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Stage 12 of the 2012 Giro d'Italia was contested on 17 May, and the race concluded with Stage 21 on 27 May. The second half of the race was situated entirely within Italy; starting with a medium mountain stage from Seravezza to Sestri Levante, before the customary race-concluding time trial was held in Milan. Following his victory in the tenth stage, 's Joaquim Rodríguez held the lead into the second half of the race. He maintained his lead on stage 12 – after the breakaway succeeded in staying away until the end of the stage as rider Lars Bak held on to win by eleven seconds ahead of the remnants of the breakaway group – and on stage 13, as Mark Cavendish picked up his third stage victory of the race on one of the few sprinter-suited stages during the second half of the race. Rodríguez gave up the lead of the race at the end of stage 14, after rider Ryder Hesjedal attacked on the climb to the stage finish at Cervinia – the first that the climb had featured in the Giro since 1997 – taking 26 seconds out of his rival, and reclaimed the maglia rosa that he held for three days in the first half of the race. Rodríguez immediately retook the lead of the race the following day at the summit finish at the Pian dei Resinelli. Although he finished second to rider Matteo Rabottini on the day, Rodríguez gained 39 seconds on Hesjedal through his late-stage attack. After the race's second rest day which came after that stage, the gap between Rodríguez and Hesjedal remained at the half-minute mark for the next three stages; the breakaway succeeded once again on stage 16 as rider Jon Izagirre soloed away from a group of riders in the closing stages, while on stage 17, Rodríguez won the stage after a group of the leading overall contenders escaped on the Passo Giau. Also among that group were Hesjedal, former winners Ivan Basso () and Michele Scarponi (), with rider Rigoberto Urán and 's Domenico Pozzovivo making up the sextet. Stage 18 saw the sprinters' last chance of victory with Andrea Guardini of edging out Cavendish for victory. Hesjedal and Rodríguez took near-identical gaps out on one another during stages 19 and 20; Hesjedal reduced the lead to 17 seconds in the former stage finishing at the Alpe di Pampeago, while Rodríguez moved it back out to 31 seconds following the Cima Coppi finish at the Stelvio Pass. rider Thomas De Gendt moved into overall podium contention by winning the stage to the Stelvio, taking between three and five minutes from all of the other overall contenders, and moved from ninth place to fourth place at the end of the stage. Hesjedal's better time trial abilities enabled him to take the lead of the race on the final day from Rodríguez; he overturned the 31-second deficit, and ultimately became the first Canadian rider to win a Grand Tour. Hesjedal had turned the deficit into a 16-second margin of victory, the closest such margin since Eddy Merckx beat Gianbattista Baronchelli by 12 seconds in the 1974 edition of the race. De Gendt moved ahead of Scarponi for third place, to become the first Belgian rider to finish on a Grand Tour podium since Johan Bruyneel finished third at the 1995 Vuelta a España. Stage 12 17 May 2012 — Seravezza to Sestri Levante, The stage had been scheduled to be held over a distance of , but in April 2012, prior to the start of the Giro, the itinerary was changed slightly to . Due to torrential rains which caused floods and mudslides in October 2011, the roads through the Cinque Terre were considered unusable for the race. As such, the second half of the race began with an undulating stage along the Ligurian coast, with four categorised climbs over the parcours, the last of which coming just from the stage finish in Sestri Levante. Mini-attacks set the course for the stage as the field remained as one, for much of the first hour of racing; it was not until after that the stage's primary breakaway had been formed. An initial move of seven riders representing seven different teams went clear, with the septet later joined by two more riders, Jackson Rodríguez () and 's Martijn Keizer, the latter again making it into the breakaway move. 's Sandy Casar was the best-placed of the nine riders in the group, trailing overnight leader Joaquim Rodríguez () by four minutes, and as the stage wore on, became more of a threat to Rodríguez's lead. The breakaway's gap surpassed that figure, reaching a high of seven minutes, with remaining on the stage. As set the pace on the front of the peloton, rider Michał Gołaś soloed off the front of the lead group, but he was caught prior to the summit of the day's final climb, the Villa Tassani. More attacks occurred between the leaders prior to the finish, but Lars Bak produced the decisive attack with remaining, and eventually went clear to an 11-second winning margin at the finish, winning his first individual Giro stage. Casar led a group of six riders across in second, but his time gap to the peloton was only 3' 23". Despite the twelve bonus seconds on offer for second at the line, Casar was still 26 seconds shy of taking the race lead, but moved into third in the general classification, behind Rodríguez and 's Ryder Hesjedal. Stage 13 18 May 2012 — Savona to Cervere, At , stage 13 was the shortest non-time trial stage of the entire Giro; again, the stage was undulating, with only one categorised climb at Montezemolo, into the itinerary. The stage was ideally set for the sprinters, potentially their last possible attempt to win a stage, with the final week of the Giro set to be all about the climbers and overall contenders for the race. The primary breakaway of the stage was formed early in the stage, when rider Martijn Keizer and 's Francesco Failli went clear in the opening stages of the day's running. By the point of the stage, the lead duo held their maximum lead of the day, when they were five-and-a-half minutes, after the peloton – led by and – elected to ease their pace. The peloton steadily closed down the lead duo after that climb, and with around to go in the stage, Keizer and Failli were absorbed by the main pack. Once they were all together, the pace slowed again as many teams tried to get their protected riders into a safe enough position prior to the finish in Cervere. Having slowed the pace before, were on the front again, hoping to set up the sprint for their sprinter, Arnaud Démare; they were later joined on the front by the and teams, both of whom were looking to set up their respective Australian sprinters Mark Renshaw and Matthew Goss. Inside the final , three riders – Julien Bérard of , 's Julien Vermote and rider Fabio Felline tried to advance clear to alleviate an expected bunch sprint, but the sprint trains of and managed to close them down. Brett Lancaster launched Goss into his sprint, with Mark Cavendish () on his wheel. Cavendish tried to come down the left of Goss in the closing metres, but Goss closed the gap and Cavendish had to drop his pace, but recovered effortlessly and took Goss, and held on to win his third stage of the Giro. His 33rd Grand Tour stage win, Cavendish also extended his lead in the points classification, as Goss could only finish sixth behind 's Alexander Kristoff, Renshaw, rider Sacha Modolo and Elia Favilli of . Goss left the race following the stage, further extending Cavendish's lead. Stage 14 19 May 2012 — Cherasco to Cervinia, The first categorised mountain stage of the race featured a near-flat opening to the stage, before almost worth of climbing in the remainder of the stage, with two first-category climbs, the Col de Joux – climbing up to an altitude of – and the finishing climb to Cervinia, reaching up to a height of via an average gradient of 5.5% over the . The climb to Cervinia was being used in the race for the first time since 1997, when eventual race winner Ivan Gotti took the race lead from Pavel Tonkov, and never relinquished the lead to the end of it. Prior to the stage, a minute's silence was held as a mark of respect to victims of a bombing at a school in Brindisi, earlier in the day. With the stage parcours as such, there were no major movements off the race for the first hour of racing, before the weather conditions changed; rain would play in the rest of the day's proceedings. Eight riders went clear at around the mark, building up a lead of in excess of thirteen minutes over the main field. Three of the eight were dropped on the lower parts of the Col de Joux, while set the pace on the front of the field, reducing their advantage to around ten-and-a-half minutes. 's Jan Bárta had gone clear, while José Rujano () had linked up with rider Damiano Cunego to try and chase him. They could not do so, and instead it was left to Andrey Amador of the to foot the chase to Bárta. He caught him and eventually proceeded to drop him on the descent, and held a half-minute lead by the time he had reached the final climb to Cervinia. He extended the lead on the lower slopes of the climb itself, and soon held an advantage of over a minute over Rujano's team-mate Alessandro De Marchi, 's Matteo Montaguti, Bárta and 's Pierpaolo De Negri. De Marchi and Bárta both later made solo attacks out of the group, and eventually caught up to Amador as the peloton grew ever-closer on the parcours. The peloton had been around five minutes behind with remaining, but the gap had been halved by the time they had reached the to go mark. De Marchi tried to break his two companions but could not do so; while in the peloton, there were several movements but it was not until Ryder Hesjedal got clear for that there was more animation in the peloton. Joaquim Rodríguez tried to follow his rival but was ultimately unsuccessful. At the front however, it was down to the three leaders for the sprint; Bárta tried to launch his sprint first, but fell short at the line as Amador achieved the first stage victory for a Costa Rican rider in any Grand Tour. De Marchi finished a couple of seconds behind in third, while Hesjedal gapped the Rodríguez group by 26 seconds to retake the maglia rosa. Hesjedal later stated that his attack on the climb was "unplanned", and that he was confident of taking the race victory in Milan. Stage 15 20 May 2012 — Busto Arsizio to Lecco-Pian dei Resinelli, Just like the previous day's stage, the first element of the stage was largely flat, before approaching the first of four categorised climbs, the Valico di Valcava. After the descent from the climb and another uncategorised climb immediately after, the riders took in the third-category Forcella di Bura before two second category climbs; the Culmine di San Pietro with its summit at remaining, as well as the final climb of the Pian dei Resinelli. Heavy rain again dominated the roads, with fog in places, making conditions treacherous for any major attacks. The breakaway was instigated by a pair of riders at the mark, when rider Guillaume Bonnafond and 's Matteo Rabottini were allowed to get clear. Bonnafond and Rabottini soon garnered a gap of around nine minutes some later, but the pair reached the footslopes of the Valico di Valcava with an eight-minute lead. At the same time as seven riders making their break from the -led peloton, Rabottini soon left Bonnafond on the climb, beginning a solo attack of the parcours. Five riders also bridged up to the chase group, making it a dozen riders chasing after Rabottini on the road. Rabottini crossed the summit almost five minutes clear of the chasers, with the peloton several minutes further behind. and continued to set the pace on the front of the main group, looking to bring Ryder Hesjedal and Ivan Basso back into the equation for the overall classification. Rabottini suffered a crash inside the final of the stage, but still held an advantage of over two minutes to the chase group. took their turn on the front of the peloton, with numbers reducing in the gruppetto down to around twenty riders. Rabottini took a lead of two-and-a-half minutes into the final of the stage, but Stefano Pirazzi launched an attack from the chase group for ; his second such attack of the stage, having attacked on the Culmine di San Pietro, before he was closed down by other riders. With Damiano Cunego () and Amets Txurruka () marking each other in the small group, 's Alberto Losada counter-attacked, and Cunego could not follow his move as Txurruka joined Losada. Losada went clear of Txurruka and Pirazzi and set off after Rabottini, while in the group of overall contenders, Cunego's team-mate Michele Scarponi attacked with only Basso, 's Sergio Henao and Joaquim Rodríguez () for company. Rodríguez accelerated further, catching and passing Pirazzi and Txurruka, while team-mate Losada waited for him to help his team-mate on the climb; he carried on without Losada, catching Rabottini inside the final . Rabottini latched on to Rodríguez, and took him on the outside of the final left-hand turn and beat him to the line for his first victory since the 2011 Tour of Turkey. Rodríguez reclaimed the maglia rosa from Hesjedal, while fourth-placed Henao claimed the young rider classification lead from team-mate Rigoberto Urán. Stage 16 22 May 2012 — Limone sul Garda to Falzes-Pfalzen, Following the second and final rest day of the race the previous day, the race returned with a stage classified "medium-mountain" without any categorised climbs over the parcours. Despite this, the stage gradually rose during its course, before reaching the highest point at the finish – via a closing climb with a gradient reaching 12% in places, yet uncategorised – in Pfalzen, above sea level. After a previous thirteen-rider breakaway move had earlier been unsuccessful, a second batch of ten riders launched their attack on the peloton after around , but none of the riders posed a threat to overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez (); the best-placed rider of the group was 's José Herrada, who was over 32 minutes behind Rodríguez at the start of the stage. With such an advantage over their rivals in the lead group, the peloton elected not to chase them down at any point, and as such, the gap to them moved up to an unassailable advantage of almost 13 minutes with under remaining in the stage. While the main field managed to marginally cut into the lead that the breakaway had held, inside the final , with upping the tempo to allow their jersey-wearers Mark Cavendish (points) and Sergio Henao (young rider) to stay out of the way of any potential hazards in the closing stages. At the front, 's Mathias Frank chased down moves by Herrada, rider Alessandro De Marchi and Jon Izagirre of , but Izagirre managed to break the confines of the group with around to go. Izagirre was not caught, eventually soloing away to a 16-second victory for his first Grand Tour win, and second in a month after a previous victory in the time trial of April's Vuelta a Asturias. De Marchi beat Stef Clement () for second place, while the peloton trimmed the gap to the breakaway to under nine minutes at the finish, following injections of pace from and . Stage 17 23 May 2012 — Falzes-Pfalzen to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Following the previous day's summit finish in Pfalzen, the race continued in the Dolomites with four high-mountain passes over the parcours, culminating in the first-category Passo Giau, the highest point of the previous year's race. The Passo Giau, a climb reaching up to an altitude of – an average gradient of 9.3% – was set to break up the peloton prior to the near- descent into Cortina d'Ampezzo; where the race was being hosted by the town for the first time since 1977. With much of the focus upon those closing climbs – three inside the final of the stage – with the Passo Duran and the Forcella Staulanza coming before the Passo Giau, there was no immediate breakaway from the start. Instead, it was not until the end of the first hour of racing that the breakaway had been instigated. Five riders broke the confines of the peloton at the mark, consisting of mountains classification leader Matteo Rabottini (), José Serpa of , rider Kevin Seeldraeyers as well as 's Branislau Samoilau and Matteo Montaguti representing the team. The quintet held a lead of almost six minutes on the stage's first climb, the Passo Valparola, but their advantage was cut by the time Rabottini had extended his mountains points lead, by cresting the summit first. and were the prominent teams on the front of the field, with rider Mikel Nieve eventually attacking off the front, replacing Montaguti as the fifth member of the breakaway, as he had been dropped. All five were later caught before the Passo Giau, where the squad were again leading the reduced peloton. As was expected, the Passo Giau defined the remainder of the stage. With three riders setting the pace for their team captain Ivan Basso, numerous riders were being dislodged from the back of the group; as such, only six riders remained with the group halfway up the climb, with Basso being joined by overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez (), 's Ryder Hesjedal, rider Michele Scarponi, as well as Rigoberto Urán of – after team-mate Sergio Henao had been dropped – and rider Domenico Pozzovivo. Scarponi and Urán were both dropped in the closing stages of the Passo Giau, but they both made it back into the lead group on the descent into Cortina d'Ampezzo; the sextet battled it out for the stage honours in a sprint finish, where Rodríguez came from last position in the line to out-sprint his rivals for his second stage win of the race. His overall lead remained at 30 seconds however, as there was no bonus seconds on offer at the finish; but he also stated that Hesjedal was the favourite, due to his superior abilities in the time trial. Rodríguez also dedicated his stage victory to Xavier Tondo, on the first anniversary of his death while preparing for a training session. The only jersey to change hands at the end of the stage was Urán, moving into fifth place overall, taking the young rider classification lead from team-mate Henao. Stage 18 24 May 2012 — San Vito di Cadore to Vedelago, Starting from a height of above sea level, the stage steadily descended throughout its entire parcours, except for a few lumps, all the way down to Vedelago at just above sea level. The stage was set up for the sprinters' final chance to claim stage honours in the race; the following two stages were summit finishes in the high mountains – ruling the sprinters out of contention – before the race-concluding individual time trial in Milan. The finish in Vedelago came after a straight run-in, with no potential hazards for late crashes. The opening breakaway of the stage came after just , when four riders attacked off the front of the peloton. The breakaway was made up of Pierpaolo De Negri (), rider Angelo Pagani, 's Stef Clement, and Manuele Boaro of , but with Clement being best-placed at over an hour down on overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez (), there was no real hurry to close them down. The leaders held a lead of around three minutes at the conclusion of the first hour of racing, but were on the front of the peloton in the hopes of extending the points classification lead that Mark Cavendish held over Rodríguez; prior to the stage, Cavendish held a one-point lead over the race leader, after Rodríguez's victory in stage 17. Ian Stannard was given the main duties of setting the tempo, following the withdrawal of Peter Kennaugh during stage 17, and managed to bring the breakaway back prior to the intermediate sprint point; Cavendish led across the line in Cesiomaggiore, following a lead-out from Geraint Thomas. Several mini-attacks occurred prior to a second breakaway being instigated. Clement was again part of a quartet in front, being joined by rider Olivier Kaisen and 's Martijn Keizer – the two most active riders in the Premio della Fuga classification for most cumulative kilometres spent in a breakaway of fewer than ten riders – with Mickaël Delage completing the quartet for . remained at the front of the peloton with added assistance from , as they looked to keep the breakaway's advantage as little as possible; it was around a minute with to go. Delage later advanced clear on his own with to go, with Kaisen's team-mate Lars Bak attacking out of the peloton once again to join him in a short stint off the front; the pair were caught inside of to go, setting up the bunch sprint. Bernhard Eisel and Thomas positioned Cavendish at the head of the bunch, but Andrea Guardini () finished quickest, having launched his sprint off the wheel of 's Roberto Ferrari, and the eleven-time Tour de Langkawi stage winner took his first Giro stage victory. Guardini's win came after he had been criticised by the Italian media prior to the stage. Cavendish extended his points lead to 29 with second at the line, while Rodríguez maintained his 30-second lead in the overall classification. Stage 19 25 May 2012 — Treviso to Alpe di Pampeago, Like several of the other mountain stages during the Giro to that point, the stage started just above sea level in Treviso before steadily climbing back towards the Dolomites, and the foot of the first of five categorised climbs during the stage, the third-category Sella di Roa. Having descended from that climb, the riders were then immediately climbing once again after that, with the first-category Passo Manghen, a climb with an average gradient of 7.4%; before the first of two ascents of the finishing climb at the Alpe di Pampeago, the first of which going to the Reiterjoch, reaching in altitude. On the finishing circuit of , the riders encountered the second-category Passo di Lavazè, before the Alpe di Pampeago once again. It was expected that this stage, rather than the queen stage 20, would cause the most alterations in the general classification, but the race winner would become clearer over the two stages, and the final time trial. Seventeen riders representing seventeen different teams made it into the breakaway at the mark, including the most recent winner of a stage finishing at the Alpe di Pampeago, 's Emanuele Sella, who won the stage by more than four-and-a-half minutes in 2008. As well as Sella, rider Sandy Casar was part of the breakaway, who in 19th place, was the highest-placed rider in the general classification, having trailed overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez () by 12' 25" overnight. By the time that the lead group had reached the Passo Manghen, the advantage was around the ten-minute mark. With Rodriguez's team, as well as the teams of Ivan Basso () and Michele Scarponi (), that advantage steadily fell during the stage, and the margin had been more than halved by the intermediate sprint point of the stage, coming prior to the first ascent of the Alpe di Pampeago, in Tesero. On the climb, Casar pulled clear with Tirreno–Adriatico mountains classification winner Stefano Pirazzi of and 's Thomas Rohregger. Rohregger faded on the climb, and Pirazzi and Casar went clear to the summit. Approaching the summit in the peloton, rider Dario Cataldo went clear off the front of the pack, and was joined by pairing Kevin Seeldraeyers and Roman Kreuziger; Kreuziger and Cataldo then left Seeldraeyers behind, and joined up with Cataldo's team-mate Serge Pauwels, who had dropped back from the breakaway. Sella had bridged himself back up to Rohregger, with both riders later rejoining Casar and Pirazzi at the to go mark; the group only remained together for another as Casar and Pirazzi again ventured clear of the other pair. By now, Kreuziger and Cataldo had gathered ground on Rohregger and Sella, joining them after the latter pair had no response to the attack. Pirazzi went clear again, with Kreuziger and Casar trying to follow, while in the main bunch, Scarponi was trying to break the group up into a handful of riders, but it was not until Ryder Hesjedal () attacked with remaining that the group splintered. Kreuziger went past Pirazzi and eventually soloed away to his first Giro stage victory, although he – and directeur sportif Giuseppe Martinelli – remained disappointed with his Giro as a whole. Behind, Hesjedal attacked once again, and was not chased down; eventually gaining thirteen seconds on Rodríguez, reducing the latter's advantage to 17 seconds ahead of the final two stages of the race. Scarponi, who finished fourth on the stage behind Rodríguez, moved into third place overall; a 20-second margin over Basso on the stage swung third place in the defending champion's favour by six seconds. Both Rodríguez and Basso felt that the Giro title was Hesjedal's to lose, due to the final stage time trial. Stage 20 26 May 2012 — Caldes-Val di Sole to Passo dello Stelvio, The race's queen stage consisted of five categorised climbs over the parcours. Having commenced the stage with the second-category climb of the Passo del Tonale, the riders contended with a pair of contrasting third-category climbs; the Passo dell'Aprica, a shallow climb with an average gradient of just over 3%, and the Teglio, a near- climb averaging 8%, although reaching 15% in places. Undulating roads set the course for the next hour of racing, up to the foot of the first-category Passo del Mortirolo. The Passo del Mortirolo, returning to the race after being absent in 2011, averages a gradient of in excess of 10% over its length, although the gradient reached 22% in places on the climb. Having descended from there, the riders headed towards Bormio and the start of the climb to the Cima Coppi – the highest point of the Giro d'Italia – of the Passo dello Stelvio. Although not as steep as the Passo del Mortirolo, the Passo dello Stelvio was a climb with an average gradient of only 7%, with the final being the steepest part of the climb, with 12% gradient recorded in certain areas. Another large breakaway group was formed on a mountain stage, as fourteen riders went clear, including the previous day's winner Roman Kreuziger (), former young rider classification leader Damiano Caruso of the team, and incumbent mountains classification leader Matteo Rabottini, looking to extend his advantage in that classification for . They held a lead of up to six minutes at one point in the early running of the stage, but as the group headed towards the foot of the Passo del Mortirolo, their advantage had been cut in half to around the three-minute mark. It was here that the group started to break apart, and it was an attack by Oliver Zaugg of that sent him up the road, having shaken off Matteo Carrara (), who had bridged up to him on the climb. Carrara's team-mate Thomas De Gendt, ninth overall overnight, then attacked off the front of the peloton and caught up to Carrara, with both riders joined by 's Damiano Cunego, who was just behind De Gendt in the general classification. then set their sights on getting riders up towards the front, with stage 16 winner Jon Izagirre and Mikel Nieve – winner of the stage to Val di Fassa in 2011 – making their way forward, and also in the process, brought Tanel Kangert of the team into the group, making it a six-man group in chase of Zaugg. Zaugg was caught with around remaining on the stage, while Carrara was replaced in the lead group by another stage-winner from the race, 's Andrey Amador. At this point, the group held a four-minute advantage over the reduced peloton, moving De Gendt and Cunego into contention of getting into the top three overall ahead of the time trial. De Gendt attacked again, which reduced the lead group yet further; once it had settled down once again, only De Gendt, Cunego and Nieve remained together. A third attack by De Gendt later followed and neither of his remaining breakaway companions could match his pace. With to go, De Gendt extended his advantage to five minutes over the -led peloton, putting overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez () in a spot of danger, especially due to De Gendt's superior time trial capabilities. De Gendt started to tire during the climb of the Stelvio, and with John Gadret () attacking from the main field, the gap that he had over the main field was reducing. Ryder Hesjedal lifted the pace in the peloton, reducing the group yet further – to himself, Rodríguez and 's Michele Scarponi – inside the final . As De Gendt won the stage, Scarponi launched forward, and was closely followed by Rodríguez, with no movement from Hesjedal. Cunego finished second ahead of Nieve, while Rodríguez managed to catch and pass Scarponi for fourth on the stage; this result also gave him the lead in the points classification, taking over from Mark Cavendish () by just one point. Hesjedal finished 14 seconds behind Rodríguez, to trail by 31 seconds going into the final time trial stage, while De Gendt moved up to fourth place, 2' 18" in arrears. Rodríguez's directeur sportif Valerio Piva later stated that it would be "difficult" for his rider to win the Giro, due to the close proximity of Hesjedal in the general classification. Stage 21 27 May 2012 — Milan, , individual time trial (ITT) Originally scheduled for a distance of , the time trial was reduced to a distance of on the morning of the stage due to road conditions in Milan. The parcours of the stage itself was almost completely pan-flat, with a maximum altitude gain of just . As was customary of time trial stages, the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage. It was scheduled to be 's Andrea Guardini, but he was disqualified the previous day – along with three other riders – for holding on to their respective team cars. Thus, Miguel Minguez of , who, in 157th place, trailed overall leader Joaquim Rodríguez () by five hours, twenty-five minutes and one second, was the first rider to set off on the final stage. He was not the first rider to finish, as 's Taylor Phinney passed both Minguez and his team-mate Adrián Sáez on the course, despite running off course after a mistake by the motorcycle in front of him, leaving Phinney frustrated at the finish. Phinney's time held for only a number of minutes as Alex Rasmussen, who was third in the opening stage time trial in Denmark, assumed top spot for in a time of 34' 06". Almost quarter of an hour passed before Rasmussen was moved from the top of the timesheets, as 's Jesse Sergent was the first rider to break the 34-minute barrier as he recorded a time of 33' 59" for the course. Sergent's time stood for an hour before rider Geraint Thomas bettered his time by a margin of 14 seconds, but just like the opening stage of the race, his time was eventually only good enough for a second place stage result. Again, Thomas was beaten by a rider, but on this occasion it was Marco Pinotti and not Phinney, that recorded the quickest time for the course. Pinotti passed the two riders that started before him on the course, and completed the course in a time of 33' 06", 39 seconds better than Thomas and good enough for the five-time Italian time trial champion to take the stage victory, bookending victories in the race for his team. The focus then shifted to the overall classification and the battle for the podium. Ryder Hesjedal () was considered the favourite to take the final maglia rosa due to him being more proficient in the discipline than Rodríguez. 's Thomas De Gendt was also tipped to take at least third place, as he was in a similar situation to Hesjedal, against defending champion Michele Scarponi (). De Gendt was first to take to the stage, recording a time of 34' 07" – good enough for a fifth-place finish – and was more than enough to move ahead of Scarponi, who recorded a time of exactly 35 minutes. Hesjedal had moved ahead of Rodríguez on time during the stage, and finished the course eight seconds slower than what De Gendt had achieved. He sealed the Giro title – and the first Grand Tour overall victory for a Canadian rider – several minutes later as Rodríguez finished outside of the 31-second margin that he had held before the stage. Rodríguez – who crashed during a reconnaissance run of the course – finished the stage in 35' 02", meaning that he finished the Giro with just the points classification, as Mark Cavendish () was unable to finish the stage inside the top 15. De Gendt's third place meant that there was no Italian on the overall podium for the first time since 1995. Notes References 2012 Giro d'Italia Giro d'Italia stages

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Monterey Bay Aquarium is a nonprofit public aquarium in Monterey, California. Known for its regional focus on the marine habitats of Monterey Bay, it was the first to exhibit a living kelp forest when it opened in October 1984. Its biologists have pioneered the animal husbandry of jellyfish and it was the first to successfully care for and display a great white shark. The organization's research and conservation efforts also focus on sea otters, various birds, and tunas. Seafood Watch, a sustainable seafood advisory list published by the aquarium beginning in 1999, has influenced the discussion surrounding sustainable seafood. Early proposals to build a public aquarium in Monterey County were not successful until a group of four marine biologists affiliated with Stanford University revisited the concept in the late-1970s. Monterey Bay Aquarium was built at the site of a defunct sardine cannery and has been recognized for its architectural achievements by the American Institute of Architects. Along with its architecture, the aquarium has won numerous awards for its exhibition of marine life, ocean conservation efforts, and educational programs. Monterey Bay Aquarium receives around two million visitors each year. It led to the revitalization of Cannery Row, and produces hundreds of millions of dollars for the economy of Monterey County. In addition to being featured in two PBS Nature documentaries, the aquarium has appeared in film and television productions. Founding and design In the early 1960s, scientists at Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station grew wary of the growing industry on Cannery Row. The station succeeded in convincing the university of their concerns in 1967, and Stanford University purchased the property on Cannery Row that housed the Hovden Cannery, a sardine cannery on the border of Monterey and Pacific Grove. Hovden Cannery closed in 1973 when its parent company moved the plant, and Hopkins used the facility as a warehouse. In the late1970s, however, Chuck Baxter and Robin Burnett—both faculty members at Hopkins—along with Nancy Burnett, a graduate of Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, and Steve Webster, faculty at San Jose State University, thought of building an aquarium on the Hovden Cannery site. Three separate proposals for an aquarium in Monterey County had already occurred in 1914, 1925, and 1944, but financial backing and public support for the idea was not sufficient. Nancy Burnett brought the group's interest to her parents, Lucile and David Packard (cofounder of Hewlett-Packard), and their foundation commissioned a feasibility study. An aquarium was predicted to attract 300,000 paying visitors annually with a potential future increase to 500,000 so, in April 1978, the Packards created the Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation, which purchased the Hovden property from Stanford for nearly US$1 million. Around this time, Julie Packard—also a daughter of David and Lucile—joined the planning group. David Packard funded construction with an initial donation of $7 million with the caveat that the private nonprofit would be financially self-supporting after it opened. Due to an expansion of its planned exhibits—after visits to public aquariums in Japan—and the design and creation of exhibits inhouse, the Packards paid a final sum of $55 million. General contracting firm Rudolph and Sletten predicted the building would take 31 months (two and a half years) to construct, but project manager Linda Rhodes and architectural firm Esherick, Homsey, Dodge, and Davis (EHDD) first had to design the facility to fit Cannery Row. Those involved intended to reconstruct Hovden Cannery rather than destroy it, and EHDD acknowledged that the latter would be "a big disservice to our visiting public and to the community". Concrete sections of the building were able to be kept, but other areas were repurposed; the cannery's old warehouse was converted into administrative offices, and a seawater system for the aquatic exhibits replaced the cannery's pump house that brought fish to the warehouse from floating storage tanks in the bay. The facility was constructed around the cannery's boiler house, which is preserved as a non-functioning public exhibit. As the building would reside partially over water, unique challenges occurred throughout construction. Nearly half of the aquarium would be located over the bay in depths of up to , requiring foundational elements to be installed during low tide, which often occurred at night. According to a project manager with Rudolph and Sletten, excavations were sometimes lost as the composition of the ground underneath beach sand was inconsistent. Various elements of the building mirrored that of Hovden Cannery, including its windows (to let in sunlight), plain cement walls, structural protection from waves and storms, and its many roofs. Exposed pipes and ducts along the ceiling also contributed to the industrial style of buildings on Cannery Row. The ironic transition from a plant that processed fish to an aquarium which would display them didn't prevent the facility from appearing like a cannery, according to multiple journalists. The aquarium's successful representation of the cannery was acknowledged by the California Historical Society with a historical preservation award. When Monterey Bay Aquarium opened on October 20, 1984, it was the largest public aquarium in the United States. On opening day, 11,000 visited it and around 30,000 people attended the day's festivities. In reference to the disappearance of sardines (through overfishing), which caused the canneries to close, the aquarium said that "the fish are back!" Throughout the following year, 2.4 million people visited, which influenced assumptions about "the ability of marine life to entertain, educate, and promote a city." Within five years, it was reported in the Los Angeles Times that it was among California's most popular visitor attractions. By 1994, it was the most attended aquarium in the United States. For its design, EHDD was awarded a National Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1988. The institute's state chapter in California gave the facility its Twenty-five Year Award in 2011 and, in 2016, it was awarded the national Twenty-five Year Award, described as "a benchmark and role model for aquariums everywhere." In discussing the aquarium's conservation and education programs, its track record for entertaining visitors, and its reputation for collaboration, the head of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums described it as "a definite leader" in 2009 to the Los Angeles Times. Since it opened in 1984, Julie Packard has been the aquarium's executive director. Aquarium exhibits According to a progress report during the aquarium's planning phase in 1980, the founders' efforts to build an aquarium developed from an interest in sharing marine life of the region with the public. This would be accomplished through its exhibits, featuring the aquatic habitats of Monterey Bay and central California. The idea to display marine habitats was inspired by the work of ecologist Ed Ricketts in his 1939 book on intertidal ecology, Between Pacific Tides. In the early 1980s this was a unique approach to the design of public aquariums, as the two largest public aquariums at the time in the United States—Boston's New England Aquarium (1969) and Baltimore's National Aquarium (1981)—focused on "magnificent coral reef exhibits or big sharks", and displayed few local species. Seawater system Monterey Bay Aquarium displays 35,000 animals belonging to over 550 species in of water. Filtered seawater from Monterey Bay is pumped into the Kelp Forest and other exhibits at per minute. At night, unfiltered seawater (or "raw seawater") is used for the Kelp Forest exhibit to maintain its realistic appearance. The use of unfiltered seawater allows animals to grow in the aquarium's plumbing so it must occasionally be cleaned with tools called pigs, which blast through the pipes under pressure to remove organisms and debris. Control systems that maintain this seawater system and other life support components for the animals are mostly automated, tracking various chemical parameters and reducing the likelihood for human error during repetitive tasks such as filter media backwashing. The seawater system is controlled by more than 10,000 data points. Kelp Forest exhibit At tall and long, the Kelp Forest exhibit is the focal point of Monterey Bay Aquarium's Ocean's Edge wing. Nearly three stories high, the exhibit is regarded as the first successful attempt to maintain a living kelp forest in an artificial setting. During the facility's planning and construction, professionals doubted that kelp could be grown in an aquarium at this scale. And, even if it could be grown, critics of the project did not think the public would be interested in seeing this representation of Monterey Bay. During the design phase, kelp scientists Wheeler North at the California Institute of Technology and Mike Neushal at the University of California, Santa Barbara informed the aquarium of the kelp's needs. The exhibit's success at sustaining giant kelp and its realistic appearance are attributed to the availability of direct sunlight, the use of natural seawater from Monterey Bay, and a surge machine (a large plunger) that replicates California's pulsing water currents. The surge machine, which plunges every 6 seconds, allows the kelp in the exhibit to grow an average of per day and was designed and constructed by David Packard. Kelp forests are important ecosystems along California's coast—compared to tropical rainforests in their biodiversity—and, alongside giant kelp, the exhibit contains species of fish indigenous to Monterey Bay, including rockfishes and leopard sharks. Open Sea wing In 1996, Monterey Bay Aquarium opened a second wing of aquatic exhibits, focusing on the pelagic habitats found offshore in Monterey Bay. Costing US$57 million and taking seven years to develop, the wing almost doubled the aquarium's public exhibit space. It consists of three separate galleries: various jellyfish and other plankton found in the bay; a pelagic, large community exhibit; and "ocean travelers", which features tufted puffins and sea turtles. When the exhibition opened, the San Francisco Chronicle reported the aquarium had the most jellyfish on exhibit in the world. In 1997, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums awarded the wing its Exhibit Award. Holding , the Open Sea community exhibit is the aquarium's largest tank. Made of fiberglass-reinforced plastic, it is long and deep. Its largest viewing window—at long and tall—was reportedly the largest aquarium window in the world when it was installed in 1996. To discourage animals from swimming into the window in the absence of visitors and injuring or killing themselves (as a Pacific bluefin tuna did in 2007), an air hose underneath the window generates a "bubble wall" in front of it throughout the night. In 2011, species reported to be in the exhibit included green sea turtles, sardines, pelagic stingrays, scalloped hammerhead sharks, sandbar sharks, mahi-mahi, mackerel, bluefin and yellowfin tunas, and ocean sunfishes. Historically, the exhibit also included blue sharks, soupfin sharks, and California barracuda. Six great white sharks were displayed in the Open Sea exhibit between 2004 and 2011, an effort contested by some but generally described as having a positive scientific and educational impact. Prior to the display of the first white shark for six months before its release, the longest length of time that a white shark had survived in an aquarium was 16 days. A 10-month, US$19 million renovation of the wing concluded in July 2011 to refurbish the community exhibit. Turbulent swimming patterns of tunas were dismantling the exhibit's structural glass tiles, which the sea turtles were subsequently eating, so the exhibit was drained after all 10,000 animals were caught. Supplemental exhibits were added as part of this renovation featuring artwork that highlights current issues in ocean conservation, including overfishing and plastic pollution. Other permanent exhibits Monterey Bay Aquarium opened in 1984 with 83 tanks in 12 galleries, which more than doubled by 2014 into 200 live animal exhibits. In addition to the Kelp Forest and Open Sea exhibits, there are two other prominent aquariums. The Monterey Bay Habitats tank, as its name suggests, represents various habitats in Monterey Bay, from wharfs to the sandy seafloor to deep rocky reefs. It is long and shaped like a figure eight, and holds over , a similar volume of seawater as the Kelp Forest exhibit. Many exhibits contain man-made structures that were left in the bay to accumulate living organisms prior to the aquarium's opening; in Monterey Bay Habitats, real pilings were obtained from the city's harbor department for the exhibit's wharf section. In others, artificial rocks tricked visitors and fish alike. With the aquarium's debut, this "nature-faking" via human manipulation did not trick some, but the fakeness' did not necessarily detract from the aquarium's intrinsic value." Rescued sea otters live in a habitat holding , and are the only marine mammals exhibited. In 2014, the aquarium stated to the Vancouver Courier that it takes no official position on the controversy of captive killer whales or other cetaceans. The facility was not constructed to house cetaceans, and instead utilizes the 27 species of marine mammals that live in or travel through Monterey Bay as one of its "exhibits", as guests can view the bay and marine mammals from decks along the back of the building. Monterey Bay Aquarium was the first public aquarium to have its interior mapped on Google Street View, creating a virtual walking tour. Temporary exhibitions Monterey Bay Aquarium began creating temporary exhibitions (or "special exhibitions") in the 1980s to display animals that are found outside of Monterey Bay. The first of these, titled "Mexico's Secret Sea", focused on the Sea of Cortez in 1989. Most exhibitions since then have focused on animal groups, including deep-sea animals (1999), sharks (2004), otters (2007), seahorses (2009), cephalopods (2014), and jellyfish. The 1997 "Fishing for Solutions" exhibition led to the development of the sustainable seafood program, Seafood Watch. In 2010, an exhibition titled "Hot Pink Flamingos" was one of the first aquarium exhibitions in the United States to explicitly discuss the effects of global warming on habitats and animals. Its content was successfully accessible and compelling to the public, but the exhibition was criticized for its narrow "consumerist approach" to climate change communication—promoting individual, marketplace-based actions rather than collective political ones. Terrestrial animals were displayed for the first time—including a tarantula, a snake, and a scorpion—in a US$3.8 million exhibit on ecosystems of Baja California that opened in 2016. At least three exhibitions have been devoted entirely to displaying jellyfish. In 1989, the aquarium's second temporary exhibition, titled "Living Treasures of the Pacific", included three jellyfish tanks following the successful display of one tank of moon jellies four years earlier in 1985. In 1992, the first temporary exhibition for jellyfish opened, called "Planet of the Jellies", the success of which prompted a permanent jellyfish gallery within the Open Sea wing in 1996. Within 20 years of opening Planet of the Jellies, the aquarium created two more temporary exhibitions centered on jellyfish. The final one of the three exhibitions opened in 2012, and displayed around 16 species of jellyfish from around the world in "a psychedelic theme from the 1960s". Staff members attribute the organization's fascination with jellyfish to their visual appeal, primitive biology, and reputed calming effect on visitors. Research and conservation Monterey Bay Aquarium helped create momentum for the establishment of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary in 1992, one of the largest marine protected areas in the United States. In 2004, the aquarium created a formal division to become involved in United States ocean policy and law, working with the Pew Charitable Trusts and the United States Commission on Ocean Policy at the onset. Staff scientists have authored scientific publications involving sea otters, great white sharks, and bluefin tunas, which are important species in the northern Pacific Ocean. In addition to other animals, work has been published in the areas of veterinary medicine, visitor studies, and museum exhibition development. Among over 200 institutions accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Monterey Bay Aquarium ranked 10th in scientific publication activity between 1993 and 2013. For Monterey Bay Aquarium's captive animal propagation efforts, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums has granted two awards, including one for the aquarium's work with purple-striped jellies in 1992. It has also received the association's general conservation award for its Sea Otter Research and Conservation Program. In October 2017, the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums conferred its Conservation Award to the aquarium for its "commitment to ocean protection and public awareness". Marine life Monterey Bay Aquarium's Sea Otter Research and Conservation program began in 1984 to research and rehabilitate wild southern sea otters. more than 800 individuals had completed the rehabilitation program and researchers have collected data on wild sea otter populations using electronic tags. An otter rescued in 2001 began the program's surrogacy efforts, in which adult female sea otters that have been rehabilitated but cannot be released act as surrogate mothers to stranded sea otter pups. The aquarium was the only sea otter rehabilitation site in California until The Marine Mammal Center began expanding a program for sea otters in 2017. Its work with sea otters is featured in the PBS Nature episode titled "Saving Otter 501", which aired in October 2013. Shorebirds, such as the threatened western snowy plover, are also rehabilitated and released. Since around 1998, the aquarium has worked with Point Blue Conservation Science to rescue western snowy plover eggs. The eggs hatch after being artificially incubated, and are raised until they are independent enough for release. The two organizations released 180 individuals in 2012, and about 100 individuals in 2013. The aquarium's endangered African penguins are part of an Association of Zoos and Aquariums species survival plan, a program that identifies genetically important birds and allows specific breeding activity to occur. Five chicks have hatched in the penguin colony as of 2014 and some of those have been sent to other accredited institutions. Beginning in June 2007, the aquarium operates a public presentation with its rehabilitated Laysan albatross that has a wingspan of . The program's goal is to inform visitors of the dangers that ocean plastic pollution causes for animals, especially the 21 species of albatrosses. Pacific bluefin and yellowfin tunas have been historically displayed in the Open Sea community exhibit, some reaching more than . In 2011, three dozen fishes of the two species were on exhibit. Prior to opening the Open Sea wing in 1996, the aquarium established the Tuna Research and Conservation Center in 1994 in partnership with Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station. Staff scientists and Barbara Block—professor of marine sciences at Stanford University—have tagged wild Pacific bluefin tunas to study predator-prey relationships, and have also investigated tuna endothermy with captive tunas at the center. To improve international collaboration of bluefin tuna management, Monterey Bay Aquarium and Stanford University hosted a symposium in January 2016 in Monterey. Over 200 scientists, fisheries managers, and policy makers gathered to discuss solutions to the decline of Pacific bluefin tuna populations. Aquarists also propagate animals behind-the-scenes for the public exhibits. Since 1985, the aquarium has been deeply involved in jellyfish propagation, creating three temporary exhibitions and one permanent gallery (within the Open Sea wing). The organization's jellyfish collections have been the largest in the world, and its pioneering work with the animals resulted in a trend of jellyfish exhibitions in the United States. In August 2016, aquarists cultured comb jellies for the first time in a laboratory, which may allow them to become a model organism. Beginning in 2012, the aquarium began to breed many species of cephalopods in preparation for a temporary exhibition that opened in 2014. For the duration of the exhibition, half of the animals were cultured because of their short life cycles. A display in the exhibition showcased how aquarists rear different species of cephalopods, including bigfin reef squid, which live for only about six months. In partnership with Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, at least two deep-sea cephalopod species were displayed in the exhibition, including flapjack octopuses and the vampire squid. Great white sharks In 1984, Monterey Bay Aquarium's first attempt to display a great white shark lasted 11 days, ending when the shark died because it did not eat. Through a later program named Project White Shark, six white sharks were exhibited between 2004 and 2011 in the Open Sea community exhibit, which was constructed in the 1990s. Researchers at universities in California attributed the aquarium's success at exhibiting white sharks to the use of a net pen, which gave the sharks time to recover from capture prior to transport. A portable tank used to transport the fish to the exhibit allowed the sharks to swim continuously, which they must do in order to respire. These endeavors led to the first instance of a white shark eating in an aquarium. At least one organization—the Pelagic Shark Research Foundation based in Santa Cruz, California—criticized the aquarium for attempting to keep white sharks in captivity, questioning the significance of possible scientific research and the ability to educate visitors. However, several independent biologists expressed approval for Project White Shark because of its logistical design, educational impact, and scientific insights. Regarding its educational impact, a white shark researcher from Australia stated in 2006 that "the fact people can come and see these animals and learn from them is of immeasurable value." The first captive white shark—on exhibit in 2004 for more than six months—was seen by one million visitors, and another million visitors saw either the second or third white sharks on display. In 198 days, the first white shark grew more than and gained over prior to its release. Monterey Bay Aquarium is the only public aquarium in the world to have successfully exhibited a white shark for longer than 16 days. The effort to display captive white sharks ended in 2011 due to the project's high resource intensity. Captive white sharks also incurred injuries and killed other animals in the exhibit after becoming increasingly aggressive, and the final shark died due to unknown reasons immediately following its release. Although no longer on exhibit for the public, aquarium researchers have continued to conduct research on white sharks. Collaborating with Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute in June 2016, staff scientists created cameras attached to harmless dorsal fin tags in an attempt to study the behavior of white sharks during their gathering known as the White Shark Café. Seafood program Monterey Bay Aquarium's consumer-based Seafood Watch program encourages sustainable seafood purchasing from fisheries that are "well managed and caught or farmed in ways that cause little harm to habitats or other wildlife." It began in 1999 as a result of a popular component of a temporary exhibition and has grown to consist of a website, six regional pocket guides, and mobile apps that allow consumers to check the sustainability ratings of specific fisheries. The program has expanded to include business collaborations, local and national restaurant and grocer partnerships, and outreach partnerships—primarily other public aquariums and zoos. Large-scale business and grocer affiliations include Aramark, Compass Group, Target, and Whole Foods Market. In both 2009 and 2015, Seafood Watch was reportedly playing an influential role in the discussion regarding seafood sustainability. According to the aquarium, the program's efficacy is driven by its work with both businesses and consumers, and is supported by the organization's expanding science and ocean policy programs. In the late 2000s, Seafood Watch was likely the most known and most widely distributed sustainable seafood guide out of around 200 internationally. By 2014, fifteen years after its inception, the program had produced more than 52 million printed pocket guides. Its mobile apps were downloaded over one million times between 2009 and 2015. In 2003, the program's website was granted a MUSE Award from the American Alliance of Museums for use of media and technology in science. Bon Appétit magazine awarded its Tastemaker of the Year award to Seafood Watch in 2008 and, in 2013, Sunset magazine described it as one of "the most effective consumer-awareness programs". In September 2016, the United States Agency for International Development announced it was cooperating with the aquarium to improve fisheries management in the Asia-Pacific. Political advocacy Monterey Bay Aquarium plays an active role in federal and state politics, from sponsoring governmental legislation about the ocean to persuading voter action from its visitors and online followers. The aquarium was a leading sponsor for the statewide shark fin ban in 2011. After the ban's success its efforts shifted to focus on ocean plastic pollution, supporting successful legislation which restricted the use of microbeads in personal care products. In support of California Proposition 67 (2016), the organization produced advertisements, web pages, and podcasts in favor of a statewide ban on single-use plastic grocery bags. The aquarium is a founding member of a partnership between 20 public aquariums for collaborating on policy-based conservation efforts. This partnership, called the Aquarium Conservation Partnership, hosted a plastic pollution conference at Monterey Bay Aquarium in December 2016. In July 2017, the aquarium and other members of the partnership began eliminating their own plastic products, such as plastic bags, straws, and bottles. The aquarium is a founding partner of the Ocean Project, which conducts national public opinion surveys about aquariums and environmental issues. And, along with Stanford University, it runs an organization involved in ocean science, policy, and law called the Center for Ocean Solutions. The aquarium has participated in several international conferences that focus on ocean policy, including the 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference. In March 2017, Monterey Bay Aquarium publicly endorsed the March for Science—a series of rallies and marches that occurred around the world on Earth Day the following April—and its penguins marched in their own miniature demonstration. Educational efforts Each year approximately 75,000 students, teachers, and chaperones from California access Monterey Bay Aquarium for free. An additional 1,500 low-income students, 350 teenagers, and 1,200 teachers participate in structured educational programs throughout the year. Between 1984 and 2014, the aquarium hosted more than 2 million students. In 2009, the aquarium and others collaborated to create an online resource called "Climate Interpreter", which is used by other zoological institutions, government agencies, and academic institutions to share materials for interpreting climate change to the public. A , US$30 million education center being developed by the aquarium is expected to open in 2018, and will double the number of students and teachers it is able to work with each year. Monterey Bay Aquarium received a Webby Award in 2000 for "distributing information related to scientific exploration" and has won four awards from the Association of Zoos and Aquariums for its programs in the categories of education and diversity. In 2015, the Silicon Valley Business Journal awarded the aquarium with a Community Impact Award for its efforts to "shape a new generation of ocean conservation leaders." Community and economic influence Monterey Bay Aquarium employed over 500 people and had 1,200 active volunteers in 2015. Between 1984 and 2014, 8,500 volunteers donated 3.2 million community service hours. The aquarium attracts around 2 million visitors each year and, through 2016, over 50 million people had visited. Out of the 51 accredited public aquariums in the United States in 2015, Monterey Bay Aquarium's 2.08 million visitors ranked it second by number of visits, behind Georgia Aquarium's 2.2 million. In 2015, it served 290,000 annual members. Free admission programs are offered for Monterey County residents including "Shelf to Shore", with the county's free library system, and "Free to Learn", with local nonprofit organizations and Monterey–Salinas Transit. Additionally, the aquarium offers free admission to Monterey County residents during a weeklong event in December, which grew from almost 17,000 visitors in 1998 to 50,000 visitors in 2013. In 2014, the program was expanded to include neighboring Santa Cruz and San Benito counties. An annual event called "Día del Niño" offers bilingual feeding presentations (in Spanish), activities, and free admission for children under the age of 13. Between 2002 and 2014, over 700,000 people visited for free through outreach programs. In 2013, the aquarium's operational spending and its 2 million visitors generated US$263 million to the economy of Monterey County. In August 2016, an event during one evening raised over US$110,000 for the Community Foundation for Monterey County's drive to provide relief for the Soberanes Fire. In December 2020, Natividad Medical Center in Salinas was loaned a deep-freeze fridge from the Aquarium in order to allow the hospital to store the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine at -94 degrees Fahrenheit. Normally the aquarium uses the freezer for preserving "biological and veterinary samples". Prior to the loan, the hospital had planned on keeping the vaccine on dry ice which would have meant changing the dry ice every five days. Due to the aquarium's closure during the COVID-19 pandemic, between April 2020 and January 2021 a total of 243 staff were laid off or furloughed. In media and popular culture Monterey Bay Aquarium has been featured in two documentaries on the wildlife television program Nature; filmmakers were given behind-the-scenes access for "Oceans in Glass" in 2006, and "Saving Otter 501" followed the aquarium's sea otter rehabilitation program in 2013. It also heavily supported and was featured in BBC's Big Blue Live, a 2015 live television miniseries about Monterey Bay that won a BAFTA TV Award in 2016. The aquarium served as the filming location for the fictitious Cetacean Institute in the 1986 film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. In the 2016 Disney/Pixar animated film Finding Dory, the aquarium inspired the design of the fish hospital that the characters visit, and its animals served as models for the film's animated characters. A scene from the HBO miniseries Big Little Lies, which aired in 2017, was filmed there. After comparing the aquarium's visitor feedback to the feedback of other attractions, the media and the travel industry have given it top awards. In 2014, TripAdvisor ranked it as the number one public aquarium in the world and, in 2015, it ranked second. In 2015, it was listed by Parents magazine as the top public aquarium in the United States and the highest rated destination on the West Coast. Frommer's travel guide lists Monterey Bay Aquarium as "exceptional", the highest rating on its three-tier system. Following the lead of many public institutions, museums, and community hubs, the Monterey Bay Aquarium temporarily closed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and social-distancing recommendations from epidemiologists. The aquarium has been in the spotlight for sharing live-streaming footage of popular exhibits including its jellyfish, sea otters, and sharks. Notes and references Notes Footnotes References Sources External links Walkthrough of aquarium on Google Street View Aquarium's blog detailing conservation and science efforts YouTube video on the history of the aquarium from a founding biologist Buildings and structures in Monterey, California Monterey Bay Museums in Monterey County, California Oceanaria in the United States Tourist attractions in Monterey, California Wildlife rehabilitation and conservation centers

