. The hijackers fired through the skin of the aircraft. Grenades erupted and smoke went through the cabin. The GIGN's concussion grenades temporarily blinded and deafened occupants, allowing the GIGN to storm the aircraft. One of the hijackers' homemade grenades detonated, causing limited damage. The snipers on the tower could not initially get a clear shot into the aircraft as the copilot, Jean-Paul Borderie, blocked their view. Moments later, Borderie pulled himself out of the cockpit window and dropped to the ground. With the view unobstructed, the snipers began firing into the cockpit, while the GIGN evacuated passengers in the rear of the aircraft. Flight attendant Claude Burgniard described the firefight as "the apocalypse". Christophe Morin, a flight attendant, recalled that the GIGN ordered passengers and crew to get down as low as possible with their hands over their heads, hide, and then to not move. Morin described the situation as "violent". He recalled putting his overcoat over his head so he would not see the tracer bullets and other occurrences during the raid. Morin said that he tried to help a female passenger next to him escape, but she was too large and Morin was unable to move her, so the two held hands. Pilot Bernard Delhemme said that he was in "a rather bad spot", so he crouched and made himself "as small as possible". A few minutes after the beginning of the assault, most of the passengers had escaped. At that point, three of the four hijackers were fatally shot. Delhemme recalled that the cockpit only had himself, the flight engineer, and the last hijacker. Delhemme said that the hijacker could have killed him and his colleagues out of spite, but did not. In an interview, Denis Favier explained that there likely was a mutual recognition and "respect" between the hijackers and the hostages. He believes the bonds between the hijackers and hostages helped save lives of passengers and crew in the conflict. GIGN commando Philippe Bardelli was leading a column up the front right stairs, as that team was tasked with throwing stun grenades in the cockpit, when a 7.62 × 39 mm bullet from an AK-47 hit his drawn pistol and detonated the cartridges; Bardelli later remarked that his pistol which was hit saved his life since such AK-47 rounds were able to penetrate the GIGN's helmet visors. The remaining hijacker kept the GIGN at bay for 20 minutes, but he eventually ran out of ammunition and died from a gunshot wound. Meanwhile, the GIGN operatives were not sure which men were the hijackers and how many were still alive, so they considered all male passengers as potentially being hijackers. The flight engineer, Alain Bossuat, radioed the tower stating that the hijackers were dead and that there were no more left. This signaled to GIGN forces that a final clearing of the A300 could begin. Delhemme said that when the forces entered the aircraft, they ordered him to put his hands on his head. Delhemme said that, after the hijacking ordeal had run its course, he refused to leave with his hands on his head and be "punished like a child". Burgniard said that when she saw Bossuat handcuffed, the cabin crew told the forces to let him go as the individual was the flight engineer. At 5:35p.m., Favier radioed to the tower that the incident was over; the incident had unfolded over 54 hours. All of the hijackers had been killed. The remaining passengers and crew survived the 20-minute gun battle.A Of the remaining passengers, 13 received minor injuries. Nine of the 30 GIGN operatives received injuries; of them, one received serious wounds. Three crew members received injuries. Delhemme was hit by bullets in his right elbow and thigh. Bossuat received minor injuries; the dead bodies of two hijackers had shielded Delhemme and Bossuat from gunfire. Borderie, the most seriously injured, fractured his elbow and thigh from the 5-metre (16 ft) drop. Favier said that he determined that the operation was a success since none of the GIGN received fatal injuries. French Prime Minister Édouard Balladur said that the events unfolded "exceptionally well". Aftermath As a result of the damage to the aircraft, the A300 was written off. Several hours after the incident ended, the Armed Islamic Group, which had claimed responsibility for the event, killed four Roman Catholic priests in retaliation in Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria. Three of the priests were French, while one was Belgian. The crew of the A300 and the GIGN forces received high national honours. Charles Pasqua, then the Minister of the Interior, said that throughout the ordeal the crew "rose to the occasion". Bernard Delhemme returned to flying and worked for Air France for nine years before retiring. Flight attendant Claude Burgniard said that she "kept seeing the faces" of the three passengers who had been executed; when she received her medal she realised that she had helped save 173 people; this allowed her to mourn and get over the incident. Burgniard said that she does not wear the medal, but that she felt like she deserved it. Burgniard, who also received a message of thanks from the airline, never again worked for Air France. Flight attendant Christophe Morin stopped working for Air France and began to work for a charitable organisation. A former militant group leader admitted that the men had planned