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A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids. It can also be used for structural applications; hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter (OD) and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, but may be specified by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is often made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and tolerances. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe and tubing. The term "tube" is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i.e., square or rectangular tubing. In general, "pipe" is the more common term in most of the world, whereas "tube" is more widely used in the United States. Both "pipe" and "tube" imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a hose (or hosepipe) is usually portable and flexible. Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials that are inflexible, cannot be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, tube assemblies are also constructed with the use of tube fittings. Uses Plumbing Tap water Irrigation Pipelines transporting gas or liquid over long distances Compressed air systems Casing for concrete pilings used in construction projects High-temperature or high-pressure manufacturing processes The petroleum industry: Oil well casing Oil refinery equipment Delivery of fluids, either gaseous or liquid, in a process plant from one point to another point in the process Delivery of bulk solids, in a food or process plant from one point to another point in the process The construction of high pressure storage vessels (note that large pressure vessels are constructed from plate, not pipe owing to their wall thickness and size). Additionally, pipes are used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid. Handrails, scaffolding, and support structures are often constructed from structural pipe, especially in an industrial environment. Manufacture There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture. Centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are generally manufactured in such a fashion. Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create the hollow shell in a process called rotary piercing. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived to be stronger and more reliable. Historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe. Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, allow correctly specified welded pipe to replace seamless in many applications. Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam (usually by Electric resistance welding ("ERW"), or Electric Fusion Welding ("EFW")). The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade. The weld zone can also be heat-treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often has tighter dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, and can be cheaper to manufacture. There are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these processes leads to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces that have to be welded together; as the components being welded together resist the electric current, heat is generated which forms the weld. Pools of molten metal are formed where the two surfaces are connected as a strong electric current is passed through the metal; these pools of molten metal form the weld that binds the two abutted components. ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel. The welding process for ERW pipes is continuous, as opposed to welding of distinct sections at intervals. ERW process uses steel coil as feedstock. The High Frequency Induction Technology (HFI) welding process is used for manufacturing ERW pipes. In this process, the current to weld the pipe is applied by means of an induction coil around the tube. HFI is generally considered to be technically superior to “ordinary” ERW when manufacturing pipes for critical applications, such as for usage in the energy sector, in addition to other uses in line pipe applications, as well as for casing and tubing. Large-diameter pipe ( or greater) may be ERW, EFW or Submerged Arc Welded ("SAW") pipe. There are two technologies that can be used to manufacture steel pipes of sizes larger than the steel pipes that can be produced by seamless and ERW processes. The two types of pipes produced through these technologies are longitudinal-submerged arc-welded (LSAW) and spiral-submerged arc-welded (SSAW) pipes. LSAW are made by bending and welding wide steel plates and most commonly used in oil and gas industry applications. Due to their high cost, LSAW pipes are seldom used in lower value non-energy applications such as water pipelines. SSAW pipes are produced by spiral (helicoidal) welding of steel coil and have a cost advantage over LSAW pipes, as the process uses coils rather than steel plates. As such, in applications where spiral-weld is acceptable, SSAW pipes may be preferred over LSAW pipes. Both LSAW pipes and SSAW pipes compete against ERW pipes and seamless pipes in the diameter ranges of 16”-24”. Tubing for flow, either metal or plastic, is generally extruded. Materials Pipe is made out of many types of material including ceramic, glass, fiberglass, many metals, concrete and plastic. In the past, wood and lead (Latin plumbum, from which comes the word 'plumbing') were commonly used. Typically metallic piping is made of steel or iron, such as unfinished, black (lacquer) steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, galvanized steel, brass, and ductile iron. Iron based piping is subject to corrosion if used within a highly oxygenated water stream. Aluminum pipe or tubing may be utilized where iron is incompatible with the service fluid or where weight is a concern; aluminum is also used for heat transfer tubing such as in refrigerant systems. Copper tubing is popular for domestic water (potable) plumbing systems; copper may be used where heat transfer is desirable (i.e. radiators or heat exchangers). Inconel, chrome moly, and titanium steel alloys are used in high temperature and pressure piping in process and power facilities. When specifying alloys for new processes, the known issues of creep and sensitization effect must be taken into account. Lead piping is still found in old domestic and other water distribution systems, but is no longer permitted for new potable water piping installations due to its toxicity. Many building codes now require that lead piping in residential or institutional installations be replaced with non-toxic piping or that the tubes' interiors be treated with phosphoric acid. According to a senior researcher and lead expert with the Canadian Environmental Law Association, "...there is no safe level of lead [for human exposure]". In 1991 the US EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule, it is a federal regulation which limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water, as well as the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. In the US it's estimated that 6.5 million lead service lines (pipes that connect water mains to home plumbing) installed before the 1930s are still in use. Plastic tubing is widely used for its light weight, chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties, and ease of making connections. Plastic materials include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), fibre reinforced plastic (FRP), reinforced polymer mortar (RPMP), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), cross-linked high-density polyethylene (PEX), polybutylene (PB), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), for example. In many countries, PVC pipes account for most pipe materials used in buried municipal applications for drinking water distribution and wastewater mains. Market researchers are forecasting total global revenues of more than US$80 billion in 2019. In Europe, market value will amount to approx. €12.7 billion in 2020 Pipe may be made from concrete or ceramic, usually for low-pressure applications such as gravity flow or drainage. Pipes for sewage are still predominantly made from concrete or vitrified clay. Reinforced concrete can be used for large-diameter concrete pipes. This pipe material can be used in many types of construction, and is often used in the gravity-flow transport of storm water. Usually such pipe will have a receiving bell or a stepped fitting, with various sealing methods applied at installation. Traceability and positive material identification (PMI) When the alloys for piping are forged, metallurgical tests are performed to determine material composition by % of each chemical element in the piping, and the results are recorded in a Material Test Report (MTR). These tests can be used to prove that the alloy conforms to various specifications (e.g. 316 SS). The tests are stamped by the mill's QA/QC department and can be used to trace the material back to the mill by future users, such as piping and fitting manufacturers. Maintaining the traceability between the alloy material and associated MTR is an important quality assurance issue. QA often requires the heat number to be written on the pipe. Precautions must also be taken to prevent the introduction of counterfeit materials. As a backup to etching/labeling of the material identification on the pipe, positive material identification (PMI) is performed using a handheld device; the device scans the pipe material using an emitted electromagnetic wave (x-ray fluorescence/XRF) and receives a reply that is spectrographically analyzed. Sizes Pipe sizes can be confusing because the terminology may relate to historical dimensions. For example, a half-inch iron pipe does not have any dimension that is a half inch. Initially, a half inch pipe did have an inner diameter of —but it also had thick walls. As technology improved, thinner walls became possible, but the outside diameter stayed the same so it could mate with existing older pipe, increasing the inner diameter beyond half an inch. The history of copper pipe is similar. In the 1930s, the pipe was designated by its internal diameter and a wall thickness. Consequently, a copper pipe had a outside diameter. The outside diameter was the important dimension for mating with fittings. The wall thickness on modern copper is usually thinner than , so the internal diameter is only "nominal" rather than a controlling dimension. Newer pipe technologies sometimes adopted a sizing system as its own. PVC pipe uses the Nominal Pipe Size. Pipe sizes are specified by a number of national and international standards, including API 5L, ANSI/ASME B36.10M and B36.19M in the US, BS 1600 and BS EN 10255 in the United Kingdom and Europe. There are two common methods for designating pipe outside diameter (OD). The North American method is called NPS ("Nominal Pipe Size") and is based on inches (also frequently referred to as NB ("Nominal Bore")). The European version is called DN ("Diametre Nominal" / "Nominal Diameter") and is based on millimetres. Designating the outside diameter allows pipes of the same size to be fit together no matter what the wall thickness. For pipe sizes less than NPS 14 inch (DN 350), both methods give a nominal value for the OD that is rounded off and is not the same as the actual OD. For example, NPS 2 inch and DN 50 are the same pipe, but the actual OD is . The only way to obtain the actual OD is to look it up in a reference table. For pipe sizes of NPS 14 inch (DN 350) and greater the NPS size is the actual diameter in inches and the DN size is equal to NPS times 25 (not 25.4) rounded to a convenient multiple of 50. For example, NPS 14 has an OD of , and is equivalent to DN 350. Since the outside diameter is fixed for a given pipe size, the inside diameter will vary depending on the wall thickness of the pipe. For example, 2" Schedule 80 pipe has thicker walls and therefore a smaller inside diameter than 2" Schedule 40 pipe. Steel pipe has been produced for about 150 years. The pipe sizes that are in use today in PVC and galvanized were originally designed years ago for steel pipe. The number system, like Sch 40, 80, 160, were set long ago and seem a little odd. For example, Sch 20 pipe is even thinner than Sch 40, but same OD. And while these pipes are based on old steel pipe sizes, there is other pipe, like cpvc for heated water, that uses pipe sizes, inside and out, based on old copper pipe size standards instead of steel. Many different standards exist for pipe sizes, and their prevalence varies depending on industry and geographical area. The pipe size designation generally includes two numbers; one that indicates the outside (OD) or nominal diameter, and the other that indicates the wall thickness. In the early twentieth century, American pipe was sized by inside diameter. This practice was abandoned to improve compatibility with pipe fittings that must usually fit the OD of the pipe, but it has had a lasting impact on modern standards around the world. In North America and the UK, pressure piping is usually specified by Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) and schedule (SCH). Pipe sizes are documented by a number of standards, including API 5L, ANSI/ASME B36.10M (Table 1) in the US, and BS 1600 and BS 1387 in the United Kingdom. Typically the pipe wall thickness is the controlled variable, and the Inside Diameter (I.D.) is allowed to vary. The pipe wall thickness has a variance of approximately 12.5 percent. In the rest of Europe pressure piping uses the same pipe IDs and wall thicknesses as Nominal Pipe Size, but labels them with a metric Diameter Nominal (DN) instead of the imperial NPS. For NPS larger than 14, the DN is equal to the NPS multiplied by 25. (Not 25.4) This is documented by EN 10255 (formerly DIN 2448 and BS 1387) and ISO 65:1981, and it is often called DIN or ISO pipe. Japan has its own set of standard pipe sizes, often called JIS pipe. The Iron pipe size (IPS) is an older system still used by some manufacturers and legacy drawings and equipment. The IPS number is the same as the NPS number, but the schedules were limited to Standard Wall (STD), Extra Strong (XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS). STD is identical to SCH 40 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 10, inclusive, and indicates .375" wall thickness for NPS 12 and larger. XS is identical to SCH 80 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 8, inclusive, and indicates .500" wall thickness for NPS 8 and larger. Different definitions exist for XXS, however it is never the same as SCH 160. XXS is in fact thicker than SCH 160 for NPS 1/8" to 6" inclusive, whereas SCH 160 is thicker than XXS for NPS 8" and larger. Another old system is the Ductile Iron Pipe Size (DIPS), which generally has larger ODs than IPS. Copper plumbing tube for residential plumbing follows an entirely different size system in America, often called Copper Tube Size (CTS); see domestic water system. Its nominal size is neither the inside nor outside diameter. Plastic tubing, such as PVC and CPVC, for plumbing applications also has different sizing standards. Agricultural applications use PIP sizes, which stands for Plastic Irrigation Pipe. PIP comes in pressure ratings of , , , , and and is generally available in diameters of . Standards The manufacture and installation of pressure piping is tightly regulated by the ASME "B31" code series such as B31.1 or B31.3 which have their basis in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). This code has the force of law in Canada and the US. Europe and the rest of the world has an equivalent system of codes. Pressure piping is generally pipe that must carry pressures greater than 10 to 25 atmospheres, although definitions vary. To ensure safe operation of the system, the manufacture, storage, welding, testing, etc. of pressure piping must meet stringent quality standards. Manufacturing standards for pipes commonly require a test of chemical composition and a series of mechanical strength tests for each heat of pipe. A heat of pipe is all forged from the same cast ingot, and therefore had the same chemical composition. Mechanical tests may be associated to a lot of pipe, which would be all from the same heat and have been through the same heat treatment processes. The manufacturer performs these tests and reports the composition in a mill traceability report and the mechanical tests in a material test report, both of which are referred to by the acronym MTR. Material with these associated test reports is called traceable. For critical applications, third party verification of these tests may be required; in this case an independent lab will produce a certified material test report(CMTR), and the material will be called certified. Some widely used pipe standards or piping classes are: The API range - now ISO 3183. E.g.: API 5L Grade B - now ISO L245 where the number indicates yield strength in MPa ASME SA106 Grade B (Seamless carbon steel pipe for high temperature service) ASTM A312 (Seamless and welded austenitic stainless steel pipe) ASTM C76 (Concrete Pipe) ASTM D3033/3034 (PVC Pipe) ASTM D2239 (Polyethylene Pipe) ISO 14692 (Petroleum and natural gas industries. Glass-reinforced plastics (GRP) piping. Qualification and manufacture) ASTM A36 (Carbon steel pipe for structural or low pressure use) ASTM A795 (Steel pipe specifically for fire sprinkler systems) API 5L was changed in the second half of 2008 to edition 44 from edition 43 to make it identical to ISO 3183. It is important to note that the change has created the requirement that sour service, ERW pipe, pass a hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) test per NACE TM0284 in order to be used for sour service. ACPA [American Concrete Pipe Association] AWWA [American Water Works Association] AWWA M45 Installation Pipe installation is often more expensive than the material and a variety of specialized tools, techniques, and parts have been developed to assist this. Pipe is usually delivered to a customer or jobsite as either "sticks" or lengths of pipe (typically , called single random length) or they are prefabricated with elbows, tees and valves into a prefabricated pipe spool [A pipe spool is a piece of pre-assembled pipe and fittings, usually prepared in a shop so that installation on the construction site can be more efficient.]. Typically, pipe smaller than are not pre-fabricated. The pipe spools are usually tagged with a bar code and the ends are capped (plastic) for protection. The pipe and pipe spools are delivered to a warehouse on a large commercial/industrial job and they may be held indoors or in a gridded laydown yard. The pipe or pipe spool is retrieved, staged, rigged, and then lifted into place. On large process jobs the lift is made using cranes and hoist and other material lifts. They are typically temporarily supported in the steel structure using beam clamps, straps, and small hoists until the pipe supports are attached or otherwise secured. An example of a tool used for installation for a small plumbing pipe (threaded ends) is the pipe wrench. Small pipe is typically not heavy and can be lifted into place by the installation craft laborer. However, during a plant outage or shutdown, the small (small bore) pipe may also be pre-fabricated to expedite installation during the outage. After the pipe is installed it will be tested for leaks. Before testing it may need to be cleaned by blowing air or steam or flushing with a liquid. Pipe supports Pipes are usually either supported from below or hung from above (but may also be supported from the side), using devices called pipe supports. Supports may be as simple as a pipe "shoe" which is akin to a half of an I-beam welded to the bottom of the pipe; they may be "hung" using a clevis, or with trapeze type of devices called pipe hangers. Pipe supports of any kind may incorporate springs, snubbers, dampers, or combinations of these devices to compensate for thermal expansion, or to provide vibration isolation, shock control, or reduced vibration excitation of the pipe due to earthquake motion. Some dampers are simply fluid dashpots, but other dampers may be active hydraulic devices that have sophisticated systems that act to dampen peak displacements due to externally imposed vibrations or mechanical shocks. The undesired motions may be process derived (such as in a fluidized bed reactor) or from a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake (design basis event or DBE). Pipe hanger assembles are usually attached with pipe clamps. Possible exposure to high temperatures and heavy loads should be included when specifying which clamps are needed. Joining Pipes are commonly joined by welding, using threaded pipe and fittings; sealing the connection with a pipe thread compound, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Thread seal tape, oakum, or PTFE string, or by using a mechanical coupling. Process piping is usually joined by welding using a TIG or MIG process. The most common process pipe joint is the butt weld. The ends of pipe to be welded must have a certain weld preparation called an End Weld Prep (EWP) which is typically at an angle of 37.5 degrees to accommodate the filler weld metal. The most common pipe thread in North America is the National Pipe Thread (NPT) or the Dryseal (NPTF) version. Other pipe threads include the British standard pipe thread (BSPT), the garden hose thread (GHT), and the fire hose coupling (NST). Copper pipes are typically joined by soldering, brazing, compression fittings, flaring, or crimping. Plastic pipes may be joined by solvent welding, heat fusion, or elastomeric sealing. If frequent disconnection will be required, gasketed pipe flanges or union fittings provide better reliability than threads. Some thin-walled pipes of ductile material, such as the smaller copper or flexible plastic water pipes found in homes for ice makers and humidifiers, for example, may be joined with compression fittings. typically uses a "push-on" gasket style of pipe that compresses a gasket into a space formed between the two adjoining pieces. Push-on joints are available on most types of pipe. A pipe joint lubricant must be used in the assembly of the pipe. Under buried conditions, gasket-joint pipes allow for lateral movement due to soil shifting as well as expansion/contraction due to temperature differentials. Plastic MDPE and HDPE gas and water pipes are also often joined with Electrofusion fittings. Large above ground pipe typically uses a flanged joint, which is generally available in ductile iron pipe and some others. It is a gasket style where the flanges of the adjoining pipes are bolted together, compressing the gasket into a space between the pipe. Mechanical grooved couplings or Victaulic joints are also frequently used for frequent disassembly and assembly. Developed in the 1920s, these mechanical grooved couplings can operate up to working pressures and available in materials to match the pipe grade. Another type of mechanical coupling is a flareless tube fitting (Major brands include Swagelok, Ham-Let, Parker); this type of compression fitting is typically used on small tubing under in diameter. When pipes join in chambers where other components are needed for the management of the network (such as valves or gauges), dismantling joints are generally used, in order to make mounting/dismounting easier. Fittings and valves Fittings are also used to split or join a number of pipes together, and for other purposes. A broad variety of standardized pipe fittings are available; they are generally broken down into either a tee, an elbow, a branch, a reducer/enlarger, or a wye. Valves control fluid flow and regulate pressure. The piping and plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss them further. Cleaning The inside of pipes can be cleaned with a tube cleaning process, if they are contaminated with debris or fouling. This depends on the process that the pipe will be used for and the cleanliness needed for the process. In some cases the pipes are cleaned using a displacement device formally known as a Pipeline Inspection Gauge or "pig"; alternately the pipes or tubes may be chemically flushed using specialized solutions that are pumped through. In some cases, where care has been taken in the manufacture, storage, and installation of pipe and tubing, the lines are blown clean with compressed air or nitrogen. Other uses Pipe is widely used in the fabrication of handrails, guardrails, and railings. Applications Steel pipe Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and flammable gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or propane fuel, and is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat exchangers, air handlers, variable air volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment. Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see National Pipe Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting using two pipe wrenches. Beyond domestic or light commercial settings, steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings made by companies such as Victaulic or Anvil International (formerly Grinnell) that hold the pipe joint together via a groove pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes. Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-pressure situations these are usually joined by TIG welding. In Canada, with respect to natural gas (NG) and propane (LP gas), black iron pipe (BIP) is commonly used to connect an appliance to the supply. It must however be marked (either painted yellow or yellow banding attached at certain intervals) and certain restrictions apply to which nominal pipe size (NPS) can be put through walls and buildings. With propane in particular, BIP can be run from an exterior tank (or cylinder) provided it is well protected from the weather, and an anode-type of protection from corrosion is in place when the pipe is to be installed underground. Copper pipe Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly. Soft copper Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the copper hard/rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat pumps. Flare connections Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare connections are a labor-intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of many years. Rigid copper Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process, cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and allowed to slowly cool, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be bent/formed without cracking. Soldered connections Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. Both the male and female ends of the pipe or pipe connectors are cleaned thoroughly then coated with flux to make sure there is no surface oxide and to ensure that the solder will bond properly with the base metal. The joint is then heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a very strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular choice for water supply lines in modern buildings. In situations where many connections must be made at once (such as plumbing of a new building), solder offers much quicker and much less expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. The term sweating is sometimes used to describe the process of soldering pipes. Compression connections Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring or "ferrule") which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut. The soft metal conforms to the surface of the tubing and the fitting, and creates a seal. Compression connections do not typically have the long life that sweat connections offer, but are advantageous in many cases because they are easy to make using basic tools. A disadvantage in compression connections is that they take longer to make than sweat, and sometimes require retightening over time to stop leaks. Crimped or pressed connections Crimped or pressed connections use special copper fittings which are permanently attached to rigid copper tubing with a powered crimper. The special fittings, manufactured with sealant already inside, slide over the tubing to be connected. Thousands of pounds-force per square inch of pressure are used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper tubing, creating a watertight seal. Advantages of this method are: A correctly crimped connection should last as long as the tubing. It takes less time to complete than other methods. It is cleaner in both appearance and the materials used to make the connection. No open flame is used during the connection process. Disadvantages are: The fittings used are harder to find and cost significantly more than sweat type fittings. The fittings are not re-usable. If a design change is required or if a joint is found to be defective or improperly crimped, the already installed fittings must be cut out and discarded. In addition, the cutting required to remove the fitting often will leave insufficient tubing to install the new fitting, So couplers and additional tubing will need to be installed on either side of the replacement fitting. Whereas with a soldered fitting, a defective joint can just be re-soldered, or heated and turned if a minor change is required, or heated and removed without requiring any of the tubing to be cut away. This also allows more expensive fittings like valves to be re-used if they are otherwise in good to new condition, something not possible if the fitting is crimped on. The cost of the tooling is very expensive. , a basic toolkit required to sweat solder all the copper pipes of a typical single family residence, including fuel and solder, can be purchased for approximately $200. By contrast, the minimum cost of a basic powered crimping tool starts at around $1800, and can be as high as $4000 for the better brands with a complete set of crimping dies. Aluminium pipe Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and its ductility. Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable solvents, since it cannot create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by flare or compression fittings, or it can be welded by the TIG or heliarc processes. Glass pipe Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or laboratory wastes, or pharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using specialized gasket or O-ring fittings. Plastic pipe Plastic pipe fittings include PVC pipe fittings, PP / PPH pipe fitting mould, PE pipe and ABS pipe fitting. See also British standard pipe thread Cast iron pipe Copper tubing Double-walled pipe Ductile iron pipe Galvanized pipe Garden hose HDPE pipe Hollow structural section Hose Hydraulic pipes List of equations in fluid mechanics MS Pipe, MS Tube National pipe thread Nominal Pipe Size Panzergewinde Pipe and tube bender Pipeline transport Pipe support Piping Piping and plumbing fittings Plastic pressure pipe systems Plastic pipework Plumbing Reinforced thermoplastic pipes Trap (plumbing) Tube Tube beading Victaulic Water pipe References Bibliography External links Irrigation Piping Plumbing

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Terre Haute ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Vigo County, Indiana, United States, only 5 miles east of the state's western border with Illinois. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 60,785 and its metropolitan area had a population of 170,943. Located along the Wabash River, Terre Haute is one of the largest cities in the Wabash Valley and is known as the Queen City of the Wabash. The city is home to multiple higher education institutions, including Indiana State University, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, and Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana. History Terre Haute's name is derived from the French phrase terre haute (pronounced in French), meaning "highland." It was named by French-Canadian explorers and fur trappers to the area in the early 18th century to describe the unique location above the Wabash River (see French colonization of the Americas). At the time the area was claimed by the French and British and these highlands were considered the border between Canada and Louisiana. The construction of Fort Harrison in 1811 marked the known beginning of a permanent population of European-Americans. A Wea Indian village already existed near the fort, and the orchards and meadows they kept a few miles south of the fort became the site of the present-day city. (Terre Haute's currently affiliated Order of the Arrow lodge of the Boy Scouts of America is named after the last leader of the Wea village, Jacco Godfroy.) The village of Terre Haute, then a part of Knox County, Indiana, was platted in 1816. Terre Haute became the county seat of newly formed Vigo County in 1818, leading to increased population growth. The village's 1,000 residents voted to incorporate in 1832; the village was elevated to city status in 1853. Early Terre Haute was a center of farming, milling, and pork processing. However, the city's pre-1960 business and industrial expansion occurred largely thanks to transportation. The Wabash River, the building of the National Road (now US 40) and the Wabash and Erie Canal linked Terre Haute to the world and broadened the city's range of influence. The economy was based on iron and steel mills, hominy plants, and, late in the 19th century, distilleries, breweries and bottle makers. Coal mines and coal operating companies developed to support the railroads, yet agriculture remained predominant, largely due to the role of corn in making alcoholic beverages and food items. With steady growth and development in the later part of the 19th century, the city's vibrant neighborhoods benefited from improved fire protection, the founding of two hospitals, dozens of churches, and a number of outlets for amusement. Terre Haute's position as an educational hub was fostered as several institutions of higher education were established. The city developed a reputation for its arts and entertainment offerings. Grand opera houses were built that hosted hundreds of operas and theatrical performances. It became a stop on the popular vaudeville circuit. The development of the streetcar system and later the electric-powered trolleys in the 1890s allowed residents to travel with ease to baseball games, picnics, river excursions, amusement parks, and even horse racing. The famous "Four-Cornered" Racetrack, now the site of Memorial Stadium, was laid out in 1886 and drew the best of the country's trotters and drivers. On the evening of Easter Sunday, March 23, 1913, a major tornado struck the city at approximately 9:45 p.m., demolishing more than 300 homes, killing 21 people, and injuring 250. Damage to local businesses and industries was estimated at $1 million to $2 million (in 1913 dollars). Up to that time it was the deadliest tornado to hit Indiana. Heavy rains followed the tornado, causing the Wabash River to rise. By midday on Tuesday, March 25, West Terre Haute (Taylorville) was three-quarters submerged. Like all U.S. communities, Terre Haute experienced economic swings as the country's economic base evolved. Before the Great Depression brought the U.S. economy to a halt, influences such as Prohibition and the decline of the country's railroads had a negative effect on two of Terre Haute's major industries - distilleries/breweries and railroad repair works. However, in 1940 it was selected for a new United States penitentiary built on south of the city. World War II brought an economic upswing with the development of three ordnance plants in the county and the revitalization of the coal, railroad and agriculture industries. Terre Haute remained dependent on consumer manufacturers such as Quaker Maid, the world's largest food processing factory under one roof. The city was an enthusiastic participant in the war effort with troop send-offs, victory gardens, bond sales, civil defense drills, parades, and ceremonies. 1943 saw the opening of the country's 100th United Service Organizations (USO) facility in the city. Following the war, Terre Haute gained several new factories: Pfizer (1948), Allis-Chalmers (1951), Columbia Records (1954), and Anaconda Aluminum (1959). The face of downtown Terre Haute began to change in the late 1960s when Interstate 70 was built, passing through Vigo County about south of the path of U.S. 40 Wabash Avenue). As traffic began to concentrate at the U.S. 41 interchange, many downtown businesses relocated to Honey Creek Mall shopping center, built in 1968. Throughout the period, civic groups developed to work toward boosting the economy. The Terre Haute Committee for Area Progress developed the Fort Harrison Industrial Park in the 1970s. Grow Terre Haute in the mid-1980s encouraged the establishment of new stores, factories, and high-tech industrial parks that helped to stabilize the economy and enhance community life. Most encouraging were the arrival of the Digital Audio Disc Corporation (DADC), a subsidiary of the global company, Sony, as the first American factory designed exclusively to make compact discs. In other developments over these years, railroad overpasses eased traffic congestion, law enforcement strengthened, and several national and state awards for volunteerism and citizen participation boosted local pride. Like other Midwest manufacturing cities, Terre Haute faced daunting challenges as it neared the end of the 20th century, including the outmigration of the population and the closure of long-time manufacturing operations. Much of the city's resiliency can be attributed to the diversity of the local economy. Manufacturing continues to be an important part of that, thanks to the formation of the Vigo County Industrial Park over 20 years ago. The efforts of the Terre Haute Economic Development Corporation, in cooperation with city and county government, have made the Industrial Park home to some of the world's leading companies – Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional’s (CSN’s) cold-roll steel processing facility, Staples Corporation’s Midwest Distribution Center, Advics automotive brake systems manufacturing facility and ThyssenKrupp Presta’s automotive steering systems manufacturing facility and CertainTeed’s fiber cement board manufacturing plant. The revitalization of the downtown area can be traced to the construction of First Financial Bank’s new headquarters building in the late 1980s and creation of the city's first tax increment financing (TIF) district, which funded the first downtown parking structure. Over the years, more initiatives followed, including construction of several new office buildings and a second downtown parking structure. With the efforts of nonprofit groups such as Downtown Terre Haute and the expansion of the campus of Indiana State University, changes have spurred growth downtown. Several new hotels and businesses have been added to the "Crossroads of America" near 7th & Wabash, outdoor events and festivals attract crowds nearly every weekend during the summer months and the 7th Street Arts Corridor and Terre Haute Children's Museum, completed in 2010, enhance the appeal of the downtown area. It was these developments over several years that inspired property owners throughout downtown to rehab and renovate their buildings, including Hulman & Company and many individual owners. A new $25 million convention center is in the works for downtown Terre Haute, with completion planned for 2021 Renovation of the city's 1930s-era Federal Building to house Indiana State University's Scott College of Business in 2010 and development of a new downtown location for Indiana State University Foundation and the university's bookstore in 2011 strengthened ties between the city and the university. In 2015, Indiana State University partnered with developers to build a student housing facility in the heart of downtown, and other downtown residential development followed. A casino has been proposed to be built on the east side of the city near U.S. Route 40/Indiana Route 46. A referendum in November 2019 on whether to allow the casino to be built passed overwhelmingly. Geography Terre Haute lies along the eastern bank of the Wabash River in western Indiana. It is about west of Indianapolis. According to the 2010 census, Terre Haute has an area of , of which (or 97.92%) is land and (or 2.08%) is water. The Wabash River dominates the city's geography, forming its western border. Small bluffs on the east side of town mark the edge of the historic flood plain. Lost Creek and Honey Creek drain the city's northern and southern sections, respectively. In the late 19th century (particularly during the oil craze of 1889), several oil and mineral wells were productive in and near the center of town. Pioneer Oil of Lawrenceville, Illinois, began drilling for oil at 10th and Chestnut streets on the Indiana State University campus in December 2013, the first oil well drilled in downtown Terre Haute since 1903. Terre Haute is at the intersection of two major roadways: U.S. 40, originally from California to Maryland, and US 41, from Copper Harbor, Michigan, to Miami, Florida. US 41 is now locally named 3rd Street, but historically was 7th Street, making "7th and Wabash" the Crossroads of America. Terre Haute is southwest of Indianapolis and within of Chicago, St. Louis, Louisville, and Cincinnati. Climate Climate is characterized by relatively high summer temperatures, mean winter temperatures near freezing, and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Humid Continental Climate). Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 60,785 people, 22,645 households, and 12,646 families residing in the city. There were 107,878 people residing in Vigo County. The city's population density was . There were 25,518 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 83.5% White, 10.9% African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.1% of the population. There were 22,645 households, of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.0% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.2% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 32.7 years. 20% of residents were under the age of 18; 18.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.4% were from 25 to 44; 22.6% were from 45 to 64; and 12.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.6% male and 48.4% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 59,614 people, 22,870 households, and 13,025 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,908.3 people per square mile (736.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 86.3% White, 9.8% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. 1.6% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 22,870 households, out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.0% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.0% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.95. The median income for a household in the city was $28,018, and the median income for a family was $37,618. Males had a median income of $29,375 versus $21,374 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,728. 19.2% of the population and 14.8% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 17.4% of those under the age of 18 and 11.4% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Economy Major employers Advics Amcor Casey's General Stores City of Terre Haute United States Federal Correctional Complex First Financial Bank GE Aviation has two facilities, a large structures fabrication facility, and a component repair facility Indiana State University Ivy Tech Community College Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology Sony Digital Audio Disc Corporation (Sony DADC) Taghleef Industries, Inc Terre Haute Regional Hospital Union Associated Physicians Union Hospital Vigo County School Corporation Vigo County Wabash Valley Correctional Facility Terre Haute Federal Correctional Complex Terre Haute is the location of the Federal Correctional Complex on Highway 63, two miles south of the city. The complex includes a medium security Federal Correctional Institution and a high security United States Penitentiary. The penitentiary houses the Special Confinement Unit for inmates serving federal death sentences. Arts and culture Terre Haute has made an effort to revitalize the businesses and culture in its downtown district. Festivals, museums, restaurants, shopping, and the addition of multiple hotels in the area have greatly improved the overall image of downtown Terre Haute. Its revitalization efforts were recognized in 2010 when the Indiana Chamber of Commerce named Terre Haute Indiana's Community of the Year. Arts Located on Seventh Street between Wabash Avenue and Ohio Street, Terre Haute Arts Corridor includes the Swope Art Museum as well as two galleries: the Halcyon Contemporary Art Gallery and Gopalan Contemporary Art. The first Friday of every month features art openings, musical performances, and socializing. The Swope Art Museum, open and free to the public since 1942, has a collection of American art including work by Edward Hopper, Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton, Janet Scudder, Andy Warhol, Ruth Pratt Bobbs, Robert Motherwell, Robert Rauschenberg and many others. The Turman Art Gallery at Indiana State University features rotating exhibitions by student and faculty artists. In 2007, the university was the recipient of nearly 150 Andy Warhol photographs and prints as part of the Andy Warhol Photographic Legacy Program. These additions will be added to the other Andy Warhol prints already held in the university's permanent collection. The gallery's Permanent Art Collection and Study Collection includes a total of 3,600 paintings, sculptures, ceramics, drawings, prints, and photographs. The cornerstone of the Terre Haute Arts Corridor is the historic Indiana Theater. Designed by famed theater architect John Eberson in Spanish Andalusian style and opened in 1922, this theater seats 1,674 and houses a screen measuring , which is the second-largest in the state. The theater, which had long sat vacant, was recently restored and is being used for concerts, film screenings and other events. Terre Haute is home to several arts non-profits, including Wabash Valley Art Spaces and Arts Illiana. Performing arts Community Theatre of Terre Haute presented its first shows in 1928. A staple of the Terre Haute arts scene, Community Theatre is a volunteer theatre producing five varied main stage plays and musical productions per year. Terre Haute also features the Crossroads Repertory Theatre, a professional theater company with over a 40-year history. Its season is mid-June thru late-July and performances include classic and new plays and musicals, as well as educational programs and staged reading of new plays. Hatfield Hall is home to a 602-seat theater on the campus of Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. For over 10 years there has been a Performing Arts Series at Hatfield Hall. Indiana State University holds a Performing Arts Series on its campus as well. The performances of both series range from Broadway musicals, musical acts, plays, lectures, and dance productions. Music Terre Haute has multiple music venues and a strong music community. The Wabash Valley Musicians Hall of Fame recognizes local musicians yearly. Locally, The Blues at the Crossroads Festival brings more than 15,000 Blues fans to the city the second weekend of September each year. A statewide high school jazz festival is hosted annually by The Phi Mu Alpha chapter at Indiana State University. Terre Haute is also the birthplace of musician/actor Scatman Crothers. The Terre Haute Symphony Orchestra, established in 1926, is the oldest professional orchestra in the state of Indiana, predating the Indianapolis Symphony by four years. The Terre Haute Symphony started as a volunteer group of musicians who provided community entertainment, and has evolved into a group of paid professional musicians who complete auditions to demonstrate their skill level. A series of concerts is offered from September through April as well as a free Children's Concert for approximately 3,000 fourth graders from the Wabash Valley. Terre Haute is also home to various other music organizations such as the Terre Haute Community Band, Terre Haute Sinfonietta Pops Orchestra, Terre Haute Children's Choir, Terre Haute Masterworks Chorale, Banks of the Wabash Chorus which performs in Harmony Hall, the Sweet Harmony Women's Barbershop Chorus and The Wabash Valley Musicians Hall of Fame. Terre Haute native Paul Dresser was a late-nineteenth-century singer, actor, songwriter, and music publisher, who became "one of the most important composers of the 1890s". In 1913 the Indiana General Assembly named Dresser's biggest hit, "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away" as the state song of Indiana. The Paul Dresser Birthplace in Fairbanks Park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Vigo County Historical Society operates the property as a museum, open by appointment. In 2014, a bronze sculpture, sponsored by Art Spaces and created by Teresa Clark to celebrate the composer, was dedicated in Fairbanks Park near the Dresser House. Museums The Vigo County Historical Society Museum boasts an collection of artifacts in downtown Terre Haute into a 40,000 square foot, four-level building constructed in 1895. There is a triangle of museums downtown, with the Terre Haute Children's Museum and the Clabber Girl Museum just blocks away. The three-story Children's Museum is at the intersection of Wabash Avenue and Eighth Street in downtown Terre Haute. It is a hands-on science and technology museum that has educated over 230,000 adults and children from over 22 counties in Indiana and Illinois. It has traveling exhibits focused on weather and space that educate children of Wabash Valley schools. The museum is a participant in a national consortium of 14 science and technology museums. The Clabber Girl Museum is at Wabash and Ninth Street in downtown Terre Haute. Housed in the Hulman & Company building built in 1892, the museum has exhibits on the history of Clabber Girl, one of the oldest brands in America, and on the art of baking. The museum is adjacent to the building where the Clabber Girl Baking Powder is still manufactured today. Kleptz Antique Auto Museum, at 625 Poplar Street, displays antique cars, motorcycles, and other auto memorabilia. Styles range from a 1902 clear plastic car, a 1963 Chrysler Turbine, and a 1932 Duesenberg with a Judkins body. The CANDLES Holocaust Museum and Education Center, created by Holocaust survivor Eva Mozes Kor, has exhibits and artifacts related to the Holocaust, eugenics and forgiveness. The Indiana Association of Track & Field and Cross Country Museum is a new addition to the Terre Haute Convention & Visitors Bureau. Terre Haute was the home of Socialist Party of America leader and five-time presidential nominee Eugene V. Debs. His former home is now a museum on the campus of Indiana State University. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and is now owned and operated by the Debs Foundation. The interior of the museum features many of Debs’ possessions and other artifacts from his lifetime. It is open to the public. Sports The Terre Haute Rex is Terre Haute's collegiate summer baseball team, founded in 2010. A member of the Prospect League, the team plays its home games at Bob Warn Field at ISU's Sycamore Stadium, The Rex's season runs from late May through early August. The team gets its name from a product with a historic connection to the community, Rex Coffee, roasted and packed in downtown Terre Haute by Clabber Girl Corporation and for many years a household name across the Midwest. The Rex is building on a rich history of professional baseball in Terre Haute stretching back to 1884 that includes some of the most famous names associated with the game, including Hall-of-Famers Mordecai Brown and Max Carey, Josh Devore, Negro league baseball All-Star Junius Bibbs, Vic Aldridge, Art Nehf (who holds the National League record for most World Series games pitched), Paul "Dizzy" Trout, Jim "Jumbo" Elliott, Harry Taylor, and Bill Butland. More recent professional stars include pitcher Tommy John (who won 288 games in his 26-year major league career) and catcher Brian Dorsett, both of whom played for the New York Yankees during their careers. Terre Haute North grad Josh Phegley is a member of the Oakland A's, and Terre Haute South grad A.J. Reed moved up to the Houston Astros in 2016. Terre Haute was represented for 53 season in various leagues; chiefly the Central League and the Three-I League; winning 7 titles (1901, 1922, 1924, 1932, 1950, 1952, and 1953) during that time. Parks and recreation Terre Haute has been recognized as a Tree City USA by the Division of Forestry for the Indiana Department of Natural Resources since 1999 and also received the Growth Award, which notes a higher standard of excellence for urban forestry management. Indiana State University is one of four Tree Campuses in the state. Terre Haute Parks Department The Terre Haute Parks Department owns over of dedicated land, including community parks, neighborhood parks, block parks, two golf courses, as well as trails, greenways, and boulevards. Some highlights of the Terre Haute Parks Department include: Deming Park – on the east side of Terre Haute at Fruitridge and Ohio Boulevard. It is the largest park, consisting of . It is home to the Oakley Playground, Clark-Lansdbaum Holly Arboretum, an 18-hole disc golf course, a public pool, the Spirit of Terre Haute Minitature Train, and a variety of sport facilities including basketball and tennis courts. Dobbs Park – on the East Side, Dobbs Park has a Nature Center and a Native American Museum with an heirloom garden, a pond, a restored prairie, a butterfly garden, and of trails that pass restored wetlands, through pine woods, old growth and second growth forest as well as a State Nature Preserve. National Road Heritage Trail – a multi-use paved trail that extends about from the Twigg Rest Area to the Indiana State University campus. It is used for running, walking, biking, and rollerblading. LaVern Gibson Championship Cross Country Course The LaVern Gibson Championship Cross Country Course has the distinction of being one of the few purpose-built cross-country courses in the world. The facility is part of that comprise the Wabash Valley Family Sports Center east of Terre Haute. The course is built on a reclaimed coal mine and consists of an external loop of and four internal loops that allow for circuits of varying lengths. Indiana State University's Cross-Country team uses the Gibson Course for its home meets. The course has also hosted NCAA national championship meets.. Government Duke Bennett began his fourth term as Terre Haute's mayor in January 2020. The City Council has six members each representing a district and three members-at-large. Education Terre Haute is served by the Vigo County School Corporation. The corporation manages 18 elementary schools, 5 middle schools, 3 high schools, and 2 alternative schools, enrolling 14,642 students grades K-12. Terre Haute is also home to multiple higher education establishments. Indiana State University (ISU) is in downtown Terre Haute. It has an enrollment of approximately 12,000. The Princeton Review placed ISU on its "Best in the Midwest" list of college and universities for nine consecutive years. ISU was also included in the Forbes' "America's Top 650 Colleges." Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology is a private engineering school just east of the city. For 20 consecutive years U.S. News & World Report has ranked it the nation's #1 undergraduate engineering school among institutions whose highest degree in engineering is the master's. It has an enrollment of approximately 2,200 students on its campus. Ivy Tech Community College, a full-service community college and part of the statewide system, is also in Terre Haute. The city has a lending library, the Vigo County Public Library. Media Newspaper Tribune Star Magazines Terre Haute Living Wabash Valley Business Monthly Television WTWO - NBC affiliate - Channel 2.1 (Laff - 2.2; Court TV Mystery - 2.3; Antenna TV - 2.4) WTHI - CBS affiliate - Channel 10.1 (Fox/MyNet - 10.2; CW - 10.3; Ion - 10.4; Dabl - 10.5 (coming soon)) WAWV - ABC affiliate - Channel 38.1 (Grit - 38.2; Bounce - 38.3) Radio WISU - 89.7 FM - NPR (Rebroadcasts WFYI) WZIS - 90.7 FM - Variety WHOJ - 91.9 FM - Religious (Catholic) WFNB - 92.7 FM - Active Rock WPFR-FM - 93.7 FM - Silent W236AE - 95.1 FM - Classical (Rebroadcasts 103.7 WFIU) WHLR - 95.9 FM - Classic Country WMKI-LP - 96.9 FM - Goodtime Oldies WWVR - 98.5 FM - Classic Rock WTHI - 99.9 FM - Country WMGI - 100.7 FM - Top40/Pop WBOW - 102.7 FM - Classic Hits WVIG - 105.5 FM - Classic country WYLJ - 107.5 FM - Religious (3ABN Radio) WAMB - 1130 AM / 99.5 FM / 106.9 FM - Adult Standards WIBQ - 1230 AM / 97.9 FM - News Talk WPFR - 1480 AM - Silent Infrastructure Transportation Airports Two airports serve Terre Haute. The Terre Haute Regional Airport is home to Hulman Field (HUF). The airport has a partnership with multiple military units including the 181st Intelligence Wing of the Indiana Air National Guard. It also houses a flight academy through Indiana State University. Sky King Airport is north of Terre Haute and mostly serves as training and recreational flights. Highways Interstate 70 to St. Louis (west) and Indianapolis (east). Terre Haute is served by multiple exits. Exit 11 connects with State Road 46, and Exit 7 connects with U.S. 41 on the southwest side of the city. Exit 3 serves West Terre Haute, Indiana via Darwin Road, which provides easy access to downtown Terre Haute via US 150. Exit 1 onto National Drive is marked for both Terre Haute and West Terre Haute, but is only accessible via the eastbound lanes of I-70. US 40 to Effingham (west) and Indianapolis (east). Travels with Interstate 70. US 40 ran through Terre Haute on Wabash Ave., but in January 2011 INDOT gave the road to the city and paid the city to take care of Wabash Ave. US 41 to Rockville (north) and Evansville (south). It is the main north–south thoroughfare on Terre Haute's west side. From Maple St. south to I-70, it is marked as 3rd St.; along this stretch is US-41's interchange with I-70. US 150 enters Terre Haute from neighboring West Terre Haute, Indiana. At 3rd St., US-150 turns south, following the path of US-41. begins at its intersection with US 40 just west of Rose-Hulman. From here, the highway runs south with US 40 to an interchange with I-70. The road then heads through Riley on its way to Bloomington. enters Terre Haute on the city's north side crossing the Wabash River. SR 63 ends at the interchange with US 41 on the north side of town. , also known as the Terre Haute Bypass, is a limited access highway running from the interchange of IN-46 and I-70 to US-41 near the industrial park on the city's southside. Bus service All city and intercity buses serve the downtown Cherry Street Multi-Modal Transportation Facility. The Terre Haute Transit Utility provides bus service via seven day and three evening routes throughout the city. The system's ridership in 2012 was 376,763. Greyhound Lines provides interstate bus service (St. Louis—Indianapolis). Miller Transportation Hoosier Ride provides daily round trip express and local bus service to Indianapolis. Railways Historically, the city was a rail hub. The New York Central Railroad had New York Central Station. Its last train was the St. Louis-New York City Southwestern Limited in 1967. The Chicago & Eastern Illinois Railroad, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad ('Milwaukee Road') and the Pennsylvania Railroad used Union Station. The last train serving Terre Haute, Amtrak's Kansas City, Missouri-New York City train, National Limited, stopped running in 1979. Prior to the 1971 establishment of Amtrak, the Penn Central (combined company after the merger of the New York Central and the Pennsylvania Railroad), ran these St. Louis-New York City trains through Terre Haute: Penn Texas and the Spirit of St. Louis. Until 1965 the C&EI ran the Dixie Flyer from Chicago through Terre Haute, to Evansville, Nashville, Atlanta, and on to Jacksonville, Florida. Before 1968 the C&EI ran the Georgian from Chicago through Terre Haute, on the same route to Atlanta. Up to the same time, the C&EI ran through Terre Haute the New Orleans-bound Humming Bird. Notable people Charles G. Abrell, United States Marine and Medal of Honor recipient Birch Bayh, former U.S. Senator from Indiana, former Speaker of the Indiana House of Representatives Max Carey, Hall of Fame Major League Baseball player Helen Corey, cookbook author, television producer, educator, first Syrian-American to hold elected office in Indiana Scatman Crothers, musician and actor Eugene V. Debs, Indiana State Senator, five-time American presidential candidate, and leader of the Socialist Party of America Terry Dischinger, National Basketball Association player, NBA Rookie of the Year; Chicago Zephyrs, Detroit Pistons and Portland Trail Blazers Max Ehrmann, author of "Desiderata" Ruben Gonzales (tennis), professional tennis player Tony Hulman, former owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Tommy John, pitcher for the Chicago White Sox and New York Yankees Bobby Leonard, former coach of the Indiana Pacers Clyde Lovellette, Hall of Fame National Basketball Association player Mick Mars, guitarist of Mötley Crüe Art Nehf, an American baseball pitcher who played 15 seasons in Major League Baseball, mostly for the New York Giants. Janet Scudder, sculptor, painter, and high school art teacher Abe Silverstein, aerospace engineer John Gould Stephenson, Librarian of Congress Margaret Hoberg Turrell, composer and philanthropist Legends One well known Terre Haute legend is the story of Stiffy Green, a stone bulldog that allegedly at one time guarded the mausoleum in Highland Lawn Cemetery of florist John G. Heinl, the brother-in-law of Eugene V. Debs and the father of journalist Robert Debs Heinl. The statue is now housed in the Vigo County Historical Society Museum, in Terre Haute. In Popular Culture Comedian Steve Martin referred to Terre Haute as "Nowhere, U.S.A." in an interview with Playboy in 1978. He made these claims after a performance in the same year where he stated that he had difficulty finding any open downtown restaurants. He then was invited back to take a tour of the city in December of 1979. He then premiered his film The Jerk at one of the city's theatres. In Martin's 1982 film Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid, he mocked Terre Haute at the end. He saved the world from being decimated by a cheese bomb, and only Terre Haute was hit. Martin then says "Damn, and they were about to get a public library. Sister cities Terre Haute has three sister city relationships: Tajimi, Gifu, Japan (established in 1960's) Tambov, Russia See also List of attractions and events in Terre Haute, Indiana List of people from Terre Haute, Indiana List of place names of French origin in the United States List of public art in Terre Haute, Indiana References Specific General Nolan, John Matthew "2,543 Days: A History of the Hotel at the Grand Rapids Dam on the Wabash River" Discusses Charles T. Hinde, one of the silent investors of the Hotel del Coronado and how the Hotel del Coronado influenced the Grand Rapids Hotel in Wabash County, Illinois. External links Terre Haute Tribune-Star City of Terre Haute, Indiana website Terre Haute Convention and Visitor's Bureau Hometown: A Journey Through Terre Haute, IN: A documentary about Terre Haute in the 1920s Cities in Indiana County seats in Indiana National Road Populated places established in the 1810s Cities in Vigo County, Indiana Terre Haute metropolitan area