to detonate the aircraft over the Eiffel Tower. The militant group never again attempted this plot. Pasqua said that if the militants crashed an aircraft on the Eiffel Tower or the Élysée Palace, they would have committed what they would believe to be "an extraordinary feat." Flights between Algiers and Paris are now Flights 1355, 1451, 1555, 1755, and 1855 (operating to Charles de Gaulle instead of Orly). Flight number 8969 is now a codeshare flight number for Delta Air Lines flight number 1584 between Greater Rochester International Airport and Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport. Passengers and crew Most of the passengers were Algerians; 138 of the passengers were Algerian citizens.A A significant number of the passengers were French people leaving Algeria. Captain Bernard Delhemme said that the hijackers, who had extensively planned the operation, did not anticipate that most of the passengers would be Algerians. The hijackers recited Quran verses and tried to reassure the Algerian passengers. Witness accounts said that they "terrorised" non-Algerians. Christophe Morin was anxious to get home. Over the summer his brother and sister both died and he asked Air France if it was possible for him not to fly during the Christmas celebrations but they refused his request and so he went to work on the flight feeling very reluctant because he had wanted to be with his parents and family. Hijackers 25-year-old Abdul Abdullah Yahia, also known as "The Emir", was a petty thief and greengrocer from the Bab El Oued neighbourhood of Algiers. By the time of the hijacking, he was notorious for beheading Algerian policemen. The negotiators said that Yahia spoke "approximate" French and always ended his sentences in "Insha'Allah" ("God willing"). Several passengers said all but one of the hijackers had no beards and closely cropped hair. A woman said that the men "were polite and correct" and that they "had the determined air of cold-blooded killers". Another passenger said the hijackers "seemed excited, very euphoric" and that they told the occupants that they would teach the French and the world a lesson and show what they were capable of doing. As the hijacking progressed, the passengers recognised the personalities of the hijackers. Claude Burgniard, a flight attendant, recalled that the crew and passengers gave nicknames to the hijackers "to make things simpler". Yahia, the leader, had given his name, so the passengers called him by that name. According to Burgniard, Lotfi had a "peculiar" character, "was always on a knife edge", and "the most fanatic" and "the most fundamentalist" of the hijackers. Therefore, he received the nickname "Madman" from the passengers. According to Burgniard, Lotfi was the hijacker who insisted that the passengers follow Islamic law. Lotfi found women having their heads uncovered "intolerable", making him very angry. One hijacker did not give his name to the passengers, so they called him "Bill". Burgniard stated that Bill was "a little bit simple" and "more of a goatherd than a terrorist." She said his role as a hijacker was "an error in casting". Burgniard remembered that the occupants wondered why Bill was there and that they saw Bill appearing as if he wondered why he was there, as well. The hijacker nicknamed "The Killer" shot the hostages whom the hijackers had targeted. In popular culture The events of Flight 8969 were featured in "The Killing Machine", a Season 2 (2004) episode of the Canadian TV series Mayday (called Air Emergency and Air Disasters in the U.S. and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world). The dramatisation was broadcast with the title "Hijacked" in the United Kingdom, Australia and Asia; and in the United States as "Hijack Rescue". The episode uses a mix of re-enactments and actual footage. Flight 8969 captain Bernard Delhemme and Colonel Denis Favier, then a major who was head of the GIGN counter-terrorist unit assigned to the flight, gave their first television interviews for Mayday, appearing in silhouette, as both felt under threat after the events and that members of the public believed that the militants were offering a reward for Favier's assassination. Elie Gemael, a Canadian actor of Jewish and Lebanese heritage, played lead hijacker Abdul Yahia. The incident was also featured in an episode of the Zero Hour television series called "Shoot-Out in Marseille". Using a mix of real footage and reenactment, it suggests that two of the terrorists were killed by the GIGN snipers. Gemael reprises his role as Yahia for this dramatization. A one-hour documentary, episode 3 of the UK BBC Two television series The Age of Terror, was transmitted on 29 April 2008. This showed an in-depth reconstruction of the hijacking, and included interviews with passengers, crew, GIGN commando and government official eyewitnesses, including the co-pilot who jumped out of the cockpit window. It was stated explicitly that a mole with the GIA terrorists informed the French, but not Algerian, authorities that the intention was to use the aircraft as a missile to attack Paris. A 2011 French film called L'Assaut was made with the collaboration and advice of the GIGN. Flight attendant Christophe Morin and passenger Zahida Kakachi co-authored the book Le vol Alger-Marseille: Journal d'otages, recalling the events of the attack and how it had affected their lives. See also Federal Express Flight 705, another hijacking in 1994; foiled by flight crew Garuda Indonesia Flight 206, another similar hijacking in 1981 List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft List of terrorist incidents in France Lufthansa Flight 181, a similar hijack and rescue incident in 1977 Singapore Airlines Flight 117, similar hijacking which resulted in a storming of the aircraft in 1991 United Airlines Flight 93, hijacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001 with a plot to crash the plane into an unknown target; foiled following a passenger revolt Air France Flight 139, another Air France hijacking involving an Airbus A300 Footnotes Note A: Sources differ on the number of passengers present. Tom Sancton of Time magazine stated that there were initially 227 passengers, while Peter Taylor of the BBC reported that there were 220 passengers and 12 crew members on board. Of those freed at the end of the assault, Sancton claimed that there were 173 passengers and crew, while Taylor's figures indicate 166 people (154 passengers and 12 crew). Both sources agreed that 63 Algerians were freed. Aviation Safety Network indicates 163 remaining alive (170 occupants with 7 fatalities) at 17:00 on 26 December 1994. Notes References External links – Interview with a former GIGN member who was injured during the raid (in French) Video of the raid from the Institut National de l'Audiovisuel (French archives) 1994 in France Aircraft hijackings Aviation accidents and incidents in 1994 Aviation accidents and incidents in Algeria GIGN missions Terrorist incidents in Algeria 1994 crimes in Algeria 8969 Islamic terrorism in France Islamic terrorism in Algeria Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A300 Terrorist incidents in Europe in 1994 Algerian Civil War Operations involving French special forces 1994 in Algeria Terrorist incidents in France 20th century in Algiers Islamic terrorist incidents in 1994 December 1994 events in Africa Hostage taking in Algeria Armed Islamic Group of Algeria Algeria–France relations Terrorist incidents in Africa in 1994 1994 crimes in France 1990s murders in France 1990s murders in Algeria

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Fulbourn is a village in Cambridgeshire, England, with evidence of settlement dating back to Neolithic times. The village was probably established under its current name by 1200. The waterfowl-frequented stream after which it was named lies in the east, close to the division between arable and fenland. Geography Fulbourn lies about five miles (8 km) southeast of the centre of Cambridge, separated from the outer city boundary by farmland and the grounds of Fulbourn Hospital. The village itself is fairly compact and roughly in the centre of the administrative parish. North and east of the village the land is flat, drained fen; to the south and southwest the Gog Magog Hills rise to over . Outside the residential area the land is open farmland, with relatively few trees. There is a wooded area, including a nature reserve (Fulbourn Fen) to the east in the Manor grounds. The village is set within the Cambridge Green Belt. The traditional parish boundaries follow the line of a Roman road and the Icknield Way to the southwest and southeast, Fleam Dyke – an ancient defensive earthwork – to the east, and the tributaries of Quy Water that drain to the River Cam. Fleam Dyke bears the name of the Hundred of Cambridgeshire called Flendish that was known in the time of the Domesday Book by its Saxon name Flamingdike, pointing to the influence of Flemish immigration into the region. Flemish immigration has marked Fulbourn in various ways, with Fulbourn Windmill the most visible link to this influence. East Anglian English also shows such influence. The parish extends some five miles (8 km) north to south and four miles (6.2 km) east to west. History Archaeological evidence of habitation in the area has been found dating as far back as the Neolithic period, and there have been numerous finds from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods. The name has so far been traced back to 991 AD and is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon "Fugleburn" or "Fugolburna", meaning "stream frequented by waterfowl". At one time, the village had two ecclesiastical parishes with both churches in the same churchyard, separated by seven feet; All Saints, believed to be the earlier, and St. Vigor's. Some early maps depict "Fulbourn Magna" and "Fulbourn Parva" as separate villages, but a research project conducted by the Fulbourn Village History Society concluded that there was only ever one Fulbourn. The site at Hall Orchard, a medieval moated site known as Dunmowes, survives as an earthwork and has a water-filled moat when suitable conditions exist. Excavations showed that the moated area had been occupied from at least the early 13th century until the late 17th century. The moat platform and ditch were probably constructed in the late 12th or early 13th century, with the soil and chalk dug out from the ditch being piled into the central area to create a raised platform. A large drainage ditch at the southwest corner and another at the northeast corner meet the moat ditch. These were probably inlet and outlet channels supplying the moat with