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Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó (; October 20, 1882 – August 16, 1956), known professionally as Bela Lugosi (; ), was a Hungarian-American actor best remembered for portraying Count Dracula in the 1931 film, Ygor in Son of Frankenstein (1939) and his roles in many other horror films from 1931 through 1956. Lugosi began acting on the Hungarian stage in 1902. After playing in 172 different productions in his native Hungary, Lugosi moved on to making silent films in 1917. He had to suddenly emigrate to Germany after the failed Hungarian Communist Revolution of 1919 because of his former socialist activities, leaving his first wife in the process. He acted in several films in Weimar Germany, before arriving in New Orleans as a seaman on a merchant ship, then making his way north to New York City and Ellis Island. In 1927, he starred as Count Dracula in a Broadway adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel, moving with the play to the West Coast in 1928 and settling down in Hollywood. He later starred in the 1931 film version of Dracula directed by Tod Browning and produced by Universal Pictures. Through the 1930s, he occupied an important niche in horror films, but his notoriety as "Dracula" and thick Hungarian accent greatly limited the roles offered to him, and he unsuccessfully tried for years to avoid the typecasting. He was often paired in films with Boris Karloff, who was able to demand top billing. To his frustration, Lugosi, a charter member of the American Screen Actors Guild, was increasingly restricted to minor parts because of his inability to speak the English language more clearly. He was kept employed by the studios principally so that they could put his name on the posters. Among his teamings with Karloff, he performed major roles only in The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), and Son of Frankenstein (1939); even in The Raven, Karloff received top billing despite Lugosi performing the lead role. By this time, Lugosi had been receiving regular medication for sciatic neuritis, and he became addicted to doctor-prescribed morphine and methadone. This drug dependence (and his gradually worsening alcoholism) was becoming apparent to producers, and after 1948, the offers eventually dwindled to a few parts in low-budget films directed by Ed Wood, including a brief (posthumous) appearance in Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957). Lugosi married five times and had one son, Bela George (with his fourth wife, Lillian). Early life Lugosi, the youngest of four children, was born Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó in 1882 in Lugos, Kingdom of Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania) to Hungarian father István Blaskó, a baker who later became a banker, and Serbian-born mother Paula de Vojnich. He was raised in a Roman Catholic family. At the age of 12, Lugosi dropped out of school and left home to work at a succession of manual labor jobs. His father passed away during his absence. He began his stage acting career in 1902. His earliest known performances are from provincial theatres in the 1903–04 season, playing small roles in several plays and operettas. He took the last name "Lugosi" in 1903 to honor his birthplace, and went on to perform in Shakespeare plays. After moving to Budapest in 1911, he played dozens of roles with the National Theatre of Hungary between 1913 and 1919. Although Lugosi would later claim that he "became the leading actor of Hungary's Royal National Theatre", many of his roles there were small or supporting parts. During World War I, he served as an infantryman in the Austro-Hungarian Army from 1914 to 1916, rising to the rank of Lieutenant. He was awarded the Wound Medal for wounds he suffered while serving on the Russian front. Returning to civilian life, Lugosi became an actor in Hungarian silent films, appearing in many of them under the stage name "Arisztid Olt". Due to his activism in the actors' union in Hungary during the revolution of 1919 and his active participation in the Hungarian Soviet Republic, he was forced to flee his homeland when the government changed hands, initially accompanied by his first wife. He escaped to Vienna before settling in Berlin (in the Langestrasse), where he began acting in German silent films, while his wife left him and returned home to her parents where she filed for divorce. Lugosi eventually travelled to New Orleans, Louisiana in December, 1920 working as a crewman aboard a merchant ship, then made his way north to New York City, where he again took up acting in plays and in the film industry there. He later moved to Hollywood in 1928. He eventually became a U.S. citizen in 1931, soon after the release of his signature film Dracula. Filmography Early films Lugosi's first film appearance was in the 1917 Hungarian silent film Leoni Leo. When appearing in Hungarian silent films, he mostly used the stage name Arisztid Olt. Lugosi made 12 films in Hungary between 1917 and 1918 before leaving for Germany. Following the collapse of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, leftists and trade unionists became vulnerable, some being imprisoned or executed in public. Lugosi was proscribed from acting due to his participation in the formation of an actors' union. Exiled in Weimar-era Germany, he co-starred in at least 12 German silent films in 1920, among them Hypnose (1920), The Head of Janus (1920) and an adaptation of the Karl May novel Caravan of Death (Die Todeskarawane, also 1920). Lugosi left Germany in October 1920, intending to emigrate to the United States, and entered the country at New Orleans in December 1920. He made his way to New York and was inspected by immigration officers at Ellis Island in March 1921. He declared his intention to become a US citizen in 1928; on June 26, 1931, he was naturalized. On his arrival in America, the , Lugosi worked for some time as a laborer, and then entered the theater in New York City's Hungarian immigrant colony. With fellow expatriate Hungarian actors he formed a small stock company that toured Eastern cities, playing for immigrant audiences. Lugosi acted in several Hungarian plays before breaking out into his first English Broadway play, The Red Poppy, in 1922. Three more parts came in 1925–26, including a five-month run in the comedy-fantasy The Devil in the Cheese. In 1925, he appeared as an Arab Sheik in Arabesque which premiered in Buffalo, New York at the Teck Theatre before moving to Broadway. His first American film role was in the melodrama The Silent Command (1923). Several more silent roles followed, villains and continental types, all in productions made in the New York area. For years, a rumor has circulated that Lugosi played an uncredited bit part as a clown in the 1924 Lon Chaney classic He Who Gets Slapped, but it has never been confirmed. The rumor originated from the discovery of a still from this film found posthumously in Lugosi's scrapbook, which showed an unidentified clown speaking to Lon Chaney in one scene. People close to Lugosi thought it was evidence that Lugosi appeared in the film, but film historians all agree that is very unlikely, since Lugosi was in Chicago and New York at the time that film was made in Hollywood. Dracula Lugosi was approached in the summer of 1927 to star in a Broadway theatre production of Dracula, which had been adapted by Hamilton Deane and John L. Balderston from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel. The Horace Liveright production was successful, running in New York City for 261 performances before touring the United States to much fanfare and critical acclaim throughout 1928 and 1929. In 1928, Lugosi decided to stay in California when the play ended its first West Coast run. His performance had piqued the interest of Fox Film, and he was cast in the studio's silent film The Veiled Woman (1929). He also appeared in the film Prisoners (also 1929), believed lost, which was released in both silent and talkie versions. In 1929, with no other film roles in sight, he returned to the stage as Dracula for a short West Coast tour of the play. Lugosi remained in California where he resumed his film work under contract with Fox, appearing in early talkies often as a heavy or an "exotic sheik". He also continued to lobby for his prized role in the film version of Dracula. Despite his critically acclaimed performance on stage, Lugosi was not Universal Pictures' first choice for the role of Dracula when the company optioned the rights to the Deane play and began production in 1930. Different prominent actors were considered before director Tod Browning cast Lugosi in the role. The film was a major hit, but Lugosi was paid a salary of only $3,500.00. Typecasting Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a horror villain in films such as Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932), The Raven (1935), and Son of Frankenstein (1939) for Universal, and the independent White Zombie (1932). His accent, while a part of his image, limited the roles he could play. Lugosi did attempt to break type by auditioning for other roles. He lost out to Lionel Barrymore for the role of Grigori Rasputin in Rasputin and the Empress (also 1932); C. Henry Gordon for the role of Surat Khan in Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), and Basil Rathbone for the role of Commissar Dimitri Gorotchenko in Tovarich (1937), a role Lugosi had played on stage. He played the elegant, somewhat hot-tempered General Nicholas Strenovsky-Petronovich in International House (1933). Regardless of controversy, five films at Universal – The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), The Invisible Ray (1936), Son of Frankenstein (1939), Black Friday (1940), plus minor cameo performances in Gift of Gab (1934) and two at RKO Pictures, You'll Find Out (1940) and The Body Snatcher (1945) – paired Lugosi with Boris Karloff. Despite the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably received second billing, below Karloff. There are contradictory reports of Lugosi's attitude toward Karloff, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to gain good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were – for a time, at least – amicable. Karloff himself in interviews suggested that Lugosi was initially mistrustful of him when they acted together, believing that the Englishman would attempt to upstage him. When this proved not to be the case, according to Karloff, Lugosi settled down and they worked together amicably (though some have further commented that the English Karloff's on-set demand to break from filming for mid-afternoon tea annoyed Lugosi). Lugosi did get a few heroic leads, as in Universal's The Black Cat after Karloff had been accorded the more colorful role of the villain, The Invisible Ray, and a romantic role in producer Sol Lesser's adventure serial The Return of Chandu (1934), but his typecasting problem appears to have been too entrenched to be alleviated by those films. Lugosi addressed his plea to be cast in non-horror roles directly to casting directors through his listing in the 1937 Players Directory, published by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, in which he (or his agent) calls the idea that he is only fit for horror films "an error." Career decline A number of factors began to work against Lugosi's career in the mid-1930s. Universal changed management in 1936 and, because of a British ban on horror films, dropped them from their production schedule; Lugosi found himself consigned to Universal's non-horror B-film unit, at times in small roles where he was obviously used for "name value" only. Throughout the 1930s, Lugosi, experiencing a severe career decline despite popularity with audiences (Universal executives always preferred his rival Karloff), accepted many leading roles from independent producers like Nat Levine, Sol Lesser, and Sam Katzman. These low-budget thrillers indicate that Lugosi was much less discriminating than Karloff in selecting screen vehicles, but the exposure helped Lugosi financially if not artistically. Lugosi tried to keep busy with stage work, but had to borrow money from the Actors Fund of America to pay hospital bills when his only child, Bela George Lugosi, was born in 1938. Historian John McElwee reports, in his 2013 book Showmen, Sell It Hot!, that Bela Lugosi's popularity received a much-needed boost in August 1938, when California theater owner Emil Umann revived Dracula and Frankenstein as a special double feature. The combination was so successful that Umann scheduled extra shows to accommodate the capacity crowds, and invited Lugosi to appear in person, which thrilled new audiences that had never seen Lugosi's classic performance. "I owe it all to that little man at the Regina Theatre," said Lugosi of exhibitor Umann. "I was dead, and he brought me back to life." Universal took notice of the tremendous business and launched its own national re-release of the same two horror favorites. The studio then rehired Lugosi to star in new films. [[File:Bride of the Monster photo - 1956.jpg|thumb|right|Tor Johnson and Lugosi in Bride of the Monster (1956)]] Universal cast Lugosi in Son of Frankenstein (1939), appearing in the character role of Ygor, a mad blacksmith with a broken neck, in heavy makeup and beard. Lugosi was third-billed with his name above the title alongside Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son and Boris Karloff reprising his role as Frankenstein's monster. Regarding Son of Frankenstein, the film's director Rowland V. Lee said his crew let Lugosi "work on the characterization; the interpretation he gave us was imaginative and totally unexpected ... when we finished shooting, there was no doubt in anyone's mind that he stole the show. Karloff's monster was weak by comparison." The same year saw Lugosi making a rare appearance in an A-list motion picture: he was a stern Soviet commissar in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer romantic comedy Ninotchka, starring Greta Garbo and directed by Ernst Lubitsch. Lugosi was quite effective in this small but prestigious character role and he even received top billing among the film's supporting cast, all of whom had significantly larger roles. It might have been a turning point for the actor, but within the year he was back on Hollywood's Poverty Row, playing leads for Sam Katzman. These horror, comedy and mystery B-films were released by Monogram Pictures. At Universal, he often received star billing for what amounted to a supporting part. Lugosi went to 20th Century-Fox for The Gorilla (1939), which had him playing straight man to Patsy Kelly and the Ritz Brothers. Ostensibly due to injuries received during military service, Lugosi developed severe, chronic sciatica. Though at first he was treated with benign pain remedies such as asparagus juice, doctors increased the medication to opiates. The growth of his dependence on opiates, particularly morphine and, after 1947 when it became available in America, methadone, was directly proportional to the dwindling of Lugosi's screen offers. He was finally cast in the role of Frankenstein's monster for Universal's Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943), but Lugosi's dialogue was edited out after the film was shot, along with the aspect of the Monster being blind, leaving his performance featuring groping outstretched arms seeming enigmatic (and funny) to audiences. Lugosi's voice had been dubbed over that of Lon Chaney Jr., from line readings at the end of the previous film in the series, The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942). Lugosi played Dracula for a second and last time on film in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948).Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein was Bela Lugosi's last "A" movie. For the remainder of his life he appeared – less and less frequently – in obscure, forgettable, low-budget features. From 1947 to 1950, he performed in summer stock, often in productions of Dracula or Arsenic and Old Lace, and during the other parts of the year made personal appearances in a touring "spook show", and on early commercial television. In September 1949, Milton Berle invited Lugosi to appear in a sketch on Texaco Star Theatre. Lugosi memorized the script for the skit, but became confused on the air when Berle began to ad lib. His only television dramatic role was on the anthology series Suspense on October 11, 1949, in an adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado". In 1951, while in England to play a six-month tour of Dracula, Lugosi co-starred in a lowbrow film comedy, Mother Riley Meets the Vampire (also known as Vampire over London and My Son, the Vampire), released the following year. Following his return to the United States, he was interviewed for television, and reflected wistfully on his typecasting in horror parts: "Now I am the boogie man". In the same interview he expressed a desire to play more comedy, as he had in the Mother Riley farce. Independent producer Jack Broder took Lugosi at his word, casting him in a jungle-themed comedy, Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla (1952), starring nightclub comedians Duke Mitchell and Jerry Lewis look-alike Sammy Petrillo, whose act closely resembled that of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis (Martin and Lewis). Stage and personal appearances Lugosi enjoyed a lively career on stage, with plenty of personal appearances. As film offers declined, he became more and more dependent on live venues to support his family. Lugosi took over the role of Jonathan Brewster from Boris Karloff for Arsenic and Old Lace. Lugosi had also expressed interest in playing Elwood P. Dowd in Harvey to help himself professionally. He also made plenty of personal appearances to promote his horror image and/or an accompanying film. The Vincent Price film House of Wax premiered in Los Angeles at the Paramount Theatre on April 16, 1953. The film played at midnight with a number of celebrities in the audience that night (Broderick Crawford, Gracie Allen, Eddie Cantor, Rock Hudson, Judy Garland, Shelly Winters, Ginger Rogers and others). Producer Alex Gordon, knowing Lugosi was in dire need of cash, arranged for the aging actor to stand outside the theater wearing a cape and dark glasses, holding a man costumed as a gorilla on a leash, later allowing himself to be photographed drinking a glass of milk at a Red Cross booth there. When Lugosi playfully attempted to bite the "nurse" in attendance there, she overreacted and spilled a glass of milk all over his shirt and cape. Lugosi was interviewed by a female reporter afterward, who messed up the interview by asking the prearranged questions out of order, thoroughly confusing the aging star. Embarrassed, Lugosi left without attending the screening. Ed Wood and final projects Late in his life, Bela Lugosi again received star billing in films when the ambitious but financially limited filmmaker Ed Wood, a fan of Lugosi, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as an anonymous narrator in Glen or Glenda (1953) and a mad scientist in Bride of the Monster (1955). During post-production of the latter, Lugosi decided to seek treatment for his drug addiction, and the premiere of the film was arranged to raise money for Lugosi's hospital expenses. According to Kitty Kelley's biography of Frank Sinatra, when the entertainer heard of Lugosi's problems, he sent him a $100 check and visited Lugosi at the hospital. Sinatra would recall Lugosi's amazement at his visit, since the two men had never met before. During an impromptu interview upon his release from the treatment center in 1955, Lugosi stated that he was about to begin work on a new Ed Wood film called The Ghoul Goes West. This was one of several projects proposed by Wood, including The Phantom Ghoul and Dr. Acula. With Lugosi in his Dracula cape, Wood shot impromptu test footage, with no particular storyline in mind, in front of Tor Johnson's home, a suburban graveyard, and in front of Lugosi's apartment building on Carlton Way. This footage ended up in Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957), which was filmed in 1956 soon after Lugosi died. Wood hired Tom Mason, his wife's chiropractor, to double for Lugosi in additional shots. Mason was noticeably taller and thinner than Lugosi, and had the lower half of his face covered with his cape in every shot, as Lugosi sometimes did in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, The Black Sleep, for Bel-Air Pictures, which was released in the summer of 1956 through United Artists with a promotional campaign that included several personal appearances by Bela and his co-stars as well as Maila Nurmi (TV's "Vampira"). To Lugosi's disappointment, however, his role in this film was that of a mute butler with no dialogue. Lugosi was intoxicated and very ill during the promotional campaign and had to return to L.A. earlier than planned. Personal life Lugosi habitually married. In 1917, Lugosi married 19-year-old Ilona Szmik (1898–1991) in Hungary. The couple divorced after Lugosi was forced to flee his homeland for political reasons and Ilona did not wish to leave her parents. The divorce became final on July 17, 1920, uncontested since Lugosi couldn't show up for the proceedings. Lugosi arrived in New Orleans on October 27, 1920 and, after making his way north, underwent his primary alien inspection at Ellis Island, N.Y. on March 23, 1921. In 1921, he married actress Ilona von Montagh in New York City, and she divorced him on November 11, 1924, charging him with adultery and complaining that he wanted her to abandon her acting career. Lugosi took his place in Hollywood society and scandal when he married wealthy San Francisco resident Beatrice Woodruff Weeks (1897–1931), widow of architect Charles Peter Weeks, on July 27, 1929. Weeks subsequently filed for divorce on November 4, 1929, accusing Lugosi of infidelity and citing actress Clara Bow as the "other woman". The divorce became official on December 9, 1929. Weeks died 17 months later (at age 34) from alcoholism in Florida, Lugosi never receiving a penny from her fortune. On June 26, 1931, Lugosi became a naturalized United States citizen. In 1933, the 51-year-old Lugosi married 22-year-old Lillian Arch (1911–1981), the daughter of Hungarian immigrants living in Hollywood. They had a child, Bela G. Lugosi, in 1938. Bela eventually had four grandchildren and six great-grandchildren, although he never lived to meet any of them. Lillian and Bela vacationed on their lake property in Lake Elsinore, California (then called Elsinore), on several lots between 1944 and 1953. Lillian's father lived on one of their properties, and Lugosi frequented a health spa in the area. Bela Lugosi Jr. was boarded at the Elsinore Naval and Military School in Lake Elsinore, and lived with Lillian's parents while she and Bela were touring. After almost breaking up their marriage in 1944, Lillian and Béla finally divorced on July 17, 1953, at least partially because of Béla's excessive drinking and his jealousy over Lillian taking a full-time job as an assistant to actor Brian Donlevy on Donlevy's radio and television series Dangerous Assignment. Lillian got custody of their son. She eventually did marry Brian Donlevy in 1966, leaving one alcoholic husband for another, and died in 1981. Lugosi married Hope Lininger, his fifth wife, in 1955; she was 37 years his junior. She had been a fan, writing letters to him when he was in the hospital, recovering from addiction to Demerol. She would sign her letters "A dash of Hope". They remained married until his death about a year later. Death Lugosi died of a heart attack on Thursday, August 16, 1956, in his Los Angeles apartment while taking a nap. His wife Hope discovered him dead, on his bed dressed only in his underwear, when she came home from work that evening, he having apparently died peacefully in his sleep around 6:45 PM according to the medical examiner. He was 73 and weighed 140 pounds. The rumor that Lugosi was clutching the script for The Final Curtain, a planned Ed Wood project, at the time of his death is not true. Lugosi was buried wearing one of the "Dracula" capes and his full costume as well as his Dracula ring in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Contrary to popular belief, Lugosi never requested to be buried in his cloak; Bela G. Lugosi confirmed on numerous occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision but believed that it is what his father would have wanted. The funeral was held on Saturday, August 18 at the Utter-McKinley funeral home in Hollywood. Attendees included Forrest J. Ackerman, Edward D. Wood Jr. (who was a pall bearer), Tor Johnson, Conrad Brooks, Richard Sheffield, both widows Hope and Lillian, Bela Lugosi Jr., Norma McCarty, Loretta King, Paul Marco and George Becwar. Bela's fourth wife Lillian paid for the cemetery plot and stone (which was inscribed "Beloved Father"), while Hope Lugosi paid for the coffin and the service. Lugosi's will left several inexpensive pieces of property in Elsinore and only $1,000.00 cash to his son, but since the will had been written on Jan. 12, 1954 (before Lugosi's fifth marriage), Bela Jr. had to share the thousand dollars evenly with Hope. Hope later gave most of Lugosi's personal belongings and memorabilia to Bela's young neighborhood friend Richard Sheffield, who gave Lugosi's duplicate Dracula cape to Bela Jr. and sold some of the other items to Forrest J. Ackerman. Hope told Sheffield she had searched the apartment for several days looking for $3,000.00 she suspected Lugosi had hidden there, but she never found it. Sheffield said years later "Lugosi had probably spent it all on alcohol." Hope later moved to Hawaii, where she worked for many years as a caretaker in a leper colony.Arthur Lennig, The Immortal Count, University Press of Kentucky, 2003 ISBN 978-0-8131-2273-1. Hope died in Hawaii in 1997, at age 78, having never remarried. California Supreme Court decision on personality rights In 1979, the Lugosi v. Universal Pictures decision by the California Supreme Court held that Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs, as a copyright would have. The court ruled that under California law any rights of publicity, including the right to his image, terminated with Lugosi's death. Legacy In Tim Burton's Ed Wood, Bela Lugosi is portrayed by Martin Landau, who received the 1994 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the performance. According to Bela G. Lugosi (his son), Forrest Ackerman, Dolores Fuller and Richard Sheffield, the film's portrayal of Lugosi is inaccurate: In real life, he never used profanity, owned small dogs, or slept in coffins. And contrary to this film, Bela did not struggle performing on The Red Skelton Show. Three Lugosi projects were featured on the television show Mystery Science Theater 3000. The 1942 film The Corpse Vanishes appeared in episode 105; the serial The Phantom Creeps appeared throughout season two, and the Ed Wood production Bride of the Monster in episode 423. An episode of Sledge Hammer! titled "Last of the Red Hot Vampires" was an homage to Bela Lugosi; at the end of the episode, it was dedicated to "Mr. Blasko". In 2001, BBC Radio 4 broadcast There Are Such Things by Steven McNicoll and Mark McDonnell. Focusing on Lugosi and his well-documented struggle to escape from the role that had typecast him, the play went on to receive the Hamilton Deane Award for best dramatic presentation from the Dracula Society in 2002. On July 19, 2003, German artist Hartmut Zech erected a bust of Lugosi on one of the corners of Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest. The Ellis Island Immigration Museum in New York City features a live 30-minute play that focuses on Lugosi's illegal entry into the country and then his arrival at Ellis Island to enter the country legally. The cape Lugosi wore in Dracula (1931) was in the possession of his family until it was put up for auction in 2011. It was expected to sell for up to $2 million, but has since been listed again by Bonhams in 2018. In 2019 the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures announced acquisition of the cape via partial donation from the Lugosi family and that the cape will be on display in 2020. Péter Müller's theatrical play Lugosi – the Shadow of the Vampire () is based on Lugosi's life, telling the story of his life as he became typecast as Dracula and as his drug addiction worsened. In the Hungarian production, directed by István Szabó, Lugosi was played by Ivan Darvas. Andy Warhol's 1963 silkscreen The Kiss depicts Lugosi from Dracula about to bite into the neck of co-star Helen Chandler, who played Mina Harker. A copy sold for $798,000 at Christie's in May 2000. In 1979, a song called "Bela Lugosi's Dead" was released by UK post-punk band Bauhaus and is widely considered to be a pioneering song in the Goth music genre. On choosing the topic of the song, the band's bassist David J remarked "It’s so weird you should say that, because I’ve got this lyric about Bela Lugosi, the actor who played a vampire.” There was a season of old horror films on TV and I was telling Daniel about how much I loved them. The one that had been on the night before was Dracula [1931]. I was saying how Bela Lugosi was the quintessential Dracula, the elegant depiction of the character." Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff are referenced in the Curtis Stigers' song "Sleeping with the Lights On", from the 1991 album Curtis Stigers. Lugosi's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is mentioned in "Celluloid Heroes", a song performed by The Kinks and written by their lead vocalist and principal songwriter, Ray Davies. It appeared on their 1972 album Everybody's in Show-Biz. According to Paru Itagaki, the creator of the Japanese manga/anime Beastars, the main character Legoshi was inspired by Bela Lugosi (regarding the similar-sounding names). In 2020, Legendary Comics published an adaptation of Bram Stoker's 1897 Dracula novel, which used the likeness of Lugosi. A 2021 hardcover graphic novel depicting the life of Bela Lugosi was written and drawn by Koren Shadmi, entitled Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula Notes References Further reading Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster by Gary D. Rhodes and Tom Weaver (2015) BearManor Media, Tod Browning's Dracula by Gary D. Rhodes (2015) Tomahawk Press, Bela Lugosi In Person by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2015) BearManor Media, No Traveler Returns: The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2012) BearManor Media, Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, (hardcover) Lugosi: His Life on Film, Stage, and in the Hearts of Horror Lovers by Gary D. Rhodes (2006) McFarland & Company, The Immortal Count: The Life and Films of Bela Lugosi by Arthur Lennig (2003), (hardcover) Bela Lugosi (Midnight Marquee Actors Series) by Gary Svehla and Susan Svehla (1995) (paperback) Bela Lugosi: Master of the Macabre by Larry Edwards (1997), (paperback) Films of Bela Lugosi by Richard Bojarski (1980) (hardcover) Sinister Serials of Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi and Lon Chaney, Jr. by Leonard J. Kohl (2000) (paperback) Vampire over London: Bela Lugosi in Britain by Frank J. Dello Stritto and Andi Brooks (2000) (hardcover) Lugosi: The Man Behind the Cape by Robert Cremer (1976) (hardcover) Bela Lugosi: Biografia di una metamorfosi by Edgardo Franzosini (1998) Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula'' by Koren Shadmi (Life Drawn graphic novel)(2021) External links https://www.retroagogo.com/categories/collections/bela-lugosi/ Video Biography at CinemaScream.com How to pronounce Bela Lugosi? at YouTube.com A Tribute to Bela Lugosi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3En7F18wbnI Requiem for Bela Lugosi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cf_FggX4vpM A Look Back at Lugosi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYiu_NeoxBY Home Movies of Bela Lugosi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lZ-U_4u6uA 1882 births 1956 deaths People from Lugoj 19th-century Hungarian people 20th-century Hungarian male actors 20th-century American male actors 19th-century Roman Catholics 20th-century Roman Catholics 20th-century sailors American male film actors American Roman Catholics American people of Serbian descent American socialists American trade unionists Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City Hungarian emigrants to the United States Hungarian expatriates in Austria Hungarian expatriates in Germany Hungarian male film actors Hungarian male silent film actors Hungarian male stage actors Hungarian Roman Catholics Hungarian people of Serbian descent Hungarian sailors Hungarian trade unionists Hungarian socialists Male Shakespearean actors Naturalized citizens of the United States Universal Pictures contract players

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Luca is a 2021 American computer-animated coming-of-age fantasy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was directed by Enrico Casarosa (in his feature-length directorial debut), written by Jesse Andrews and Mike Jones, from a story by Casarosa, Andrews, and Simon Stephenson, produced by Andrea Warren, and features the voices of Jacob Tremblay and Jack Dylan Grazer, with Emma Berman, Saverio Raimondo, Marco Barricelli, Maya Rudolph, Jim Gaffigan, Peter Sohn, Lorenzo Crisci, Marina Massironi, and Sandy Martin in supporting roles. Set on the Italian Riviera, the film centers on Luca Paguro, a young sea monster boy with the ability to assume human form while on land, who explores the town of Portorosso with his new best friend, Alberto Scorfano, experiencing a life-changing summer adventure. Luca takes inspiration from Casarosa's childhood in Genoa; several Pixar artists were sent to the Italian Riviera gathering research from Italian culture and environment. The sea monsters, a "metaphor for feeling different", were loosely based on old Italian regional myths and folklore. Like La Luna, the design and animation were inspired by hand-drawn and stop motion works and Hayao Miyazaki's style. Casarosa described the result as a film that "pays homage to Federico Fellini and other classic Italian filmmakers, with a dash of Miyazaki in the mix too". Luca premiered at the Aquarium of Genoa on June 13, 2021, and was originally set to be theatrically released in the United States on June 18, 2021. However, in response to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the film was released direct-to-streaming on Disney+, along with a simultaneous limited run at the El Capitan Theatre. It was also released in theaters in countries without the streaming service. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its visuals, voice acting, and nostalgic feel. It was also the most-viewed streaming movie of 2021, with over 10.6 billion minutes watched. At the 94th Academy Awards, the film has been nominated for Best Animated Feature. A related short film starring Alberto, titled Ciao Alberto, was released on Disney+ on November 12, 2021. Plot In the summer of 1959, young, timid sea monster Luca Paguro herds goatfish off the coast of the Italian town of Portorosso. His parents Daniela and Lorenzo, fearing that humans might hunt him for food, forbid him to approach the surface. One day, Luca meets Alberto Scorfano, a fellow sea monster child who lives alone above the surface, claiming that his father simply is not around much. Alberto encourages Luca to venture out of the ocean, showing him that sea monsters turn into humans when dry, but return to their true forms when wet. Luca follows Alberto to his hideout on Isola del Mare, where the boys connect while making and riding a makeshift, fragile Vespa. Upon discovering their son's actions, Luca's parents plan to send Luca to live in the deep sea with his uncle Ugo. In retaliation, Luca runs away with Alberto to Portorosso to find a real Vespa and travel the world. The boys run afoul of Ercole Visconti, the local bully and five-time champion of the Portorosso Cup, a local children's triathlon. Ercole tries to soak Luca in a fountain, but Giulia Marcovaldo, a young girl, helps the boys escape. In hopes of winning the money needed for a Vespa, the boys and Giulia form a team for the triathlon, which involves swimming, pasta-eating, and biking. Unable to swim without revealing themselves, Luca and Alberto take on the biking and pasta-eating portions of the race, respectively, while Giulia takes the swimming race. Upon learning this, Ercole vows to beat them and continue his winning streak. While the boys train for the race, and befriend Giulia's fisherman father Massimo (who was born with only one arm), Luca's parents head to the surface to find their son. Giulia teaches Luca about school, and the two bond over a love of learning, especially about astronomy. Alberto becomes jealous of Luca and Giulia's growing friendship. When Luca starts ignoring Alberto's advice, and tries changing their plans to going to school instead of traveling the world, he and Alberto quarrel. In anger, Alberto intentionally reveals his true form to Giulia. Unwilling to give himself up, Luca feigns surprise at the transformation. Heartbroken and betrayed, Alberto returns to his hiding place. Giulia later sloshes a cupful of water onto a panicking Luca; seeing his true identity, she sends him away for his own safety. Luca attempts to reconcile with Alberto, and discovers that Alberto's father abruptly abandoned him long ago, making Alberto think he was at fault, and should not have friends. When Alberto refuses to co-operate, Luca sets out to win the Vespa on his own, to make things right. After several mishaps, Luca takes the lead in the bicycle race, but is forced to take shelter when it starts to rain. Alberto arrives with an umbrella, but Ercole knocks it away and both boys are revealed as sea monsters. They flee Ercole, who now intends to kill them and collect bounty money, but Giulia helps them by smashing her bike into Ercole's, injuring herself in the process. Luca and Alberto turn back to help her, finally standing up to Ercole. They are defended from Ercole and the other fishermen by Massimo, who reveals that the boys are his friends. He also points out they have crossed the finish line and won the race. Other disguised sea monsters reveal themselves, including Luca's family, and the townsfolk happily welcome them. When Ercole refuses to accept the changes, his own henchmen Ciccio and Guido throw him into the fountain, fed up with his abuse and insults. Luca and Alberto buy a Vespa, but Alberto sells it to get a train ticket for Luca, allowing him to go to school in Genoa with Giulia. Luca's family, Massimo, and Alberto see Luca and Giulia off at the train station, where they all promise to stay in touch. During the credits, Luca meets Giulia's mother and attends school, showing off his sea monster appearance and later watching the Apollo 11 moon landing on television with Giulia. Massimo becomes Alberto's adoptive father, and Alberto & Luca’s family are able to live in peace. In a post-credits scene, Ugo talks to a stray goatfish about how great his life is in the deep sea. Voice cast Jacob Tremblay as Luca Paguro, a 12-year-old boy curious about the world above the sea. He lives in the waters next to the Italian coast, in a farm where he herds goatfish with his parents. Although he has been warned his whole life that the human world is a dangerous place, he longs for something beyond his quiet farm life, so when Alberto takes him to explore Portorosso, his eyes open up to a whole world of possibilities. He and all other sea monsters take on human form when they are dry. Paguro means "hermit crab" in Italian. Jack Dylan Grazer as Alberto Scorfano, a 14-year-old boy and Luca's best friend who is enthusiastic to explore the human world. He is a free-spirited, expressive and gregarious boy who is "all about having fun". Despite his outgoing and free-spirited nature, he secretly hates living alone, as it is revealed that his only parent figure abandoned him in an island tower, leading him to feel lonely and insecure. Scorfano means "redfish" or "scorpionfish" in Italian. Emma Berman as Giulia Marcovaldo, a 13-year-old Italian girl who is an outcast in Portorosso and befriends Luca and Alberto. She is an "outgoing and charming adventurer with a love of books and learning". To prepare for the role, Berman did some research by visiting a local Italian restaurant in San Francisco and met with an Italian waiter working there, who taught her how to speak Italian through some Zoom sessions. Saverio Raimondo as Ercole Visconti, a cowardly bully. A repeat champion of the town's Portorosso Cup race despite many people pointing out he is too old for it, he is "a Vespa-owning, pompadoured blowhard who believes that everyone loves him and enjoys watching him eat sandwiches". He has two followers, Ciccio and Guido, who are ready to do his bidding. Voicing him, Raimondo was partly inspired by Giuseppe Anatrelli's performance as Luciano Calboni in the Fantozzi film series. Raimondo reprised his role in the Italian-language dubbing of the movie. Maya Rudolph as Daniela Paguro, a sea monster, Grandma Paguro's daughter, Lorenzo's wife and Luca's mother who is determined to keep her son safe. Marco Barricelli as Massimo Marcovaldo, an Italian fisherman, cook, and Giulia's father. He is an imposing and tattooed man born with only one arm. Despite Luca and Alberto being intimidated by his big size and skill with a knife, Massimo has a soft heart, especially for his daughter. Jim Gaffigan as Lorenzo Paguro, a sea monster, Ugo's brother, Daniela's husband and Luca's father, a "well-meaning, but sometimes distracted dad who's very passionate about raising his prize-winning crabs"; Gaffigan based his performance on his own parenting skills. Peter Sohn and Lorenzo Crisci as Ciccio and Guido, Ercole's henchmen. Marina Massironi as Mrs. Marsigliese, a lady who runs the Portorosso Cup race and its sponsor. Massironi reprised her role in the Italian-language dubbing of the movie. Sandy Martin as Grandma Paguro, a sea monster who is Daniela's mother and Luca's grandmother. Grandma knows that breaking some rules is a part of growing up, and she is a little too happy to look the other way if Luca's rebellious side should emerge. Sacha Baron Cohen as Ugo Paguro, an anglerfish-like sea monster, Luca's uncle, and Lorenzo's brother who lives in the depths of the ocean and has a see-through torso. Giacomo Gianniotti and Gino La Monica voice Giacomo and Tommaso respectively, two local fishermen (they reprised their roles in the Italian-language dubbing of the movie). Elisa Gabrielli and Mimi Maynard play Concetta and Pinuccia Aragosta, two elderly women who are later revealed to be sea monsters. Francesca Fanti voices a cop that gets annoyed with Ercole's antics. Jonathan Nichols voices Don Eugenio, a local priest (voiced by Gino D'Acampo in the British version). Jim Pirri voices Mr. Branzino, a sea monster who is the Paguro family's neighbor. Casarosa voices an angry fisherman and a Scopa player. Themes Casarosa stated that the movie is a celebration of friendship, and "a love letter to the summers of our youth - those formative years when you're finding yourself", inspired by his childhood in Genoa. The title character is based on Casarosa himself, while Alberto on his best friend of the same name, Alberto Surace, to whom the film is dedicated. Casarosa stated: "My best friend Alberto was a bit of a troublemaker, [while] I was very timid and had a bit of a sheltered life — we couldn't have been more different ... Alberto pushed me out of my comfort zone, and pushed me off many cliffs, metaphorically and not. I probably would not be here if I didn't learn to chase my dreams from him. It's these types of deep friendships that I wanted to talk about in Luca, and that is what's at the heart of this film." The sea monsters, based on old Italian myths and regional folklore, were defined by Casarosa as a "metaphor for feeling different", explaining: "We were also a bit of 'outsiders', so it felt right to use sea monsters to express the idea that we felt a little different and not cool as kids". Producer Andrea Warren expanded: "We always liked the idea that the metaphor of being a sea monster can apply to so many different things. There is a theme of openness, showing oneself and self-acceptance, as well as community acceptance. Confronting the idea that there's more to sea monsters than they realized. You know that they've only seen it through one perspective, one lens, and so I think that that's a wonderful theme in the film, which is that those ideas weren't right and that there's more to learn." Casarosa agreed: "We hope that 'sea monster' could be a metaphor for all [manners] of feeling different — like being a teen or even pre-teen — any moment where you feel odd. It felt like a wonderful way to talk about that and having to accept ourselves first, whatever way we feel different." Some have seen Luca and Alberto hiding their true sea monster identities as an allegory for people who are members of the LGBTQ+ community, feeling as though they need to hide their true selves in order to be accepted. Casarosa said this was unintentional and that his original vision for the film was to explore the time in a child's life before romance, but he has welcomed the interpretation after the film's release, also stating: "While I identify with pronouns he/him and I am a straight man, the themes of diversity, acceptance and inclusion in our movie are dear to my heart". Casarosa has stated that some people have interpreted the story as being a metaphor for refugees and immigrants as well. While he admitted that this was unintentional too, he was welcome to all interpretations: "We were aware making the movie that this was a wonderful journey of owning your own identity, and coming out with it – whichever that identity is. I thought that everyone would bring their own identity to it." Casarosa later admitted that the film was intended to be a metaphor for race and while romance was only briefly discussed, it was never meant to be a focal point to the story, "some people seem to get mad that I'm not saying yes or no, but I feel like, well, this is a movie about being open to any difference." Production Development On July 30, 2020, Pixar announced a new film titled Luca as an "Italy-set coming-of-age story", with Casarosa directing and Warren producing. It is the feature-length directorial debut of Casarosa, who has previously directed the 2011 Academy Award-nominated short film La Luna. It is the first Pixar film to be made almost exclusively at crew members' homes because of the closing of Pixar campus in Emeryville, California, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Casarosa has described Luca as a "deeply personal story", being inspired by his childhood in Genoa, Italy, with the title character based on himself and Alberto on his best friend Alberto Surace (who voices a fisherman in the Italian dub version). Casarosa has stated: "my summers were spent on beaches ... I met my best friend when I was 11. I was really shy and I found this troublemaker of a kid who had a completely different life. I wanted to make a movie about those kinds of friendships that help you grow up." He also declared that the film's core is a celebration of friendship: According to Casarosa, the result is a film that "pays homage to Federico Fellini and other classic Italian filmmakers, with a dash of Miyazaki in the mix too". In addition of Fellini and Miyazaki's works, the films La Terra Trema (1948), Stromboli (1950) and Stand by Me (1986) were also cited as source of inspiration, and Aardman Animations and Wes Anderson's stop-motion films influenced Casarosa's artistic sensibilities. To prepare for the film, Pixar sent several of the film's artists to the Italian Riviera for a research trip, during which they took photos of the area's landscape and peoples. The film is rooted in the 50s and 60s, that Casarosa has described as a "golden age that feels timeless", with the music and designs inspired from that period "to capture a little bit of this timelessness of summer." The sea monsters featured in the film were pulled from Italian myths and regional folklore, including the Tellaro octopus and local "little legends about sea dragons, creatures that either come to help or get into trouble". Casarosa said: "I always found the old sea monsters on maps really fascinating. The mystery of the sea was so represented in the weird creatures that we used to draw. And that area has a lot of wonderful myths". Production designer Daniela Strijleva stated: "We were really inspired by old sea maps. Some design details that carried through to the final film are things like the shapes of the fins of the sea monsters, how decorative their scales are, and the curves of their tails." Casarosa also stated that the sea monster is a "metaphor for feeling different". Disney filed for copyright registry of the names "Portorosso" and "Isola del mare" ("Sea island"). The DisInsider initially reported that Portorosso was going to be the title character's surname and possibly a reference and wordplay to Miyazaki's film Porco Rosso (1992). In the final film, Luca's surname is Paguro (Italian for "Hermit crab"), while Portorosso is the name of the village in which the film is set. Animation and design To create the setting of the movie, Portorosso, the studio sent several of the film's artists to the Italian Riviera for a research trip, including on the Cinque Terre, during which they took photos of the area's landscape and peoples. During the research trip, Deanna Marsigliese, the film's art director, noted that they were watched by curious onlookers and chose to incorporate that into the character designs. Isola del mare is inspired by the Italian island Tino. According to production designer Daniela Strijleva, it took a year to design Luca because they wanted to get to know him: "Enrico always wanted Luca to be a bit of an introvert and someone who was curious, but it took us a bit longer to figure out that Luca is a dreamer. He has a strong imagination and a really evolved inner life. That's when the character came to life for me." A clay figure of sea monster Luca was sculpted to assist with the design process for the character. Casarosa described the characters' transformation scenes as "a big effort" due to the many iterations done. He also stated that another big effort was finding a different look: "So, you're using the same tools roughly and you're not completely reinventing, but you're trying to bring some warmth, some texture, some imperfection. The computer naturally kind of wants to be a little bit realistic and perfect. So, for me, it was like, why don't we bring some painterly vibes to our pictures? How do we bring texture so that it's a little more imperfect? And watercolor paper. I love to draw and I love to see the hand of the artist showing through and being a little bit expressive - in the world, because we were also wanting to take people to [see] Italy in this wonderfully enhanced and stylized way, but also in performances and the characters, wanting to make them feel a little bit handmade". Animation supervisor Mike Venturini stated: "Enrico, as a director and as an artist, was inspired in his youth largely by Miyazaki's film library, starting with one of his first projects … Future Boy Conan. That was one of Enrico's favorite things as a kid. So, initially, we watched a lot of episodes of that show. And they use a multi-limb style; it's boys being silly with a really broad physicality. He really liked that and hoped we could be influenced by that in some way. Then we kind of expanded our universe into the rest of Miyazaki's film library, which a lot of the animators on the show were already familiar with. So, on a larger feature film scale, we were looking at what were some of Miyazaki's characteristics. That's what inspired us to try things." In addition of Miyazaki's works, Casarosa stated that Aardman and Anderson's stop-motion movies also influenced his artistic sensibilities: "Some of that ends up in my drawings, that sketchy and expressive style. We wanted to bring that to the film because it felt like this is a kid's world. This is a playful world. And it felt true to the story to go in that direction. I love the immersion of 3D, but I sometimes I feel it can go towards coldness. So, I wanted to bring the warmth of imperfection. That's why some of the silly drawings made us laugh when we started boarding them and then put them on a screen." Casarosa and the team began testing new animation concepts, hoping to bring playful silliness to the characters by taking away some of the typically large amount of detail. Areas of immediate focus were using a more 2D pose style, wider mouths with rounded, rather than angled corners, and multi-limb motions that brought a sillier feel to character movement. Referring to the multi-limb motion, Casarosa said: "It's an old-fashion cartoon technique in some ways ... It came out of the drawings, the essence of someone running extremely fast. We wanted to use the multi-limb technique in areas of the film where the characters were doing extreme physicality, where it would add to the personality of the silliness of the moment. There were only so many chances to use it. I wish there were more. But it was so much fun to use it when we could." Writing On July 30, 2020, Jones announced that he would co-write the screenplay with Andrews, and that he was proud of it. It is the first Pixar film to involve Andrews, while Jones had previously co-written Soul (2020) and is also credited as a Senior Story and Creative Artist at the studio. Jones stated: "To force a writing partnership is not an easy thing. Jesse and I ended up having a really great meeting of the minds about what we really wanted to say with this movie. Jesse had been on it for two years before me. He had really put in the time. This is about the greatest summer in these two boys lives and Jesse's voice with both of those boys was just so wonderful and hilarious and special and emotional. I felt in many ways that I'm just helping Jesse 'plus' that by trying to kind of apply a little bit more of story foundation." Casting On February 25, 2021, with the release of the teaser trailer and poster, Tremblay, Grazer, Berman, Rudolph, Barricelli, Raimondo (it) and Gaffigan were announced as part of the cast. Martin and Gianniotti were announced on April 28 after the official trailer and poster were released. Tremblay voices the title character; Casarosa stated that working with him was "such a pleasure", and "I love how earnest and innocent he is naturally. And he's playful and he's not afraid to try stuff so it was so much fun to improvise with him ... he's actually one of the few actors we had time to work with before the pandemic, so there it was so much fun." According to Tremblay: "[Luca] really wants to explore the world and I can really relate to that, especially now. I really want to get back out there and just learn about different cultures, just like Luca. He really wants to go to this town in Italy and learn about their culture and become part of it." Casarosa stated that Grazer, who voiced Alberto, brings "a natural confidence and vulnerability" to the character, "who's a free-spirited teen sea monster with unbridled enthusiasm for the human world." Giulia, an "outsider, misfit girl", is voiced by newcomer Berman. Rudolph and Gaffigan, playing Daniela and Lorenzo, did get the chance to improvise, with Casarosa highlighting the depth and warmth they bring to the roles: "She's a stern mother. She's a difficult and very controlling mother, but there's this other warmth to her that balances it." Luca supporting cast includes actual Italian actors: Raimondo voices Ercole; Barricelli, who has a "booming voice", voices Massimo; Gianniotti voices Giacomo; Lorenzo Crisci voices Guido; Massironi voices Mrs. Marsigliese; Gino La Monica voices Tommaso; and Francesca Fanti voices a cop. Raimondo was chosen by Casarosa after seeing his Netflix stand-up comedy show Saverio Raimondo: Il satiro parlante. Raimondo compared Ercole to the character Odd Henderson from the short story The Thanksgiving Visitor, and voicing him he was inspired by Giuseppe Anatrelli's performance as Luciano Calboni from the Fantozzi film series. Tremblay stated that the relationship between Luca and Alberto "is gonna bring back a lot of memories when people watch this and I'm hoping that when people watch this, they'll be able to forget about COVID [...] It's so cool I get to be part of someone else's childhood. I think especially now the story is really special because, for me, I haven't really been able to see my friends because of COVID, of course, and this movie is all about friendship. So, when people see it in theaters, I hope they'll be able to remember hanging out with friends during summer vacation and just having a blast." The studio mainstay John Ratzenberger is absent from the film's credits and all official cast listings, making Luca the second Pixar film not to feature his credit after Soul and the first not to feature him in any form. Casarosa later stated that Ratzenberger was not included in the film, citing his and the company's desire to start some new traditions including where The Good Dinosaur director Peter Sohn (who voices Ercole's henchman Ciccio and serves as one of the executive producers of the film) would appear in every Pixar film, a new generation of filmmakers telling original stories and music will be composed by other composers. Music On April 1, 2021, Dan Romer was revealed to be the film's composer. The soundtrack includes songs by Mina, Edoardo Bennato, Gianni Morandi, Rita Pavone and Quartetto Cetra, and excerpts from operas by Giacomo Puccini and Gioachino Rossini. Track listing Italian songs and opera arias The film features Italian songs and opera arias including: "Un bacio a mezzanotte" by Quartetto Cetra "O mio babbino caro", from the opera Gianni Schicchi by Giacomo Puccini, sung by Maria Callas "Il gatto e la volpe" by Edoardo Bennato "Andavo a cento all'ora" by Gianni Morandi "Tintarella di luna" by Mina "Fatti mandare dalla mamma a prendere il latte" by Gianni Morandi "Viva la pappa col pomodoro" by Rita Pavone "Città vuota" by Mina "Una voce poco fa" by Budapest Failoni Chamber Orchestra, from the opera The Barber of Seville by Gioachino Rossini "Largo al factotum", from The Barber of Seville by Gioachino Rossini Release Theatrical release, premiere and streaming Luca was originally set to be theatrically released in the United States on June 18, 2021 by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. However, on March 23, 2021, Disney announced the cancellation of the film's theatrical release, and it instead was released worldwide on Disney+ in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, on June 18, 2021. The film also played a one-week theatrical engagement at Hollywood's El Capitan Theatre from June 18–24, 2021. In international markets where Disney+ is not available, it was released theatrically. The film premiered on June 13, 2021 in Italy at the Aquarium of Genoa, with a three-day run by the non-profit organization MediCinema to raise funds for the Istituto Giannina Gaslini and other entities in the Ligurian territory. Marketing and promotion In November 2020, some concept art of the film and the clay figure of sea monster Luca were shown in the second episode of Inside Pixar. In December 2020, an early look to the film was screened at Disney Investor Day, and the clips and some screenshots were later leaked online. On January 18, 2021, the first official image from the film was released by Empire. On January 19, a promotional still was released on the cover of Italian magazine Il Venerdì di Repubblica, featuring Luca, Alberto, and Giulia on a Vespa in one of the scenic backdrops from the film. A series of books based on the film was published on May 14, 2021. Funko produced a line of Funko Pops based on the characters of the film. A line of action figures and toy packs by Mattel was released on July 1, 2021. In June 2021, Trenitalia unveiled their Luca-themed livery for a Caravaggio train. To promote the film's release, McDonald's launched its promotional campaign by including one of eight toys free with the purchase of a Happy Meal. Home media On July 1, 2021, it was announced that Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment would release Luca on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, DVD and Digital on August 3, 2021 in the United States, and August 23, 2021 in the United Kingdom. Reception Audience viewership According to Nielsen ratings, following its opening weekend, Luca topped all original movies in its first days on streaming, with 1.57 billion minutes of viewing time. Nielsen reported that the movie topped the weekly streaming Top 10 list for the June 14–20 week, and ranking at No. 2 on the overall streaming rankings after the TV series Manifest on Netflix. The film continued to play well in subsequent weeks, logging 1.15 billion minutes of viewership between July 21–27 (equal to about 1.2 million total watches), the second-most for an original film behind The Tomorrow War. Box office By December 2021, the film has grossed $49.8 million worldwide, with its largest markets being China ($14 million), Russia ($8.2 million), Poland ($3.6 million), Hong Kong ($3.6 million), South Korea ($3 million), the United Arab Emirates ($2.1 million), and Romania ($1.02 million). Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 91% based on 290 reviews, with an average rating of 7.30/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Slight but suffused with infectious joy, the beguiling Luca proves Pixar can play it safe while still charming audiences of all ages." According to Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 71 out of 100 based on 52 critics, the film received "generally favorable reviews". Alonso Duralde of the TheWrap wrote: "Luca is sweet and affecting, capturing the bond that strangers can build over a summer, and how that friendship can endure. And like its shape-shifting protagonists, it's got plenty going on beneath the surface." From The Hollywood Reporter, David Rooney said that "the real magic of Luca is its visuals. The character designs are appealing both in the marine world and on land, and the richness of the settings in both realms is a constant source of pleasure. The play of light on the gloriously blue water's surface is almost photorealistic at times, while a sunset spreading its orange glow over rocks on the shoreline makes you yearn to be there." Charlie Ridgely, writing for ComicBook.com praised the film for its uniqueness, feeling that it highly deviated from Pixar's usual narrative formula and clichés but it didn't make it "lesser" than other of the company's classics like Toy Story and Up, highlighting the animation, the design of the Italian Riviera, the score and the story. However, Phil De Semlyen, writing for Time Out, branded the film a "letdown", writing "Charming but slight, Luca definitely isn't Pixar firing on all cylinders. The studio's trademark daring, pin sharp sight gags, and big ideas are missing from a fishy coming-of-age yarn that's a little damp around the edges." Accolades and awards Short film A short film titled Ciao Alberto was released on Disney+ on November 12, 2021. It is written and directed by McKenna Jean Harris and produced by Matt DeMartini with Enrico Casarosa on board as executive producer. It focuses on Alberto as he continues to grow accustomed to working with Massimo; eventually accepting him as a father figure. Future The cast expressed interest in returning for a sequel, and presented different ideas of what it would be about, among which was the joking suggestion they frequently made of giving Uncle Ugo a spin-off series. Casarosa expressed interest in doing a sequel that would be similar to The Parent Trap, which would center upon Luca and Giulia's attempt to reunite Massimo and his wife. Shortly after the film's release, Disney+ sent a survey to subscribers asking about their opinion of the movie and asked "how likely would each household member [want] to watch another movie involving the characters and world of Luca if it became available," implying that the studio is considering producing a sequel at some point. References External links Official screenplay 2021 computer-animated films 2021 directorial debut films 2021 films 2020s American animated films 2020s teen comedy films 2020s monster movies 2020s English-language films American 3D films American animated films American animated comedy films American animated fantasy films American coming-of-age comedy films American computer-animated films American fantasy-comedy films American films American teen comedy films Animated coming-of-age films American animated feature films Animated films about friendship Animated films set in Italy Animated films set on islands Animated teen films Cycling films Disney+ original films English-language films Films about competitions Films about legendary creatures Films about shapeshifting Films directed by Enrico Casarosa Films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic Films scored by Dan Romer Films set in 1959 Films set in fictional populated places Films set in the Mediterranean Sea Films with underwater settings Pixar animated films Triathlon films Walt Disney Pictures films

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Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space. Traveling in the Vostok 1 capsule, Gagarin completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. By achieving this major milestone in the Space Race he became an international celebrity, and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour. Gagarin was born in the Russian village of Klushino, and in his youth was a foundryman at a steel plant in Lyubertsy. He later joined the Soviet Air Forces as a pilot and was stationed at the Luostari Air Base, near the Norwegian border, before his selection for the Soviet space programme with five other cosmonauts. Following his spaceflight, Gagarin became deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was later named after him. He was also elected as a deputy of the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet. Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight, but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Fearful that a national hero might be killed, Soviet officials banned Gagarin from further spaceflights. After completing training at the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy in February 1968, he was allowed to fly regular aircraft. Gagarin died five weeks later when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach. Early life Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino, in the Smolensk Oblast of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death). His parents worked on a collective farm—Aleksey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer. Yuri was the third of four children. His older brother Valentin was born in 1924, and by the time Yuri was born he was already helping with the cattle on the farm. His sister Zoya, born in 1927, helped take care of "Yura" and their youngest brother Boris, born in 1936. Gagarin's hometown was situated along the path of several invasions of Russia, and had been the site of many wars and conquests from foreign nations. Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, his family suffered during the Nazi occupation during World War II. During the German advance on Moscow, retreating Red Army soldiers seized the collective farm's livestock. The Nazis captured Klushino on 18 October 1941. On their first day in the village, they burned down the school, ending Yuri's first year of education. The Nazis also burned down 27 houses in the village and forced the residents including the Gagarins to work the farms to feed the occupying soldiers. Those who refused were beaten or sent to the concentration camp set up at Gzhatsk. A German officer took over the Gagarin residence. On the land behind their house, the family was allowed to build a mud hut measuring approximately , where they spent 21 months until the end of the occupation. During this period, Yuri became a saboteur, especially after one of the German soldiers, who the children called "the Devil", tried to hang his younger brother Boris on an apple tree using the boy's scarf. In retaliation, Yuri sabotaged the soldier's work; he poured soil into the tank batteries gathered to be recharged and randomly mixed the different chemical supplies intended for the task. In early 1943, his two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour. They escaped and were found by Soviet soldiers who conscripted them into helping with the war effort. They did not return home until after the war, in 1945. The rest of the Gagarin family believed the two older children were dead, and Yuri became ill with "grief and hunger"; he was also beaten for refusing to work for the German forces and spent the remainder of the war at a hospital as a patient and later as an orderly. His mother was hospitalized during the same period, after a German soldier gashed her leg with a scythe. When the Germans were routed out of Klushino on 9 March 1944, Yuri helped the Red Army find mines buried in the roads by the fleeing German army. Education and early career In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his education. Yuri and Boris were enrolled at a crude school built in the town and run by a young woman who volunteered to be the teacher. They learned to read using a discarded Russian military manual. A former Russian airman later joined the school to teach math and science, Yuri's favourite subjects. Yuri was also part of a group of children that built model airplanes. He was fascinated with flying crafts from a young age and his interest in airplanes was energized after a Yakovlev fighter plane crash landed in Klushino during the war. In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at a steel plant in Lyubertsy, near Moscow, and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes. After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work, he was selected for further training at the Industrial Technical School in Saratov, where he studied tractors. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yakovlev Yak-18. He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River. Soviet Air Force service In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the First Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School in Orenburg. He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956. Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft, Gagarin began flying solo in 1957. On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari Air Base close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet. On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class. After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space programme was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin. By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time. Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959, three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space programme. Soviet space programme Selection and training Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force. The commission limited their selection to pilots between 25 and 30 years old. The chief engineer of the programme Sergei Korolev also specified that candidates, to fit in the limited space in the Vostok capsule, should weigh less than and be no taller than ; Gagarin was tall. From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June. Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regimen involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympic Games. In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, over both land and water. Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers; when they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin. One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary. On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six, from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoly Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, Gherman Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigory Nelyubov. As several of the candidates selected for the programme including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course programme at the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the programme in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968. Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge. Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on 26 July – 5 August. In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows: The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961 and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led by Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, the overseer of the Vostok programme. The commission was tasked with ranking the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from the commission. On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate for the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations. Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April. Historian Asif Azam Siddiqi writes of the final selection: Vostok 1 On 12 April 1961, at 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (, Siberian pine or cedar). The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch: Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! () later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age. The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan. Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth. "The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report. He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" () during re-entry. Gagarin was recognised as a qualified Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight. At about , Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft. Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft, an omission which became apparent after Titov's flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised its rules, and acknowledged that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin is internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth. After the Vostok 1 flight Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space programme and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to the World War II Victory Parades. Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile. On 15 April 1961, accompanied by officials from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters. Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester. While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him. Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries in the years following his flight. In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland. Because of his popularity, US president John F. Kennedy barred Gagarin from visiting the United States. In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union, and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963. On 20 December, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the cosmonaut training facility. Soviet officials, including Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight". Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol. Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature. The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3. The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary. Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft. Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly. After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights. He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training. On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Personal life In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow. She was a medical technician who had graduated from Orenburg Medical School. They were married on 7 November of the same year, the same day Gagarin graduated from his flight school, and they had two daughters. Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959, is an art historian who has worked as the director general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001; and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961, is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow. Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow. In his youth Gagarin was a keen sportsman and played ice hockey as a goalkeeper. He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee. Some sources have said that Gagarin commented during his space flight, "I don't see any God up here," though no such words appear in the verbatim record of his conversations with Earth stations during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview, Gagarin's friend Colonel Valentin Petrov stated that Gagarin never said these words and that the quote originated from Khrushchev's speech at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU about the state's anti-religion campaign, saying "Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any god there". Petrov also said Gagarin had been baptised into the Russian Orthodox Church as a child, and a 2011 Foma magazine article quoted the rector of the Orthodox Church in Star City saying, "Gagarin baptized his elder daughter Yelena shortly before his space flight; and his family used to celebrate Christmas and Easter and keep icons in the house". Death On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes interred in the walls of the Kremlin. Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories, including several conspiracy theories. At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB. According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them." The KGB's report, declassified in March 2003, dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin. Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft. A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash. On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation. In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvred sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions". Alexei Leonov, who was also a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing. According to some conspiracy theories, Gagarin's death was ordered by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who supposedly was jealous of Gagarin's popularity, overshadowing him at public events. Awards and honours Medals and orders of merit On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union, Order of Lenin, Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR. On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics. Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career. He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor from Czechoslovakia on 29 April 1961, and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) the same year. On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of the Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal. Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland. He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Italian Columbus Day Medal, and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society. President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade. During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo. On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic. Tributes The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day. Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration. In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations. A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City was named on 30 April 1968. The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed the Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968. A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street. The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961. In 1961 the Olympic sports training center in Chernihiv in Ukraine, was named Stadion Yuri Gagarin and the 25 May 1964, Gagarin in person attended the stadium. Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space programme's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and Komarov on the Moon's surface. In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others. In 1970, a wide crater on the far side was named after him. Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico. Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin () was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971. The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand". He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud. Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuriy Gagarin was built in 1971 and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011. Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver. In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight. In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup. In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with the fictional character James T. Kirk from Star Trek. A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical. Statues, monuments and murals There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in the town named after him as well as in Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened. The monument is mounted to a tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight. In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy. In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by Leonov, who is also an artist, and was a gift to Houston commissioned by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication. The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012. In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than a week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin. Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design. In August 2019, the Italian artist Jorit painted Gagarin's face on the facade of a twenty-story building in the district of Odintsovo, Russia. The mural is the largest portrait of Gagarin in the world. In March 2021, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Mataram Park (Taman Mataram) in Jakarta, Indonesia in celebration of the 70th anniversary of Indonesia–Russia diplomatic relations as well as the 60th anniversary of the first human space flight. The statue, sculpted by Russian artist A.D. Leonov and presented by Russian embassy in Jakarta, is considered as "a sign of strengthening relations" between Moscow and Jakarta, which have been sister cities since 2006. 50th anniversary The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A documentary film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin. The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin. The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary. The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of his mission. Notes References Sources Part 1 (pages 1–499) , Part 2 (pages 500–1011) . Further reading External links Obituary by Associated Press, published on The New York Times, 28 March 1968 "Gagarin" at Encyclopedia Astronautica Multimedia Newsreel footage of Yuri Gagarin at Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive First Orbit, 2011 feature film on YouTube by First Orbit First Man in Space: Yuri Gagarin, short film on YouTube by Roscosmos Photo gallery by KP.ru 1934 births 1961 in spaceflight 1968 deaths Articles containing video clips Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents Burials at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis Foundrymen People from Gagarinsky District, Smolensk Oblast Heroes of the Soviet Union Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR Recipients of the Order of Georgi Dimitrov Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class Sixth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Seventh convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Russian aviators Russian explorers Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia Russian Orthodox Christians from the Soviet Union Soviet Air Force officers Soviet cosmonauts Soviet space program personnel Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1968 Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the Soviet Union Vostok program cosmonauts

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The Canterbury Tales () is a collection of twenty-four stories that runs to over 17,000 lines written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. It is widely regarded as Chaucer's magnum opus. The tales (mostly written in verse, although some are in prose) are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return. It has been suggested that the greatest contribution of The Canterbury Tales to English literature was the popularisation of the English vernacular in mainstream literature, as opposed to French, Italian or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language centuries before Chaucer's time, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, the Pearl Poet, and Julian of Norwich—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was seminal in this evolution of literary preference. The Canterbury Tales is generally thought to have been incomplete at the end of Chaucer's life. In the General Prologue, some 30 pilgrims are introduced. According to the Prologue, Chaucer's intention was to write four stories from the perspective of each pilgrim, two each on the way to and from their ultimate destination, St. Thomas Becket's shrine (making for a total of about 120 stories). Although perhaps incomplete, The Canterbury Tales is revered as one of the most important works in English literature. Text The question of whether The Canterbury Tales is a finished work has not been answered to date. There are 84 manuscripts and four incunabula (printed before 1500) editions of the work, more than for any other vernacular English literary text with the exception of The Prick of Conscience. This is taken as evidence of the Tales popularity in the century after Chaucer's death. Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have been originally complete, while 28 are so fragmentary that it is difficult to ascertain whether they were copied individually or as part of a set. The Tales vary in both minor and major ways from manuscript to manuscript; many of the minor variations are due to copyists' errors, while it is suggested that in other cases Chaucer both added to his work and revised it as it was being copied and possibly as it was being distributed. Even the oldest surviving manuscripts of the Tales are not Chaucer's originals. The very oldest is probably MS Peniarth 392 D (called "Hengwrt"), written by a scribe shortly after Chaucer's death. Another famous example is the Ellesmere Manuscript, a manuscript handwritten by one person with illustrations by several illustrators; the tales are put in an order that many later editors have followed for centuries.Cooper, 8. The first version of The Canterbury Tales to be published in print was William Caxton's 1476 edition. Only 10 copies of this edition are known to exist, including one held by the British Library and one held by the Folger Shakespeare Library. In 2004, Linne Mooney claimed that she was able to identify the scrivener who worked for Chaucer as an Adam Pinkhurst. Mooney, then a professor at the University of Maine and a visiting fellow at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, said she could match Pinkhurst's oath in the Scriveners' Common Paper to the handwriting in the Hengwrt manuscript, which she theorized might have been transcribed from Chaucer's working copy. Ezard, John (20 July 2004). "The scrivener's tale: how Chaucer's sloppy copyist was unmasked after 600 years". The Guardian. Although this identification has been generally accepted, some scholars have expressed doubts. Order In the absence of consensus as to whether or not a complete version of the Tales exists, there is also no general agreement regarding the order in which Chaucer intended the stories to be placed.Pearsall, 14–15. Textual and manuscript clues have been adduced to support the two most popular modern methods of ordering the tales. Some scholarly editions divide the Tales into ten "Fragments". The tales that make up a Fragment are closely related and contain internal indications of their order of presentation, usually with one character speaking to and then stepping aside for another character. However, between Fragments, the connection is less obvious. Consequently, there are several possible orders; the one most frequently seen in modern editions follows the numbering of the Fragments (ultimately based on the Ellesmere order). Victorians frequently used the nine "Groups", which was the order used by Walter William Skeat whose edition Chaucer: Complete Works was used by Oxford University Press for most of the twentieth century, but this order is currently seldom followed. An alternative ordering (seen in the early-fifteenth century manuscript Harley MS. 7334) places Fragment VIII before VI. Fragments I and II almost always follow each other, just as VI and VII, IX and X do in the oldest manuscripts. Fragments IV and V, by contrast, vary in location from manuscript to manuscript. Language Chaucer wrote in a London dialect of late Middle English, which has clear differences from Modern English. From philological research, some facts are known about the pronunciation of English during the time of Chaucer. Chaucer pronounced -e at the end of many words, so that care was , not as in Modern English. Other silent letters were also pronounced, so that the word knight was , with both the k and the gh pronounced, not . In some cases, vowel letters in Middle English were pronounced very differently from Modern English, because the Great Vowel Shift had not yet happened. For instance, the long e in wepyng "weeping" was pronounced as , as in modern German or Italian, not as . Below is an IPA transcription of the opening lines of The Merchant's Prologue: 'Weeping and wailing, care and other sorrow I know enough, in the evening and in the morning,' said the Merchant, 'and so do many others who have been married.' No manuscript exists in Chaucer's own hand; all extant copies were made by scribes. Because the final -e sound was lost soon after Chaucer's time, scribes did not accurately copy it, and this gave scholars the impression that Chaucer himself was inconsistent in using it. It has now been established, however, that -e was an important part of Chaucer's grammar, and helped to distinguish singular adjectives from plural and subjunctive verbs from indicative. Sources No other work prior to Chaucer's is known to have set a collection of tales within the framework of pilgrims on a pilgrimage. It is obvious, however, that Chaucer borrowed portions, sometimes very large portions, of his stories from earlier stories, and that his work was influenced by the general state of the literary world in which he lived. Storytelling was the main entertainment in England at the time, and storytelling contests had been around for hundreds of years. In 14th-century England the English Pui was a group with an appointed leader who would judge the songs of the group. The winner received a crown and, as with the winner of The Canterbury Tales, a free dinner. It was common for pilgrims on a pilgrimage to have a chosen "master of ceremonies" to guide them and organise the journey. Harold Bloom suggests that the structure is mostly original, but inspired by the "pilgrim" figures of Dante and Virgil in The Divine Comedy. New research suggests that the General Prologue, in which the innkeeper and host Harry Bailey introduces each pilgrim, is a pastiche of the historical Harry Bailey's surviving 1381 poll-tax account of Southwark's inhabitants. The Canterbury Tales contains more parallels to the Decameron, by Giovanni Boccaccio, than any other work. Like the Tales, the Decameron features a frame tale in which several different narrators tell a series of stories. (In the Decameron, the characters have fled to the countryside to escape the Black Death.) It ends with an apology by Boccaccio, much like Chaucer's Retraction to the Tales. A quarter of the tales in The Canterbury Tales parallel a tale in the Decameron, although most of them have closer parallels in other stories. Some scholars thus find it unlikely that Chaucer had a copy of the work on hand, surmising instead that he may have merely read the Decameron at some point. Chaucer may have read the Decameron during his first diplomatic mission to Italy in 1372. Chaucer used a wide variety of sources, but some in particular were used frequently over several tales, among them the Bible, Classical poetry by Ovid, and the works of contemporary Italian writers Petrarch and Dante. Chaucer was the first author to use the work of these last two. Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy appears in several tales, as do the works of John Gower, a friend of Chaucer's. Chaucer also seems to have borrowed from numerous religious encyclopaedias and liturgical writings, such as John Bromyard's Summa praedicantium, a preacher's handbook, and Jerome's Adversus Jovinianum. Many scholars say there is a good possibility Chaucer met Petrarch or Boccaccio.<ref name="Brewer227">Brewer, p. 227. "Although Chaucer undoubtedly studied the works of these celebrated writers, and particularly of Dante before this fortunate interview; yet it seems likely, that these excursions gave him a new relish for their compositions, and enlarged his knowledge of the Italian fables.</ref>Hendrickson, pp. 183–92. Professor G. L. Hendrickson of the University of Chicago gives a detailed analysis as to Chaucer coming in contact with Petrarch.Skeat (1874), p. xxx. "And we know that Petrarch, on his own shewing, was so pleased with the story of Griselda that he learnt it by heart as well as he could, for the express purpose of repeating it to friends, before the idea of turning it into Latin occurred to him. Whence we may conclude that Chaucer and Petrarch met at Padua early in 1373; that Petrarch told Chaucer the story by word of mouth, either in Italian or French; and that Chaucer shortly after obtained a copy of Petrarch's Latin version, which he kept constantly before him whilst making his own translation." Genre and structureThe Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories built around a frame tale, a common and already long established genre in this period. Chaucer's Tales differs from most other story "collections" in this genre chiefly in its intense variation. Most story collections focused on a theme, usually a religious one. Even in the Decameron, storytellers are encouraged to stick to the theme decided on for the day. The idea of a pilgrimage to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes was also unprecedented, though "the association of pilgrims and storytelling was a familiar one". Introducing a competition among the tales encourages the reader to compare the tales in all their variety, and allows Chaucer to showcase the breadth of his skill in different genres and literary forms. While the structure of the Tales is largely linear, with one story following another, it is also much more than that. In the General Prologue, Chaucer describes not the tales to be told, but the people who will tell them, making it clear that structure will depend on the characters rather than a general theme or moral. This idea is reinforced when the Miller interrupts to tell his tale after the Knight has finished his. Having the Knight go first gives one the idea that all will tell their stories by class, with the Monk following the Knight. However, the Miller's interruption makes it clear that this structure will be abandoned in favour of a free and open exchange of stories among all classes present. General themes and points of view arise as the characters tell their tales, which are responded to by other characters in their own tales, sometimes after a long lapse in which the theme has not been addressed. Lastly, Chaucer does not pay much attention to the progress of the trip, to the time passing as the pilgrims travel, or to specific locations along the way to Canterbury. His writing of the story seems focused primarily on the stories being told, and not on the pilgrimage itself. Style The variety of Chaucer's tales shows the breadth of his skill and his familiarity with many literary forms, linguistic styles, and rhetorical devices. Medieval schools of rhetoric at the time encouraged such diversity, dividing literature (as Virgil suggests) into high, middle, and low styles as measured by the density of rhetorical forms and vocabulary. Another popular method of division came from St. Augustine, who focused more on audience response and less on subject matter (a Virgilian concern). Augustine divided literature into "majestic persuades", "temperate pleases", and "subdued teaches". Writers were encouraged to write in a way that kept in mind the speaker, subject, audience, purpose, manner, and occasion. Chaucer moves freely between all of these styles, showing favouritism to none. He not only considers the readers of his work as an audience, but the other pilgrims within the story as well, creating a multi-layered rhetoric. With this, Chaucer avoids targeting any specific audience or social class of readers, focusing instead on the characters of the story and writing their tales with a skill proportional to their social status and learning. However, even the lowest characters, such as the Miller, show surprising rhetorical ability, although their subject matter is more lowbrow. Vocabulary also plays an important part, as those of the higher classes refer to a woman as a "lady", while the lower classes use the word "wenche", with no exceptions. At times the same word will mean entirely different things between classes. The word "pitee", for example, is a noble concept to the upper classes, while in the Merchant's Tale it refers to sexual intercourse. Again, however, tales such as the Nun's Priest's Tale show surprising skill with words among the lower classes of the group, while the Knight's Tale is at times extremely simple. Chaucer uses the same meter throughout almost all of his tales, with the exception of Sir Thopas and his prose tales. It is a decasyllable line, probably borrowed from French and Italian forms, with riding rhyme and, occasionally, a caesura in the middle of a line. His meter would later develop into the heroic meter of the 15th and 16th centuries and is an ancestor of iambic pentameter. He avoids allowing couplets to become too prominent in the poem, and four of the tales (the Man of Law's, Clerk's, Prioress', and Second Nun's) use rhyme royal. Historical context and themes In 1386, Chaucer became Controller of Customs and Justice of the Peace and, in 1389, Clerk of the King's Works. It was during these years that Chaucer began working on The Canterbury Tales. The end of the fourteenth century was a turbulent time in English history. The Catholic Church was in the midst of the Western Schism and, although it was still the only Christian authority in Western Europe, it was the subject of heavy controversy. Lollardy, an early English religious movement led by John Wycliffe, is mentioned in the Tales, which also mention a specific incident involving pardoners (sellers of indulgences, which were believed to relieve the temporal punishment due for sins that were already forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession) who nefariously claimed to be collecting for St. Mary Rouncesval hospital in England. The Canterbury Tales is among the first English literary works to mention paper, a relatively new invention that allowed dissemination of the written word never before seen in England. Political clashes, such as the 1381 Peasants' Revolt and clashes ending in the deposing of King Richard II, further reveal the complex turmoil surrounding Chaucer in the time of the Tales writing. Many of his close friends were executed and he himself moved to Kent to get away from events in London. While some readers look to interpret the characters of The Canterbury Tales as historical figures, other readers choose to interpret its significance in less literal terms. After analysis of Chaucer's diction and historical context, his work appears to develop a critique of society during his lifetime. Within a number of his descriptions, his comments can appear complimentary in nature, but through clever language, the statements are ultimately critical of the pilgrim's actions. It is unclear whether Chaucer would intend for the reader to link his characters with actual persons. Instead, it appears that Chaucer creates fictional characters to be general representations of people in such fields of work. With an understanding of medieval society, one can detect subtle satire at work. Religion The Tales reflect diverse views of the Church in Chaucer's England. After the Black Death, many Europeans began to question the authority of the established Church. Some turned to lollardy, while others chose less extreme paths, starting new monastic orders or smaller movements exposing church corruption in the behaviour of the clergy, false church relics or abuse of indulgences. Several characters in the Tales are religious figures, and the very setting of the pilgrimage to Canterbury is religious (although the prologue comments ironically on its merely seasonal attractions), making religion a significant theme of the work. Two characters, the Pardoner and the Summoner, whose roles apply the Church's secular power, are both portrayed as deeply corrupt, greedy, and abusive. Pardoners in Chaucer's day were those people from whom one bought Church "indulgences" for forgiveness of sins, who were guilty of abusing their office for their own gain. Chaucer's Pardoner openly admits the corruption of his practice while hawking his wares. Summoners were Church officers who brought sinners to the Church court for possible excommunication and other penalties. Corrupt summoners would write false citations and frighten people into bribing them to protect their interests. Chaucer's Summoner is portrayed as guilty of the very kinds of sins for which he is threatening to bring others to court, and is hinted as having a corrupt relationship with the Pardoner. In The Friar's Tale, one of the characters is a summoner who is shown to be working on the side of the devil, not God. Churchmen of various kinds are represented by the Monk, the Prioress, the Nun's Priest, and the Second Nun. Monastic orders, which originated from a desire to follow an ascetic lifestyle separated from the world, had by Chaucer's time become increasingly entangled in worldly matters. Monasteries frequently controlled huge tracts of land on which they made significant sums of money, while peasants worked in their employ. The Second Nun is an example of what a Nun was expected to be: her tale is about a woman whose chaste example brings people into the church. The Monk and the Prioress, on the other hand, while not as corrupt as the Summoner or Pardoner, fall far short of the ideal for their orders. Both are expensively dressed, show signs of lives of luxury and flirtatiousness and show a lack of spiritual depth. The Prioress's Tale is an account of Jews murdering a deeply pious and innocent Christian boy, a blood libel against Jews that became a part of English literary tradition. The story did not originate in the works of Chaucer and was well known in the 14th century. Pilgrimage was a very prominent feature of medieval society. The ultimate pilgrimage destination was Jerusalem, but within England Canterbury was a popular destination. Pilgrims would journey to cathedrals that preserved relics of saints, believing that such relics held miraculous powers. Saint Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, had been murdered in Canterbury Cathedral by knights of Henry II during a disagreement between Church and Crown. Miracle stories connected to his remains sprang up soon after his death, and the cathedral became a popular pilgrimage destination. The pilgrimage in the work ties all of the stories together and may be considered a representation of Christians' striving for heaven, despite weaknesses, disagreement, and diversity of opinion. Social class and convention The upper class or nobility, represented chiefly by the Knight and his Squire, was in Chaucer's time steeped in a culture of chivalry and courtliness. Nobles were expected to be powerful warriors who could be ruthless on the battlefield yet mannerly in the King's Court and Christian in their actions. Knights were expected to form a strong social bond with the men who fought alongside them, but an even stronger bond with a woman whom they idealised to strengthen their fighting ability. Though the aim of chivalry was to noble action, its conflicting values often degenerated into violence. Church leaders frequently tried to place restrictions on jousts and tournaments, which at times ended in the death of the loser. The Knight's Tale shows how the brotherly love of two fellow knights turns into a deadly feud at the sight of a woman whom both idealise. To win her, both are willing to fight to the death. Chivalry was on the decline in Chaucer's day, and it is possible that The Knight's Tale was intended to show its flaws, although this is disputed. Chaucer himself had fought in the Hundred Years' War under Edward III, who heavily emphasised chivalry during his reign. Two tales, Sir Topas and The Tale of Melibee, are told by Chaucer himself, who is travelling with the pilgrims in his own story. Both tales seem to focus on the ill-effects of chivalry—the first making fun of chivalric rules and the second warning against violence. The Tales constantly reflect the conflict between classes. For example, the division of the three estates: the characters are all divided into three distinct classes, the classes being "those who pray" (the clergy), "those who fight" (the nobility), and "those who work" (the commoners and peasantry). Most of the tales are interlinked by common themes, and some "quit" (reply to or retaliate against) other tales. Convention is followed when the Knight begins the game with a tale, as he represents the highest social class in the group. But when he is followed by the Miller, who represents a lower class, it sets the stage for the Tales to reflect both a respect for and a disregard for upper class rules. Helen Cooper, as well as Mikhail Bakhtin and Derek Brewer, call this opposition "the ordered and the grotesque, Lent and Carnival, officially approved culture and its riotous, and high-spirited underside." Several works of the time contained the same opposition. Relativism versus realism Chaucer's characters each express different—sometimes vastly different—views of reality, creating an atmosphere of testing, empathy, and relativism. As Helen Cooper says, "Different genres give different readings of the world: the fabliau scarcely notices the operations of God, the saint's life focuses on those at the expense of physical reality, tracts and sermons insist on prudential or orthodox morality, romances privilege human emotion." The sheer number of varying persons and stories renders the Tales as a set unable to arrive at any definite truth or reality. Liminality The concept of liminality figures prominently within The Canterbury Tales. A liminal space, which can be both geographical as well as metaphorical or spiritual, is the transitional or transformational space between a “real” (secure, known, limited) world and an unknown or imaginary space of both risk and possibility. The notion of a pilgrimage is itself a liminal experience, because it centres on travel between destinations and because pilgrims undertake it hoping to become more holy in the process. Thus, the structure of The Canterbury Tales itself is liminal; it not only covers the distance between London and Canterbury, but the majority of the tales refer to places entirely outside the geography of the pilgrimage. Jean Jost summarises the function of liminality in The Canterbury Tales, Liminality is also evident in the individual tales. An obvious instance of this is The Friar's Tale in which the yeoman devil is a liminal figure because of his transitory nature and function; it is his purpose to issue souls from their current existence to hell, an entirely different one. The Franklin's Tale is a Breton Lai tale, which takes the tale into a liminal space by invoking not only the interaction of the supernatural and the mortal, but also the relation between the present and the imagined past. Reception While Chaucer clearly states the addressees of many of his poems (the Book of the Duchess is believed to have been written for John of Gaunt on the occasion of his wife's death in 1368), the intended audience of The Canterbury Tales is more difficult to determine. Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was mainly a court poet who wrote exclusively for the nobility. He is referred to as a noble translator and poet by Eustache Deschamps and by his contemporary John Gower. It has been suggested that the poem was intended to be read aloud, which is probable as this was a common activity at the time. However, it also seems to have been intended for private reading, since Chaucer frequently refers to himself as the writer, rather than the speaker, of the work. Determining the intended audience directly from the text is even more difficult, since the audience is part of the story. This makes it difficult to tell when Chaucer is writing to the fictional pilgrim audience or the actual reader. Chaucer's works may have been distributed in some form during his lifetime in part or in whole. Scholars speculate that manuscripts were circulated among his friends, but likely remained unknown to most people until after his death. However, the speed with which copyists strove to write complete versions of his tale in manuscript form shows that Chaucer was a famous and respected poet in his own day. The Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts are examples of the care taken to distribute the work. More manuscript copies of the poem exist than for any other poem of its day except The Prick of Conscience, causing some scholars to give it the medieval equivalent of bestseller status. Even the most elegant of the illustrated manuscripts, however, is not nearly as highly decorated as the work of authors of more respectable works such as John Lydgate's religious and historical literature. 15th century John Lydgate and Thomas Occleve were among the first critics of Chaucer's Tales, praising the poet as the greatest English poet of all time and the first to show what the language was truly capable of poetically. This sentiment was universally agreed upon by later critics into the mid-15th century. Glosses included in The Canterbury Tales manuscripts of the time praised him highly for his skill with "sentence" and rhetoric, the two pillars by which medieval critics judged poetry. The most respected of the tales was at this time the Knight's, as it was full of both. Literary additions and supplements The incompleteness of the Tales led several medieval authors to write additions and supplements to the tales to make them more complete. Some of the oldest existing manuscripts of the tales include new or modified tales, showing that even early on, such additions were being created. These emendations included various expansions of the Cook's Tale, which Chaucer never finished, The Plowman's Tale, The Tale of Gamelyn, the Siege of Thebes, and the Tale of Beryn. The Tale of Beryn, written by an anonymous author in the 15th century, is preceded by a lengthy prologue in which the pilgrims arrive at Canterbury and their activities there are described. While the rest of the pilgrims disperse throughout the town, the Pardoner seeks the affections of Kate the barmaid, but faces problems dealing with the man in her life and the innkeeper Harry Bailey. As the pilgrims turn back home, the Merchant restarts the storytelling with Tale of Beryn. In this tale, a young man named Beryn travels from Rome to Egypt to seek his fortune only to be cheated by other businessmen there. He is then aided by a local man in getting his revenge. The tale comes from the French tale Bérinus and exists in a single early manuscript of the tales, although it was printed along with the tales in a 1721 edition by John Urry. John Lydgate wrote The Siege of Thebes in about 1420. Like the Tale of Beryn, it is preceded by a prologue in which the pilgrims arrive in Canterbury. Lydgate places himself among the pilgrims as one of them and describes how he was a part of Chaucer's trip and heard the stories. He characterises himself as a monk and tells a long story about the history of Thebes before the events of the Knight's Tale. John Lydgate's tale was popular early on and exists in old manuscripts both on its own and as part of the Tales. It was first printed as early as 1561 by John Stow, and several editions for centuries after followed suit. There are actually two versions of The Plowman's Tale, both of which are influenced by the story Piers Plowman, a work written during Chaucer's lifetime. Chaucer describes a Plowman in the General Prologue of his tales, but never gives him his own tale. One tale, written by Thomas Occleve, describes the miracle of the Virgin and the Sleeveless Garment. Another tale features a pelican and a griffin debating church corruption, with the pelican taking a position of protest akin to John Wycliffe's ideas.The Tale of Gamelyn was included in an early manuscript version of the tales, Harley 7334, which is notorious for being one of the lower-quality early manuscripts in terms of editor error and alteration. It is now widely rejected by scholars as an authentic Chaucerian tale, although some scholars think he may have intended to rewrite the story as a tale for the Yeoman. Dates for its authorship vary from 1340 to 1370. Later adaptations and homages Books The most well-known work of the 18th century writer Harriet Lee was called The Canterbury Tales, and consists of twelve stories, related by travellers thrown together by untoward accident. In turn, Lee's version had a profound influence on Lord Byron. Henry Dudeney's 1907 book The Canterbury Puzzles contains a part reputedly lost from what modern readers know as Chaucer's tales. Historical-mystery novelist P.C. Doherty wrote a series of novels based on The Canterbury Tales, making use of both the story frame and Chaucer's characters. Science-fiction writer Dan Simmons wrote his Hugo Award winning 1989 novel Hyperion based on an extra-planetary group of pilgrims. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used The Canterbury Tales as a structure for his 2004 non-fiction book about evolution titled The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. His animal pilgrims are on their way to find the common ancestor, each telling a tale about evolution. Canadian author Angie Abdou translates The Canterbury Tales to a cross section of people, all snow-sports enthusiasts but from different social backgrounds, converging on a remote back-country ski cabin in British Columbia in the 2011 novel The Canterbury Trail. Stage adaptations The Two Noble Kinsmen, by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, a retelling of "The Knight's Tale", was first performed in 1613 or 1614 and published in 1634. In 1961, Erik Chisholm completed his opera, The Canterbury Tales. The opera is in three acts: The Wyf of Bath's Tale, The Pardoner's Tale and The Nun's Priest's Tale. Nevill Coghill's modern English version formed the basis of a musical version that was first staged in 1964. Film and television A Canterbury Tale, a 1944 film, jointly written and directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, is loosely based on the narrative frame of Chaucer's tales. The movie opens with a group of medieval pilgrims journeying through the Kentish countryside as a narrator speaks the opening lines of the General Prologue. The scene then makes a now-famous transition to the time of World War II. From that point on, the film follows a group of strangers, each with their own story and in need of some kind of redemption, who are making their way to Canterbury together. The film's main story takes place in an imaginary town in Kent and ends with the main characters arriving at Canterbury Cathedral, bells pealing and Chaucer's words again resounding. A Canterbury Tale is recognised as one of the Powell-Pressburger team's most poetic and artful films. It was produced as wartime propaganda, using Chaucer's poetry, referring to the famous pilgrimage, and offering photography of Kent to remind the public of what made Britain worth fighting for. In one scene, a local historian lectures an audience of British soldiers about the pilgrims of Chaucer's time and the vibrant history of England. Pier Paolo Pasolini's 1972 film The Canterbury Tales features several of the tales, some of which cohere to the original tale and others which are embellished. "The Cook's Tale", for instance, which is incomplete in the original version, is expanded into a full story, and "The Friar's Tale" extends the scene in which the Summoner is dragged down to hell. The film includes these two tales as well as "The Miller's Tale", "The Summoner's Tale", "The Wife of Bath's Tale", and "The Merchant's Tale". "The Tale of Sir Topas" was also filmed and dubbed; however, it was later removed by Pasolini, and is now considered lost. Alan Plater retold the stories in a series of plays for BBC2 in 1975: Trinity Tales. On 26 April 1986, American radio personality Garrison Keillor opened "The News from Lake Wobegon" portion of the first live TV broadcast of his A Prairie Home Companion radio show with a reading of the original Middle English text of the General Prologue. He commented, "Although those words were written more than 600 years ago, they still describe spring." The 2001 film A Knight's Tale, starring Heath Ledger, takes its title from Chaucer's "The Knight's Tale" and features Chaucer as a character. In 2003, the BBC again featured modern re-tellings of selected tales in their six-episode series Canterbury Tales. Music British Psychedelic rock band Procol Harum's 1967 hit "A Whiter Shade of Pale" is often assumed to be referencing the Canterbury Tales through the line, "as the miller told his tale." However, lyricist Keith Reid has denied this, saying he had never read Chaucer when he wrote the line. The title of Sting's 1993 album Ten Summoner's Tales alludes to "The Summoner's Tale" and to Sting's birth name, Gordon Sumner. See also Notes References Further reading Nicholls, Jonathan. "Review: Chaucer's Narrators by David Lawton," The Modern Language Review,2017. Pugh, Tison. "Gender, Vulgarity, and the Phantom Debates of Chaucer's Merchant's Tale," Studies in Philology, Vol. 114 Issue 3, 473–96, 2017. External links General Texts and translations at Harvard University The Canterbury Tales Project: publishing transcripts, images, collations and analysis of all surviving 15th-century copies Online texts Facsimiles The Hengwrt Manuscript: the oldest manuscript copy MS 1084/2 Canterbury tales at OPenn Ellesmere Chaucer British Library, Harley MS 7334 British Library, Harley MS 1758 Caxton's Chaucer: scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales'' 14th-century books 14th-century poems Adultery in short stories Arthurian literature in Middle English Canterbury Censored books Frame stories Middle English poems Narrative poems Novels set in Kent Unfinished poems