continuous running water. Some clues of the relative wealth and importance of Dunmowes Manor are available from the archaeological evidence. Decorative features associated with the building that were above and beyond practical and utilitarian purposes indicate that the owners intended to impress their neighbours and emphasise their own importance. By the late medieval/early post-medieval period, most, if not all, of the buildings at Hall Orchard, rather than being thatched, may have been covered in relatively expensive stone roofing tiles. These were later replaced by clay peg tiles, with glazed and decorated finials and ridge tiles. Many fragments were very small, suggesting demolition of the house, with any complete tiles possibly being removed for re-use elsewhere. The Five Manors of Fulbourn In Norman times, Fulbourn was recognised as having five manors: Zouches Manor, Manners Manor, Colvilles Manor, Shardelowes Manor and Fulbourn Manor. Of these five, only the last remains today. In 1496, Richard Berkeley and his wife Anne Berkeley settled a debt of 1,000 marks with property that included the manors of Fulbourn, which were then listed as Zouches, Manners, Shardelowes and Fulbourn. Fulbourn Life Wall A granite monument was erected in the village in October 2012, inscribed with dates and images from village life and history. The monument was created by two artists: Andrew Tanser, a master carver and sculptor, and Andrea Bassil, a well-known children's author and illustrator. Historical detail A section of the ancient Street way, possibly that known locally by c.1300AD as Grauntestreet and later Grandstreet way, ran from the parish's western edge to pass the northern end of the Fleam Dyke. Few prehistoric remains have been found, except for some Bronze Age weaponry. A probable Roman settlement has left traces in inclosures and droveways visible near the western boundary. A Roman cemetery containing up to 30 skeletons was discovered to the north of the village in 1874, along with an excavation variously identified as a limekiln and a tiled grave. Another Roman limekiln was found further east in 1875 near the station, close to which a Roman pavement was discovered in around 1940. The parish was well populated from the Middle Ages. In 1086 there were probably c.90 peasant households and by 1279, when 56 messuages and 20 cottages were recorded, c.275 probably resident landholders. Some 80 inhabitants paid tax in 1327 and 426 adults paid the poll tax in 1377. There were still 119 people assessed to the subsidy in 1524, and 105 households in 1563. Following subsequent growth from the 1570s, numbers may have ranged between 400 and 450 in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, increasing again from the 1620s. In the 1660s and 1670s 105 to 110 dwellings were occupied, and 107 adults were reported in 1676. There were 106 families in 1728. The population was probably again stable in the early 18th century, perhaps dropping slightly by around 1740, but began to rise from the 1750s, perhaps by a half by the 1780s. There were 166 households in the 1790s and 702 people in 1801. Until the 1840s, numbers grew by c.150 to 200 in each decade, reaching 1,023 in 1831 and 1,452 in 1851. Pressure was reduced in the 1850s by emigration, especially to Australia. The population reached as much as 1,385 in the 1870s before again declining steadily, with a sharp fall in the 1890s when many young people left, to c.1,200 between 1911 and 1931. Of over 180 men who fought in the First World War 37 perished. New building, which added 250 households to the village in the 1950s and 520 in the 1960s, increased its population to 1,396 by 1961, 4,139 in 1981, and 4,732, including 4,282 in private households, in 1991. By the 18th century dwellings in the village mostly stood toward the eastern end of c.200 acres of surrounding crofts and closes. A main street, probably called by 1370 Church Street, linked two groups of tenements along Holm Street to the south, so named by 1200, later called Home End (Street), and along Eye Street, corrupted after 1400 to Hay Street, to the north-east, along whose western side crofts, some walled, abutted upon Eye field in the 1310s. In the late Middle Ages Holm and Eye streets were possibly reckoned as separate settlements, being still separately enumerated in manorial rentals c.1435. From the main street another, the modern Cow Lane, probably called in the 13th century Fen street and in the 14th Low or Nether street, led west towards the village's main watering place, Poor's Well. Possibly in use by 1335 and so named in 1437, it was designated for that purpose at inclosure. Cow Lane then joined a back lane to the south named by 1500 Pierce lane. Of c.40 houses surviving in Fulbourn in the 1980s from before 1800, mostly timber-framed, some under later brick casing, and half still thatched, most stood towards that eastern end of the village, where housing had largely been concentrated in 1800. A few others then stood along the south side of Pierce lane or at Frog End to the west. Those older houses include around ten dating from before 1600, among them some manorial farmhouses. The former Highfield Farm had a 14th-century hall with arched heads to its screen openings, and a two-bayed cross wing; it had another cross wing added after 1600. At Home End the originally 