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doc-en-503_0

Hurricane Wilma was the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic basin, and the second-most intense tropical cyclone recorded in the Western Hemisphere, after Hurricane Patricia in 2015. Part of the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, which included three of the ten most intense Atlantic hurricanes ever in terms of barometric pressure (along with #4 Rita and #7 Katrina), Wilma was the twenty-second storm, thirteenth hurricane, sixth major hurricane, fourth Category 5 hurricane, and the second-most destructive hurricane of the 2005 season. A tropical depression formed in the Caribbean Sea near Jamaica on October 15, headed westward, and intensified into a tropical storm two days later, which abruptly turned southward and was named Wilma. Wilma continued to strengthen, and eventually became a hurricane on October 18. Shortly thereafter, explosive intensification occurred, and in only 24 hours, Wilma became a Category 5 hurricane with wind speeds of . Wilma's intensity slowly leveled off after becoming a Category 5 hurricane, and winds had decreased to before it reached the Yucatán Peninsula on October 20 and 21. After crossing the Yucatán, Wilma emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a Category 2 hurricane. As it began accelerating to the northeast, gradual re-intensification occurred, and the hurricane was upgraded to Category 3 status on October 24. Shortly thereafter, Wilma made landfall in Cape Romano, Florida with winds of . As Wilma was crossing Florida, it briefly weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane, but again re-intensified as it reached the Atlantic Ocean. The hurricane intensified into a Category 3 hurricane for the last time, before weakening while accelerating northeastward. By October 26, Wilma transitioned into an extratropical cyclone southeast of Nova Scotia. Wilma made several landfalls, with the most destructive effects felt in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, Cuba, and the U.S. state of Florida. At least 52 deaths were reported and damage totaled to $22.4 billion, most of which occurred in the United States. After Wilma, no other major hurricane made landfall in the contiguous United States until Hurricane Harvey made landfall in southern Texas on August 26, 2017, ending a record period of 11 years 10 months. During this time, major Atlantic hurricanes occurred slightly more frequently than average; they just either did not make landfall at that strength in the United States or just missed the United States entirely. Also, after Wilma, no hurricane struck the state of Florida until Hurricane Hermine did so nearly 11 years later in 2016, and no major hurricane struck Florida until nearly 12 years later when Hurricane Irma made landfall in early September 2017. Meteorological history During mid-October 2005, a large monsoon-like system developed in the Caribbean Sea. A broad low pressure area formed on October 13 to the southeast of Jamaica, which slowly became more defined. On October 15, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) classified the system as Tropical Depression Twenty-Four while located about east-southeast of Grand Cayman. The depression drifted southwestward through a favorable environment, including warm sea surface temperatures. The depression strengthened into a tropical storm on October 17, whereupon the NHC designated it Wilma. Initial intensification was slow, due to Wilma's large size and a flat pressure gradient, although the associated convection gradually organized. On October 18, Wilma intensified into a hurricane, and subsequently underwent explosive deepening over the open waters of the Caribbean Sea. In a 30–hour period through October 19, Wilma's barometric pressure dropped from 982 mbar (29.00 inHg) to 882 mbar (26.05 inHg); this made Wilma the most intense Atlantic hurricane on record, based on pressure. During the same intensification period, the winds increased to a peak intensity of 185 mph (295 km/h), making Wilma a Category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. An eyewall replacement cycle caused Wilma to weaken below Category 5 status on October 20, as it drifted northwestward toward Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. Late on October 21, Wilma made landfall on the island of Cozumel, Quintana Roo, with sustained winds of 150 mph (240 km/h). About six hours later, Wilma made a second landfall on the Mexican mainland near Puerto Morelos. The hurricane weakened over land, but re-intensified once it reached the Gulf of Mexico. Wilma accelerated to the northeast, steered by a powerful trough. After passing northwest of the Florida Keys, the hurricane struck southwestern Florida near Cape Romano on October 24 with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). Wilma rapidly crossed the state and weakened, emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Jupiter, Florida. The hurricane briefly re-intensified while passing north of the Bahamas, absorbing the smaller Tropical Storm Alpha to the east. The hurricane passed west of Bermuda on October 25. After cold air and wind shear penetrated the core of convection, Wilma transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 26 to the south of Nova Scotia; it was absorbed by another extratropical storm a day later over Atlantic Canada. Records At 18:01 UTC on October 19, a Hurricane Hunters dropsonde measured a barometric pressure of in the eye of Wilma, along with sustained winds of 23 mph (46 km/h); the wind value suggested that the central pressure was slightly lower, estimated at . This is the lowest central pressure on record for any Atlantic hurricane, breaking the previous record of set by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Wilma's intensification rate broke all records in the basin, with a 24–hour pressure drop of ; this also broke the record set by Gilbert. At the hurricane's peak intensity, the Hurricane Hunters estimated the eye of Wilma contracted to a record minimum diameter of 2.3 mi (3.7 km). While striking Mexico, it dropped torrential rainfall on the offshore Isla Mujeres. Over 24 hours, a rain gauge recorded of precipitation, which set a record in Mexico for the nation's highest 24–hour rainfall total, as well as the highest 24 hour rainfall total in the western hemisphere. When Tropical Storm Wilma formed on October 17, it became the first named "W" storm in the basin since naming began in 1950. It would be 15 years later for the next Atlantic Hurricane Season, to have another W-named storm Tropical Storm Wilfred in the 2020 Atlantic hurricane season. Preparations The various governments of the nations threatened by Wilma issued many tropical cyclone warnings and watches. At 09:00 UTC on October 16, a hurricane watch and tropical storm warning were posted for the Cayman Islands; these were dropped three days later. A tropical storm warning was issued in Honduras from the border with Nicaragua westward to Cabo Camaron at 15:00 UTC on October 17. In Belize, another tropical storm warning became in effect at 15:00 UTC on October 19 from the border with Mexico to Belize City. On October 21, the tropical storm warning in Honduras was discontinued at 03:00 UTC, while the other in Belize was canceled twelve hours later. The Mexican government issued hurricane warnings from Chetumal near Belize to San Felipe, Yucatán; a tropical storm warning was extended westward to Celestún. Officials declared a state of emergency in 23 municipalities across the Yucatán, and placed Quintana Roo and Yucatán under a red alert, the highest on its color-coded alert system. About 75,000 people evacuated in northeastern Mexico, including about 45,000 people who rode out the storm in 200 emergency shelters, many of them tourists. Schools were canceled in Quintana Roo, Yucatán, and Campeche, up to 15 days in some areas. Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica – the MTV Video Music Awards Latinoamérica – were canceled due to the hurricane, originally scheduled to occur in Playa del Carmen on October 20. The Cuban government issued several watches and warnings in relation to Wilma. By October 22, a hurricane warning was in place for the city of Havana, as well as the provinces of La Habana and Pinar del Río. A tropical storm warning was also issued for Isla de la Juventud, and a hurricane watch was issued for Matanzas Province. The Cuban government mobilized 93,154 workers to help evacuate 760,168 people across western of the island's western provinces. The evacuees generally stayed with family, friends, or in storm shelters. Officials closed all schools nationwide during the passage of Wilma and later Tropical Storm Alpha. During Wilma's passage, 41 hotels closed, of which five remained closed for two weeks after the storm. Many businesses, banks, and government institutions were closed for several days due to the storm. Along the coast, 554 boats were moved to protect them during the storm. Farmers moved 246,631 livestock, more than half of them cattle, to avoid the expected high waters. Passenger travel was halted for all trains nationwide, as well as ferry service between Batabanó and Isla de la Juventud. Poor weather conditions forced three airports to briefly close – José Martí International in Havana, Juan Gualberto Gómez in Varadero and Jardines del Rey in Cayo Coco. The NHC issued tropical cyclone warnings and watches across much of southern Florida, with a hurricane warning ultimately covering all of south Florida from Longboat Key on the west coast to Titusville, including Lake Okeechobee and the Florida Keys. A tropical storm watch extended northward on the west coast to Steinhatchee River. On Florida's east coast, a tropical storm warning stretched northward from Titusville to St. Augustine, with a tropical storm watch extending north to Fernandina Beach. Florida governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency on October 19, allowing the deployment of the Florida National Guard and strategic placement of emergency supplies. A mandatory evacuation of residents was ordered for the Florida Keys in Monroe County and those in Collier County living west or south of US 41. County offices, schools and courts were closed October 24. At least 300 Keys evacuees were housed at the Monroe County shelter at Florida International University in Miami-Dade County. All Collier County public schools closed on October 21 and remained closed on October 24, as the hurricane made landfall. Schools around Fort Myers and Tampa, as well as Sumter, Marion, Osceola, Pasco, and Polk counties, were closed on October 24. In other areas of Central Florida, schools were closed in Flagler, Lake, Orange, and Volusia counties. Schools in Palm Beach and Broward counties were closed for two weeks because of extended power outages and some damage to school buildings. Wilma's passage through Florida disrupted many festival and sporting matches. Key West postponed Fantasy Fest, usually held annually around Halloween, until December, which resulted in a loss of millions of dollars in revenue for hotels, restaurants, and stores. The NFL moved the Kansas City Chiefs vs. Miami Dolphins game at Dolphins Stadium from October 23 to October 21 and the NHL postponed the Florida Panthers vs. Ottawa Senators at the BankAtlantic Center from October 22 to December 5. The NCAA rescheduled three college football games scheduled on October 22. The Georgia Tech vs. Miami match was rescheduled to November 19, the West Virginia vs. South Florida game was moved to December 3, and the Central Florida vs. Tulane game played one day earlier, October 21. The government of The Bahamas issued a hurricane warning for the northwestern Bahamas at 12:00 UTC on October 23, about 24 hours before Wilma made its closest approach to the archipelago. Officials ordered evacuations for the eastern and western portion of Grand Bahama island, with an estimated 300–1,000 people who ultimately evacuated. The hurricane halted production of Disney's Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, forcing the cast and crew to evacuate. The Bermuda Weather Service issued a gale warning for the island early on October 24, due to uncertainty whether Wilma would be tropical or not. After consulting with the NHC, the agency maintained the gale warning rather than changing it to a tropical storm warning to reduce confusion. Impact Caribbean For several days in its formative stages, Wilma's outer rainbands dropped heavy rainfall in Haiti and as far east as the Dominican Republic. The rains triggered river flooding and landslides in Haiti, killing 12 people, and forcing 300 residents into shelters. The storm cut communications between Les Cayes and Tiburon. Less than a week after Wilma formed, Tropical Storm Alpha struck Hispaniola and caused additional deadly floods in Haiti. Damage in the country totaled around $500,000 (2005 USD). Wilma caused one death in Jamaica as a tropical depression on October 16. It pounded the island for three days ending on October 18, flooding several low-lying communities and triggering mudslides that blocked roads and damaged several homes. Almost 250 people were in emergency shelters on the island. Damage on the island totaled $93.5 million (2005 USD). While Wilma was moving northeast in the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane produced high tides and gusty winds across western Cuba. The highest recorded gusts was 84 mph (135 km/h) at Casablanca near Havana. For several days, the storm spread rainfall across 11 of Cuba's 14 provinces, with a peak rainfall of in Pinar del Río province. The Cuban government tabulated the hurricane's economic cost at US$704.2 million, which included the expenses for preparations and lost production from factories. Nationwide, Wilma destroyed 446 houses and damaged another 7,149 to varying degree, mostly roofing damage. Due to high floodwaters, nearly 250 people required rescue from their homes in Havana, using inflatable rafts and amphibious vehicles to reach the most severely flooded areas. The hurricane wrecked worth of agriculture products in Pinar del Río and Havana provinces, which included damaged fruit trees, bee colonies, and tobacco houses. High floodwaters inundated parts of Havana and along Cuba's northwest coast, damaging roads and rail lines. Landslides blocked two bridges and five roads in eastern Cuba. The hurricane also damaged 364 schools and three hospitals. Officials cut electricity in Havana after winds reached 45 mph (70 km/h); after the storm, there were power and water outages in the city, nearby neighborhoods, and in Pinar del Río province. The storm downed 146 power poles and worth of electric lines. Mexico Across the Yucatán peninsula, Hurricane Wilma dropped torrential rainfall, inundated coastlines with a significant storm surge, and produced an extended period of strong winds. The hurricane lashed parts of the Yucatán peninsula with hurricane-force winds gusts for nearly 50 hours. On the Mexican mainland, a station in Cancún recorded 10–minute sustained winds of 160 km/h (100 mph), with gusts to 212 km/h (132 mph) before the anemometer failed; gusts were estimated at . The gust in Cancún was the strongest ever recorded in Mexico. The prolonged period of high waves eroded beaches and damaged coastal reefs. Across Mexico, Wilma killed eight people – seven in Quintana Roo, and one in Yucatán. Throughout Mexico, Wilma's damage was estimated at $4.8 billion (MXN, US$454 million), mostly in Quintana Roo, where it was the state's costliest natural disaster. The hurricane resulted in $13.9 billion (US$1.3 billion) in lost economic output and earnings, 95% of which was related to lost tourism revenue. Wilma damaged 28,980 houses in Mexico, and destroyed or severely damaged 110 hotels in Cancún alone. In the city, about 300,000 people were left homeless. The water level in Cancún reached the third story of some buildings due to waves, in addition to the storm surge. About 300 people who were from Great Britain had to be evacuated when their shelter flooded in Cancún, while the Americans were left there by the United States. The hurricane also caused significant damage in Cozumel and Isla Mujeres. About 300,000 people lost power in Mexico. The storm also damaged 473 schools. Flooding damaged houses in low-lying areas of eastern Yucatán state. The primary highway connecting Cancún and Mérida, Yucatán was impassible after the storm due to floods. Across Mexico, Wilma damaged worth of crops, majority of which was in Yucatán state. Across the Yucatán peninsula, the hurricane downed about of trees. United States Florida In Florida, Wilma's swift movement across the state resulted in mostly light precipitation totals of , while some areas recorded only of rainfall or less. However, precipitation in Florida peaked at at the Kennedy Space Center. The highest observed sustained wind speed at surface-height was a 15-minute average of 92 mph (148 km/h) at a South Florida Water Management District observation site located in Lake Okeechobee, corresponding to a 1-minute average of 104 mph (167 km/h). Storm surge heights in the Florida Keys generally ranged from and peaked at nearly in Marathon. Collier County measured the highest storm surge on the mainland, reaching . Wilma also spawned 12 tornadoes in Florida. Wind damage accounted for much of the storm's overall damage. The very large eye of Wilma moved across all of or portions of six counties – Broward, Collier, Hendry, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach. This resulted in widespread hurricane-force sustained winds and gusts, with Category 2 conditions likely occurring in southeastern Florida from Palm Beach County to northern Miami-Dade County. Strong winds left widespread power outages; Florida Power & Light reported more than 3,241,000 customers had lost power. At the time, this represented the largest power failure in the history of Florida. The outages affected approximately 2.5 million subscribers in the Miami metropolitan area – roughly 98% of electrical customers in that area. Florida's agricultural industry reported around $1.3 billion in damage. Nurseries and sugarcane crops were particularly hard hit – the former suffered damage totaling nearly $554 million and the latter experienced damages around $400 million. Overall, Wilma left about $19 billion in damage and 30 deaths in Florida, 5 from direct causes. In Monroe County, storm surge from Wilma impacted the Florida Keys twice, with the second event causing the worst coastal flooding in the island chain since Hurricane Betsy in 1965. At Dry Tortugas National Park, storm surge and winds damaged boats, destroyed docking facilities, and flooded the park office and livings quarters, but Fort Jefferson saw no major damage. Water submerged roughly 60% of Key West and left approximately 690 apartment units, homes, and mobile homes uninhabitable. Wilma damaged more than 4,100 single-family residences, 20 of which sustained major damage, and 6 experienced complete destruction. The hurricane also damaged roughly 2,500 mobile homes, with 257 suffering substantial impact and 15 being destroyed. About 90 apartment and condominium units received some degree of impact. As many as 20,000 cars suffered damage, prompting the Key West Citizen to refer to the lower Florida Keys as a "car graveyard." The storm ran hundreds of vessels aground, including 223 boats between Key West and Islamorada. Damage in Monroe County reached at least $200 million, with approximately half the total occurring in Key West, though the figure did not include incorporated areas. Storm surge in Collier County mostly impacted Chokoloskee, Everglades City, and Plantation Island. Surge destroyed around 200 recreational vehicles in Chokoloskee and covered Everglades City with about of water, flooding structures including the Old Collier County Courthouse. The hurricane also caused major impact in Naples, especially to 90 high-rise condos. Buildings in the city suffered $150 million in damage. Additionally, high winds severely damaged 100 hangars at Naples Airport. Wilma damaged 16,000 businesses and homes to some degree in Collier County, with 394 buildings suffering damage to at least 50 percent of their structure. The hurricane destroyed 2 dwellings, 8 workplaces, and 615 mobile homes, about one-third in Immokalee. In total, the county reported $1.2 billion in damage, along with a death toll of 7. Hurricane-force wind gusts extended northward into Lee County. Bonita Springs experienced the worst impact in Lee County, with 972 homes reporting minor to major damage. In Cape Coral, Wilma impacted 511 residences; 490 dwellings suffered minor damage, 20 others experienced extensive damage, and 1 mobile home was destroyed. The storm also inflicted moderate to major damage to 78 businesses and demolished 1 other workplace. Insured and uninsured damage in the county totaled $101 million and one fatality occurred. Wilma inflicted a multi-billion dollar disaster in the Miami metropolitan area, including $2.9 billion in damage in Palm Beach County, $2 billion in Miami-Dade County, and $1.2 billion in Broward County. Numerous homes and businesses experienced some degree of impact, with over 55,000 dwellings and 3,600 workplaces damaged in Palm Beach County alone. Furthermore, officials declared 5,111 residences in Broward County and at least 2,059 others in Miami-Dade County as uninhabitable. An aerial survey in Broward County indicated that 70% of homes and businesses in Coconut Creek, Davie, Margate, North Lauderdale, Plantation, and Sunrise experienced some degree of impact. High winds also damaged skyscrapers and high-rises, including the Colonial Bank Building, the JW Marriott Miami, Espirito Santo Plaza, and the Four Seasons Hotel Miami in Greater Downtown Miami, as well as the One Financial Plaza, AutoNation Tower, Broward Financial Center, the Broward County Administration Building, the 14-floor Broward County School Board building, and the Broward County Courthouse in Fort Lauderdale. In Hendry County, high winds damaged around 90 percent of buildings and homes in Clewiston and other eastern sections of the county. The county suffered a loss of about half of orange and sugar crops. Overall, Wilma substantially damaged 250 homes and destroyed 550 other homes in Hendry County. Damage totaled at least $567 million, with $300 million to agriculture and $267 million in structures. Hurricane-force wind gusts in Glades County left approximately 3,000 people without electricity. Wilma destroyed more than 60 homes. Seventeen school district buildings suffered roof damage. Approximately 800 residences sustained damage in Okeechobee County, with 114 receiving major damage and 29 others being destroyed. In Martin County, which recorded a wind gust as high as in Hobe Sound, the storm extensively damaged 120 dwellings and destroyed 48 others. The county tallied $95.7 million in damage. Neighboring St. Lucie County reported damage totaling $43.4 million. Rainfall totals ranging from in parts of Brevard County left freshwater flooding; about 200 homes in Cocoa suffered water damage. Six tornadoes in the county also damaged or destroyed some apartments, cars, fences, power lines, restaurants, and trees. In the Florida Panhandle, abnormal high tides generated by Wilma washed the Cape St. George Lighthouse into the Gulf of Mexico. Damage elsewhere in the state was generally minor. Other states Rainfall from Hurricane Wilma extended up the east coast of the United States from Florida to Virginia. Precipitation reached along the Outer Banks of North Carolina. As Wilma was moving out to sea, a nor'easter developed near Cape Hatteras; the two systems produced high waves, coastal flooding, and beach erosion from Delaware to Maine, resulting in some road closures. The nor'easter drew moisture and energy from Wilma to produce heavy rainfall, snowfall in higher elevations, and gusty winds, with a peak wind gust of recorded at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Milton. The high winds resulting in downed trees and scattered power outages, with traffic blocked on parts of Interstate 95 in Rhode Island and the Green Line train in Newton, Massachusetts. Snowfall reached in Vermont. In Maine, the snowfall left about 25,000 people without power. Bahamas and Bermuda After exiting Florida, Wilma passed just north of the northwestern Bahamas. A buoy just off West End on Grand Bahama recorded sustained winds of 95 mph (152 km/h), along with gusts of 114 mph (183 km/h). The hurricane also produced high waves and a storm surge, which washed about in some areas. The sudden rush of water destroyed about 250 homes and damaged another 400, mostly on the western portion of Grand Bahama. At one home in Eight Mile Rock, the waters swept away and killed a 15-month-old infant. The flooding unearthed 54 bodies from five cemeteries. Central and eastern Grand Bahama received little to no damage from the hurricane. The undersecretary to the prime minister, Carnard Bethell, estimated monetary damage at "just maybe under $100 million". However, the country estimated a damage total of about US$6.5 million in their report to the WMO. Damage in the Bahamas mostly consisted of torn roofs and uprooted trees. On Bermuda, Hurricane Wilma produced wind gusts of 51 mph (81 km/h). The strongest winds on the island were short-lived due to the hurricane's fast forward motion at the time. The hurricane disrupted the flight path of migratory birds, resulting in an unusual increase in frigatebird sightings around the island. Aftermath Due to the hurricanes' widespread damage, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name "Wilma" in April 2006, at the 28th session of the regional hurricane committee. The name was replaced with "Whitney" on the naming list for the 2011 season. Mexico In Mexico, residents and tourists staying in shelters faced food shortages in Wilma's immediate aftermath. There were 10 community kitchens set up across Cancún, each capable of feeding 1,500 people every day. Local and federal troops quelled looting and rioting in Cancún. While Cancún's airport was closed to the public, stranded visitors filled taxis and buses to Mérida, Yucatán. Located 320 km (200 mi) from Cancún, Mérida was the region's closest functioning airport. Most hotels in Cozumel, Isla Mujeres, and the Riviera Maya were largely reopened by early January 2006. The resorts in Cancún took longer to reopen, but most were operational by Wilma's one-year anniversary. On November 28, Mexico declared a disaster area for 9 of Quintana Roo's 11 municipalities – Benito Juárez, Cozumel, Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Isla Mujeres, Lázaro Cárdenas, Othon P. Blanco, and Solidaridad. Mexico's development bank – Nacional Financiera – provided financial assistance for businesses affected by Wilma and Stan through a $400 million fund (MXN, US$38 million). Quintana Roo's state government began a temporary work program for residents whose jobs were impacted by the hurricane. The Mexican Red Cross provided food, water, and health care to residents affected by the hurricane. The agency also distributed emergency supplies, such as mosquito nets, plastic sheeting, and hygiene supplies. Cuba Within a few days of Wilma's passage by Cuba, workers restored power and water access to impacted residents. The Revolutionary Armed Forces cleared and repaired roads around Havana that were flooded. The capital city was reopened and largely returned to normal within six days of the storm. On October 25, the government of the United States offered emergency assistance to Cuba, which the Cuban government accepted a day later. This acceptance of aid broke from previous practice; many times in the past, including during Hurricane Dennis, the United States offered aid, but the Cuban government declined. The United States provided US$100,000 to non-governmental organizations in the country. United States On October 24, 2005, the same day Wilma made landfall in Florida, President George W. Bush approved a disaster declaration for Brevard, Broward, Collier, Glades, Hendry, Indian River, Lee, Martin, Miami-Dade, Monroe, Okeechobee, Palm Beach, and St. Lucie counties. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) expended $342.5 million to the 227,321 approved applicants. The agency paid out $150.8 million for housing and $191.5 million for other significant disaster-related needs, including loss of personal property, moving and storage, and medical or funeral expenses relating to the hurricane. Additionally, public assistance from FEMA totaled over $1.4 billion and grants for hazard mitigation projects exceeded $141.5 million. Florida governor Jeb Bush activated an emergency bridge loan program in early November 2005, allowing small businesses damaged by Wilma to apply for interest-free loans up to $25,000. The Florida legislature took several actions in the 2006 session in relation to Wilma. These included allocating $66.7 million to improving shelters, mandating that high-rise buildings have at least one elevator capable of operating by generator, and requiring gas stations and convenience stores to possess a back-up electrical supply in the event that they have fuel but no power. Florida's sugar industry was greatly affected; the cropping had already started and had to be halted indefinitely. Damage to sugarcane crops was critical and widespread. Citrus canker spread rapidly throughout southern Florida following Hurricane Wilma, creating further hardships on an already stressed citrus economy due to damage from Wilma and previous years' hurricanes. Citrus production estimates fell to a low of 158 million boxes for the 2005–2006 production seasons from a high of 240 million for 2003–2004. Forecasts projected a decrease of 28 million boxes of oranges, the smallest crop since the 1989-1990 growing season, caused by a severe freeze. By late-September 2010, roughly $9.2 billion had been paid for more than 1 million insurance claims that had been filed throughout Florida in relation to Hurricane Wilma. After Wilma, the United States would not be struck by another major hurricane until Hurricane Harvey made landfall in southern Texas on August 26, 2017, ending a record period of 11 years and 10 months, a total of 4,323 days. During this time, major hurricanes occurred in the Atlantic slightly more frequently than average; they just did not make landfall in the United States. Additionally, Florida would not be struck by another hurricane for a record 11 years until Hurricane Hermine in September 2016. A total of 68 consecutive hurricanes either missed the state or weakened below hurricane intensity before making landfall in Florida. Furthermore, the state would not experience another major hurricane landfall until Hurricane Irma in September 2017. See also Tropical cyclones in 2005 List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes List of Cuba hurricanes List of Florida hurricanes (2000–present) Timeline of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Allen (1980) – Another record-breaking Category 5 storm that moved through the Caribbean Sea Hurricane Gilbert (1988) – A Category 5 storm that previously held the record for the most intense Atlantic storm on record Hurricane Mitch (1998) – An extremely deadly Category 5 storm that affected similar areas Hurricane Delta (2020) – A Category 4 storm that rapidly intensified in the same area and struck the Yucatán Peninsula Hurricane Eta (2020) – A Category 4 hurricane that also rapidly intensified in the same area and devastated Central America Notes References External links on Hurricane Wilma. The NHC's archive on Hurricane Wilma. Storm chaser George Kourounis documents the eye of Hurricane Wilma U.S. Rainfall for Hurricane Wilma from HPC Wilma pictures, satellites images The Disaster Center's Coverage of Hurricane Wilma 2005 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Wilma Hurricane Wilma Hurricane Wilma Articles containing video clips Atlantic hurricanes in Mexico Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes Hurricanes in Belize Hurricanes in Canada Hurricanes in Cuba Hurricanes in Honduras Hurricanes in Jamaica Hurricanes in Florida Hurricanes in the Bahamas Hurricanes in the Cayman Islands Retired Atlantic hurricanes October 2005 events in North America Wilma

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Kevin Owen McCarthy (born January 26, 1965) is an American politician, serving as House Minority Leader in the United States House of Representatives since 2019. A member of the Republican Party, he served as House Majority Leader under speakers John Boehner and Paul Ryan from 2014 to 2019. He was the U.S. representative for California's 22nd congressional district from 2007 to 2013 and has served in the 23rd district since 2013 after redistricting. McCarthy formerly chaired the California Young Republicans and the Young Republican National Federation. He was a representative in the California State Assembly from 2002 to 2006, the last two years as minority leader. He was elected to Congress in 2006. McCarthy was elected to House leadership in his second term as Republican Chief Deputy Whip from 2009 to 2011. When Republicans took control of the House in 2011, he became majority whip from 2011 until August 2014, when he was elected majority leader to replace the outgoing Eric Cantor, who was defeated in his primary election. After Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 midterm elections, and Speaker Paul Ryan retired, McCarthy was elected minority leader in January 2019, making him the first California Republican to hold the post. As majority leader he was second-in-command to the Speaker; as minority leader, he is the leader of the House Republicans. McCarthy was a steady defender of President Donald Trump for the majority of his time as majority leader and minority leader. After Joe Biden won the 2020 presidential election, McCarthy supported Trump's position by falsely denying Biden's victory and participating in efforts to overturn the results. Early life and education McCarthy was born on January 26, 1965, in Bakersfield, California, the son of Roberta Darlene (née Palladino), a homemaker, and Owen McCarthy, an assistant city fire chief. McCarthy is a fourth-generation resident of Kern County. His maternal grandfather was an Italian immigrant, and his paternal grandfather was Irish. McCarthy is the first Republican in his immediate family, as his parents were members of the Democratic Party. He attended California State University, Bakersfield, where he obtained a Bachelor of Science in marketing in 1989 and a Master of Business Administration in 1994. Early political career McCarthy served on the staff of Congressman Bill Thomas from 1987 to 2002. In 1995, he chaired the California Young Republicans. From 1999 to 2001, he chaired the Young Republican National Federation. From the late 1990s until 2000, he was Thomas's district director. McCarthy won his first election in 2000, as a Kern Community College District trustee. McCarthy was elected to the California State Assembly in 2002. He became the Republican floor leader in 2003. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 2006. U.S. House of Representatives Elections 2006 McCarthy entered the Republican primary for California's 22nd District after his former boss, Bill Thomas, retired. He won the three-way Republican primary—the real contest in this heavily Republican district—with 85% of the vote. He won the general election with 70.7% of the vote. 2008 McCarthy was unopposed for a second term. 2010 No party put up a challenger, and McCarthy won a third term with 98.8% of the vote, with opposition coming only from a write-in candidate. 2012 Redistricting before the 2012 election resulted in McCarthy's district being renumbered as the 23rd. It became somewhat more compact, losing its share of the Central Coast while picking up large parts of Tulare County. This district was as heavily Republican as its predecessor, and McCarthy won a fourth term with 73.2% of the vote vs. 26.8% for independent, No Party Preference (NPP) opponent, Terry Phillips. The district is based in Bakersfield and includes large sections of Kern and Tulare Counties, as well as part of the Quartz Hill community in northwest Los Angeles County. 2014 In his bid for a fifth term, McCarthy faced a Democratic challenger for the first time since his initial run for the seat, Raul Garcia. McCarthy was reelected with 74.8% of the vote. 2016 McCarthy was reelected to a sixth term in 2016 with 69.2% of the vote in the general election; the Democratic nominee, Wendy Reed, received 30.8%. 2018 McCarthy was reelected to a seventh term with 64.3% of the vote to Democratic challenger Tatiana Matta's 35.7%. After Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 elections, McCarthy was elected House Minority Leader, fending off a challenge to his right from Jim Jordan of Ohio, 159–43. 2020 McCarthy was reelected to an eighth term with 62.1% of the vote, to Democratic challenger and United States Air Force veteran Kim Mangone's 37.9%. Tenure Committee assignments Committee on Financial Services Subcommittee on Capital Markets, Insurance, and Government-Sponsored Enterprises Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit Caucus memberships Congressional Western Caucus Party leadership House Republican steering committee House Republican chief deputy whip, 2009–2011 House majority whip, 2011–2014 House majority leader, 2014–2018 House Minority Leader, 2019–present Early leadership posts As a freshman congressman, McCarthy was appointed to the Republican Steering committee. Republican leader John Boehner appointed him chair of the Republican platform committee during the committee's meetings in Minneapolis in August 2008, which produced the Republican Party Platform for 2008. He was also one of the three founding members of the GOP Young Guns Program. After the 2008 elections, he was chosen as chief deputy minority whip, the highest-ranking appointed position in the House Republican Conference. His predecessor, Eric Cantor, was named minority whip. House majority whip On November 17, 2010, the House Republican Conference selected McCarthy to be the House majority whip in the 112th Congress. In this post, he was the third-ranking House Republican, behind Speaker John Boehner and majority leader Eric Cantor. In August 2011, McCarthy and Cantor led a group of 30 Republican members of Congress to Israel, where some members took part in a late-night swim in the Sea of Galilee, including one member—Kevin Yoder—who swam nude. When McCarthy and Cantor later found out about the swim, they were "furious" and worried about negative news coverage, and "called a members-only meeting the next morning to reprimand the group—both those who swam and those who abstained". In 2012, McCarthy's office reported spending $99,000 on pastries, bottled water, and other food items, making him the highest-spending member of the House in this category. House majority leader Cantor lost the June 2014 primary for his seat in Congress, and announced he would step down from House leadership at the end of July. McCarthy sought to succeed Cantor, and after some speculation that Pete Sessions and Jeb Hensarling would challenge him, both dropped out, leaving McCarthy a clear path to become majority leader. On June 13, representative Raul Labrador announced he would also seek the leadership position. On June 19, the Republican Conference elected McCarthy majority leader. According to the University of Minnesota's Humphrey School of Public Affairs, McCarthy is the least-tenured majority leader in the history of the House of Representatives. When he assumed the position in July 2014, he had served only seven years, six months and 29 days, the least experience of any floor leader in the House's history by more than a year. McCarthy kept four of his predecessor's staff members on his staff when he took over as majority leader, including deputy chief of staff Neil Bradley, who now has served in that role for three majority leaders. McCarthy has been under fire for avoiding meetings and town-hall events with constituents in his congressional district for years. His last town hall was in June 2010. He has opted for screened telephone calls since. In December 2017, McCarthy voted for the House Republican tax legislation. After the vote, he asked his constituents to "Come February, check your check, because that will be the pay raise of the vote for Donald Trump." Unsuccessful 2015 candidacy for speaker of the House On September 25, 2015, John Boehner decided to resign as Speaker effective October 30, 2015. Many media outlets speculated that McCarthy would likely replace him, and Boehner himself said that McCarthy "would make an excellent speaker". On September 28, McCarthy formally announced his candidacy. Having held congressional office for less than nine years, McCarthy would have been the Speaker with the least time in Congress since 1891. In a September 29, 2015, interview with Fox News's Sean Hannity, McCarthy was asked what Republicans had accomplished in Congress. He replied by talking about the House of Representatives' special panel investigation into the 2012 Benghazi attack (in which Islamic militants attacked the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, Libya). Republicans said the purpose of the government-funded committee was purely to investigate the deaths of four Americans. But McCarthy said, "Everybody thought Hillary Clinton was unbeatable, right? But we put together a Benghazi special committee, a select committee. What are her numbers today? Her numbers are dropping. Why? Because she's untrustable. But no one would have known any of that had happened had we not fought." The comment was seen as an admission that the investigation was a partisan political undertaking rather than a substantive inquiry. Some commentators described his remark as a classic "Kinsley gaffe" (defined as when a politician accidentally tells the truth). The remark was also described as "saying the quiet part loud". Several days later, McCarthy apologized for the remarks and said the Benghazi panel was not a political initiative. On October 8, 2015, as Republicans were preparing to vote, McCarthy unexpectedly dropped out of the race, saying that Republicans needed a fresh face who could unite the caucus and "I am not that guy." He reportedly dropped out after concluding that he did not have the 218 votes that would be required to be elected Speaker. McCarthy remained majority leader. The Benghazi gaffe contributed to his decision to withdraw from the race, as McCarthy acknowledged in announcing his withdrawal. Previously, Representative Walter B. Jones Jr. had sent a letter to the Republican Conference Chairwoman Cathy McMorris Rodgers stating that any candidates for a leadership position with "misdeeds" should withdraw from the race. Jones has said that his comment did not specifically refer to McCarthy. House Republican Leader After the Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 elections, McCarthy was elected Minority Leader, fending off a challenge to his right from Jim Jordan of Ohio, 159–43. As Minority Leader he is in charge of the House Republicans. McCarthy has been a strong supporter of Donald Trump since 2016. As minority leader, he remained a close Trump ally, keeping the Republican caucus unified in support of Trump and against his impeachment on two articles of impeachment arising from the Trump-Ukraine scandal. McCarthy associated with key figures in Trump's effort to enlist the Ukrainian government in discrediting Joe Biden, Trump's political opponent; such figures included Lev Parnas, Rudolph W. Giuliani, and Robert F. Hyde. Like Trump, McCarthy supported Marjorie Taylor Greene, a Republican candidate in 2020 for a U.S. House seat from northwest Georgia; Greene's past racist, anti-Semitic comments and her promotion of QAnon (a far-right conspiracy theory) led other Republicans to distance themselves from her. McCarthy did not take steps to thwart Greene's candidacy and did not endorse her opponent in the Republican primary runoff election. After Greene was nominated, McCarthy denounced the fringe conspiracy—saying "There is no place for QAnon in the Republican Party"—and said that Greene had distanced herself from her earlier statements. In 2020, McCarthy was asked about Trump's false claims that Joe Scarborough (an MSNBC host and former Republican congressman) was linked to the death of a staff member; while a few House Republicans criticized Trump for his use of inflammatory and false rhetoric, McCarthy declined to take a position. In May 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, McCarthy and House Republicans filed a lawsuit to stop the House of Representatives from allowing remote proxy voting by representatives, a measure that had been introduced under Speaker Nancy Pelosi to prevent the virus's spread in the Capitol. McCarthy and the other plaintiffs claimed that a quorum of members had to be physically present in the chamber to conduct business; Pelosi defended the rule as a critical public health measure and pointed to the Constitution authorizing each chamber of Congress to establish its own procedural rules. In August 2020, a federal judge dismissed McCarthy's lawsuit against Pelosi, ruling that the House has "absolute immunity from civil suit" under the Constitution's Speech or Debate Clause. In November 2020, in the aftermath of the 2020 presidential election, McCarthy falsely insisted on Laura Ingraham's television show that "President Trump won this election"—echoing Trump's own claim—even as vote-counting was ongoing in several states. McCarthy insinuated that large-scale voter fraud would lead Trump to lose, saying "Everyone who is listening: Do not be quiet. Do not be silent about this. We cannot allow this to happen before our very eyes." In December 2020, McCarthy was one of 126 Republican members of the House of Representatives to sign an amicus brief in support of Texas v. Pennsylvania, a lawsuit filed at the United States Supreme Court contesting the results of the 2020 presidential election. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case, on the basis that Texas lacked standing under Article III of the Constitution to challenge the results of an election held by another state. In March 2021, McCarthy denied he had supported Trump's false claims of election fraud, even though he had supported Texas v. Pennsylvania. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi issued a statement that called signing the amicus brief an act of "election subversion". On January 6, 2021, hours after the attack on the Capitol, McCarthy voted against certifying Biden's win in two states. Cook Political Report House editor Dave Wasserman later reported that McCarthy had told him on several occasions before this vote that he knew Biden had won. He later denied that this was a vote to overturn the election, because Biden would still have won without those two states. McCarthy finally recognized Biden as president-elect on January 8, more than two months after the election. A week after the attack, McCarthy delivered a speech in which he held Trump partially responsible for the riots. He emphasized that Trump failed to intervene after the initial TV footage, showing the demonstration evolving in a violent assault. He later said that he did not believe Trump had provoked the mob. On January 28, McCarthy paid Trump a visit at his Mar-a-Lago residence. Officially the topic was said to be "regaining the lost votes in the midterm elections of 2022", but it was widely reported as an attempt to mend fences with Trump and lessen tensions in the Republican Party. During the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, Congresswoman Jaime Herrera Beutler said that Trump said to McCarthy during the ongoing attack on the Capitol by rioters: "Well, Kevin, I guess these people are more upset about the election than you are." She wasn't called as a witness but her statement was included in the impeachment documents. In April 2021, before closing arguments in the Derek Chauvin trial, Maxine Waters said, "I hope we're going to get a verdict that will say guilty, guilty, guilty. And if we don't, we cannot go away" and need to get "more confrontational". After her comments, McCarthy said, "Waters is inciting violence in Minneapolis just as she has incited it in the past. If Speaker Pelosi doesn't act against this dangerous rhetoric, I will bring action this week." Because of her stance on the Capitol riot, her vote to impeach Trump and vocal opposition to his false stolen election narrative, in early 2021 pro-Trump Freedom Caucus House members attempted to remove Liz Cheney as chair of the House Republican Conference, the third-ranking position in the Republican House leadership. The initial effort failed, but growing numbers of House Republicans supported her removal; McCarthy agreed to a party vote in May, resulting in Cheney's ouster. Hours after the vote, McCarthy said, "I don't think anybody is questioning the legitimacy of the presidential election", but a CNN poll released days earlier found that 70% of Republicans did believe the false stolen election narrative. In October 2021, McCarthy pressured Republican political consultants not to work with Cheney or else lose business with other Republicans. On May 18, 2021, McCarthy announced that he opposed to the bipartisan agreement in the House to form an independent commission to investigate the Capitol attack. McCarthy had asked Representative John Katko, a member of his whip team, to negotiate with Democrats on the caucus's behalf about the commission. McCarthy specified to Katko what he and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell wanted, and got almost everything he asked for. McCarthy also said that the scope of any investigation should include other events of political violence, which was possible with the terms negotiated. McCarthy sided with other Republicans who sought to downplay the matter and move on. In June 2021, after Pelosi announced the creation of a select committee to investigate the Capitol attack that would include five Republican members, McCarthy threatened to remove Republicans from committee assignments if they participated. In July 2021, the delta variant of the coronavirus prompted the Attending Physician of the United States Congress to reimpose a mask requirement in the House chamber. McCarthy called this "a decision conjured up by liberal government officials who want to continue to live in a perpetual pandemic state", prompting Pelosi to respond to reporters, "he's such a moron." On July 31, 2021, members of Tennessee's Republican congressional delegation gave McCarthy a large gavel with the words "Fire Pelosi" inscribed on it. McCarthy told them, "it will be hard not to hit her with it, but I will bang it down." In August 2021, after the House committee investigating the attack on the Capitol asked telecommunications and social media companies to retain certain records, McCarthy declared that if the companies "turn over private information" to the House committee then they would be "in violation of federal law and subject to losing their ability to operate in the United States" and a future Republican legislative majority would hold them "fully accountable". McCarthy did not specify which law the companies would break in this situation. As of October 2021, McCarthy had voted in line with President Joe Biden's stated position 15% of the time. On November 18, 2021, and into the early morning of November 19, McCarthy gave a record-breaking 8.5-hour speech on the House floor using the "magic minute", forcing a delay in the final vote on the Build Back Better Act. In the speech, McCarthy made numerous false claims. He also devoted part of the speech to blaming President Biden for having failed to end the COVID-19 pandemic. The New York Times called McCarthy's claim "audacious" given that the Republican Party had spent months flouting mask mandates, opposing vaccine requirements, and undermining vaccination drives. Political positions Abortion In 2003, while minority leader in the state assembly, McCarthy "support[ed] most abortion rights, but oppose[d] spending tax dollars on abortions". But by 2015, McCarthy was, according to The Washington Post, "a staunch anti-abortion-rights advocate". McCarthy supports the Hyde Amendment (a provision, annually renewed by Congress since 1976, that bans federal funds for abortion), and in 2011 co-sponsored a bill, the "No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act", to make the Hyde Amendment permanent. This bill was especially controversial because it provided an exemption for funding terminations of pregnancies caused by only "forcible rape", which prompted abortion-rights activists to call the bill a redefinition of rape. McCarthy opposes a California state law that requires health insurance plans "to treat abortion coverage and maternity coverage neutrally and provide both" on the grounds that the law violates the Weldon Amendment and other federal laws. McCarthy has voted to strip about $500 million in federal funding for Planned Parenthood. COVID-19 On September 17, 2020, McCarthy voted against House Resolution 908 to condemn racism against Asian-Americans related to the COVID-19 pandemic. He said the resolution was "a waste of time", and "At the heart of this resolution is the absurd notion that referring to the virus as a Wuhan virus or the China virus is the same as contributing to violence against Asian Americans." Donald Trump McCarthy was an early supporter of Trump in the 2016 Republican presidential primaries, saying that Trump's "intensity" could help the Republicans win House seats. McCarthy also suggested in a private recording with GOP House leadership in 2016 that Putin pays Trump, which McCarthy said was a joke gone wrong. After the 2018 midterm elections, in which Democrats won a majority in the House, McCarthy said that Democrats should not investigate Trump. He described investigations of Trump as a "small agenda" and that "America's too great of a nation to have such a small agenda." He said that Trump had already been investigated "for a long period of time". McCarthy and other House Republicans investigated Hillary Clinton for years over the 2012 Benghazi attack. In 2015, McCarthy said that the investigation, which found no evidence of wrongdoing on Clinton's part, had hurt poll numbers. In 2019, McCarthy defended government officials spending money at resorts Trump owned. He said there was no difference between government officials spending money at hotels Trump owned and other hotels. In October 2019, McCarthy said "there's nothing that the president did wrong" in regard to Trump requesting that the Ukrainian president start an investigation into 2020 Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden. McCarthy added: "The president wasn't investigating a campaign rival. The president was trying to get to the bottom, just as every American would want to know, why did we have this Russia hoax that actually started within Ukraine." That same month, when Trump said "China should start an investigation into the Bidens", McCarthy shortly thereafter went on Fox & Friends to say, "You watch what the president said—he's not saying China should investigate." Capitol riot and reaction In 2021, of the attack on the United States Capitol on January 6, McCarthy said that "as a nation", "we all have some responsibility" for the event. McCarthy had been among those Republicans who in the weeks before the attack on the Capitol had spread false claims about the validity of the presidential election. On January 13, McCarthy said that Trump "bears responsibility for Wednesday's attack on Congress by mob rioters. He should have immediately denounced the mob when he saw what was unfolding". But McCarthy did not vote to impeach Trump for a second time, instead calling for a censure resolution against Trump for his role in the attack. On January 21, McCarthy said he did not think that Trump "provoked" the attack. Two days later, McCarthy said that Trump "had some responsibility when it came to the response", and then stressed his original position that all Americans have "some responsibility". Republicans have criticized McCarthy for inconsistent statements about Trump after the attack. Despite the condemnation, McCarthy visited Trump at his Mar-a-Lago resort to discuss the future of the Republican Party. McCarthy released a statement that read in part, "Today, President Trump committed to helping elect Republicans in the House and Senate in 2022". It was reported on February 12, that McCarthy called Trump asking for help during the insurrection. Trump refused to send the National Guard, saying, "Well, Kevin, I guess these people are more upset about the election than you are". McCarthy responded, "Who the fuck do you think you are talking to?" This was reported to CNN by multiple Republican members of Congress, including Jaime Herrera Beutler and Anthony Gonzalez. On May 19, 2021, McCarthy and all the other Republican House leaders in the 117th Congress voted against establishing the January 6 commission. Thirty-five Republican House members and all 217 Democrats present voted to establish such a commission. Environment McCarthy has been frequently at odds with environmental groups; the League of Conservation Voters has given him a lifetime score of 3%, as of 2015. McCarthy does not accept the scientific consensus on climate change, as of 2014. He was a major opponent of President Barack Obama's Clean Power Plan to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas from coal-fired power plants. He has opposed regulations on methane leaks from fossil-fuel drilling facilities, calling them "bureaucratic and unnecessary." In 2015, McCarthy opposed the U.S.'s involvement in global efforts to combat climate change; as the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference began, he announced that he would oppose an international agreement on climate change. In 2017, McCarthy led House Republican efforts to use the Congressional Review Act to undo a number of environmental regulations enacted during the Obama administration. McCarthy once supported the federal wind-energy production tax credit, but opposed its extension in 2014. In 2011, McCarthy was the primary author of the "Wilderness and Roadless Area Release Act" (H.R. 1581), legislation that would remove protected status designation from 60 million acres of public lands. Under the bill, protections for roadless and wilderness study areas would be eliminated, and vast swaths of land opened to new industrial development (such as logging, mineral extraction, and fossil fuel extraction). Conservationist groups and former Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt strongly criticized the bill. More recently, as House minority leader, McCarthy proposed several environmental bills designed to address climate change that have been called "narrow" and "modest". They include provisions to extend a tax credit for carbon capture technologies and to plant trees. Responses from Republican representatives were mixed. Conservative groups including the Club for Growth, the Competitive Enterprise Institute, and the American Energy Alliance opposed the measures, while others, such as ClearPath, supported them. McCarthy believes that younger voters are worried about climate change and cautioned that Republicans are risking their viability in elections over the long term by ignoring or denying the issue. He has said, "We've got to actually do something different than we've done to date [concerning climate change]. For a 28-year-old, the environment is the No. 1 and No. 2 issue." Finance In 2014, McCarthy opposed the renewal of the charter of the Export-Import Bank of the United States, as he expects the private sector to take over the role. Foreign policy McCarthy received campaign donations from Saudi Arabia's lobbyists. He is the number one recipient of campaign contributions from Saudi lobbying firms in Congress. On June 15, 2016, McCarthy told a group of Republicans, "There's two people I think Putin pays: Rohrabacher and Trump. Swear to God." Paul Ryan reminded colleagues the meeting was off the record, saying, "No leaks. This is how we know we're a real family here." When asked about the comment, McCarthy's spokesman said, "the idea that McCarthy would assert this is absurd and false." After a tape of the comment was made public in May 2017, McCarthy claimed it was "a bad attempt at a joke". In 2019, McCarthy had threatened to take "action" against two new Muslim congresswomen, Rashida Tlaib and Ilhan Omar, who have sharply criticized the Israeli government's policies in the Palestinian territories and embraced the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement. McCarthy said that if Democrats "do not take action I think you'll see action from myself". McCarthy voiced support for Hong Kong protesters. He wrote that "the NBA seems more worried about losing business than standing up for freedom." In January 2020, after the United States assassinated Iranian General Qasem Soleimani, McCarthy criticized Nancy Pelosi for "defending" Soleimani. McCarthy said he supported Israel's planned annexation of the West Bank. He signed a letter addressed to Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu that reaffirms "the unshakeable alliance between the United States and Israel". During Trump's presidency, McCarthy praised the administration's plans to leave Afghanistan. When the Biden administration withdrew from Afghanistan, McCarthy assailed Biden for the manner and execution of the withdrawal. Health care As House majority leader, McCarthy led efforts to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA or Obamacare). In March 2017, the House Republican repeal legislation, the American Health Care Act, was pulled from the floor minutes before a scheduled vote. After changes made during an internal Republican debate, the bill narrowly passed the House, 217–213, in a May 2017 party-line vote. The House Republican leadership's decision to hold a vote on the legislation before receiving a budget-impact analysis from the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office was controversial. The CBO subsequently issued a report estimating that the bill would cause 23 million Americans to lose health coverage and would reduce the deficit by $119 billion over ten years. McCarthy and other House Republican leaders defended the legislation. Hate crimes McCarthy opposed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009, which added sexual orientation, gender identity, and disabilities as protected classes under existing federal hate crimes law. He voted against the Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2007. Immigration Throughout 2018, McCarthy opposed efforts to codify the legal status of DREAMers after Trump suspended Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which provided temporary stay for undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as minors. McCarthy opposed efforts to codify the DACA protection because he thought it would depress turnout among the Republican base in the 2018 elections. According to Politico, it was thought a DACA-type bill could have also undermined McCarthy's chances of becoming House Speaker after Paul Ryan retired from Congress, as it would have made it harder for him to attract the support of hard-line conservatives. In July 2018, House Democrats called for a floor vote that sought to abolish U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). House GOP leaders scrapped the latter and called for the House to vote on a resolution authored by McCarthy and Clay Higgins to support ICE. House Speaker Paul Ryan's spokeswoman said Democrats "will now have the chance to stand with the majority of Americans who support ICE and vote for this resolution", or otherwise follow "extreme voices on the far left calling for abolishment of an agency that protects us". In June 2019, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez compared the holding centers for undocumented immigrants at the Mexico–United States border to "concentration camps". McCarthy strongly criticized her words, saying they showed disrespect for Holocaust victims. LGBT rights McCarthy was a supporter of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which barred federal recognition of same-sex marriage and banned same-sex couples from receiving federal spousal benefits; after Obama instructed the Justice Department not to defend the law in court, McCarthy supported House Republicans' legal defense of the law. When the DOMA case reached the Supreme Court in 2013, McCarthy joined Boehner and Eric Cantor in signing a brief urging the Court to uphold the law. Cannabis McCarthy has a D- rating from National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws for his voting record on cannabis-related matters. He voted against allowing veterans' access to medical marijuana, if legal in their state and recommended by their Veterans Health Administration doctor. Other issues In August 2018, McCarthy co-signed a letter spearheaded by John Garamendi, Jared Huffman and Mike Thompson calling on Trump to "send more federal aid to fight" the wildfires in California. The letter in effect requests a "major disaster declaration" across several counties affected by the fires; such a designation would "free up more federal relief" aimed at local governments and individuals affected. McCarthy introduced the FORWARD Act in 2018, which "would provide $95 million in research funding for valley fever and other fungal diseases". The bill provides $5 million for a "blockchain pilot program", facilitating sharing data between doctors and scientists researching such diseases. It would also fund $8 million in matching grant money to be awarded every year for five years to local groups applying for research grants, as well as $10 million each year for five years to CARB-X, a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services public-private partnership. On October 23, 2018, McCarthy tweeted that Democratic donors businessman George Soros, businessman Tom Steyer and former New York Mayor Mike Bloomberg were trying to "buy" the upcoming election. He tweeted this a day after a pipe bomb was delivered to Soros's home. Steyer said McCarthy's tweet was a "straight-up antisemitic move" because the three Democrats are Jewish. A vandal threw rocks at McCarthy's office and stole equipment from it, reportedly in reaction to McCarthy's tweet. McCarthy later deleted the tweet but refused to apologize. Beginning with his time as a Dublin city councilor, Eric Swalwell was targeted by a Chinese woman believed to be a clandestine officer of China's Ministry of State Security. McCarthy called Swalwell, who served on the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, a "national security threat". Claims of social media censorship McCarthy claims that social media platforms such as Twitter actively censor conservative politicians and their supporters. He called on Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey to testify before Congress on the matter. On August 17, 2018, McCarthy submitted a tweet to suggest that conservatives were being censored by showing a screen capture of conservative commentator Laura Ingraham's Twitter account with a sensitive content warning on one of her tweets. This warning was due to McCarthy's own Twitter settings rather than any censorship from the platform. McCarthy also suggested that Google was biased against Republicans due to short-lived vandalism of the English Wikipedia entry on the California Republican Party being automatically indexed in Google search results. Personal life McCarthy and his wife, Judy, have two children. They are lifelong residents of Bakersfield. He is a former board member for the Community Action Partnership of Kern. In October 2015, McCarthy was accused of having an affair with Representative Renee Ellmers. He had unexpectedly dropped out of the race for Speaker of the House shortly before the allegations surfaced. Days earlier, Representative Walter B. Jones Jr. had sent Republican Conference chair Cathy McMorris Rodgers a letter stating that any candidates for a leadership position with "misdeeds" should withdraw from the race. Both McCarthy and Ellmers have denied the allegations. An October 2018 investigation documented how William "Bill" Wages, of McCarthy's brother-in-law's company Vortex Construction, has received $7.6 million since 2000 in no-bid and other prime federal contracts. The work was mostly for construction projects at the Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in McCarthy's Bakersfield-based district, and Naval Air Station Lemoore in California's Kings County. See also Timeline of investigations into Trump and Russia (2019) References External links Congressman Kevin McCarthy official U.S. House website Republican Leader website |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1965 births 21st-century American politicians American people of Irish descent American politicians of Italian descent California Republicans California State University, Bakersfield alumni Living people United States congressional aides Members of the California State Assembly Members of the United States House of Representatives from California Politicians from Bakersfield, California Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives Southern Baptists

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Sir Roland "Roy" Welensky, (né Raphael Welensky; 20 January 1907 – 5 December 1991) was a Northern Rhodesian politician and the second and last Prime Minister of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe) to an Afrikaner mother and a Lithuanian Jewish father, he moved to Northern Rhodesia, became involved with the trade unions, and entered the colonial legislative council in 1938. There, he campaigned for the amalgamation of Northern and Southern Rhodesia (the latter under White self-government, the former under the colonial office). Although unsuccessful, he succeeded in the formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, a state within the British Empire that sought to retain predominant power for the White minority while moving in a progressive political direction, in contrast to South Africa under the apartheid system. Becoming Prime Minister of the Federation in 1956, Welensky opposed British moves towards black majority rule, and used force to suppress politically motivated violence in the territories. After the advent of Black majority rule in two of the Federation's three territories (Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, now Zambia and Malawi respectively), it collapsed in 1963. Welensky retired to Salisbury, where he re-entered politics and attempted to stop Rhodesia (formerly Southern Rhodesia) from unilaterally declaring itself independent. With the end of White minority rule in 1979, and the recognised independence of Rhodesia as the "Republic of Zimbabwe" under Robert Mugabe in 1980, Welensky emigrated to the United Kingdom, where he died in England in 1991. A fervent admirer of Britain and its Empire, Welensky described himself as "half Jewish, half Afrikaner [and] 100% British". Youth Welensky was born in Pioneer Street, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. His father, Michael Welensky (b. c. 1843), was of Lithuanian Jewish origin, hailing from a village near Wilno (today Vilnius); a trader in Russia and horse-smuggler during the Franco-Prussian War, he settled in Southern Rhodesia after first emigrating to the United States, where he was a saloon-keeper, and then South Africa. His mother, Leah (born Aletta Ferreira; c. 1865–1918), was a ninth-generation Afrikaner of Dutch ancestry. His parents, for whom Raphael or "Roy" was the thirteenth child, kept a "poor White" boarding house. Welensky's mother died when he was eleven years old, being treated by Godfrey Huggins, a doctor who went on to become the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia. Although not of British ancestry, Welensky was intensely pro-British, a distinctive sentiment among Rhodesians. John Connell, in his foreword to Welensky's book 4000 Days, wrote: "Welensky, who had not a drop of British blood in his veins, shared this pride and loyalty [towards Britain] to the full." After leaving school at the age of fourteen, Welensky found employment with Rhodesia Railways as a fireman, while putting his physical strength to work as a boxer. He rose through the ranks of Rhodesia Railways to become a locomotive engine driver and became involved in the trade union movement, joining the Rhodesian Railway Workers' Union. After participating in the unsuccessful 1929 Rhodesian Railways strike, Welensky was moved by management to Broken Hill, the main base of the railways in Northern Rhodesia. In 1933, he became Chairman of the Broken Hill branch of the union, and was appointed to the National Council. While working on the railways, he became the professional heavyweight boxing champion of Southern Rhodesia at nineteen years old and held the position until he was 21. During this time, Welensky met his first wife, Elizabeth Henderson, who was working at a cafe in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia at the time. They married after a two-year courtship. Colonial politics Welensky was elected to the Northern Rhodesian Legislative Council in the 1938 general elections. The Governor of Northern Rhodesia prevented Welensky from enlisting in the armed forces in World War II and appointed him Director of Manpower. In 1941 he formed his own party, the Northern Rhodesian Labour Party, with the aim of amalgamating the colony with Southern Rhodesia under a new constitution. The party won all five seats it contested in the 1941 elections. After the leader of the unofficial members in the Legislative Council, Stewart Gore-Browne, resigned in 1945 and stated that black Africans had lost confidence in the whites (due to the wish for amalgamation), Welensky was elected leader. Although a member of the Legislative Council, this was not a full-time job, and he continued working as a train driver for Rhodesia Railways, and also as a Trade Union leader. Amalgamation and federation From the beginning, Welensky was involved in the creation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. He had earlier wanted an amalgamation of Northern and Southern Rhodesia with a constitution similar to that of Southern Rhodesia (that had effectively granted responsible government to the white Rhodesians by specifying franchise qualifications that few blacks had so far achieved - though they were not prevented from acquiring them). After the British Government rejected this idea, he set about the creation of a federation, and against his judgement, the small colony of Nyasaland was included. His main wish for amalgamation, and later federation, was primarily so the complementary economic strengths of the Rhodesias could be put to best use. He felt that the colonies were missing out on the post-war economic boom. To this end, Welensky organised a conference in February 1949 to investigate the idea of a federation. Held at the Victoria Falls Hotel (a common venue for Rhodesian political conferences), representatives from the Northern and Southern Rhodesian Governments were present, but native Africans and the British Government were not. It was agreed that continued pushes for amalgamation would fail, with both the British and native Africans opposed. Welensky suggested that the Constitution of Australia be used as a basis for the proposed federal constitution, and pushed the idea of 'partnership' between blacks and whites. However, he insisted that "for as long as I can see, in that partnership [the whites] will be senior partners". Apart from organising the federation, Welensky won a significant political battle in Northern Rhodesia against the British South Africa Company (BSAC), which controlled mineral rights and the associated royalties throughout the territory. The company, and not the British Crown, had signed the treaties with African kings that surrendered mining rights, but the BSAC had stopped administering Northern Rhodesia in 1924. Welensky argued that the territory had a right to the royalties, and petitioned the Governor to take action. After many talks, the BSAC relented and agreed to surrender mineral rights in 1986, and to pay 20% of its profits from these rights to the government until then. In March 1952, the colonial and the British governments met in London to discuss federation. There, the idea for a federation was finalised and settled, although the colonial governments had, again, insisted on amalgamation. They were rebuffed by the left-leaning public servant (later Sir) Andrew Cohen, who, after much deliberation, brought the parties to an agreement. It was acknowledged by those at the meeting that all too often the racial policies of the Rhodesias were confused with the emerging apartheid of South Africa, and Welensky himself claimed to refute these ideas when being interviewed by a South African newspaper. He was paternalistic towards native Africans, but believed in the dictum of "equal rights for all civilised men" and gradual advancement. Behind the scenes, Welensky and the Rhodesians had been courting the Conservatives, while the native Africans had been doing the same with Labour. A British general election was held in 1951 and the Conservatives gained power. Labour, mindful of the overwhelming opposition of Africans from both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and of the Colonial Office mandate to oversee native interests, had been lukewarm at best to the idea of federation, and had been wholly opposed to amalgamation. After the election, the bipartisan approach to federation broke down and the British laws for its creation passed only with the support of the Conservatives, with both Liberal and Labour Parties now opposed. Federation established Welensky stood for the federal legislature in 1953 for the United Federal Party (UFP), created by himself and Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Godfrey Huggins. The party was successful in its first election, with twice the votes of the opposition Confederate Party. Welensky himself gained more than 80% of the vote in the federal constituency of Broken Hill and was immediately promoted to Minister for Transport. The first few years of the federation were characterised by a relatively peaceful political atmosphere and a booming economy. The government's coffers were kept full through revenue from Northern Rhodesia's copper mines, and overseas investment saw the rapid expansion of the cities of Salisbury, Bulawayo and Lusaka. High-standard tar roads replaced dirt tracks and the railway system was expanded. Welensky credited the high rate of development to the astute management of the federal Minister of Finance, Donald Macintyre. The Southern Rhodesian Government, under the leadership of Garfield Todd, began removing restrictions imposed on native Africans. The civil service opened more positions to blacks, the title for male Africans was changed from 'AM' (African male) to Mr., and diners and restaurants were allowed to be multiracial; Welensky, as Transport Minister, allowed for railway dining cars to be multiracial. However, when it came to liberalising alcohol restrictions on blacks, Welensky argued against doing so, stating that such an action would cause the UFP to lose the next election. After repeated failed attempts to secure Dominion status for the federation, the Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins opted not to stand again for his party's leadership at their September 1956 conference. In October he resigned and Welensky, the second most senior figure in the federal arena, was chosen to replace him. Welensky took office on 1 November. Prime Minister On taking office, Welensky was forced to take sides in the Suez Crisis. The government of the United Kingdom received heavy international criticism for its actions, but Welensky's government, with those of Australia and New Zealand, nonetheless stood behind Britain. It was Welensky's first experience in international politics. In the aftermath of the Suez debacle British colonial policy changed significantly, which would have adverse effects for the Federation. It marked the decline of a gradual approach to decolonisation, and a rapid speeding up of the process. Politically, only three years after its founding, the federation began to decline. International attitudes to the Federation were critical, particularly from the Afro-Asian bloc in the United Nations. At a time when most colonial powers were rushing their colonies towards independence, the Federation seemed to its opponents to be an unwelcome obstacle. In Britain, Labour grew more critical, and African nationalists in the federation itself became more vocal, dissatisfied with the liberalisation that was taking place, and demanding faster moves towards African advancement. The Governor of Northern Rhodesia, Sir Arthur Benson, wrote a secret letter to his superiors in Britain, highly critical of Welensky and the federation; this letter remained undiscovered until 1958, when Huggins revealed it to Welensky. Nyasaland unrest The Colonial Secretary Alan Lennox-Boyd visited the Federation in January 1957, while Welensky prepared to outline the difficulties regarding African advancement. Seeking to bring Africans into the established political processes, and hoping they would shun the recently formed African National Congress (ANC) parties, Welensky hit out at what he saw as the poor Colonial Office practice of making the situation "[consist] of two opposed policies, black rule and white rule. They naturally prefer to aim for black rule and hope they will experience this, which they regard as the apotheosis of Colonial Office policy". The Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was particularly vocal about increased African representation in the Nyasaland Legislative Council, demanding in September 1957 an African majority in the council. Nyasaland's inclusion in the Federation was never a goal of its proponents, it was there primarily because it was not economically viable by itself. Welensky did not understand or appreciate the party's goal of increased African representation or secession when it relied on the Federation for its well being. Hastings Banda, the leader of the Nyasaland nationalist cause, returned to the territory in 1958 and began organising opposition to the Federation. Having lived outside the territory for more than 25 years and having great difficulty remembering his native African language, he required the assistance of interpreters to communicate with the population, whom he stirred into a frenzy with his speeches. After the Governor and the Federal Government refused to give Africans a majority in the Legislative Council, he embarked on a speaking tour of the territory. In January 1959, he stated in a speech that he "put Salisbury [the capital] on fire ... I got Salisbury rocking, rocking, and got it awake out of its political sleep ...", after which his followers stoned passing cars and police officers. The federal government met with the territorial governments to plan for a response should the violence get out of hand. Welensky did not rule out deploying federal troops if the situation deteriorated. Speaking to the defence chiefs in Salisbury, he said that "during the next three months we can expect some fairly serious trouble in Nyasaland ... It is my concern to ensure that this government is in a position to exercise its responsibilities if trouble comes". A NAC meeting was held outside Blantyre on 25 January. It was alleged that the meeting discussed in detail a plan for the overthrow of the territorial government and the massacre of the territory's whites and any blacks who collaborated with them. (although a subsequent Royal Commission found there was insufficient evidence to make such a claim). Welensky obtained the meeting's proceedings in early February and decided to act, calling a meeting of the federal and territorial governments. Federal troops were deployed to Nyasaland on 21 February, the Governor of Nyasaland proclaimed a state of emergency on 3 March and the nationalist leaders were arrested and flown to jails in Southern Rhodesia. In the subsequent fortnight, riots broke out and troops used force to end the violence. Almost 50 people died in the unrest. The main militant African nationalist parties in each territory were banned by the federal and territorial governments, but all reorganised under new names only months later. The Southern Rhodesian ANC became the National Democratic Party (later ZAPU), the Northern Rhodesian ANC became the Zambian African National Congress, and the Nyasaland ANC became the Malawi Congress Party. The media's use of the term 'police state' to describe the response to the violence outraged the Liberals, the Church of Scotland, and leftist Conservatives, and particularly the Labour Party, in Britain. John Stonehouse, a Labour MP, had been deported prior to the declaration of the state of emergency, adding to the tension. A Royal Commission was announced to investigate the violence. Welensky was indignant when asked to contribute to the Royal Commission, and the Labour Party boycotted it. Commissions and Macmillan In addition to the Royal Commission that investigated the Nyasaland violence (now known as the Devlin Report), the British Government organised a second one, known as the Monckton Report, to advise on the future of the federation. Released in October 1960, the report advocated sweeping changes to be made to the federal structure, including African majorities in the Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesian legislatures. Welensky was outraged when the report was published, calling it the "death knell of federation" and rejecting it out of hand. African nationalist opinion was just as opposed, but on different grounds. All nationalists wanted an end to federation, and independence for the territories as black-majority-ruled states. Welensky was opposed to any talk of secession, and the Monckton Report suggested it in writing when it stated that the territories should have the option after five years under a new federal constitution. Early 1960 saw British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan journey to the Federation for the first and last time. There he held talks in person with Welensky and the territorial governments, and took the opportunity to gauge African opinion towards the Federation. He also wished to talk to the jailed African leaders, but was met with a rebuff from Welensky. Hastings Banda discussed the probability of his release from prison with the British Government through Labour MP Dingle Foot. Welensky had Banda's cell wired for sound and was frustrated with what he saw as the British government's "betrayal, duplicity, appeasement, cowardice and loss of nerve" when dealing with the African nationalists and the federation. Macmillan travelled on to South Africa, where he made his 'Wind of Change' speech to the South African Parliament, raising the attention of South African Prime Minister, Dr Hendrik Verwoerd. Welensky was informed that Banda would be released so he could join in discussions with the British Government over the future of the Federation. Losing patience with the British, Welensky took a harder line against them: "I've tried all along to behave in a reasonable and responsible manner. Now I'm seriously wondering whether restraint has been the right policy." New constitutions After Banda was released from prison against the wishes of Welensky, Banda travelled to the United Kingdom, where he took part in the Nyasaland constitutional talks. The outcome was a constitution which, through a voting system that was as complex as that of the Federation itself, amounted to black majority rule for the territory. Bitter and angry at what he saw as British ignorance to the situation, Welensky did not comprehend how the British were willing to deal with Banda. In Welensky's words, since his release from prison, "[Banda] was careful to appeal for calm and to condemn violence", but Welensky was averse to Banda's demands for black majority rule and believed that granting it to the territory would mean the end of the Federation. In Northern and Southern Rhodesia new constitutions were also enacted. The Southern Rhodesian constitution was very cautious and prolonged white rule. It had 50 A-roll seats with high voting qualifications (essentially for whites), and 15 B-roll seats with lower qualifications (for blacks). A system of 'cross voting' meant that results in A-roll seats would be affected by the B-roll vote, and vice versa. All constitutions were signed by the UFP and the African nationalist party in each territory. However, there were immediate repercussions; Ian Smith, chief whip for the UFP in the federal assembly, resigned in protest at the new Southern Rhodesian constitution, calling it "racialist", while the nationalist National Democratic Party withdrew support for the constitution having earlier signed it. Eventually, Welensky was comfortable with an African majority in Nyasaland and for the province to secede, seeking to preserve only a union of the two Rhodesias but, as a Northern Rhodesian, he did not accept black majority rule for the territory and a battle was had with the British Government over its new constitution throughout 1961–62. Discussing Northern Rhodesia under African rule with Smith: "I am not prepared to hand power to the blacks. Personally I could not live in a country where they were in control." Welensky considered a federal unilateral declaration of independence when the new Northern Rhodesian constitution appeared likely to grant an African majority in its parliament. Determined at one point to prevent changes, Welensky was convinced that if he refused, the British would use military force to remove his government. Believing that preparations were being made for an invasion from Kenya, he discussed the federation's ability to repel an attack with his defence chiefs and plans were set in motion. In the end, the idea of a British invasion was one of many options considered, and did not make it past cabinet discussion. Congo, Katanga and Tshombe Welensky once told a journalist that he was considering incorporating the Belgian Congo's Katanga Province into the Federation. After the Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 as the Republic of the Congo, it collapsed into a state of anarchy within a fortnight. The large Belgian population of the Congo fled from the violence into neighbouring states, including the Federation. Welensky dispatched the Royal Rhodesian Air Force (RRAF) to assist in their evacuation, but was prevented by the British government from entering the Congo itself. Refugees fled by foot to Ndola in Northern Rhodesia, where RRAF planes picked them up and flew them to camps in Salisbury. More than 6,000 people were evacuated by the RRAF. The leader of Katanga, Moise Tshombe, requested British and Rhodesian forces to enter the country to restore order. Welensky was sympathetic to the situation but unable to act; the British government, which had ultimate jurisdiction over the Federation, disallowed him from mobilising the armed forces. Tshombe declared Katanga unilaterally independent on 11 July 1960, one day after requesting British and Rhodesian assistance. Welensky pleaded with Macmillan to deploy the Rhodesian forces but Macmillan rebuffed him, telling Welensky their hopes were pinned on the United Nations being able to restore order, and hoping for a wholly neutral or anti-communist Congo. Welensky decided to support Tshombe, feeling that Katanga could provide a buffer between the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba of the Congolese government. Welensky feared Lumumba was supporting black nationalists and communists in the federation. He argued that "the security of Southern Africa from Communism requires that Katanga be recognised de facto by as many countries as possible. Such recognition would strengthen Tshombe's hand enormously." The Federation provided a key outlet for Tshombe to acquire mercenaries, smuggled weapons, and sell Katanga's minerals for cash. When the United Nations requested permission to post observers at the Katangese–Rhodesian border to halt the smuggling, Welensky refused to assent. Welensky heavily criticised UN peacekeeping operations in the Congo and the United Kingdom's response to the crisis. He used this as a means to mobilize white Rhodesian support for his government as it came under increasing pressure from the white supremacist Rhodesian Front (RF) party for failing to contain black nationalism within the federation. Welensky stayed in regular communication with Tshombe, though they did not not meet in person until late September 1961. In September United Nations troops launched Operation Morthor, bringing them into conflict with Katangese forces. Though Welensky had abided by previous instructions from Macmillan to refrain from troop deployments, the British High Commissioner gave him permission this time, and Welensky moved ground troops and most of the RRAF to the frontier. United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld, hoping to negotiate a solution to Katanga's secession, agreed to meet Tshombe at Ndola. However, Hammarskjöld's plane was shot down from Rhodesian territory close to Ndola in November 1961, and he was killed. Welensky was subsequently blamed for the accident throughout the communist and Afro-Asian world, becoming a hated figure and a lingering symbol of colonialism. Other UN officials reached a ceasefire agreement with Tshombe in Ndola, and Macmillan thanked Welensky for facilitating the meeting. The British government ultimately decided to support the concept of a unified Congo and rallied against Katanga's secession. Welensky thought the decision was cynical and displayed weakness in the British Empire. Welensky's attitude towards Katanga and the Congo would strain relations between the federation and the British until its dissolution. When UN troops initiated military action against Katanga in December 1962, Tshombe fled to Salsibury and met with Welensky and vowed to continue the secession. Nevertheless, the Katangese government surrendered in January 1963. Territorial and federal elections With new constitutions in place for the territories, elections were held throughout 1961–62, with Welensky's UFP being beaten in each one. In Nyasaland, the African nationalist Malawi Congress Party won a huge majority and Banda set about lobbying the British Government for the break-up of the federation and the independence of Nyasaland as Malawi. In Northern Rhodesia, neither the UFP nor the two African nationalist parties held a majority, but the African nationalists united to push for independence. Welensky hoped to get a display of confidence in federation, so he dissolved parliament in mid-1962 and held elections. While his party won a huge victory, it did so because it was completely unopposed. Neither the recently formed RF nor the African nationalist parties bothered to contest it. In Southern Rhodesia, the UFP lost the hold that it and its successor parties had for decades in the October election. Ian Smith, a former federal member of the UFP, had united with Winston Field of the Dominion Party to form the Rhodesian Front, a conservative party that was opposed to a fast rate of African political advancement and the 1961 constitution, and in support of Southern Rhodesian independence. The RF won 55% of the vote and 35 A-roll seats, while the UFP won 44% of the vote, 15 A-roll seats and 14 B-roll seats. Welensky now had parties in power in all three territorial legislatures that were opposed to the federation and advocating independence for their respective territories. Dissolution With Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia now promised independence by Britain under 'one man, one vote' constitutions, the Federation was essentially dead. Southern Rhodesia, still governed by its white minority, was subject to attacks in the United Nations general assembly which regarded its constitution as unsatisfactory. It demanded 'one man, one vote' elections, stating that this was the only "realistic answer to the powerful and irresistible urge of the indigenous people for freedom and equality". Accepting the end of the Federation, Welensky set about ensuring that the assets of the federal government were transferred to Southern Rhodesia, making this a condition of him attending dissolution talks at Victoria Falls. Welensky refused to dine with the British delegates, on the grounds of "not choking on his food", but ensured that the talks went smoothly. The federation was legally dissolved on 31 December 1963. Rhodesian UDI With the collapse of the federation, Welensky moved to Salisbury, Rhodesia (renamed from Southern Rhodesia after Northern Rhodesia gained independence as Zambia). After a short break, he was invited to lead the UFP in Rhodesia, which had recently renamed itself the Rhodesia Party. With the Rhodesian Front pushing for independence for the territory and a new constitution, the Rhodesia Party advocated the same, but with a focus on stemming white emigration and rebuilding the economy (all three territories had slipped into recession with the end of the federation). With the resignation of the RF member for the Salisbury constituency of Arundel, Welensky was given a chance to re-enter the political arena. Clifford Dupont, Deputy Prime Minister, resigned his constituency in Charter to oppose Welensky. Welensky knew if the RF won the byelections it would appear as a mandate for unilateral independence; the campaign, for only two seats, was intense. At public meetings, Welensky was heckled by opponents to ironic cries of 'Communist', 'traitor', and 'coward'. Sharing a television platform with Smith on 3 September, Welensky talked of the economic and political dangers of a UDI, but nonetheless wished Smith luck when he departed for independence talks in London. Welensky had much more antipathy for the British Government than his RF opponents, and was disgusted at their treatment of the Rhodesians during constitutional talks: On 1 October Welensky was soundly defeated by his RF opponent, with 633 votes to Dupont's 1079. In December he resigned the leadership of his party. When the RF declared unilateral independence on 11 November 1965, Welensky was upset at the constitutional break with Britain. He believed that Rhodesia was entitled to her independence, and disagreed with the British government's demand for 'no independence before majority rule', but was opposed to illegal action. Later life and death Welensky continued living in Rhodesia until Robert Mugabe gained power and the country became Zimbabwe in 1980. While in London in 1971, and by then a widower, Welensky met Miriam Valerie Scott. The couple were married, and had two daughters. They relocated to Blandford Forum, Dorset, in 1981, where he died on 5 December 1991. Honours Notes References External links Speech by Sir Roy Welensky given to the Institute of International Affairs in 1962 Roy Welensky Papers (MS 1558). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. |- |- |- |- 1907 births 1991 deaths Afrikaner people Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland people Heavyweight boxers Knights Bachelor Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Members of the Legislative Council of Northern Rhodesia Members of the Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federal Assembly Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People from Harare Prime Ministers of Rhodesia Rhodesian anti-communists Rhodesian male boxers Sportspeople from Harare Train drivers United Federal Party politicians White Rhodesian people Zimbabwean emigrants to the United Kingdom Zimbabwean exiles Zimbabwean people of Dutch descent Zimbabwean people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent Zimbabwean people of Polish descent Zimbabwean people of Portuguese descent Zimbabwean trade unionists Jewish Zimbabwean history

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Shared earning/shared parenting marriage, also known as peer marriage, is a type of marriage where partners at the outset agree to adhere to a model of shared responsibility for earning money, meeting the needs of children, doing household chores, and taking recreation time in near equal fashion across these four domains. It refers to an intact family formed in the relatively equal earning and parenting style from its initiation. Peer marriage is distinct from shared parenting, as well as the type of equal or co-parenting that father's rights activists in the United States, the United Kingdom and elsewhere seek after a divorce in the case of marriages, or unmarried pregnancies/childbirths, not set up in this fashion at the outset of the relationship or pregnancy. Mechanics The equality of men and women who engage in this type of marriage and family is usually measured primarily with regard to the psychological perspective of the participants. Both take responsibility for earning a substantial contribution to the family's income (sufficient to meet at least half of the family's basic expenses and preferably some reserve) and both identify as primary parents to children, responsible for childcare, meeting children's needs and supporting children's development, and as responsible for half the unpaid work of the home. Earnings Because earnings levels can vary with marketplace conditions, "equality" of earnings may vary, although each parent does consider him/herself to be a core earner in the family and neither's employment is considered more important than the other's. Although parenting styles may differ between the parents, both identify as responsible for the child's welfare and the success of their upbringing, not just in terms of providing financially but personally and developmentally. For people raised by parents who did not adopt these dual-focus responsibilities, this identification can entail a psychological adjustment. Child psychiatrist Kyle Pruett, educator John Badalament, sociology journalist Jeremy Adam Smith, educator Donald S. Unger, and psychologist Joshua Coleman, in separate efforts, have considered the psychological transition some men experience as they take on a more engaged relationship with their children and do the work of meeting a dependent child's needs, if their own fathers did not do this during their upbringing. A number of authors have also considered the transition women experience in taking economic responsibility for meeting children's needs (or even their own needs) if their mothers did not; one famous example being philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in The Second Sex in 1949, but also more contemporary writers such as Rhona Mahony. Psychologist Stephan Poulter has looked at how the father's legacy, including from a home where the mother did not earn money, affects women's approaches to careers. Naming children Many of these families avoid the practice of naming children just with the father's family name and include the mother's family name as well, with the objective of supporting the parental identification and the child's two-parent family history. Some encourage gender-neutrality in passing along the surname. For example, families may use double surnames that combine the usual patrilineal surname family name with a parallel matrilineal surname, In subsequent generations the sons may retain the patrilineal half of their double surname when they marry, dropping the matrilineal half, and the daughters may do the reverse, retaining the matrilineal half and dropping the patrilineal half. Child care With respect to child care, and unpaid work within the household, time spent on the tasks is equal and both parents are equally responsible for meeting the needs of the child, although parenting styles may differ between the two parents. Although the biological demands on women in pregnancy and childbirth may mean that they take more leave from paid work during this time, men in these marriages take an equal amount of leave, perhaps subsequent to or staggered with the woman's leave in addition to a short period of a week or two jointly taken with the mother during the time of the birth and recovery. If the woman breastfeeds, this is typically the most significant challenge in accomplishing equal child care. To manage it, the man makes an effort to spend as much time with the baby as she spends on breastfeeding, perhaps focusing particularly on other child care needs like bathing, diaper-changing, or other interactions with the baby, and will feed breast milk that is pumped if covering feeding times when the mother is at work or unavailable. Some families defer part or all of the father's equal leave from paid work until after a child's breastfeeding is complete. Employment and parental leave Some couples seek reduced work schedules, such as 30-hour or 35-hour work weeks, while others will work full-time and outsource child care and house chores. If the care and/or chores are outsourced they are paid for by the parent outsourcing his or her share of the care and/or chores. Efforts are made to choose caretakers of the same gender as the parent outsourcing. In some families, relatives, such as grandfathers and/or grandmothers, may help, perhaps with one or two days of child care per week or more. Neighborhood cooperative child care, with parents of both sexes providing care, is another method used. Legislation Parental leave laws and government leave programs in various countries vary in whether they discriminate against or otherwise impede this type of family and parenting structure, or whether they seek to prevent discrimination against it. The funding methods for parental leave are sometimes discriminatory even if the leave is not in other respects. Canada In Canada, 35 weeks' parental leave is available to be divided between both parents as they choose. This leave is paid at 55% of the individual's regular earnings, up to a weekly maximum.[paid for by contributions into federal employment insurance (EI) program] Canada also provides for an additional 15 weeks of maternity leave for biological mothers, which is in addition to the 35 weeks of parental leave. France France has had a program for longer, heavily subsidized maternity leave for many years, and has recently added a shorter, heavily subsidized paternity leave and also allows two years' unpaid parental leave which can be divided between the parents however they wish. France's constitutional court also made a recent ruling that two-earner marriages were not entitled to relief from required tax subsidies to sole breadwinner marriages via income splitting. Germany The German State helps parents raise their children with generous parental allowance and parental leave benefits for parents of both genders. They are entitled to parental leave until their child turns three while retaining their jobs. Either parent has to give their employer a written notice in advance and can also choose to work part-time during this period. The employer cannot fire them during this period. Malaysia Maternity leave is usually fixed at 2 months post-partum, with no option of extending it. However, in the government, you may opt to take 3 months' post-partum leave (maternity), but on condition that you must not have more than 5 children (any child born after the 5th will only provide 2 months' post-partum leave). There is no recognition of paternity leave, but international companies/employers may have these. It is not a government rule for employers to allow paternity leave. If mothers plan to take one year's leave after birth, it will be unpaid leave. Sweden In Sweden, föräldrapenning (parental pay) is given to parents that stay home from work to take care of children. To encourage shared parenting, there is a maximum number of days per parent so that each parent must take care of the child for at least 90 days to receive the full pay, 18.2% out of the total of 480 days. United Kingdom With regard to extended family carers, in the United Kingdom, a legal right to request flexible working patterns was opened to all employees who been for 26 weeks with a firm rather than being restricted to parents of children under 17, or under 18 if their child is disabled and "adults' carers". This "means grandparents could apply from April [2015] for flexible working to help look after grandchildren. Anyone taking total leave of six months or less over the period would be legally entitled to return to the same job. Employers are placed under a legal duty to consider requests in a "reasonable" manner." In 2015 the United Kingdom transitioned from separate recognition of maternity leave and paternity leave in favor of parental leave, pursuant to which a child's parents may decide between themselves how to allocate between them 37 weeks' paid leave and 13 weeks' unpaid leave in the 50 weeks after a baby's birth. Employers will now have to agree any proposed pattern of time off and will retain the right to insist it be confined to a continuous block, with no more than two changes. Mothers also are required to take a nontransferable two weeks' paid leave at the time of the delivery (four weeks if the mother is a factory worker) and fathers get a nontransferable two week paid paternity leave. Fathers also get a nontransferable right to two days off, unpaid, to attend ante-natal appointments. The paid portion of the leave is paid for directly by the employer at the following rates for the 39 weeks: (a) the first 6 weeks—90% of their average weekly earnings (AWE) before tax and (b) the remaining 33 weeks—£136.78 or 90% of their AWE (whichever is lower). Tax and National Insurance need to be deducted from the leave payments. In announcing the changes in November 2013 Deputy Prime Minister Nicholas Clegg said "We want to create a fairer society that gives parents the flexibility to choose how they share care for their child in the first year after birth. We need to challenge the old-fashioned assumption that women will always be the parent that stays at home. Many fathers want that option too." United States In the United States, the Family Medical Leave Act, which applies to some employers, is gender-neutral and allows each parent 60 days' leave, which can be taken in staggered fashion with paid workdays. Except in the case of very high ranking employees, FMLA requires the employer to hold the employee's job or a similar one for his/her return from leave. FMLA is also unpaid (although health insurance plan participation stays in place) and so parents self-manage savings and financial issues associated with their leaves, unless one or both their employers has a plan for paid leave that is available or a state or local level paid family leave program is available. Other tax and benefit programs in the United States including the Affordable Care Act's reproductive health and preventive care provisions, income taxation and benefits, Social Security taxation and benefits and Medicare taxation and benefits do discriminate against this type of family. Some state constitutions also discriminate. (See discussion below.) California California has a paid family leave benefit for employees who have paid into the state's State Disability Insurance fund, which pays part of an employee's foregone salary during leave up to a certain limit; the leave is therefore paid for by other wage earners and on a progressive basis (with no tax on capital or property earners, such as the owners of a corporation, to support the progressivity). Thus the program has the same extra burden that Social Security and Medicare do, where the weight of the cost of the program, including the progressive benefits for low-income workers, is carried by middle and higher earned income workers. One study has reported that college-educated workers in California are not using the paid leave and that men in general are not using the leave. Other countries Other countries in the Americas, Africa and Asia have paid maternity leave but little paternity leave, even unpaid. Incidence and publicity Incidence In the United States in 2012, wives in dual-earner families contributed, on average, 47 percent of family earnings. A 2011 study of roughly 1,000 working fathers in United States by the Boston College Center for Work and Family found that 30% of them were splitting child care equally with the mother, and most of them aspired "to share equally in caregiving with their spouse/partner." A 2008 study by the Work and Families Institute found that 31 percent of mothers in the United States reported that her partner spent as much or more time on childcare as she did. Sociologist Stephanie Coontz has written that in 2007, 49% of married couples in the United States with minor children were reporting that each parent was spending equal time on child care. A survey in the United Kingdom in 2008–2010 found that 18% of couples were spending equal time on child care. Data from 2002 showed the following rates of full dual earner/ dual carer families (in contrast to those with inequality in carer roles) among families with at least one child under 6 years of age: +France: 31.4% +Sweden: 25% +Denmark: 23.3% +Poland: 23.3% +Spain: 22.7% +Finland: 19.1% +Great Britain: 17.4% +Belgium: 16.7% +Portugal: 12.2% +Germany: 0 A 2013 survey found that, in the United States, "Sixty-two percent of the public, and 72 percent of adults under 30, view the ideal marriage as one in which husband and wife both work and share child care and household duties." Public examples Some high-profile shared earning/shared parenting couples in the United States have been public about the 50/50 nature of their earning and family responsibilities. These include: (a) Martin Ginsburg, deceased Georgetown University Professor of Law, and deceased Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, parents of two children, (b) Sheryl Sandberg, COO of Facebook, and deceased David Goldberg, CEO of SurveyMonkey, parents of two children, (c) Jesse Itzler, founder of Marquis Jet, and Sara Blakely, founder/owner of Spanx, parents of three children, (d) Karen Nyberg, astronaut, and Doug Hurley, astronaut, parents of one child, (e) Dr. Isabelle Rapin, recently deceased autism researcher and Professor at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and Harold Oaklander, Professor of Business and former Associate Dean of the School of Business at Pace University, parents of four children. (f) Betsey Stevenson and Justin Wolfers, economics professors at the University of Michigan, parents of two children, (g) John Roberts, Chief Supreme Court Justice and Jane Sullivan Roberts, a legal recruiter and former lawyer, parents of two children. In Germany, President of the European Commission, former Minister of Defense and former physician Ursula von der Leyen and Heiko von der Leyen, Professor of Medicine and CEO of a medical engineering company, parents of seven children, have also been public about having this type of marriage, except for one four-year period. Effect on child development A number of child development, other psychology professionals and sociologists have considered the implications of this type of marriage for child development, from both theoretical and empirical approaches. In 1971, psychologist Dorothy Dinnerstein in The Mermaid and the Minotaur (released in the United Kingdom as The Hand That Rocks The Cradle and The Ruling of the World) speculated that the change to this type of upbringing from the archetypal female-dependent and female-dominated childhood (especially in infancy and early childhood) prevents developing in boys' psychology a type of compulsive dominance, aggression and narcissism and in girls' psychology a type of compulsive co-dependence (or "inverse narcissism") and passivity or passive-aggression and would allow both sexes better access to cognitive and emotional processing and assertiveness skills and prevent problems with dissociation. Child psychiatrists Kyle Pruett and Stanley Greenspan have also considered the needs children have for care by their fathers and how they are helped by this type of marriage. Educator John Badalament has considered some of the ways these marriages meet the psychological needs of children as contrasted with marriages set up in other styles. Others have considered empirical data on the school performance, emotional health, and reduced rates of teen pregnancy, drug abuse, eating disorders, and criminal behavior of children raised in shared earning/shared parenting families. Research by sociologists Scott Coltrane and Michele Adams found that in families where the men have increased their share of housework and child care, their children are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD, less likely to be put on prescription medication, and less likely to see a child psychologist for behavioral problems. They have lower rates of school absenteeism and higher school achievement scores. A study has found that children with dads actively involved during the first eight weeks of life manage stress better during their school years. And, as Dinnerstein predicted, a Harvard University study found paternal involvement with young children was the single strongest parent-related factor in whether that child, when reaching adulthood, shows capacity for actual empathy (as distinct from co-dependence or narcissism). A recent empirical study in the United Kingdom found that "the most beneficial working arrangement for both girls and boys was that in which both mothers and fathers were present in the household and in paid work." This result held for all levels of maternal educational attainment and household income. The study found that five-year-olds whose mothers had been unengaged in paid work had more emotional and behavioral problems than those who had mothers who worked. The longer the mother was out of the paid workforce the greater the behavioral problems. Marriage stability and fertility rates A recent study in the United States estimated that couples who share employment and housework responsibilities are 50 percent less likely to divorce. Developed countries with higher rates of this type of marriage have higher fertility rates than those with programs which focus on women as primary caregivers. Economic, financial and tax implications Economic impact Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania economists Betsey Stevenson and Justin Wolfers, who are a shared earning/shared parenting unmarried couple, have considered some of the economic implications of shared earning/shared parenting marriage. One study found that a man's shift from a primary earner/non-parenting role to a shared earning/shared parenting role meant he lost 15.5 percent in earnings over the course of his career, on average, while a woman who shifted from a primary earner/non-parenting role to a shared earning/shared parenting role faced a drop of 9.8 percent over the course of her career. The collective family income rises to 156% over its lifetime, on average, however, from what it would be under a sole breadwinner or female primary parent scenario. The study did not look at the impact of reduced costs in peer married from reduced risks of developmental problems for children and reduced risk of divorce in the economic analysis. Current taxation and benefits issues in the United States that discriminate against this type of family can impose costs that reduce net income. Tax policy The International Monetary Fund has called for the United States, Portugal and France, all countries with significant sovereign debt, to eliminate their practices, including Income splitting, that charge two-earner families higher taxes over single income families (whether married or not). United States The Tax Policy Center sees the current "marriage bonus" for sole breadwinners in the United States tax system as a chief tax expenditure of the Bush tax cuts and a key contributor to the Federal debt. The specific issue of taxation of these families in the United States has been analyzed in a number of contexts. "Stacking effect" problems from fictional Income splitting in the tax code and the marriage penalty affect these families to the point where some parents elect not to marry. In a family of two earners with even slightly different earnings rates, the lesser earner pays more taxes on marriage because s/he will incur a "marriage penalty" and the greater earner receives a "marriage bonus" because of "stacking effect" problems. Progressivity in earned income, passive income and capital gains rates, together with fictional income splitting for tax measurement purposes, creates this problem, which also means that the two-earner families subsidize sole breadwinner families. The tax system subsidizes a family, whether married or not, where the uncompensated work of the home is done by one partner, and all earnings are held by the other partner. Because of income splitting and certain progressive benefit distribution to dependent spouses through Social Security and Medicare, sole breadwinner families at the same levels of income as two-earner families pay substantially lower taxes. All two-earner families thus have to subsidize sole breadwinner families through the "marriage bonus" given to sole breadwinners and these social programs which distribute extra benefits to the sole breadwinner; in Social Security, for example, a sole breadwinner and nonearning spouse pay 1× taxes for 2× (or more benefits), while a marriage of two earners pays 2x taxes for 2× benefits. Over time, this puts accelerating pressure on a family to have only one partner with earned income and the other do unpaid work of the family. The effects of the marriage penalty on the marriage income collectively are also particularly acute for these marriages, although for couples for whom the standard deduction, the 15% bracket, and the Earned Income Tax Credit apply, there are some marriage penalty relief measures that were extended in 2012. The EITC still discourages two-earners and marriage, however. Two-earner families with incomes above $130,000 also save taxes by not being married. "Stacking effect" problems also occur for families that wish to convert from the sole breadwinner model to a shared-earning/shared-parenting model. The tax system imposes a "marriage penalty" on this as a result of the fictional combined measurement of earned income through income splitting. The National Bureau of Economic Research reported a study showing "that two earner couples—the horses that pull our economic plow—pay for the second job with taxes that are far beyond the well known marriage penalty." The effective tax rates for these families are significant factors in the currently (2012) regressive tax system in the United States that President Barack Obama, U.S. Representative and former presidential candidate Ron Paul, investor Warren Buffett, and investor George Soros and others have highlighted and criticized, although none has focused fully on the implications of the U.S. system being built around subsidizing sole breadwinners in federal taxes and benefits, including the relation to the federal debt. Justin Wolfers sees the tax penalty on these couples as sufficient to make cohabitation preferable and thus to create a disincentive to have children inside marriage, or to marry at all, in the United States. Tax reform proposals No Presidential candidate has made reform of these policies part of his/her platform, however, the Senate Finance Committee in 2012 prepared a report looking at some of these issues. The model for reform in the paper focuses on one parent as primary caregiver, however, and does not analyze the problem through the construct of shared earning/shared parenting marriage. The 2014 House GoP tax reform plan announced by Dave Camp leaves current federal modeling around a sole breadwinner / female primary parent intact, adding additional subsidies to this type of family, subsidized by peer marrieds and/or financed with debt. A 2014 proposal by Mike Lee also adds peer-married and debt-financed subsidies to this type of family. The Obama Administration's 2014 budget proposes a "childless EITC" rather than an EITC with a baseline of 2 parents for the child. This will make it more difficult for families that qualify for the EITC but who want to do the shared earning/shared parenting style as they will have to sacrifice money they would receive under Obama's proposal by making the father a nonparent to the child. This Obama proposal has also been endorsed by Marco Rubio and Paul Ryan. Senator Patty Murray has proposed a 20% tax cut for the "secondary earner" in a marriage. This, again, is a construct that has a baseline, or default, assumption of one primary parent responsible for a child, rather than two. Social Security and Medicare benefits In connection with other taxation issues in the United States, one concern is that these marriages are subsidizing one-earner/one-nonearner parent couples in Social Security and Medicare benefits. For example, in Social Security and Medicare, two-earner couples pay taxes that create a surplus or at least pay for their own benefits (and receive reduced benefits such as reduced survivor benefits), while one-earner couples pay insufficient taxes that create a deficit and receive an extra, unfunded benefit of 50% or more in Social Security (i.e., a total of 150% or more), and 100% or more in Medicare (i.e. a total of 200% or more). This problem is exacerbated by the fact Social Security and Medicare taxes are collected only on wage income (passive income such as capital and property earnings are exempt) and benefits are progressive. This means that the chief tax burden for the programs is carried by two-earner families with wages that range between the mid-range and the cap and these families also receive fewer benefits than any other family structure or set-up. Proposals to "raise the cap" will continue to place an extra burden on 2-earner families where each partner has earned income (not capital gains or other property-based income that is exempt from the tax). The Affordable Care Act added a tax on passive income and capital gains to support Medicare but it is not known if this is sufficient to prevent the heavy burden faced by two-earner families in subsidizing sole breadwinner families and especially the burden faced by two-earner families with wages between the mid-range and the cap. No such tax is yet imposed to support progressivity in Social Security benefits. Legal implications Shared earning/shared parenting marriage can face legal implications with regard to (a) the right the child has to have his/her needs met by both parents, and the right to have such needs met equally by the parents as a baseline, and (b) the respective rights employers and parents have with regard to the balance between paid work and unpaid work of child care in which participants in shared earning/shared parenting marriages engage. The former is an aspect of the broader topic of children's rights. The latter is sometimes referred to under the generic category of Work-life balance. Rights of children to care by both parents in various countries Many laws around the world do not address the issue of meeting children's needs and who is responsible for this. The inability to prove paternity of a child biologically may have contributed to this historical legal vacuum, or in some countries legal ambiguity. Paternity was not provable with a level of 99% certainty until 1970, when DNA paternity testing became available. In 2008, paternity testing became available through drugstores. In 2014 it costs as little as $80 with the price expected to drop further in the near future due to the advances in the science. Many constitutions and laws have been or are being updated in recent years with this advance in information. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child recognizes a right in children to relationships with both parents, but does not address a child having the right to have his/her needs met by both parents or a right to have his/her needs met equally by both parents as a baseline. The convention has been adopted by all United Nations member states, except the United States and South Sudan. Tunisia The new Constitution of Tunisia provides that men and women are "equal in rights and duties". United Kingdom The United Kingdom has a parental responsibility concept in the law that requires parents to meet the needs of children, such as a right to a home and a right to be maintained. The law does not see children as having a right to care by both biological parents as a default matter. Instead it holds responsible all mothers but only (a) married fathers (for any child born to the father's wife) and (b) unmarried fathers who assert such responsibility in an agreement with the mother or by court order. It also states that all parents have financial responsibility for their children. United States In 1967, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in In re Gault that children were entitled to Constitutional recognition, and the concept that they are developmentally distinct from adults was recently recognized in Miller v. Alabama, however, the broader issue of the legal status of children as "persons" in the U.S. Constitution and the nexus with the rights and responsibilities of parents continues to be analyzed by legal scholars. During the Lochner era, the Supreme Court found a property right of parents in children, but no concept of a child having needs parents had the responsibility to meet. Given that (a) children have archetypically (if inadequately) been considered by some to be entitled to rights to care by mothers and (b) mothers have archetypically (if mistakenly) been considered by some to be primarily, if not fully, responsible for the unpaid work of child care as well as, in many cases, work of supporting themselves economically, the status of women in the U.S. Constitution is relevant on the issue. In 1971, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled unanimously in Reed v. Reed that women and men were both eligible to hold the rights and responsibilities of persons and citizens with regard to family matters regulated by states, although Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia claimed that the word "person" cannot, did not, and does not mean "woman". He provided no basis for this challenge before he died in February 2016. Historical U.S. constitutional context The Constitution of the United States does not recognize rights of children as distinct from adults, nor does it recognize any developmental distinction between children and adults even if children are regarded as holding the rights that adults are, and so does not explicitly provide a framework for evaluating the rights children have to relationships with parents, or to have their needs met by parents, or the rights employers or parents have with regard to the boundaries between work responsibilities and unpaid work of attending to children's needs. Throughout the Constitution, the Framers deliberately used the term "Person" rather than "Man" (as used in the Declaration of Independence and the contemporaneous French Constitution), a practice also followed in the Amendments, which would seem to cover children, if not recognizing the developmental distinction between children and adults or any right to have needs met by parents or the state, however, the original Constitution also sanctioned slavery of children and adults. By the use of the term "Person", the United States Constitution may imply, if not require, a right to have needs met by both parents, in that child development to full psychological personhood in adulthood, as Dinnerstein noted (discussed above in Effect on Child Development) requires an absence of gender-essentialist family structure. Such a default right to have needs be met by both parents could thus be seen as a baseline default right of children, and responsibility of parents, in the US Constitution (which could allow for an express agreement between the parents to allocate responsibility otherwise that fully accomplishes meeting the child's needs, with a right of child to pursue the parents accordingly if needs are not met). The fact that many of the Framers of the Constitution were "illegitimate fathers" and conceived children they did not acknowledge or recognize may have affected the ambiguity around the status of children and children's rights in drafting and ratifying the Constitution. Also, there were differing views of family structure among the framers themselves and the cultures and political economies they represented. Sociologist Michael Kimmel has said that the conventions of the time for masculinity would suggest that some of the Framers doted on their children conceived legitimately. Also, some of the Framers, such as Thomas Mifflin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, and Benjamin Franklin came from Quaker traditions, or Quaker-populated regions, in which the family was regarded as a somewhat child-centered institution, nurturing behavior in fathers was encouraged, supported and even required, women were expect to take economic responsibility for themselves, and men and women were seen as separate people in marriage (sometimes in civil disobedience of the laws of coverture). Others, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, came from Anglican traditions which regarded the family as almost completely centered around the father. Jefferson never acknowledged his children with his slave, Sally Hemings. Some authors define the political economy of colonial Virginia as one where sexual predation and "illegitimate fathering" was actually encouraged. The inability to prove paternity of a child biologically may also have contributed to the absence or ambiguity in the Constitution regarding a child's rights to having his/her needs met by his/her father. Rights of employers and employees with regard to work–family conflict Some employers have developed policies to address the issue of employees balancing work responsibilities and child care responsibilities, with substantial success in some cases. In the United States, IBM, Eli Lilly and Company, and the law firm of Fenwick & West have had success with policies that address this issue. Some employers in Singapore have also addressed this, with particular focus on gender neutrality. In the United States, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has posted "best practices" as guidelines for employers. In the context of litigation, some employers have successfully established boundaries on family responsibilities issues. Some lawsuits have arisen in which employees of both sexes have alleged, and in some cases established, discrimination against them because of family responsibilities. On 15 February 2012, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission held hearings on the subject of pregnancy and caregiver discrimination. On 4 April 2012, Men Advocating Real Change (MARC) formed a website with blogs by Amitabh Kumar of India, Bill Proudman of the United States, Frank McCloskey of the United States, Graeme Russell of Australia, Lars Elinar Engstrom of Sweden, Martin Davidson of the United States, Michael Kimmel of the United States and Michael Welp of the United States. MARC is an organization for men focused on gender equality in the workplace and the home, with attention to work–family balance issues. In popular culture In TV series Parenthood, set in contemporary time, Julia, a lawyer, and Joel, a construction contractor, trade off between them periods of stay-at-home parenthood to their preschool-age daughter, and, later, their adopted grade-school-aged son. In TV series Nashville, set in contemporary time, Rayna James, a country music star, and Teddy Conrad, a real estate developer, first, and later, mayor of Nashville, share care of their two children, who are in grade school and middle school. In TV series Halt and Catch Fire, set in the 1980s, Joe, a computer hardware engineer, and Donna, a computer hardware engineer, both take care of their grade-school-aged children, although they both also outsource child care primarily to female caregivers, including Donna's mother. See also Gender equality Gender roles Income splitting Marriage penalty References Types of marriage