15th-century Old House had its hall reconstructed in the mid 17th century, soon after a parlour cross wing had been added, while at Ludlows, behind a Victorian front, was another early 15th-century hall with an original doorway and six-light window; its soller cross wing comprised a parlour below and two chambers above. Those houses mostly had crownpost roofs, into which red brick chimneys were inserted in the 16th century or later. At Flendyshe House, facing Ludlows where Home End widens into a small green, a rendered façade of c.1807 covered an early 17th-century range with a rebuilt service wing to the rear. Over 20 smaller houses of two to three bays and single-storeyed cottages with dormers dated from 1700 or earlier, some from the 1660s. During the 18th century a line of eight two- or three-bayed cottages, one dated 1735, were built on small crofts south-west of the village along the south side of Broad Green, so named by 1460, where dwellings had been recorded by 1506. In the 1660s and 1670s barely 20 of the recorded dwellings had had more than one or two hearths. About 1808 the village contained at least 78 houses, including 15 farmhouses and 42 cottages. There was rapid growth after the 1820s, the number of inhabited dwellings rising from 164 in 1831 to 270–310 between the 1840s and 1900; in the late 19th century another 15–25 were sometimes empty. Meanwhile, new farmhouses had been built on the former open fields to the south and west, including Bishop's Charity (c.1833–5), Rectory (1827), Valley (by 1829), and New Shardelowes (1820 × 1835) Farms. In the village other farmhouses went up on the standard Cambridgeshire pattern of a symmetrical three-bayed grey brick front, sometimes with fieldstone sidewalls, besides rows of labourers' cottages off the main streets, some in brick. By the mid-19th century there were c.40 houses along the main street, usually still called Church Street, and its northern extension named by 1506 Apthorpe Street. Another 35–45 lay in a ribbon along the west side of Hay Street, where two more elaborate terraces of brick cottages were put up in 1885 and 1903. There were almost as many around Home End, with around ten by Broad Green. Another 45–50 reached along Pierce Lane to Frog End, but the parallel Cow Lane to its north was hardly built up. By 1800, a few dwellings were scattered along the roads to Teversham and Cherry Hinton. In 1910 c.80 houses were reported and 190 cottages. The early 20th century saw little growth, only 340–350 dwellings being recorded in the 1920s, but around 50 had been added by 1951, mostly before 1939, including a number of council houses. The first 12 had been built in 1925, some near School Lane, and 40 more went up in 1931 and 1939 within the angle of the Cambridge and Shelford roads. By 1950 ribbon building had filled the recently empty east side of Hay Street. From the 1950s, following the arrival of mains drainage, the village was subjected to intensive development, some 280 new houses being built by 1961 and another 500 by 1981. Planning restrictions confined them within the village's previous boundary: some new building was effected by infilling along the older streets, which had c.280 dwellings by 1980 and were almost continuously built up by 1990. Other new housing, totalling 600 dwellings by 1980, lay on c.25 new roads, often densely packed closes, laid out within them. Private building, beginning at the east end, where c.160 houses went up in the 1950s, spread westwards along the south side of Pierce Lane, where c.120 were built in the early 1950s and, after a pause 1965–75, 30 more in 1977–79. Meanwhile, new council housing was concentrated on the south edge of the village, c.50 dwellings rising in the 1950s east of the previously almost unoccupied Haggis Gap, while another 170 were put up to its west c.1965–66. That last estate consisted of factory-built dwellings, sponsored by an enthusiastic council chairman, which were square, grey, and 'barrack-like'. By 1974 the council had also built sheltered housing for 40 old people in Home Close at Frog End; from 1981 similar wardened housing, comprising 33 bungalows, was established further south in 1983. The 1980s saw less extensive new building, although infilling with smaller groups in the remaining gaps continued, as along Cow Lane. In 1981, the 1,188 homes in the parish included 353 council houses (this number had fallen by 74 by 1991) and 709 owner-occupied ones, with 126 being privately rented. Of c.450 dwellings added in the 1980s, almost all were privately owned. Community The village had numerous alewives by the late 14th century, sometimes presented for not putting up their 'alethorp' and for late-night opening. Three public houses were recorded from c.1770: the Plough and Crown, renamed from 1776 the Six Bells, occupies a four-bayed timber-framed house of 16th-century origin with a jettied first floor rising over a coach entrance, later blocked. The adjoining Coach and Horses, first kept by the squire's coachman, and the Harrow, in a 17th-century house, which closed respectively in 1902 and 1911, stood nearby along the main street. After inclosure the White Hart, occupying a new grey brick house, was opened at Home End. In the early 19th century they were taken over, following bankruptcies, by Cambridge breweries. Several others were opened from