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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of power. Often the term 5-speed transmission refers simply to the gearbox, that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque block conversions from a rotating power source to another device. The term transmission properly refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive vehicles), differential, and final drive shafts. In the United States the term is sometimes used in casual speech to refer more specifically to the gearbox alone, and detailed usage differs. The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different rotational speeds and torques are adapted. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears") with the ability to switch between them as the speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator) or automatically (by a control unit). Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output. In motor vehicles, the transmission generally is connected to the engine crankshaft via a flywheel or clutch or fluid coupling, partly because internal combustion engines cannot run below a particular speed. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, which drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds (essential to avoid wheel slippage on turns) as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation (e.g. diesel-electric transmission and hydraulic drive system). Hybrid configurations also exist. Automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in response to engine RPM, speed, and throttle input. Explanation Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, and hoisting. Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this reduction in speed produces a mechanical advantage, increasing torque. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in shaft speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios (often simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types that increase the output speed. Uses Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of different—often stationary—applications, such as wind turbines. Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining and automotive equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives. Simple The simplest transmissions, often called gearboxes to reflect their simplicity (although complex systems are also called gearboxes in the vernacular), provide gear reduction (or, more rarely, an increase in speed), sometimes in conjunction with a right-angle change in direction of the shaft (typically in helicopters, see picture). These are often used on PTO-powered agricultural equipment, since the axial PTO shaft is at odds with the usual need for the driven shaft, which is either vertical (as with rotary mowers), or horizontally extending from one side of the implement to another (as with manure spreaders, flail mowers, and forage wagons). More complex equipment, such as silage choppers and snowblowers, have drives with outputs in more than one direction. So too Helicopters use a split-torque gearbox where power is taken from the engine in two directions for the different rotors. The gearbox in a wind turbine converts the slow, high-torque rotation of the turbine into much faster rotation of the electrical generator. These are much larger and more complicated than the PTO gearboxes in farm equipment. They weigh several tons and typically contain three stages to achieve an overall gear ratio from 40:1 to over 100:1, depending on the size of the turbine. (For aerodynamic and structural reasons, larger turbines have to turn more slowly, but the generators all have to rotate at similar speeds of several thousand rpm.) The first stage of the gearbox is usually a planetary gear, for compactness, and to distribute the enormous torque of the turbine over more teeth of the low-speed shaft. Durability of these gearboxes has been a serious problem for a long time. Regardless of where they are used, these simple transmissions all share an important feature: the gear ratio cannot be changed during use. It is fixed at the time the transmission is constructed. For transmission types that overcome this issue, see Continuously variable transmission, also known as CVT. Multi-ratio systems Many applications require the availability of multiple gear ratios. Often, this is to ease the starting and stopping of a mechanical system, though another important need is that of maintaining good fuel efficiency. Automotive basics The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 rpm (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 RPM and around 1800 RPM. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque and power outputs unevenly across the rev range resulting in a torque band and a power band. Often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly, while maximum power is needed at high speed. Therefore, a system is required that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits. Transmissions perform this transformation. The dynamics of a car vary with speed: at low speeds, acceleration is limited by the inertia of vehicular gross mass; while at cruising or maximum speeds wind resistance is the dominant barrier. Many transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though more frequently aluminium is used for lower weight especially in cars. There are usually three shafts: the main shaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft. The main shaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear-wheel-drive cars. Front-wheel-drive vehicles generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being part of the transmission assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the main shaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches. Manual Manual transmissions come in two basic types: A simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized/non-synchronous system; where straight-cut spur gear sets spin freely and must be synchronized by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging clashing of the gears The now ubiquitous constant-mesh gearboxes; which can be/include unsynchronized/non-synchronized, or synchronized/synchromesh systems, where typically diagonal-cut helical (or sometimes either straight-cut, or double-helical) gear sets are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On synchromesh 'boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to the dog clutch to closely match the rotational speeds of the two sides of the (declutched) transmission before making a full mechanical engagement. The former type was standard in many vintage cars (alongside; e.g., epicyclic and multi-clutch systems) before the development of constant-mesh manuals and hydraulic-epicyclic automatics, older heavy-duty trucks, and can still be found in use in some agricultural equipment. The latter is the modern standard for on- and off-road transport manual and automated manual transmissions, although it may be found in many forms; e.g., non-synchronized straight-cut in a racetrack or super-heavy-duty applications, non-synchro helical-cut in the majority of heavy-trucks and motorcycles, and in certain classic cars (e.g., the Fiat 500), and partly- or fully-synchronized helical in almost all modern manual-shift passenger cars and light trucks. Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, but the newest automatic transmissions and CVTs give better fuel economy. It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria, Bulgaria, the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Estonia, France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and the Czech Republic, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required. Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe. Manual gearboxes can include both synchromesh engagement and plain tooth to tooth engagement. For example, reverse gear is usually without synchromesh, as the driver is only expected to engage it when the vehicle is at a standstill. Many older (up to 1970s) cars also lacked synchromesh on first gear (for various reasons—cost, typically "shorter" overall gearing, engines typically having more low-end torque), meaning it also could only be used for moving away from a stop unless the driver became adept at double-declutching and had a particular need to regularly downshift into the lowest gear. Some manual gearboxes have an extremely low ratio for first gear, Referred to in the UK as a crawler gear but some know it as a creeper gear or granny gear. Such gears are usually not engaged via a synchromesh mechanism. This feature is used on larger and heavier vehicles (Goods vehicles, coaches or those made for trailer-towing, farming, or construction-site work. During normal on-road use, the truck is usually driven without using the creeper gear at all, and second gear is used from a standing start. Some off-road vehicles, most particularly the Willys Jeep and its descendants, also had transmissions with "granny first's" either as standard or an option, but this function is now more often provided for by a low-range transfer gearbox attached to a normal fully synchromeshed gearbox. Non-synchronous Some commercial applications use non-synchronized manual transmissions that require a skilled operator. Depending on the country, many local, regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (see Commercial Driver's License). This class may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering vehicles. Some of these may use combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An example is a power take-off (PTO) gear. The non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch and shifter functions. Sequential manual transmissions, which are commonly used in motorcycles and race cars, are a form of non-synchronous manual transmission. Automatic Most modern North American and some European and Japanese cars have an automatic transmission that selects an appropriate gear ratio without any operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible. Automatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, some automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions, this has changed. Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess complex programming that both maximizes fuel efficiency and eliminates intrusiveness. This is due mainly to electronic rather than mechanical advances, though improvements in CVT technology and the use of automatic clutches have also helped. A few cars, including the 2013 Subaru Impreza and the 2012 model of the Honda Jazz sold in the UK, actually claim marginally better fuel consumption for the CVT version than the manual version. For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous. For instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to stop with the engine at a high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released. In fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger must be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust to maintain the boost pressure and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the throttle suddenly opens on an idling engine. Continuously variable The continuously variable transmission (CVT) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The CVT allows the driver or a computer to select the relationship between the speed of the engine and the speed of the wheels within a continuous range. This can provide even better fuel economy if the engine constantly runs at a single speed. The transmission is, in theory, capable of better user experience, without the rise and fall in the speed of an engine, and the jerk felt when changing gears poorly. CVTs are increasingly found on small cars and especially high-gas-mileage or hybrid vehicles. On these platforms, the torque is limited because the electric motor can provide torque without changing the speed of the engine. By leaving the engine running at the rate that generates the best gas mileage for the given operating conditions, overall mileage can be improved over a system with a smaller number of fixed gears, where the system may be operating at peak efficiency only for a small range of speeds. CVTs are also found in agricultural equipment; due to the high-torque nature of these vehicles, mechanical gears are integrated to provide tractive force at high speeds. The system is similar to that of a hydrostatic gearbox, and at 'inching speeds' relies entirely on a hydrostatic drive. German tractor manufacturer Fendt pioneered the technology, developing its 'Vario - YouTube' transmission. Electric variable The Electric Variable Transmission (EVT or e-CVT) are used in hybrid vehicle combines the output of an electric motor and a gasoline engine, and like a CVT, provides continuously varied gear ratios. In the common implementation, a gasoline engine is connected to a traditional transmission, which is in turn connected to an epicyclic gear system's planet carrier. An electric motor/generator is connected to the central "sun" gear, which is normally un-driven in typical epicyclic systems. Both sources of power can be fed into the transmission's output at the same time, splitting power between them. In common examples, between one-quarter and half of the engine's power can be fed into the sun gear. Depending on the implementation, the transmission in front of the epicyclic system may be greatly simplified or eliminated. EVTs are capable of continuously modulating output/input speed ratios like mechanical CVTs, but offer the distinct benefit of being able to also apply power from two different sources to one output, as well as potentially reducing overall complexity dramatically. In typical implementations, the gear ratio of the transmission and epicyclic system is set to the ratio of the common driving conditions, say highway speed for a car, or city speeds for a bus. When the driver presses on the gas, the associated electronics interpret the pedal position and immediately set the gasoline engine to the RPM that provides the best gas mileage for that setting. As the gear ratio is normally set far from the maximum torque point, this set-up would normally result in very poor acceleration. Unlike gasoline engines, electric motors offer efficient torque across a wide selection of RPM and are especially effective at low settings where the gasoline engine is inefficient. By varying the electrical load or supply on the motor attached to the sun gear, additional torque can be provided to make up for the low torque output from the engine. As the vehicle accelerates, the power to the motor is reduced and eventually ended, providing the illusion of a CVT. The canonical example of the EVT is Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive. This implementation has no conventional transmission, and the sun gear always receives 28% of the torque from the engine. This power can be used to operate any electrical loads in the vehicle, recharging the batteries, powering the entertainment system, or running the air conditioning system. Any residual power is then fed back into a second motor that powers the output of the drivetrain directly. At highway speeds, this additional generator/motor pathway is less efficient than simply powering the wheels directly. However, during acceleration, the electrical path is much more efficient than an engine operating so far from its torque point. GM uses a similar system in the Allison Bus hybrid powertrains and the Tahoe and Yukon pick-up trucks, but these use a two-speed transmission in front of the epicyclic system, and the sun gear receives close to half the total power. Automated manual Automated manual transmission (AMT) denotes a type of multi-speed motor vehicle transmission system that is closely based on the mechanical design and build of a conventional manual transmission, but uses automation to control either the clutch, and/or the gear shifting. Modern versions of these systems began to appear on mass-production automobiles in the mid-1990s, and are fully-automatic in operation. Tradenames include Selespeed and Easytronic, and they can control both the clutch operation and the gear shifts automatically, by means of an ECU, therefore requiring no manual intervention or driver input over gear changes. The usage of modern computer-controlled AMTs in passenger cars increased during the mid-1990s, as a more sporting alternative to the traditional hydraulic automatic transmission. During the 2010s, AMTs were largely replaced by the increasingly widespread dual-clutch transmission design. Clutchless manual / Semi-automatic Semi-automatic transmission denotes a multi-speed motor vehicle transmission where part of its operation is automated (usually the clutch actuation), but the driver's input is still required to manually change gear ratios. Most semi-automatic transmissions used in cars and motorcycles are based on conventional manual transmissions or a sequential manual transmission, but use an automatic clutch system. Occasionally, however, some semi-automatic transmissions have also been based on standard hydraulic automatic transmissions, with a fluid coupling or torque converter, and using a planetary gearset. Names for specific types of semi-automatic transmissions include clutchless manual, auto-manual, auto-clutch manual, and paddle-shift transmissions. These systems facilitate gear shifts for the driver by operating the clutch system automatically, usually by means, or under control of an actuator or servo, and sensors, while still requiring the driver to manually shift gears The first usage of semi-automatic transmissions was in automobiles, increasing in popularity in the mid-1930s when they were offered by several American car manufacturers. Less common than traditional (hydraulic) automatic transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions have nonetheless been made available on various car and motorcycle models, and currently remain in production. Semi-automatic transmissions with paddle-shift operation have been used in various racing cars, and were first introduced to control the electro-hydraulic gear shift mechanism of the Ferrari 640 Formula One race car in 1989. These systems are currently used on a variety of top-level racing car classes; including Formula One, Indycar, and Touring car racing. Other applications include motorcycles, trucks, buses, and railway vehicles. Early semi-automatic systems used a variety of mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic systems—including centrifugal clutches, vacuum-operated clutches, torque converters, electro-pneumatic clutches, electro-mechanical (and even electrostatic) and servo/solenoid-controlled clutches, and control schemes—automatic clutching when moving the gearshift, pre-selector controls, centrifugal clutches with drum-sequential-shift, requiring the driver to lift the throttle for a successful shift, etc.—and some were little more than regular lock-up torque converter automatics with manual gear selection. Semi-automatic transmission systems on motorcycles generally use a centrifugal clutch. An example of this transmission type in automobiles is the VW Autostick semi-automatic transmission; a conventional 3-speed manual transmission, with a vacuum-operated automatic clutch, plus a torque converter (like in a regular automatic), and a standard gear shifter. Semi-automatic transmissions on motorcycles and ATVs still require the driver to manually shift gears, and generally use a conventional sequential manual foot-shift lever, coupled with an automatic centrifugal clutch, so there is no manually-operated clutch lever on the handlebar for the driver to use, as it is a fully-automated clutch system. Sequential manual A sequential manual transmission (like the kind of gearbox used on a fully-manual motorcycle) is a type of multi-speed non-synchronous manual transmission, which only allows the driver to select either the next gear (e.g., shifting from second gear to first gear) or the previous gear (e.g. shifting from second gear to third gear), in a successive order. This restriction avoids accidentally selecting the wrong gear, however, it also prevents the driver from deliberately "skipping" gears. The clutch in a sequential manual transmission is only needed when going from a standstill (i.e., stationary; neutral) into 1st gear, after that, it's clutchless shifting since the gears are forced into place via the dogs. This contrasts with a conventional manual transmission, which uses synchromesh for smooth gear shifts. The use of dog-clutches (rather than synchromesh) results in faster shift speeds than a manual transmission. sequential manual transmissions use the rotation of a drum and selector forks to switch gears, like what is used on a fully-manual motorcycle transmission. The shift-drum mechanism is connected and rotated in a fore-and-aft motion by either a mechanical linkage (e.g., shift lever) or via an electro-pneumatic or electro-hydraulic control system, which typically will mechanically connect to the shift forks and dog clutches, and is operated with paddle-shifters, behind the steering wheel. They can also be designed with manual or automatic clutch systems. Semi-automatic sequential transmissions (with automatic clutches) may be found both in automobiles (mainly track and some rally racecars, e.g.; paddle-shift), motorcycles (typically light "step-thru" type city utility bikes, e.g.; the Honda Super Cub) and quad bikes (often with a separately engaged reversing gear), the latter two normally using a scooter-style centrifugal clutch. On a sequential manual transmission, the shift lever operates a ratchet mechanism that converts the fore and aft motion of the shift lever into rotation of a selector drum (sometimes called a barrel) which has three or four tracks machined around its circumference. Selector forks are guided by the tracks, either directly or via selector rods. The tracks deviate around the circumference and as the drum rotates, the selector forks are moved to select the required gear. Bicycle gearing Bicycles usually have a system for selecting different gear ratios. There are two main types: derailleur gears and hub gears. The derailleur type is the most common, and the most visible, using sprocket gears. Typically there are several gears available on the rear sprocket assembly, attached to the rear wheel. A few more sprockets are usually added to the front assembly as well. Multiplying the number of sprocket gears in front by the number to the rear gives the number of gear ratios, often called "speeds". Several attempts have been made to fit bicycles with an enclosed gearbox, giving obvious advantages for better lubrication, dirt-sealing and shifting. These have usually been in conjunction with a shaft drive, as a gearbox with a traditional chain would (like the hub gear) still have many of the derailleur's disadvantages for an exposed chain. Bicycle gearboxes are enclosed in a box replacing the traditional bottom bracket. The requirement for a modified frame has been a serious drawback to their adoption. One of the most recent attempts to provide a gearbox for bicycles is the 18 speed Pinion P1.18. This gives an enclosed gearbox, but still a traditional chain. When fitted to a rear suspension bike, it also retains a derailleur-like jockey cage chain tensioner, although without the derailleur's low ground clearance. Causes for failure of bicycle gearing include worn teeth, damage caused by a faulty chain, damage due to thermal expansion, broken teeth due to excessive pedaling force, interference by foreign objects, and loss of lubrication due to negligence. Uncommon types Dual-clutch transmission A dual-clutch transmission (DCT) (sometimes referred to as a twin-clutch transmission, or a double-clutch transmission) is a type of multi-speed vehicle transmission system, that uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets. The design is often similar to two separate manual transmissions with their respective clutches contained within one housing, and working as one unit. In car and truck applications, the DCT functions as an automatic transmission, requiring no driver input to change gears. A dual-clutch transmission uses two sets of internals, each with its own clutch, so that a "gearchange" actually only consists of one clutch engaging as the other disengages—providing a supposedly "seamless" shift with no break in (or jarring reuptake of) power transmission. Each clutch's attached shaft carries half of the total input gear complement (with a shared output shaft), including synchronized dog clutch systems that pre-select which of its set of ratios is most likely needed at the next shift, under command of a computerized control system. Specific types of this transmission include: Direct-Shift Gearbox and Twin-Clutch SST. Infinitely variable The IVT is a specific type of CVT that includes not only an infinite number of gear ratios, but an "infinite" range as well. This is a turn of phrase, it actually refers to CVTs that are able to include a "zero ratio", where the input shaft can turn without any motion of the output shaft while remaining in gear. The gear ratio, in that case, is not "infinite" but is instead zero. Most (if not all) IVTs result from the combination of a CVT with an epicyclic gear system with a fixed ratio. The combination of the fixed ratio of the epicyclic gear with a specific matching ratio in the CVT side results in zero output. For instance, consider a transmission with an epicyclic gear set to 1:−1 gear ratio; a 1:1 reverse gear. When the CVT side is set to 1:1 the two ratios add up to zero output. The IVT is always engaged, even during its zero output. When the CVT is set to higher values it operates conventionally, with increasing forward ratios. In practice, the epicyclic gear may be set to the lowest possible ratio of the CVT, if reversing is not needed or is handled through other means. Reversing can be incorporated by setting the epicyclic gear ratio somewhat higher than the lowest ratio of the CVT, providing a range of reverse ratios. Direct-drive mechanism A direct-drive mechanism is where the transmitting of mechanical power and torque from an electric motor to the output device (such as the driven wheels of a car) occurs without any gearing reductions. Several cars from the late 19th century used direct-drive wheel hub motors, as did some concept cars in the early 2000s; however, most modern electric cars use inboard motor(s), where drive is transferred to the wheels, via the driveshaft or axles. Non-direct Electric Electric transmissions convert the mechanical power of the engine(s) to electricity with electric generators and convert it back to mechanical power with electric motors. Electrical or electronic adjustable-speed drive control systems are used to control the speed and torque of the motors. If the generators are driven by turbines, such arrangements are called turbo-electric transmission. Likewise, installations powered by diesel-engines are called diesel-electric. Diesel-electric arrangements are used on many railway locomotives, ships, large mining trucks, and some bulldozers. In these cases, each driven wheel is equipped with its own electric motor, which can be fed varying electrical power to provide any required torque or power output for each wheel independently. This produces a much simpler solution for multiple driven wheels in very large vehicles, where driveshafts would be much larger or heavier than the electrical cable that can provide the same amount of power. It also improves the ability to allow different wheels to run at different speeds, which is useful for steered wheels in large construction vehicles. Hydrostatic See also Continuously variable transmission > Hydrostatic CVTs Hydrostatic transmissions transmit all power hydraulically, using the components of hydraulic machinery. They are similar to electrical transmissions but use the hydraulic fluid as the power distribution system rather than electricity. The transmission input drive is a central hydraulic pump and the final drive unit(s) is/are a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder (see: swashplate). Both components can be placed physically far apart on the machine, being connected only by flexible hoses. Hydrostatic drive systems are used on excavators, lawn tractors, forklifts, winch drive systems, heavy lift equipment, agricultural machinery, earth-moving equipment, etc. An arrangement for motor-vehicle transmission was probably used on the Ferguson F-1 P99 racing car in about 1961. The Human Friendly Transmission of the Honda DN-01 is hydrostatic. Hydrodynamic If the hydraulic pump or hydraulic motor makes use of the hydrodynamic effects of the fluid flow, i.e. pressure due to a change in the fluid's momentum as it flows through vanes in a turbine. The pump and motor usually consist of rotating vanes without seals and are typically placed in proximity. The transmission ratio can be made to vary by means of additional rotating vanes, an effect similar to varying the pitch of an airplane propeller. The torque converter in most automotive automatic transmissions is, in itself, a hydrodynamic transmission. Hydrodynamic transmissions are used in many passenger rail vehicles, those that are not using electrical transmissions. In this application, the advantage of smooth power delivery may outweigh the reduced efficiency caused by turbulence energy losses in the fluid. See also Bearing reducer Chain drive Clutch Driveline shunt Epicyclic gearing Hydraulic transmission Manual transmission Motorcycle transmission Torque converter Transfer case Idle creep Notes References Further reading External links WeberAuto 2012-09-23 American Gear Manufacturers Association Mechanisms (engineering)

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Florida participated in the American Civil War as a member of the Confederate States of America. It had been admitted to the United States as a slave state in 1845. In January 1861, Florida became the third Southern state to secede from the Union after the November 1860 presidential election victory of Abraham Lincoln. It was admitted to the breakaway Confederate States of America in April 1861 in advance of the American Civil War. Florida had by far the smallest population of the Confederate states with about 140,000 residents, nearly half of them enslaved people. As such, Florida sent around 15,000 troops to the Confederate army, the vast majority of which were deployed elsewhere during the war. The state's chief importance was as a source of cattle and other food supplies for the Confederacy, and as an entry and exit location for blockade-runners who used its many bays and small inlets to evade the Union Navy. At the outbreak of war, the Confederate government seized many United States facilities in the state, though the Union retained control of Key West, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Pickens for the duration of the conflict. The Confederate strategy was to defend the vital farms in the interior of Florida at the expense of coastal areas. As the war progressed and southern resources dwindled, forts and towns along the coast were increasingly left undefended, allowing Union forces to occupy them with little or no resistance. Fighting in Florida was largely limited to small skirmishes with the exception of the Battle of Olustee, fought near Lake City in February 1864, when a Confederate army of over 5000 repelled a Union attempt to disrupt Florida's food-producing region. Wartime conditions made it easier for enslaved people to escape, and many became useful informants to Union commanders. Deserters from both sides took refuge in the Florida wilderness, often attacking Confederate units and looting farms. The war ended in April 1865. By the following month, United States control of Florida had been re-established, slavery had been abolished, and Florida's Confederate governor John Milton had committed suicide by gunshot. Florida was formally readmitted to the United States in 1868. Background Florida had been a Spanish territory for 300 years before being transferred to the United States in 1821. The population at the time was quite small, with most residents concentrated in the towns of St. Augustine on the Atlantic coast and Pensacola on the western end of the panhandle. The interior of the Florida Territory was home to the Seminole and Black Seminole along with scattered pioneers. Steamboat navigation was well established on the Apalachicola River and St. Johns River and railroads were planned, but transportation through the interior remained very difficult and growth was slow. A series of wars to forcibly remove the Seminoles from their lands raged off and on from the 1830s until the 1850s, further slowing development. By 1840, the English-speaking population of Florida outnumbered those of Spanish colonial descent. The overall population had reached 54,477 people, with African slaves making up almost one-half. Florida was admitted to the union as the 27th state on March 3, 1845, when it had a population of 66,500, including about 30,000 people held in slavery. By 1861, Florida's population had increased to about 140,000, of which about 63,000 were enslaved persons. Their forced labor accounted for 85 percent of the state's cotton production, with most large slave-holding plantations concentrated in middle Florida, a swath of fertile farmland stretching across the northern panhandle approximately centered on the state capital at Tallahassee. 1860 U.S. presidential election Southern Democrats walked out of the 1860 Democratic National Convention, and later nominated U.S. Vice President John C. Breckinridge to run for their party. While Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 U.S. presidential election, Breckinridge won in Florida. Within days the election, a large gathering of Marion County pioneers was held in Ocala to demand secession. Its motions were brought to the attention of the Florida House of Representatives by Rep. Daniel A. Vogt. Florida secedes Although the Compromise of 1850 was unpopular in Florida, the secession movement in 1851 and 1852 did not gain much traction. A series of events in subsequent years exacerbated divisions. By January 1860, talk of conflict had progressed to the point that Senators Stephen Mallory and David Levy Yulee jointly requested from the War Department a statement of munitions and equipment in Florida forts. Following the election of Lincoln, a special secession convention formally known as the "Convention of the People of Florida" was called by Governor Madison S. Perry to discuss secession from the Union. Delegates were selected in a statewide election, and met in Tallahassee on January 3, 1861. Virginia planter and firebrand Edmund Ruffin came to the convention to advocate for secession. Fifty-one of the 69 convention members held slaves in 1860. Just seven of the delegates were born in Florida. On January 5, McQueen McIntosh introduced a series of resolutions defining the purpose of the convention and the constitutionality of secession. John C. McGehee, who was involved in drafting Florida's original constitution and became a judge, was elected the convention president. Leonidas W. Spratt of South Carolina gave an impassioned speech for secession. Edward Bullock of Alabama also spoke to conventioneers. William S. Harris was the convention's secretary. On January 7, the vote was overwhelmingly in favor of immediate secession, delegates voting sixty-two to seven to withdraw Florida from the Union. The group with the most sway that opposed secession in Florida was the Constitutional Union Party, which had several supporting newspapers including Tallahassee's Florida Sentinel. The party held it's convention in June of 1860 and had nominated the editor of the Sentinel, Benjamin F. Allen, for Congress. Despite being against secession, the party was composed mostly of slave-owning planters and conservative democrats. Individuals who opposed secession included Conservative plantation owner and former Seminole War military commander Richard Keith Call, who advocated for restraint and judiciousness. His daughter Ellen Call Long wrote that upon being told of the vote outcome by its supporters, Call raised his cane above his head and told the delegates who came to his house, "And what have you done? You have opened the gates of hell, from which shall flow the curses of the damned, which shall sink you to perdition." In response, Call, and others against secession, were called names like "submissionists" and "Union Shriekers." Pro-unionists in Florida not only faced public ridicule, some could be attacked and even killed. One example was the case of William Hollingsworth who was shot at and seriously wounded by a group of secessionists who called themselves regulators. Ordinance of Secession & Joining the Confederacy A formal Ordinance of Secession was introduced for debate on January 8. The primary topic of debate was whether Florida should immediately secede or wait until other southern states such as Alabama officially chose to secede. Outspoken supporters of secession at the conference included Governor Perry and Governor-elect John Milton. Jackson Morton and George Taliaferro Ward attempted to have the ordinance amended so that Florida would not secede before Georgia and Alabama, but their proposal was voted down. When Ward signed the Ordinance he stated "When I die, I want it inscribed upon my tombstone that I was the last man to give up the ship." On January 10, 1861 the delegates formally adopted the Ordinance of Secession, which declared that the "nation of Florida" had withdrawn from the "American union." Florida was the third state to secede, following South Carolina and Mississippi. By the following month, six states had seceded; these six had the largest population of enslaved people among the Southern states. Secession was declared and a public ceremony held on the east steps of the Florida capitol the following day; an Ordinance of Secession was signed by 69 people. The secession ordinance of Florida simply declared its severing of ties with the federal Union, without stating any causes. According to historian William C. Davis, "protection of slavery" was "the explicit reason" for Florida's secession, as well as for the creation of the Confederacy itself. Supporters of secession included the St. Augustine Examiner. Word of the outcome in favor of secession was met with celebrations in Tampa.. The governors of Georgia and Mississippi sent telegrams affirming support for immediate secession. Afterward, the Florida secession convention formed a committee to draft a declaration of causes, but the committee was discharged before completing the task. Only an undated, untitled draft remains. During the secession convention, however, convention president John McGehee stated "At the South and with our people, of course, slavery is the element of all value, and a destruction of that destroys all that is property. This party, now soon to take possession of the powers of government, is sectional, irresponsible to us, and, driven on by an infuriated, fanatical madness that defies all opposition, must inevitably destroy every vestige of right growing out of property in slaves.” The delegates adopted a new state constitution and within a month the state joined other southern states to form the Confederate States of America. Florida's Senator Mallory was selected to be Secretary of the Navy in the first Confederate cabinet under president Jefferson Davis. The convention had further meetings in 1861 and into 1862. There was a Unionist minority in the state, an element that grew as the war progressed. Florida sent a three-man delegation to the 1861-62 Provisional Confederate Congress, which first met in Montgomery, Alabama and then in the new capital of Richmond, Virginia. The delegation consisted of Jackson Morton, James Byeram Owens, and James Patton Anderson, who resigned April 8, 1861 and was replaced by G. T. Ward. Ward served from May 1861 until February 1862, when he resigned and was replaced by John Pease Sanderson. In June 1861, the Confederate government split Florida up into military districts led by Confederate commanders who were given the power to requisition soldiers from the governor, more specifically from the state's militia. By March of 1862, the state convention had abolished the state militia in an effort to create a more unified Confederate military organization. Civil War Blockade As Florida was an important supply route for the Confederate army, Union forces operated a blockade around the entire state. The 8,436-mile coastline and 11,000 miles of rivers, streams, and waterways proved a haven for blockade runners and a daunting task for patrols by Federal warships. Governor John Milton, an ardent secessionist, throughout the war stressed the importance of Florida as a supplier of goods, rather than personnel. Florida was a large provider of food (particularly beef cattle) and salt for the Confederate Army. The Confederates also attempted to use the close proximity of Florida with Cuba to a) continue trade with Spain and the rest of Europe, and b) to develop relationships with the Spanish government in the hopes that they would help the Confederate war effort or, at the least, not hamper it. Union troops occupied major ports such as Apalachicola, Cedar Key, Jacksonville, Key West, and Pensacola early in the war. had blockade duty in Apalachicola, and, in January 1862, was part of a Union naval force which landed in Cedar Key and burned several ships, a pier, and flatcars. Slavery during the war The majority of enslaved people, much like the majority of the white population, resided in North Florida during the war, while Southern Florida, aside from Key West, remained a largely "undeveloped frontier." Confederate authorities used enslaved people as teamsters to transport supplies and as laborers in salt works and fisheries. Many enslaved people working in these coastal industries escaped to the relative safety of Union-controlled enclaves during the war. In particular, many enslaved people fled to Key West because of the relatively large free black population (the 1860 census for Key West lists 2302 white people, 435 enslaved people, and 156 free black people) and the presence of a Union garrison. However, the Union army was not above utilizing slave labor South of the Mason Dixon line. During 1861 and 1862, the Department of War's payroll showed that Fort Zachary Taylor averaged forty-five slave laborers per month. Beginning in 1862, Union military activity in East and West Florida encouraged enslaved people in plantation areas to flee their owners in search of freedom. Planter fears of uprisings by enslaved people increased as the war went on. Some worked on Union ships and, beginning in 1863, more than a thousand enlisted as soldiers in the United States Colored Troops (USCT) or as sailors in the Union Navy. Companies D and I of the 2nd USCT were moved from their station at Key West to Fort Myers on April 20, 1864. These men would go on to help disrupt the Confederate cattle supply and help free enslaved people in the area. In mid-May of 1864, a delegation of Miccosukee entered Fort Myers and told Union officers there that they had been lied to and treated poorly by the Confederates. The appearance of black soldiers as part of the garrison there helped further convince the Native Americans to work with Federal troops rather than their Confederate counterparts. In January 1865, Union General William T. Sherman issued Special Field Orders No. 15 that set aside a portion of Florida as designated territory for runaway and freed former enslaved people who had accompanied his command during its March to the Sea. These controversial orders were not enforced in Florida, and were later revoked by President Andrew Johnson. Deserters Growing public dissatisfaction with Confederate conscription and impressment policies encouraged desertion by Confederate soldiers. Several Florida counties became havens for Florida deserters, as well as deserters from other Confederate states. Deserter bands attacked Confederate patrols, launched raids on plantations, confiscated slaves, stole cattle, and provided intelligence to Union army units and naval blockaders. Although most deserters formed their own raiding bands or simply tried to remain free from Confederate authorities, other deserters and Unionist Floridians, joined regular Federal units for military service in Florida. Battles Overall, the state raised some 15,000 troops for the Confederacy, which were organized into twelve regiments of infantry and two of cavalry, as well as several artillery batteries and supporting units. The state's small population (140,000 residents making it last in size in the Confederacy), relatively remote location, and meager industry limited its overall strategic importance. The battles in Florida are mostly numerous small skirmishes, as neither army aggressively sought control of the state. Forts Governor Milton also worked to strengthen the state militia and to improve fortifications and key defensive positions. Confederate forces moved quickly to seize control of many of Florida's U.S. Army forts, succeeding in most cases, with the significant exceptions of Fort Jefferson, Fort Pickens and Fort Zachary Taylor, which stayed firmly in Federal control throughout the war. On January 10, 1861, the day Florida declared its secession from the Union, Adam J. Slemmer destroyed over of gunpowder at Fort McRee. He then spiked the guns at Fort Barrancas and moved his force to Fort Pickens. Braxton Bragg commanded the Battle of Pensacola. On October 9, Confederates, including the 1st Florida Infantry, commanded by convention delegate James Patton Anderson, tried to take the fort at the Battle of Santa Rosa Island. They were unsuccessful, and Harvey Brown planned a counter. On November 22, all Union guns at Fort Pickens and two ships, the and , targeted Fort McRee. On January 1, there was an artillery duel in Pensacola. Twenty-eight gunboats commanded by Commodore Samuel Dupont occupied Fort Clinch at Fernandina Beach in March 1862. On March 11, the Union captured St. Augustine and Fort Marion. Skirmish of the Brick Church The first land engagement in Northeast Florida and first Confederate victory in Florida was the Skirmish of the Brick Church, fought by the 3rd Florida Infantry, commanded by convention delegate Col. William S. Dilworth. Delegate Arthur J.T. Wright was an officer. Eastern Theater As a result of Florida's limited strategic importance, the 2nd, 5th, and 8th Florida Infantries were sent to serve in the Eastern Theater in Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. They fought at Second Manassas, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. The 2nd Florida Infantry was first commanded by convention delegate G. T. Ward. He participated in the Yorktown siege, and died after being shot at the Battle of Williamsburg, the first battle of the Peninsula Campaign. Richard K. Call's son-in-law Theodore W. Brevard Jr. was captain of the 2nd's Company D, the "Leon Rifles" at Yorktown and Williamsburg, leaving shortly afterwards. Francis P. Fleming was a private in the 2nd. Convention delegate Thomas M. Palmer was the 2nd's surgeon. Roger A. Pryor commanded the 2nd during the Seven Days Battles. After Second Manassas, Pryor wrote “The Second, Fifth and Eighth (Florida) Regiments, though never under fire, exhibited the cool and collected courage of veterans." Delegate Andrew J. Lea was captain of the 5th's Company D. Delegates Thompson Bird Lamar and William T. Gregory served with the 5th at Antietam. Lamar was wounded and Gregory was killed. Perry's Florida Brigade After Antietam, the 2nd, 5th, and 8th were grouped together under Brig. Gen. Edward A. Perry. Perry's Florida Brigade served in Anderson’s Division of the First Corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet. At Fredericksburg, the 8th regiment, whose Company C was commanded by David Lang protected the city from General Ambrose Burnside, contesting Federal attempts to lay pontoon bridges across the Rappahannock River. An artillery shell fragment struck the chimney of the building that Lang occupied, and a large chunk of masonry struck him in the head, gravely injuring him. He was promoted to commander of the 8th. After Chancellorsville, Perry was stricken with typhoid fever. Perry wrote "The firm and steadfast courage exhibited, especially by the Fifth and Second Florida Regiments, in the charge at Chancellorsville, attracted my attention." Lang took command of the Florida Brigade. The Florida Brigade served through the Gettysburg Campaign and twice charged Cemetery Ridge at Gettysburg, including supporting Pickett's Charge. It suffered heavy fire from Lt. Col. Freeman McGilvery's line of artillery, and lost about 60% of its 700 plus soldiers when attacked on one flank by the 2nd Vermont Brigade of Brig. Gen. George J. Stannard. Perry then returned to command of the Florida Brigade, leading it in the Bristoe and Mine Run campaigns. Western Theater In early 1862, the Confederate government pulled General Bragg's small army from Pensacola following successive Confederate defeats in Tennessee at Fort Donelson and Fort Henry and the fall of New Orleans. It sent them to the Western Theater for the remainder of the war. Florida native Edmund Kirby Smith fought with Bragg. The 1st and 3rd Florida Infantry Regiments joined Bragg in Tennessee. Convention delegate W. G. M. Davis raised the 1st Florida Cavalry and joined General Joseph E. Johnston in Tennessee. In December 1863, the 4th Florida Infantry was consolidated with the 1st Cavalry. Convention delegate Daniel D. McLean was a 2nd lieutenant in the 4th's Company H, and died in service. The 7th Florida Infantry also fought with the Army of Tennessee. Battles in Florida After Bragg's troops left for Tennessee, the only Confederate forces remaining in Florida at that time were a variety of independent companies, several infantry battalions, and the 2nd Florida Cavalry, commanded by J. J. Dickison. On May 20, Confederates ambushed a Union landing party in Crooked River. Tampa The Union gunboat sailed up Tampa Bay to bombard Fort Brooke under the command of John William Pearson on June 30, 1861. Representatives from both sides met under a flag of truce on a launch in the bay, where Pearson refused a Union demand that he unconditionally surrender. The Sagamore began bombarding the town that evening and the fort's defenders returned fire, opening the Battle of Tampa. The steamship moved out of range of the fort's guns the next morning and resumed fire for several hours before withdrawing. The engagement was inconclusive, as neither side scored a direct hit and there were no casualties. St. Johns Bluff Jacksonville was occupied after the Battle of St. Johns Bluff, a bluff designed to stop the movement of Federal ships up the St. Johns River, was won by John Milton Brannan and about 1,500 infantry. The flotilla arrived at the mouth of the St. John' s River on October 1, where Cdr. Charles Steedman' s gunboats—Paul Jones, Cimarron, Uncas, Patroon, Hale, and Water Witch—joined them. Brannan landed troops at Mayport Mills. The Bluff held off the Naval squadron until the troops were landed to come up behind it, the Confederates quietly abandoned the work. In January 1863, there was a skirmish at Township Landing with the 1st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry. On March 9, 1863, 80 Confederates were driven off by 120 men of the 7th New Hampshire Volunteers near St. Augustine. On 28 July 1863, Sagamore and attacked New Smyrna. Fort Brooke The Battle of Fort Brooke in October 1863 was the second and largest skirmish in Tampa during the Civil War. On October 15, two Union Navy ships, and , bombarded Fort Brooke from positions in Tampa Bay out of the range of Confederate artillery. Under the cover of shelling that continued intermittently for three days, a detachment of Union forces landed in secret and marched several miles to where two blockade running ships owned by former Tampa mayor James McKay Sr. were hidden along the Hillsborough River. The Scottish Chief, a steamship, and the sloop Kate Dale were burned at their moorings near present day Lowry Park. Their mission accomplished, Union troops made their way to their landing point but were intercepted near present day Ballast Point Park by a small force consisting of Confederate cavalry from Fort Brooke along with local militia. A brief but sharp skirmish erupted as the raiding party attempted to board their boats and row back to the Tahoma, with the ship supporting the troops in the water by firing shells over their heads at the Confederates on shore. Most of the landing party successfully returned to the ship and both sides suffered about 20 casualties. Tahoma returned to Tampa Bay and again shelled Fort Brooke on Christmas Day 1863. The defenders prepared for another landing but none was forthcoming, and the ship steamed away at nightfall. By May 1864, all regular Confederate troops had been withdrawn from Tampa to reinforce beleaguered forces in more active theaters of war. Union forces landed without opposition on May 5 and seized or destroyed all artillery pieces and other supplies left behind at Fort Brooke. They occupied the fort for about six weeks, but as the town of Tampa had been largely abandoned, they left in June, leaving the fort unoccupied for the duration of the war. Final years The force remaining in Florida were reinforced in 1864 by troops from neighboring Georgia. Andersonville Prison began in February 1864. Convention delegate John C. Pelot was its lead surgeon. Olustee Quincy Gillmore selected Truman Seymour for an invasion of Florida, landing in Jacksonville on February 7. Joseph Finegan skirmished with Union forces at Barber's Ford and Lake City on February 10 and 11. The only major engagement in Florida was at Olustee near Lake City. Union forces under Seymour were repulsed by Finegan's Florida and Georgia troops and retreated to their fortifications around Jacksonville. Brevard's Battalion fought with Finegan's Brigade at Olustee. Seymour's relatively high losses caused Northern lawmakers and citizens to question the necessity of any further Union actions in militarily insignificant Florida. Many of the Federal troops were withdrawn and sent elsewhere. Throughout the balance of 1864 and into the following spring, the 2nd Florida Cavalry repeatedly thwarted Federal raiding parties into the Confederate-held northern and central portions of the state. The Skirmish at Cedar Creek soon followed. Perry had suffered wounds, and the three regiments of Perry's Brigade were consolidated into Finegan's Brigade, which included the 9th, 10th and 11th Infantries. Convention delegate Green H. Hunter was captain of the 9th's Company E. There was a skirmish at McGirt's Creek on March 1, 1864. In March 1864, James McKay wrote the state to say he was unable to secure cattle as his blockade runners had been destroyed during the Battle of Fort Brooke.. C. J. Munnerlyn organized the 1st Florida Special Cavalry Battalion or "Cow Cavalry" in April made up of Florida crackers, including John T. Lesley, Francis A. Hendry and W. B. Henderson. Horse Landing Convention delegate James O. Devall owned General Sumpter, the first steamboat in Palatka, which was captured by in March 1864. Palatka was occupied, and there were two picket attacks in late March. Union troops utilized Sunny Point, and St. Mark's was used as a barracks. The first mine casualty of the war was at Jacksonville on April 1, 1864. General Hunter was sunk on April 16, close to where Maple Leaf was sunk. On May 19, there was a skirmish with the 17th Connecticut in Welaka, and a skirmish in Saunders. On May 21, spy Lola Sanchez got wind of a Union raid, and the Columbine was captured by Dickison's forces at the "Battle of Horse Landing". New York's 14th cavalry lost in a skirmish at Cow Ford Creek on April 2. The 7th United States Colored Infantry fought in a skirmish at Camp Finnegan on May 25, and on the same day there was a skirmish at Jackson's Bridge near Pensacola. Camp Milton was captured on June 2, and Baldwin raided on July 23. The Union would raid Florida's cattle. A skirmish at Trout Creek occurred on July 15. On July 24, William Birney was attacked by G. W. Scott and the 2nd Florida Cavalry at the South Fork of Black Creek. The Florida Brigade took part in the Overland Campaign. Perry was wounded at the Battle of the Wilderness. The Brigade was then at the Battle of Cold Harbor. Afterwards, the 11th was reorganized with Brevard as commander. The Brigade then fought at the Siege of Petersburg. At Weldon Railroad, Brevard learned of the death of his brother, Mays Brevard. The Brigade also fought at the Battle of Ream's Station and the Battle of Globe Tavern. Lamar was shot off his horse by a Yankee sniper at Petersburg on August 30. Gainesville Confederates occupied Gainesville after the Battle of Gainesville. On August 15, 1864 Col. Andrew L. Harris of the 75th Ohio Mounted infantry left Baldwin with 173 officers and men from the Seventy-Fifth Ohio Volunteer Infantry. The Union troops on the way destroyed a picket post on the New River. At Starke, the Union troops were joined by the 4th Massachusetts Cavalry and some Florida Unionists. On August 17, 1864, Dickison was told that members of the Union Army had arrived at Starke and that they had burned Confederate train cars. Dickison proceeded to Gainesville, and attacked the Union troops from the rear. Marianna On September 27, 1864, General Alexander Asboth led a raid in Marianna, the home of Governor Milton and an important supply depot, and a battle ensued, with the Union stunned at first but achieving a victory. Convention delegate Adam McNealy served in the Marianna Home Guard. Asboth was wounded, as was dentist Thaddeus Hentz, not far from his mother's grave, the famed novelist Caroline Lee Hentz, who wrote The Planter's Northern Bride, a pro-slavery rebuttal to Harriet Beecher Stowe's popular anti-slavery book, Uncle Tom's Cabin. The next day, Asboth's forces again ran into a battle in Vernon. On October 18 at Pierce's Point south of Milton, Union troops were attacked by Confederates. In December 1864, there were skirmishes in Mitchell's Creek and Pine Barren Ford with the 82nd Colored Infantry. Braddock's Farm Near Crescent City, there was the Battle of Braddock's Farm. Dickison caught the troops of the 17th Connecticut Infantry when they had just finished a raid, and when they charged, he shot their commander Albert Wilcoxson off his horse. When Dickison asked Wilcoxson why he charged, he responded, "Don't blame yourself, you are only doing your duty as a soldier. I alone am to blame." In Cedar Key, there was the Battle of Station Four. The Battle of Fort Myers is known as the "southernmost land battle of the Civil War." Confederate Maj. William Footman led 275 men of the "Cow Cavalry" to the fort under a flag of truce to demand surrender. The fort's commander, Capt. James Doyle, refused, and the battle began. Natural Bridge In March 1865 Battle of Natural Bridge, a small band of Confederate troops and volunteers, mostly composed of teenagers from the nearby Florida Military and Collegiate Institute that would later become Florida State University, and the elderly, protected by breastworks, prevented a detachment of United States Colored Troops from crossing the Natural Bridge on the St. Marks River. Brevard took command of the Florida Brigade on March 22. On April 1, Governor Milton committed suicide rather than submit to Union occupation. In a final statement to the state legislature, he said Yankees "have developed a character so odious that death would be preferable to reunion with them." He was replaced by convention delegate Abraham K. Allison. Brevard was captured at the Battle of Sailor's Creek by General George Custer's cavalry. Surrender and immediate aftermath Lang was again leading the Florida Brigade with Lee's army when it formally surrendered at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Johnston surrendered at Bennett Place on April 26, ending the war for the 89,270 soldiers in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. In early May 1865, Edward M. McCook's Union division was assigned to re-establish Federal control and authority in Florida. On May 13, G.W. Scott surrendered the last active Confederate troops in the state to McCook. On May 20, General McCook read Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation during a ceremony in Tallahassee, officially ending slavery in Florida. That same day, his jubilant troopers raised the U.S. flag over the state capitol building. Tallahassee was the penultimate Confederate state capital to rejoin the Union. Austin, Texas rejoined the next month. Yulee was imprisoned for helping Jefferson Davis escape, and Lesley hid Judah Benjamin in a swamp before he fled to the Gamble Mansion. Following the end of the Civil War, Florida was part of the Third Military District. Restoration to Union After meeting the requirements of Reconstruction, including ratifying amendments to the US Constitution to abolish slavery and grant citizenship to former slaves, Florida's representatives were readmitted to Congress. The state was fully restored to the United States on June 25, 1868. Convention delegate E.C. Love was a leader in restoring the Democratic Party in Florida. As part of the Compromise of 1877, in which Southern Democrats would acknowledge Republican Rutherford B. Hayes as president, Republicans agreed to meet certain demands. One such demand that affected Florida was the removal of all US military forces from the former Confederate states. At the time, US troops remained in only Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida, but the Compromise completed their withdrawal from the region. See also List of Florida Confederate Civil War units List of Florida Union Civil War units Notes References Further reading Brown, Canter. Tampa in Civil War & Reconstruction, University of Tampa Press, 2000. . Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, . Johns, John Edwin. Florida During the Civil War (University of Florida Press, 1963) Murphree, R. Boyd. "Florida and the Civil War: A Short History" State Archives of Florida. Nulty, William H. Confederate Florida: The Road to Olustee (University of Alabama Press, 1994) Revels, Tracy J. Florida's Civil War: Terrible Sacrifices (Mercer University Press, 2016). xx, 197 pp Taylor, Paul. Discovering the Civil War in Florida: A Reader and Guide (2nd edition). Sarasota, Fl. Pineapple Press, 2012. U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 70 volumes in 4 series. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1880-1901. External links Cannonball at A History of Central Florida Podcast Florida and the Civil War, open access digital collection of materials from the PK Yonge Library of Florida History Florida Memory Project - State Archives National Park Service map of Civil War sites in Florida Journal of the Secession Convention .American Civil War Florida American Civil War Florida