the 1830s, nine in all by 1858, some in new built premises, including one near the station from 1859, when there were four public and six beer houses. Their clubrooms accommodated friendly societies such as a Lodge of Oddfellows set up in 1846, called the 'Loyal Townley' after the squire, and from the 1880s to the 1920s a branch of the Ancient Shepherds. There were 10–11 licensed premises, one for every 120 inhabitants, c.1910, and still eight in 1937, but their numbers were gradually reduced. One of the last remaining pubs closed in 1990–91, leaving just the Baker's Arms (now the 'Hat and Rabbit') on the corner of Teversham road, the Six Bells (remodelled after fire damage its thatched roof in 1963 and again in 1985) and the White Hart. By the mid-18th century, Fulbourn's village feast was held on three days after the first Sunday after Trinity. Described in 1881 as a 'noisy ... annual nuisance', it was formally reduced to two days in 1883. Despite objections to its obstructing the streets and to the gypsy showmen's insanitary habits, it remained well attended into the mid-1910s. Held from 1920 after midsummer behind the Six Bells, it survived until 1936. It was supplemented by an annual flower and fruit show held from 1880 in the squire's grounds by the village's Horticultural Society. That also lapsed in 1937 for lack of organisers, but was revived in conjunction with Teversham from 1956. Other fêtes included the regular celebration of Empire Day by the schoolchildren between 1907 and c.1940, and others sponsored by the village Labour party from the 1920s. From the 19th century, the village was well supplied with institutions providing social activities, and venues for them. A cricket club, active from the 1820s to the 1860s, was reorganised in 1880. There was also a football club from c.1900, and intermittently from c.1920 one for tennis. The parish council, after hiring a recreation ground from the rector from 1897 to 1908, accepted in 1921 a larger one from the Townleys, south-east of the village; this was subsequently purchased in 1966 and the original pavilion replaced the following year. A Conservative Club started in 1885 to attract the newly enfranchised labourers, which soon claimed 100 members, was active into the 20th century. For a Working Men's Institute formed in 1873 a reading room was erected on School Lane in 1878. It still had 200 members in 1927, but, though reopened after 1945, declined in the 1950s through competition from ex-servicemen's clubs, among them a British Legion branch started in 1920 which had 300 members in 1981. The Institute was closed c.1958 and its building sold in 1972. A Women's Institute was started in 1921. The National schoolroom was used as an 'Assembly Room' for entertainments from the 1880s until the squire, C. F. Townley, who liked amateur dramatics, built a well-equipped village hall in 1925. Seating 300, and with a stage, the hall was given to the parish by his son in Townley's memory in 1931. It was still in regular use today. Fulbourn had a resident physician from the 1850s; one, F. L. Nicholls, who served c.1888–1938, was a promoter of many local activities. In c.1957, the surgery was located at the end of Apthorpe Street opposite the present rectory. The district council provided a health centre at Haggis Gap from c.1973. Epidemics of typhoid in 1886 and 1887 had been ascribed to poor drainage and infected water from wells. In 1885 the Cambridge Waterworks Co. nevertheless chose an area just west of the Poor's Well as the site for a pumping station to supply Cambridge, which was opened in 1891. The village had since 1887 received piped water through standpipes, which partly made up for the gradual drying up of its own wells and the draining of the Poor's Well itself. To avoid the villagers' sewage contaminating the pumped water, a new pumping station was built from 1912 to the east by the Fleam Dyke. In operation from 1921, it supplied in 1954 two-thirds of the county's water. The older station, regularly operated again thenceforth, was finally closed by 1989 when the site was sold for development; its listed grey brick main building was shortly converted for housing. The Fleam Dyke station was then still in use; its steam machinery had been partly preserved as museum pieces when it was electrified and its tall chimney demolished c.1976. Public Houses Fulbourn at one time had as many as 10 or 11 public houses, one for every 120 inhabitants at the time. These included: The Plough and Crown, renamed, from 1776, The Six Bells (extant) The Harrow Inn, closed 1911 The Coach and Horses, closed 1902 The Railway Tavern The Royal Oak The Loyal Townley The Ancient Shepherds (1880s to 1920) The Rising Sun, closed c.1956 As of 2018, the village had three public houses: The Six Bells The White Hart The Hat and Rabbit (known prior to May 2018 as The Bakers Arms) Most of the population live within a square half-mile in the main village. The main settlement around the parish church of St Vigor has extended in post-war years west towards Cambridge and north in a narrow ribbon of development towards the former station on the Ipswich to Ely Line (Cambridge branch). There has been substantial housing estate development, both local authority and private, particularly southwest and south of the centre. The civil parish contains additional housing located on the edge of Cherry Hinton, which itself falls within the Cambridge City boundary. The population of the parish in the 2011 census was 4,673, compared with 4,704 in 2001. This has grown from a base of 1,440 in 1951 to 2,060 in 1961, 4,220 in 1971 and 1998 at 5,100. The 1979 boundary changes moved some (then) un-built-on land from Fulbourn and some partly developed land from Teversham both into the ecclesiastical parish of Cherry Hinton, as it was considered the people living there would look towards the churches in those parishes. Most of the subsequent growth in the administrative parish of Fulbourn has been in this area, which is not part of the ecclesiastical parish. In 1998 the population of the civil parish was made up of 1,000 people under 16, 3,100 aged 16–59, and 1,000 over 60. The economically active population was estimated at 2,600. Street names Haggis Gap The name of this street is a source of much local humour. According to Stephen Macaulay, Senior Project Officer, Archaeological Field Unit at Cambridgeshire County Council, "It was a small trackway and there was a gap in the field boundary (hedge) through which the local owners, surname Haggis, could access their land, hence the name". Dunmowe Way This street is a reference to Dunmowes Manor, one of the five historic manors of the village. Local government Fulbourn falls within the jurisdiction of Cambridgeshire County Council and South Cambridgeshire District Council. Employment and commerce Since World War II most residents in employment have worked outside the village, in Cambridge or elsewhere. Many find work at the nearby Addenbrookes Hospital. Within the village itself there is employment in small industrial areas close to the former railway station and elsewhere to the north of the village. There are also professional offices in the former rectory and pumping station and a developing business park in redundant hospital buildings and in new buildings close by. Others are employed in service industries such as retail, and in education. Agriculture, though still important in terms of land use, only employs a small number of people. The village's business park is joined by the Capital Park on the site of the old hospital, which has many tens of thousands of square feet of office space. These parks enhance the area's business environment beyond what was started by the creation of the Science parks which date from the 1980s and 1990s. In the High Street there are a number of shops including a Co-op supermarket which offers also a cash point and postal services since the closure of the village Post Office in 2012, a butcher selling own-flock and local produce, a greengrocer selling produce from New Covent Garden Market and flowers, an estate agents, a chemist, second-hand shops for clothes and children's items, a used-car dealer, an antiques shop, a cappuccino bar, a beauty salon, a Chinese takeaway and a kebab shop, as well as "Twelve", the church office/meeting-room. In addition, there is a Tesco superstore within the parish, close to the hospital site though about 2.5 miles from the village centre. Along with the Fulbourn Community Centre (attached to the Townley Memorial Hall), perhaps the most important social centre in the village is the Six Bells pub, now owned by the White family and housed in a building that dates from the 15th century. Being historically "the last coaching stop on the way to Newmarket", Fulbourn at one time had over twenty public houses. There are now just three: the Six Bells in the High Street, The White Hart on Balsham Road, and the Hat & Rabbit (formally called Baker's Arms) on the corner of Teversham Road. The Cambridge Cat Clinic operates from Coxes Drove, off Cow Lane, delivering veterinary care to cats from the Cambridge area. Banks Grain own and operate a large grain and rice silo adjacent to the railway line. Healthcare Fulbourn Hospital was built as an asylum in the mid-19th century between the village and Cherry Hinton. Until recently the main Victorian building was used as a psychiatric hospital, while the 1960s Kent House to the west was built for acute mental health patients and the Ida Darwin Hospital to the east was developed for the mentally handicapped. The main buildings have now been transformed into a Business Park although some acute facilities remain. From 540 patients at the hospitals in 1981 the number has been considerably reduced, with many ex-patients being moved into the community. The former East of England Strategic Health Authority's offices (NHS East of England) were on the Business Park, as are that of Health Data Insight. For everyday healthcare there is a health centre in the village with a single practice, though this is based at premises on the edge of Cambridge; there is also a chiropodist in the village. Sport and recreation The village has a well-appointed recreation ground. Adjacent to this is the Townley Memorial village hall, which includes meeting rooms and a small indoor sports hall, and provides a venue for sports and social clubs. There are a community centre and a village hall on separate sites, the hall being adjacent to the extensive recreation ground. The village also has a retirement home, Home Close: the Rector currently sits on the Residents' Committee, visits the home regularly and conducts services there. Fulbourn has two Non-League football clubs: Fulbourn Institute F.C. who play at the Recreation Ground, and Fulbourn Sports, who play at Capital Park, Cambridge Road. There are also two colts clubs, Fulbourn Institute and Fulbourn Falcons. There is a thriving amateur dramatics society in the village, St John's Players. The Players celebrated their 70th anniversary in 2017, and perform three plays a year, in February, May and October to coincide with half-term weeks. They also put on occasional one-off performances during the year, such as their Christmas panto. Performances and rehearsals are staged in the Townley Memorial Hall. Education There are three schools in Fulbourn. Fulbourn Primary School, close to the village centre, is a state primary school that has about 270 pupils. Landmark International School and Cambridge Steiner School are private institutions. For secondary education the village is in the catchment area of Village College in Bottisham to the north. Pre-school education is provided at Fulbourn Pre-school (co-located with the Primary School), and Domino Nursery School (in the United Reformed Church hall). Anglia Ruskin University has a campus situated within the Capital Park, which includes clinical skill facilities, a library, a computer room, a student common room and a canteen. Fulbourn library is a volunteer-run facility supported by Cambridgeshire County Council Library Service and was re-opened by volunteers in November 2003, having been closed by the County Council the previous month. It moved from the Old School to its current location in the new development, The Swifts, in 2009. Future developments Proposals for significant additional housing to the north of the village after 2016 included in the current Structure Plan review have been vigorously fought by the Parish and District Councils. The panel that conducted an examination into the review has recommended that these proposals be dropped. It is expected, however, that whatever the outcome, some additional housing will be built within or on the edge of the village in the next ten years or so. Apart from the village's business park, there are no current proposals for major additional employment opportunities in Fulbourn. Arts and artists Fulbourn is home to several artists: painters, sculptors, jewellers, potters, textile artists participate in Open Studios in July. Alice Goodman, the Anglican Rector of Fulbourn, is a published poet, and was the librettist of the operas Nixon in China and The Death of Klinghoffer. Transport Roads By the late 13th century Fulbourn was linked to the Icknield Way by fieldways leading south-east, including Weston, Balsham, and (Old) Wood ways, while Mill Way and Granditch Way, continued respectively by Limekiln Way and Hintonwal Way (also Hintonwald Way), led west towards Cherry Hinton and Cambridge. At the time of inclosure, those running south-east were mostly stopped up and replaced by a single straight road, while the western ones had their courses straightened. Railway Under an Act of 1845, the Newmarket Railway Company built a section of its line from Great Chesterford to Newmarket across the south-east of the parish. The line opened in 1848 but closed in 1851 and was formally abandoned in 1858, after the company completed the direct line from Cambridge which crosses Fulbourn north of the village to join the earlier line at Six Mile Bottom. A station was erected on the Balsham Road, but the building was demolished after 1930; various cuttings and a bridge were still visible in the 1980s. A new station for Fulbourn was opened by 1852 on Hay Street, renamed Station Road in the 20th century. That station was closed in 1967 and its buildings demolished after 1973, although the line remains open today. The village grew rapidly after the Second World War until the station was closed as a result of the Beeching Report. The station platform is still in place, albeit decayed, and a local campaign to reopen the station started in 2015. An experimental social media campaign to support the reopening was picked up by the local press. Notable figures Alan la Zouche (1205–1270), Earl of Brittany – builder of Zouches Manor. Stephen de Fulbourn – Archbishop of Tuam (died 3 July 1288) Walter de Fulburn , brother of Stephen– statesman, bishop and Lord Chancellor in medieval Ireland (died 1307) Andrew Newport (Warden of the Mint) – courtier, alderman of London, High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire and Warden of the Mint in the reign of Richard II (died before 1408) William Fulbourn – English politician (died c.1441) Thomas Townley (cricketer) – soldier, jockey and cricketer (30 April 1825 – 9 April 1895). Born at Fulbourn Manor and rode in the 1860 Grand National. C. V. Durell – schoolmaster, mathematician and textbook author (6 June 1882, Fulbourn – 10 December 1968 South Africa) Andrew Percy Bennett, CMG – British diplomat (30 July 1866 – 3 November 1943) Max Townley – land agent, agriculturist and politician (22 June 1864 – 12 December 1942) Seiriol Evans, CBE – Anglican dean and author (22 November 1894 – 29 June 1984) Russell Claydon – professional golfer See also List of places in Cambridgeshire References External links Fulbourn Parish Council Fulbourn Village History Society Villages in Cambridgeshire Civil parishes in Cambridgeshire South Cambridgeshire District