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Kunio Kishida (岸田 國士, Kishida Kunio, 2 November 1890 – 5 March 1954) was a Japanese playwright, dramatist, novelist, lecturer, acting coach, theatre critic, translator, and proponent of Shingeki ("New Theatre"/”New Drama"). Kishida spearheaded the modernization of Japanese dramaturgy and transformed Japanese theatre acting. He was a staunch advocate for the theatre to operate as a dual artistic and literary space. At the beginning of the Meiji era, efforts to modernize the Japanese theatre became a critical topic for Japanese playwrights, and these endeavors persisted well into the 1920s before Kishida wrote his first plays. However, his predecessors' attempts did not come to fruition, and Kishida is recognized as the first playwright to successfully reform the narrative, thematic, and performative trajectories of Japanese playwriting and acting through Shingeki. Kishida was known for his vehement opposition to traditional Japanese kabuki, noh, and shimpa theatre. Following a temporary residency in France, Kishida became heavily inspired by European theatres, playwriting, and acting styles and believed these needed to be applied to Japanese theatre. While Kishida never intended his nation's theatrical scene to undergo a complete Westernization, he recognized that Japan's increasingly globalized presence meant it needed to adapt and engage with its Western counterparts' literary and theatrical practices. From Kishida's perspective, the theatre was never intended to serve as a popular entertainment venue. He argued for the essentiality of the theatre as a serious performative and literary mode of creative expression. Early life and education (1890–1919) Kishida was born on November 2, 1890, in Yotsuya, Tokyo, to a military family with historic samurai roots in Kishu (present-day Wakayama Prefecture). His father, Shozo, was a military officer in the Imperial Army, and Kishida was expected to follow the family lifestyle. In his youth, Kishida attended military preparatory schools. At seventeen years old, he developed a passion for literature, particularly French authors such as François-René de Chateaubriand and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Following family tradition, he enlisted in the Japanese military and was commissioned as an officer in the Army in 1912. Kishida left the military in 1914 after he expressed dissatisfaction with this career path. After his military dismissal, Kishida decided to pursue his passion for literature and enrolled in Tokyo Imperial University. Upon his admittance in 1917, Kishida studied French language and literature in the Faculty of Letters. Exposure to European Theatre (1919 - 1923) In 1919, Kishida traveled to France to expose himself to the European theatre and expand his literary interests. Upon his arrival, he was employed as a translator at the Japanese Embassy in Paris and for the Secretariat of the League of Nations, which permitted him the financial resources to live in France for multiple years. Shortly thereafter, Kishida studied theatre at the Theatre du Vieux-Colombier, which marked the beginning of his lifelong admiration for French drama. Under the tutelage of the director Jacques Copeau, Kishida learned about the history and customs of French and European theatre. Copeau's instruction, combined with Kishida's attendance at numerous European theatrical performances, supplied him with an abundance of knowledge on the successful attributes that comprised Western dramaturgy. Of these, the actors' ability to express subtle emotions and to convey natural dialogue that neither felt forced nor exaggerated were among the most lasting takeaways in Kishida's observations as a spectator. The effectiveness of the modern European acting style was the result of the Drama Purification Movement that coincided with Kishida's residency. The movement sought the complete erasure of any semblance of artificiality in both theatre performances and playwriting. Copeau was a fervent supporter of this school of thought and applied the movement's tenets in his training for actors, which involved a consideration for performances to be open and naturalistic. Subsequently, Kishida recognized that this unique approach to acting was absent in his country's theatrical traditions of kabuki, noh, and shimpa. In addition to the French theatre, Kishida developed an infatuation for other European playwrights after he saw Copeau's staged productions of works by Henrik Ibsen, Anton Chekhov, and Johan August Strindberg. A significant reason for his appreciation stemmed from the psychological and emotional depth inherent in the characters and narratives of their plays. During his studies with Copeau in 1921–1922, Kishida drafted his first play, A Wan Smile. He was inspired to create an original play after he overheard one of his favorite actors, the Russian Georges Pitoeff, express an interest to perform in a Japanese play. Kishida already had multiple copies of contemporary Japanese plays to share with him but decided against it and composed his own work. After he read Kishida's prose, Pitoeff remarked that the play was "really quite interesting"; no records indicate if the play was ever produced. In October 1922, Kishida took a leave of absence and temporarily resided in Southern France to recover from a severe lung hemorrhage. Return to Japan and Early Theatre Modernization (1923 - 1929) Kishida quickly returned to Japan in 1923 after he learned about his father's death and went to care for his mother and sisters. His recent illness, sudden departure from Europe, and grief over his father's passing caused great consternation for Kishida and manifested into uncertainty about his career future. Kishida followed the latest trends in Japanese theatre and became fascinated with the works of the contemporary dramatist Yuzo Yamamoto. A colleague formally introduced him to Yamamoto, to which Kishida shared his manuscript for A Wan Smile with him for review. Kishida was initially concerned that Yamamoto's passion for German literature would negatively affect his perception of A Wan Smile's French undertones. After Yamamoto read the play in front of Kishida during a dinner together, he praised the text for its originality compared to current Japanese plays. With renewed confidence, Kishida was determined to reignite his original playwriting aspirations. However, the Great 1923 Kanto Earthquake caused extensive damage throughout Tokyo and nearly decimated all of the city's theatre venues. To acquire an alternative income, Kishida opened a French-language school, The Moliere School, named in honor of the 17th Century playwright who Copeau regularly staged. Yamamoto assisted Kishida in launching his playwriting career when he created the theatre magazine Engeki Shincho (New Currents of Drama). The magazine's objective was to highlight the latest developments in Japanese theatre, and Kishida's A Wan Smile (retitled Old Toys) was published in the magazine's March 1924 issue. Subsequently, Kishida's expansive knowledge of French and European dramaturgy led to his involvement in multiple theatre journals and magazines where he submitted essays and reviews on Japanese theatre, including Bungei Shunju (Literary Annals) and Bungei Jidai (Literary Age). Combined with his concurrent playwriting pursuits, Kishida swiftly became an influential figure in the Japanese drama community. The Tsukiji Little Theatre opened in Tokyo in 1924, and it marked a significant shift in Japanese theatre for its focus on avant-garde, European plays as opposed to kabuki and noh. Kishida was asked to submit a review of the Tsukiji's opening night plays. He went with an open mind to assess how these plays reflected current trends in Japanese drama, especially as he became aware of the theatre director Kaoru Osanai's progressive and controversial decision to only stage Western plays. He hoped to establish a partnership with Osanai in which he could utilize his firsthand knowledge and exposure to European theatre to assist in the production of the Tsukiji's plays. The opening night's performances were Japanese-translated adaptations of Chekhov's Swan Song, Emile Mazaud's The Holiday, and Reinhard Goering's A Sea Battle. Despite his admiration for European theatre, Kishida published a scathing review of the three performances and Osanai's leadership. He rebuked the performances as weak and chastised the theatre for investing too much money into the stage designs instead of formal training for the actors. As a Japanese translation and interpretation of European works, Kishida wrote the stagings of these distinctly non-Japanese works were ineffective and hastily conceived. Consequently, he added this rendered the narratives far too difficult for the Japanese audience to comprehend. Perhaps the most damning component of Kishida's criticism was an entire section where he lambasted Osanai's personality as "pretentious and dogmatic". The published review resulted in a highly contentious relationship between Kishida and Osanai. It contributed to the latter's decision to never stage work by Kishida at the Tsukiji Little Theatre. The failure of the Tsukiji's opening night performances to move Kishida demonstrated his much broader dissatisfaction with the state of Japanese theatre. He felt that traditional performances of kabuki and noh were dated and that Japanese attempts at Western drama were mere imitations. Armed with a wealth of knowledge, experience, and creative inspiration accrued during his European residency, Kishida deemed it imperative for Japanese theatre to pursue more serious, psychological narratives and to strengthen performers' acting abilities. For the second half of the 1920s, Kishida devoted much of his time to writing plays that captured the theatrical ideals he sought for Japan. Primarily one-act stories, Kishida's first plays featured small groupings of characters (usually only two) set within private, domestic settings. The narratives revolved around relationships and other personalized issues between characters. He deliberately eschewed any social, political, and historical thematic overtones; this became a distinct attribute associated with Kishida's playwriting. New Theatre Research Institute (1926 - 1929) In an effort to modernize and reform Japanese theatre, Kishida established the New Theatre Institute (Shingeki kenkyusho) in 1926. Together with the playwrights Iwata Toyoo and Sekiguchi Jiro, the Shingeki kenkyusho was an experimental academic institution intended to educate a younger generation of aspiring playwrights and actors on modern and more refined methods of theatrical composition and performance. However, the institution failed to arouse enthusiasm among the students as they did not fully grasp the lessons of Kishida and his associates. A lack of resources to fully elucidate Kishida's theatrical ideals for Japanese dramaturgy was the primary reason for its failure. The New Theatre Research Institute did not have experienced guest lecturers to speak in comparison to Copeau's access to countless theatre professionals. Moreover, the absence of skilled Western-style performances in Japan made it more challenging for students to apply their education to actual performances. Kishida attempted to remedy this issue through regular screenings of foreign film adaptations of Western plays; these supplemental resources were insufficient to properly educate students on modern acting and playwriting. Although the Institute did not meet Kishida's expectations, he obtained a loyal protege with whom he collaborated for the rest of his life, Tanaka Chikao. He joined the Institute in 1927 while enrolled in Keio University and was lauded for his mastery of French literature, especially his comprehensive study of French dramaturgy and dialogue. The Tsukiji Theatre (1932 - 1936) As Kishida attained increasing prominence in theatre and literary circles, he founded the Tsukiji Theatre (Tsukijiza) in 1932. In partnership with the husband-and-wife actors Tomoda Kyosuke and Tamura Akiko, the theatre operated as Kishida's first venue whose productions were firmly rooted in the attributes of Western dramaturgy. Although Kishida's aim to stage Western productions appeared similar to Osanai's goal in the 1920s, Kishida did not want to employ actors whose performance styles were derived from the emotive expressiveness of kabuki. The Tsukiji Theatre did not attract enough attention to sustain its performances as it coincided with a surge in rival theatre troupes. The popularity of companies such as the New Associated Drama Troupe (Shinkyo Gekidan) and The New Tsukiji Drama Troupe (Shin-Tsukiji Gekidan) overshadowed the work of Kishida and his associates. The theatre disbanded in 1936, but Kishida immediately transitioned into a more popular venue, the Bungakuza. The Literary Theatre (1937 - 1954) In 1937, Kishida co-founded The Literary Theatre (Bungakuza) with Iwata Toyoo and Michio Kato as a venue to stage Western plays. Although similar to the play selections of Osanai's Tsukiji Little Theatre, Kishida proceeded to stage productions that were thematically personal and individualized rather than social and political. Kishida's expertise in French drama was a major determinant in the theatre's selection of celebrated playwrights: Roger Martin du Gard, Jules Romains, Jean-Victor Pellerian, Simon Gantillon, and Marcel Pagnol. In 1938, Kishida was sent by the Japanese government to the southern front of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in China in order to chronicle the conflict. Considered to be a “safe” literary figure by the increasingly oppressive Japanese government because of his introspective style and non-inflammatory political beliefs, Kishida detailed his travels in China in his book Jugun gojunichi (Following the Troops for Fifty Days). However, Kishida's reputation among Japanese audiences suffered throughout the Second World War. Since Kishida's plays intentionally lacked political messages, he was one of only a few playwrights whose work was not censored by the right-wing government. In contrast to left-wing theatrical troupes, their overtly political, anti-Fascist positions led to their forced suppression and arrests by the police. Kishida's ostracization was further intensified by his membership in the ultra-right Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Taisei Yokusankai). This government-sponsored society stipulated its participants to comply with the State's policies. For Kishida, this meant he had to maintain the status quo through the continued staging of politically neutral plays that did not criticize the government nor espouse progressive ideas. During the Occupation of Japan in the late-1940s and early-1950s, Kishida's newfound appreciation for modern American plays helped to quell tensions between the Japanese and the American military. Soldiers preferred shingeki theatre for its Westernized performances, storylines, and settings, and the staging of American works such as Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire and Thornton Wilder's Our Town. Kishida's reputation for directing performances that were largely apolitical contributed to this period of calm. American forces did not favor kabuki and noh for their overt references to Japanese culture and history and were concerned these plays would regenerate nationalistic fervor. While Western plays were highly favored at The Literary Theatre, Kishida did not follow Osanai's exclusive policy to stage only Western plays as he produced Japanese works, albeit ones that contained no political subtext. Among the Japanese playwrights whose works were featured, Kaoru Morimoto's Surging Waves was performed in October 1943 and The Life of a Woman in April 1945; it marked one of the first instances in which Kishida's reputation recovered among the Japanese in the Post-1945 period. By the 1950s, Kishida and The Literary Theatre regularly encouraged staged works by younger, unknown playwrights. This openness to highlight modern Japanese drama launched the careers of a multitude of late-20th and early-21st Century playwrights: Kishida's protege Tanaka Chikao from The New Theatre Research Institute, Yukio Mishima, and Michio Kato. Theatre criticism In addition to his roles as playwright and director, Kishida shaped Japanese drama's transition to modernization through the dozens of essays and reviews he published in multiple theatre journals and magazines, such as Bungei Shunju (Literary Annals) and Bungei Jidai (Literary Age). Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Kishida founded several new theatre publications to distribute articles, essays, and reviews in response to contemporary shifts in Japanese drama such as Tragedy and Comedy in 1928 and Gekisaku (Play Writing) in 1932. Views on Japanese Theatre Throughout his life, Kishida criticized traditional Japanese theatre as an outdated mode of expression that was inferior to Western dramaturgy. He openly disliked kabuki's melodrama and emphasis on heightened emotions rather than subtlety and naturalism. Shimpa's attempt to theatricize modern life while retaining the emotionalism of kabuki was equally displeasing to him. While not an enthusiast for noh, Kishida was not as vocal in his opposition compared to kabuki and shimpa. He considered noh as far too dissimilar from modern Japanese drama to the point where it was its own separate entity that would not interfere with the redesign of Japanese theatre. Kishida once wrote about a kabuki performance he saw upon his return to Japan in 1923. Even after he described his powerfully moving experience and recounted the sense of joy that overcame him, Kishida acknowledged that dramatic modernization was still a necessity for Japan as he argued traditional theatre was too tied to the past and could not simultaneously look to the future. Kishida and Shingeki Even though Kishida expressed innumerable qualms concerning the state of Japanese drama, he clarified that he did not want all of Japan's identity to be Westernized. However, he noted that the history of European theatre is entirely composed of disparate countries that influenced one another's playwriting and performance styles, to which he described it as "an amalgamation". Beginning in the 1920s, Kishida concretized his vision for Shingeki (“New Drama/New Theatre”) as the ideal method to modernize Japanese theatre. Influenced by the European philosophical movements of Naturalism and Symbolism, works were meant to adopt Western-style theatre customs of naturalistic acting and deeply psychological narratives. As both an observer and a theatre director, Kishida mentioned the necessity of theatres to recognize the importance of forming a dynamic relationship between the playwright, stage, director, actors, and audience. Kishida's decision to compose and feature plays centered around the lives of middle and upper-class characters was indicative of his preference to cater to educated, bourgeois audiences. Personal life In 1927, Kishida married Murakawa Tokiko, and they had two daughters. After Tokiko died in 1942, close associates of Kishida remarked that he never fully recovered from his wife’s death. Both of Kishida's daughters went on to pursue careers in the arts. Eriko (1929–2011) was a poet and writer of children's stories, and Kyoko (1930–2006) was an actress who made her debut in the 1950 staging of Fukuda Tsuneari's Typhoon Kitty. Death Kishida died of a stroke in Tokyo during a dress rehearsal for a theatrical production with which he was associated on March 5, 1954. Style, Content, and Themes Style Between drama and comedic satire, Kishida wrote over 60 plays. When he first composed Old Toys and other earlier works, his plays began as short, one-act stories involving a small circle or pair of characters; often, these were labeled "sketch plays". One of the most famous of these short plays is Paper Balloon (1925), which follows a married couple engaged in playful banter as they conceive of a fictional scenario of how they would spend a Sunday. Eventually, his narratives unfolded in complex, multi-act storylines with interweaving substories involving multiple characters. Ushiyama Hotel (1928) is set in a Japanese-run hotel in Haiphong, Vietnam, and it serves as the primary setting for the disparate residents and employees who each become embroiled in one another's personal lives. Regarding scriptwriting, Kishida stressed the importance of dialogue as a major driving force in both narrative progression and character development and that it must be composed of beautiful, literary words. Content The central conflicts of the majority of his plays relate to personal, emotional, and psychological issues specific to individual characters and their relationships. These works are located in the domestic settings of middle and upper-class dwellings. For example, Mr. Sawa's Two Daughters (1935) is about the tense relationship between a government employee and his two adult daughters over the issues of familial secrecy and emotional irresponsibility. Although largely uninterested in proletarian drama, a few of Kishida's plays featured major characters of lower social standing, as seen in Roof Garden (1926) and Mount Asama (1931). Themes Kishida was distinguished from his contemporaries for his lack of socio-political themes, primarily because his works were written and performed during times of internal political upheaval and international turmoil. Space, time, memory, marriage, and irresponsibility are among the most prevalent themes within Kishida's corpus of work. Legacy Kishida's modernization of the Japanese theatre was a slow and arduous process that did not fully flower until after his 1954 death. His transformational approach to playwriting and theatre acting developed over his lifetime and remains a staple of contemporary Japanese drama. Copeau's directorial style and the influential Drama Purification Movement compelled Kishida to introduce natural and rhythmic dialogue to Japanese performers. The creative decision to have his characters speak with simple, everyday phrases helped move performers and playwrights away from deferring to high-brow dialogue that could alienate certain audiences. As a multidisciplinary creative space, Kishida's equal emphasis on the theatre's literary and artistic values allowed him to apply elements of Western dramaturgy to construct more complex storylines and emotionally variable characters. Kishida's career as a theatre director and management of The Literary Theatre introduced Japanese audiences to a number of European and American playwrights: Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Jean Giraudoux, Jean Anouilh, Eugene Ionesco, Tennessee Williams, Anton Chekhov, Edmond Rostand, William Shakespeare, Thornton Wilder, Eugene O'Neill, et al. The Literary Theatre continues to operate in Tokyo, but the venue no longer follows Kishida's strict policy of staging only politically neutral plays. Kishida's openness to allow modern Japanese playwrights the opportunity to have their plays performed produced a slew of vastly diverse playwrights: Tanaka Chikao, Yushi Koyama, Kaoru Morimoto, Yukio Mishima, Sawako Ariyoshi, et al. Since 1955, the annual Kishida Kunio Drama Award has been presented by the Hakusuisha publishing house to new playwrights who demonstrate an aptitude for groundbreaking theatrical composition, and it is regarded as Japan's most prestigious award for playwriting. Influences The majority of Kishida's inspiration originates from his studies of European playwrights and directors: Jacques Copeau, Moliere, Jules Renard, William Shakespeare, Maurice Maeterlinck, Anton Chekhov, Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, Charles Vildrac, et al. Despite his criticisms of Japanese theatre, Kishida cited three Japanese playwrights from the Taisho Era whom he believed made significant contributions to the modernization of Japanese dramaturgy: Kikuchi Kan for his emphasis on theme Yuzo Yamamoto for his deft understanding of plot structure Mantaro Kubota for his literary style Directorial credits Select Plays Directed by Kishida 1926: Wire-Tapping by Kaneko Yobun at The New Theatre Society 1927: Hazakura (The Cherry Tree in Leaf), by Kunio Kishida at The New Theatre Society 1927: La paix chez soi (Peace at Home) by Georges Corteline at The New Theatre Society 1932:  La paix chez soi (Peace at Home) by Georges Corteline at The Teatro Comedie 1938: La paix chez soi (Peace at Home) by Georges Corteline at The Literary Theatre 1938: Monsieur Badin at The Teatro Comedie 1938: Fish Tribe by Yushi Koyama 1938: Akimizumine by Naoya Uchimura 1940: Gears by Naoya Uchimura 1948: Woman Who Eats Dreams by Akira Nogami 1950: Doen Karan by Kunio Kishida 1954: The Lower Depths by Maxim Gorky Publications Essay collections 1940: Engeki no bonshitsu (The Essence of Drama) 1951: Engeki ippan kowa (General Talks on the Theatre) Essays 1925: “Mikansei na gendai geki” (“The Incomplete Modern Theatre”) 1925: “Gikyoku izen no mono” (What Comes before the Play”) 1935: “Egekiron no ippoko” (“One Direction for Dramatic Theory”) 1935/1936: “New Movements on the Stage” “Bungaku ka gikyoku ka?” (“Literature or Drama?”) “Engeki honshitsuron no seiri” (“Some Amendments to the Essence of Dramatic Theory”) “Gekidan ankoku no ben” (“Some Words on the Gloomy State of the Theatre Companies”) “Gekido kyusai no hitsuyo” (“The Need to Reclaim the Art of the Theatre”) “Gekijo to kankyakuso” (“Theatres and Spectators”) “Gekisaku ni tsugu” (“Concerning Playwriting magazine”) “Gekiteki engekiron ni tsuite” (“Concerning Contemporary Dramatic Theory”) “Gikyoku izen no mono” (“Before the Play”) “Gikyoku no seimei to engekibi” (“The Life of the Drama and the Beauty of the Theatre”) “Gikyoku oyobi gikyoku sakka ni tsuite” (Concerning Drama and Dramatic Writers”) “Gikyokushu Asamayama ni tsuite” (Concerning the drama anthology Mount Asama”) “Gikyokushu fuzokujihyo ni tsuite” (“Concerning the drama anthology A Commentary on Manners”) “Gikyokushu saigetsu ni tsuite” (“Concerning the drama anthology A Space of Time”) “Kabuki geki no shorai” (“The Future of kabuki Drama”) “Kankyakuso to shingeki no shukumei” (“Audiences and the Destiny of the New Theatre”) “Kishida Kunio shu ni tsuite” (“Concerning a Collected Volume of My Work”) “Kore kara no gikyoku” (“The Drama from Now On”) “Mikansei na gendai geki” (“The Incomplete Modern Theatre”) “Osanai kun no gikyokuron” “The Dramatic Theory of Osanai”) “Pommes cuites o nageru” (“Throwing Cooked Apples”) “Sendosei banno” (“Almight Agitation”) “Serifu toshite no nihongo” (“The Japanese Language in Dramatic Dialogue”) “Shanhai de senshi shita Tomoda Kyosuke kun” (“The Death of Tomoda Kyosuke, fallen in battle in Shanghai”) “Shibai to boku” (“The Drama and Me”) “Shibai to kenbutsu” (“The Drama and Entertainment”) “Shibai to seikatsu” (“The Drama and Our Daily Life”) “Shimpa geki to shimpa haiyu” (“Shimpa drama and shimpa actors”) “Shingekikai no bunya” (“Types of New Theatre”) “Shingeki kyokai no butai keiko” (“A Rehearsal of the New Theatre Society”) “Shingeki no kankyaku shokun e” (“To my Friends, the New Theatre audiences”) “Shingeki no kara” (“The Husk of the New Theatre”) “Shingeki no shimatsu” (“The State of the New Theatre”) “Shingeki no tame ni” (“For the Sake of the New Theatre”) “Shingeki no undo no futatsu no michi” (“Two Roads for the New Theatre Movement”) “Shingeki to musume Kyoko” (“The New Theatre and my daughter Kyoko”) “Shingeki undo no ikkosatsu” (“One Consideration for the New Theatre Movement”) “Shinkokugeki no okujoteien o mite” (“Roof Garden in a Performance by the Shinkokugeki Troupe”) “Tsukiji shogekijo no hataage” (“The Launching of the Tsukiji Little Theatre”) “Tsukijiza no mama sensei (“Professor Mama at the Tsukijiza”) “Wakakushi no engekiron ni tsuite” (“Concerning My Dramatic Theory”) “Zoku kotoba kotoba kotoba” (“More Word, Words, Words”) Lectures 1936: "Shibai to seikatsu" ("Plays and Life") – Presented at Meiji University Magazines 1928 – 1929: Higeki kigeki (Tragedy and Comedy) 1932 – 1940:  Gekisaku (Play Writing) Plays 1924: Furui Omocha (Old Toys) 1924: Chiroru no aki (Autumn in the Tyrols) 1925: Buranko (The Swing) 1925: Kamifusen (Paper Balloon) 1926: Shu-u (Sudden Shower) 1926: Hazakaru (The Cherry Tree in Leaf) 1926: Mure de ichi ban kuri no ki (The Tallest Chestnut in the Village) 1926: Okujoteien (Roof Garden) 1927: Ochiba nikki (Diary of Fallen Leaves) 1928: Ushiyama Hotel 1930: Mama sensei to sono otto (Professor Mama and her Husband) 1931: Asamayama (Mount Asama) 1931: It Will Be Fine Tomorrow 1935: Shokugyo (Vocation) 1935: Sawa-shi no futari musume (Mr. Sawa’s Two Daughters) 1935: Saigetsu (A Space of Time) 1936: Fuzoku jihyo (A Commentary on Manners) 1943: A Warm Current 1948: Hayamizu Juku (Hayamizu Girls School) 1949: Adoration Karai hakase no rinju (The Last Moments of Doctor Karai) Shiitake to yuben (Mushrooms and Eloquence) Koji-kun’s Visit Day Absence Rain Shower Year Doen Karan Face The World of Sound Women’s Thirsty Books Rakuyou nikki Jugun gojunichi (Following the Troops for Fifty Days) Translations of French texts 1933: Poil de carotte by Jules Renard 1938: Farewell is Fun by Jules Renard 1939: Group of Fallen People by Henri-Rene Lenormand 1940: Burning Fire Okuri by Paul Elview 1947: The Police Chief’s an Easygoing Guy by Georges Courteline Adaptations The Good Fairy (善魔, Zenma) (1951) director Keisuke Kinoshita, based on his novel Zenma Sudden Rain (驟雨, Shūu) (1956) director Mikio Naruse, based on his play Shower Further reading References External links 1890 births 1954 deaths 20th-century Japanese dramatists and playwrights

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Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Arthur Montague "Boy" Browning, (20 December 1896 – 14 March 1965) was a senior officer of the British Army who has been called the "father of the British airborne forces". He was the commander of I Airborne Corps and deputy commander of First Allied Airborne Army during Operation Market Garden in September 1944. During the planning for this operation, he was alleged to have said: "I think we might be going a bridge too far." He was also an Olympic bobsleigh competitor, and the husband of author Dame Daphne du Maurier. Educated at Eton College and then at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Browning was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Grenadier Guards in 1915. During the First World War, he fought on the Western Front, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for conspicuous gallantry during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917. In September 1918, he became aide de camp to General Sir Henry Rawlinson. After the war, he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in which his team finished tenth. He married Daphne du Maurier in July 1932. During the Second World War, Browning commanded the 1st Airborne Division and I Airborne Corps. He led the latter during Operation Market Garden, travelling by glider to participate in the assault. In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten's South East Asia Command. From September 1946 to January 1948, he was Military Secretary of the War Office. In January 1948, Browning became Comptroller and Treasurer to Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. After she ascended to the throne to become Queen Elizabeth II in 1952, he became treasurer in the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh. He suffered a severe nervous breakdown in 1957 and retired in 1959. He died at Menabilly, the mansion that inspired his wife's novel Rebecca, on 14 March 1965. Early life Frederick Arthur Montague Browning was born on 20 December 1896 at his family home in Kensington, London. The house was later demolished to make way for an expansion of Harrods, allowing him to claim in later life that he had been born in its piano department. He was the first son of Frederick Henry Browning, a wine merchant, and his wife Nancy (née Alt). He had one sibling, his older sister Helen Grace. From an early age, he was known to his family as "Tommy". He was educated at West Downs School and Eton College, which his grandfather had attended. While at Eton, he joined the Officer Training Corps. First World War Browning sat the entrance examinations for the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, on 24 November 1914. Although he did not achieve the necessary scores in all the required subjects, the headmasters of some schools, including Eton, were in a position to recommend students for nomination by the Army Council. The headmaster of Eton, Edward Lyttelton, put Browning's name forward and in this way he entered Sandhurst on 27 December 1914. He graduated on 16 June 1915, and was commissioned a second lieutenant into the Grenadier Guards. Joining such an exclusive regiment, even in wartime, required a personal introduction and an interview by the regimental commander, Colonel Sir Henry Streatfield. Initially, Browning joined the 4th Battalion, Grenadier Guards, which was training at Bovington Camp. When it departed for the Western Front in August 1915, he was transferred to the 5th (Reserve) Battalion. In October 1915 he left it to join the 2nd Battalion at the front. The battalion formed part of the 1st Guards Brigade of the Guards Division. Around this time he acquired the nickname "Boy". For a time he served in the same company of 2nd Battalion as Major Winston Churchill. Upon Churchill's arrival, Browning was given the job of showing him the company's trenches. When Browning discovered that Churchill had no greatcoat, Browning gave Churchill his own. Browning was invalided back to England with trench fever in January 1916, and, although only hospitalised for four weeks, did not rejoin the 2nd Battalion at the front until 6 October 1916. After being released from hospital, he went on leave for two months. In April he was posted to the 5th (Reserve) Battalion, and then to the Guards Depot at Caterham. He was assessed each month by a medical board at Caxton Hall, and was not passed as fit for service at the front until 20 September. Browning fought in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge on 31 July 1917, the Battle of Poelcappelle on 9 October and the Battle of Cambrai in November. He distinguished himself in this battle, for which he received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). The order was generally given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. When a junior officer like Browning, who was still only a lieutenant, was awarded the DSO, this was often regarded as an acknowledgement that the officer had only just missed out on being awarded the Victoria Cross. His citation read: He was awarded the French Croix de Guerre on 14 December 1917, and was mentioned in despatches on 23 May 1918. In September 1918, Browning became aide de camp to General Sir Henry Rawlinson, commander of the British Fourth Army, after which he returned to his regiment. He was promoted to the temporary rank of captain, and appointed adjutant of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, then part of the 3rd Guards Brigade of the Guards Division, in November 1918. Inter-war period Browning was granted the substantive rank of captain on 24 November 1920. He retained his post as adjutant until November 1921, when he was posted to the Guards' Depot in Caterham. In 1924 he was posted to Sandhurst as adjutant. He was the first adjutant, during the Sovereign's Parade of 1926, to ride his horse (named "The Vicar") up the steps of Old College and to dismount in the Grand Entrance. There is no satisfactory explanation as to why he did it. After the Second World War this became an enduring tradition, but since horses have great difficulty going down steps, a ramp is now provided for the horse to return. Other members of staff at Sandhurst at the time included Richard O'Connor, Miles Dempsey, Douglas Gracey, and Eric Dorman-Smith, with whom he became close friends. Browning relinquished the appointment of adjutant at Sandhurst on 28 April 1928, and was promoted to major on 22 May 1928. Following a pattern whereby tours of duty away from the regiment alternated with those in it, he was sent for a refresher course at the Small Arms School before being posted to the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, at Pirbright. His workload was very light, allowing plenty of time for sports. Browning competed in the Amateur Athletic Association of England championships in hurdling but failed to make Olympic selection. He did however make the Olympic five-man bobsleigh team as brake-man. An injury incurred during a training accident prevented his participation in the bobsleigh at the 1924 Winter Olympics, but he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in which his team finished tenth. Browning was also a keen sailor, competing in the Household Cavalry Sailing Regatta at Chichester Harbour in 1930. He purchased his own motor boat, a cabin cruiser that he named Ygdrasil. In 1931, Browning read Daphne du Maurier's novel The Loving Spirit and, impressed by its graphic depictions of the Cornish coastline, set out to see it for himself in Ygdrasil. Afterwards, he left the boat moored in the River Fowey for the winter, but returned in April 1932 to collect it. He heard that the author of the book that had impressed him so much was convalescing from an appendix operation, and invited her out on his boat. After a short romance, he proposed to her but she rejected this, as she did not believe in marriage. Dorman-Smith then went to see her and explained that their living together without marriage would be disastrous for Browning's career. Du Maurier then proposed to Browning, who accepted. They were married in a simple ceremony at the Church of St Willow, Lanteglos-by-Fowey on 19 July 1932, and honeymooned on Ygdrasil. Their marriage produced three children: two daughters, Tessa and Flavia, and a son, Christian, known as Kits. Browning was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 1 February 1936, and was appointed commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards. The battalion was deployed to Egypt in 1936 and returned in December 1937. His term as commander ended on 1 August 1939; he was removed from the Grenadier Guards' regimental list but remained on full pay. On 1 September, he was promoted to colonel, with his seniority backdated to 1 February 1939, and became Commandant of the Small Arms School. Second World War Airborne troops Establishment In mid-May 1940, eight months after the outbreak of the Second World War, Browning, promoted to brigadier, was given command of the 128th (Hampshire) Infantry Brigade (consisting of the 1/4th, 2/4th and 5th Battalions of the Hampshire Regiment). Part of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, which was then commanded by Major-General Robert Pollok, the brigade was a Territorial Army unit that was preparing to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. This was pre-empted by the Dunkirk evacuation and the subsequent fall of France in June, and the division instead assumed a defensive posture. In late February 1941, after handing over the brigade to Brigadier Manley James, Browning succeeded Brigadier The Hon. William Fraser, a fellow Grenadier Guardsman and an old friend, in command of the 24th Guards Brigade Group, whose objective was to defend London from an attack from the south. On 3 November 1941, Browning was promoted to the acting rank of major-general, and appointed as the first General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the newly created 1st Airborne Division. The division initially comprised the 1st Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Richard Gale, and the 1st Airlanding Brigade, under Brigadier George Hopkinson. In this new role he was instrumental in parachutists adopting the maroon beret, and assigned an artist, Major Edward Seago, to design the Parachute Regiment's emblem of the warrior Bellerophon riding Pegasus, the winged horse. Browning designed his own uniform. Because of this he has been called the "father of the British airborne forces".He qualified as a pilot in 1942, and henceforth wore the Army Air Corps wings, which he also designed himself. Training Browning supervised the newly formed division as it underwent a prolonged period of expansion and intensive training, with new brigades raised and assigned to the division, and new equipment tested. Though not considered an airborne warfare visionary, he proved adept at dealing with an apathetic War Office and an obstructionist Air Ministry, and demonstrated a knack for overcoming bureaucratic obstacles. As the airborne forces expanded in size, the major difficulty in getting the 1st Airborne Division ready for operations was a shortage of aircraft. The Royal Air Force (RAF) had neglected air transport before the war, and the only available aircraft for airborne troops were conversions of obsolete bombers like the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris, in particular, felt that the 1st Airborne Division was not worth the drain on RAF Bomber Command's resources. When the Prime Minister, Churchill, and General George Marshall, the US Army Chief of Staff, visited the 1st Airborne Division on 16 April 1942, they were treated to a demonstration involving every available aircraft of No. 38 Wing RAF—12 Whitleys and nine Hawker Hector biplanes towing General Aircraft Hotspur gliders. At a meeting on 6 May chaired by Churchill, Browning was asked what he required. He stated that he needed 96 aircraft to get the 1st Airborne Division battle-ready. Churchill directed Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal to find the required aircraft, and Portal agreed to supply 83 Whitleys, along with 10 Halifax bombers to tow the new, larger General Aircraft Hamilcar gliders. In July 1942, Browning travelled to the United States, where he toured airborne training facilities with his American counterpart, Major General William C. Lee, who soon took command of the US 101st Airborne Division. Browning's tendency to lecture the Americans on airborne warfare made him few friends among the Americans, who felt that the British were still novices themselves. Browning was envious of the Americans' equipment, particularly the Dakota transports. On returning to the United Kingdom, he arranged for a joint exercise to be conducted with the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment (2/503). Operation Torch In mid–September, as the 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength, Browning was informed that Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, would take place in November. When he found that the 2/503 was to take part, Browning argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised, as the vast distances and comparatively light opposition would provide opportunities for airborne operations. The War Office and the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, General Sir Bernard Paget, were won over by Browning's arguments, and agreed to detach the 1st Parachute Brigade, now under Brigadier Edwin Flavell, from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion. After it had been brought to full operational strength, partly by cross-posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Ernest Down, and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources, the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November. The results of British airborne operations in North Africa were mixed, and the subject of a detailed report by Browning. The airborne troops had operated under several handicaps, including shortages of aerial photographs and maps of the target area. All the troop carrier aircrew were American, who lacked familiarity with airborne operations and in dealing with British troops and equipment. Browning felt that the inexperience with handling airborne operations extended to Eisenhower's Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) and that of the British First Army, resulting in the paratroops being misused. He felt that had they been employed more aggressively and in greater strength they might have shortened the Tunisian campaign by some months. The 1st Parachute Brigade had been called the "Rote Teufel" or "Red Devils" by the German troops they had fought. Browning pointed out to the brigade that this was an honour, as "distinctions given by the enemy are seldom won in battle except by the finest fighting troops." The title was officially confirmed by General Sir Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied 18th Army Group, and henceforth it applied to all British airborne troops. Allied Force Headquarters posting On 1 January 1943, Browning was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. He relinquished command of the 1st Airborne Division to Brigadier George Hopkinson, formerly the commander of the 1st Airlanding Brigade, in March 1943 to take up a new post as major-general, Airborne Forces at Eisenhower's AFHQ. He soon clashed with the commander of the American 82nd Airborne Division, Major General Matthew Ridgway. When Browning asked to see the plans for Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily, Ridgway replied that they would not be available for scrutiny until after they had been approved by the U.S. Seventh Army commander, Lieutenant General George S. Patton. When Browning protested, Patton backed Ridgway, but Eisenhower and his chief of staff, Major General Walter Bedell Smith, supported Browning and forced them to back down. Browning's dealings with the British Army were no smoother. Hopkinson sold the British Eighth Army commander, General Sir Bernard Montgomery, on Operation Ladbroke, a glider landing to seize the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse. Browning's objections to the operation were ignored, and attempts to discuss airborne operations with the corps commanders elicited a directive from Montgomery that all such discussion had to go through him. Browning concluded that to be effective, the airborne advisor had to have equal rank with the army commanders. In September 1943, Browning travelled to India, where he inspected the 50th Parachute Brigade, and met with Major-General Orde Wingate, the commander of the Chindits. Browning held a series of meetings with General Sir Claude Auchinleck, the Commander-in-Chief, India; Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse, the Air Officer C-in-C; and Lieutenant-General Sir George Giffard, the GOC Eastern Army. They discussed plans for improving the airborne establishment in India and expanding the airborne force there to a division. As a result of these discussions, and Browning's subsequent report to the War Office, the 44th Indian Airborne Division was formed in October 1944. Browning sent his most experienced airborne commander, Major-General Ernest Down, formerly the 2nd Parachute Brigade commander until he succeeded Hopkinson, who had been killed in Italy, as GOC 1st Airborne Division, to India as GOC of the 44th Division. Down's replacement in command of the 1st Airborne Division by Montgomery's selection, Major-General Roy Urquhart, an officer with no airborne experience, rather than Browning's choice, Brigadier Gerald Lathbury of the 1st Parachute Brigade. The decision was to become controversial. Some saw Browning as "a ruthless and manipulative empire builder who brooked no opposition". Brigadier-General James M. Gavin, the assistant division commander (ADC) of the 82nd Airborne Division, recalled that when he travelled to England in November 1943, the 82nd's commander, Major General Ridgway "cautioned me against the machinations and scheming of General F. M. Browning, who was the senior British airborne officer, and well he should have." Major-General Ray Barker told him that Browning was "an empire builder", an assessment with which Gavin came to agree. Operation Market Garden Browning assumed a new command on 4 December 1943. His Directive No. 1 announced that "the title of the force is Headquarters, Airborne Troops (21st Army Group). All correspondence will bear the official title, but verbally it will be known as the Airborne Corps and I will be referred to as the Corps Commander." He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 7 January 1944, with his seniority backdated to 9 December 1943. He officially became commander of I Airborne Corps on 16 April 1944. I Airborne Corps became part of the First Allied Airborne Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton, in August 1944. While retaining command of the corps, Browning also became Deputy Commander of the Army, despite a poor relationship with Brereton and being disliked by many American officers, including Major General Ridgway, now commanding the newly created U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, in turn handing over the 82nd Airborne Division to Brigadier General Gavin. During preparations for one of many cancelled operations, Linnete II, his disagreement with Brereton over a risky operation caused him to threaten resignation, which, due to differences in military culture, Brereton regarded as tantamount to disobeying an order. Browning was forced into a humiliating backdown. When I Airborne Corps was committed to action in Operation Market Garden in September 1944, Browning's rift with Brereton had severe repercussions. Browning was concerned about the timetable put forward by Major-General Paul L. Williams of the IX Troop Carrier Command, under which the drop was staggered over several days, and not to make two drops on the first day. This restricted the number of combat troops available on the first day. He also disagreed with the British drop zones proposed by Air Vice Marshal Leslie Hollinghurst of No. 38 Group, which he felt were too distant from the bridge at Arnhem, but Browning now felt unable to challenge the airmen. Browning downplayed evidence brought to him by his intelligence officer, Major Brian Urquhart, that the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg were in the Arnhem area, but was not as confident as he led his subordinates to believe. According to Major-General Urquhart, GOC of the British 1st Airborne Division, when informed that his airborne troops would have to hold the bridge for two days, Browning responded that they could hold it for four, but later claimed to Urquhart that he had added: "But I think we might be going a bridge too far." Browning landed by gliders with a tactical headquarters near Nijmegen. His use of 38 aircraft to move his corps headquarters on the first lift has been criticised. Half of these gliders carried signal equipment but for much of the operation he had no contact with either the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem or Major General Maxwell D. Taylor's U.S. 101st Airborne Division at Eindhoven. His headquarters had not been envisaged as a frontline unit, and the signals section that had been hastily assembled just weeks before lacked training and experience. In his pack, Browning carried three teddy bears and a framed print of Albrecht Dürer's The Praying Hands. After the war, Gavin and his staff were criticised for the decision to secure the high ground around Groesbeek before attempting the capture of the Waal bridge at Nijmegen. Browning took responsibility for this, noting that he "personally gave an order to Jim Gavin that, although every effort should be made to effect the capture of the Grave and Nijmegen bridges as soon as possible, it was essential that he should capture the Groesbeek Ridge and hold it". Browning was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta (II class) by the Polish government-in-exile, but his critical evaluation of the contribution of Polish forces led to the removal of Major-General Stanisław Sosabowski as commanding officer of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade. Some writers later claimed that Sosabowski had been made a scapegoat for the failure of Market Garden. Montgomery attached no blame to Browning or any of his subordinates, or indeed acknowledged failure at all. He told Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the [Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] (CIGS), the professional head of the British Army, that he would like Browning to take over VIII Corps in the event that Sir Richard O'Connor, the GOC, was transferred to another theatre. South East Asia Command Events took a different course. Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command (SEAC), had need of a new chief of staff owing to the poor health of Lieutenant-General Henry Pownall. Brooke turned down Mountbatten's initial request for either Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Nye or Lieutenant-General Sir John Swayne. Brooke then offered Browning for the post, and Mountbatten accepted. Pownall considered that Browning was "excellently qualified" for the post, although the latter had no staff college training and had never held a staff job before. Pownall noted that his "only reservation is that I believe [Browning] is rather nervy and highly strung". For his services as a corps commander, Browning was mentioned in despatches a second time, and was awarded the Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander by the United States government. Browning served in South East Asia from December 1944 until July 1946; Mountbatten soon came to regard him as indispensable. Browning had an American deputy, Major-General Horace H. Fuller, and brought staff with him from Europe to SEAC headquarters in Kandy, Ceylon. SEAC headquarters developed an adversarial relationship with that of Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese's Allied Land Forces South East Asia (ALFSEA). Matters came to a head when Leese attempted to replace the victorious commander of the Fourteenth Army, Lieutenant-General Sir William Slim. In the resulting furore, Leese was relieved instead. Slim took over ALFSEA and was replaced as Fourteenth Army commander by Browning's friend, Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey. For his services at SEAC, Browning was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1946. His last major military post was as Military Secretary of the War Office from 16 September 1946 to January 1948, although he did not formally retire from the Army until 5 April 1948. Later life In January 1948, Browning became Comptroller and Treasurer to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. This appointment was made on the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten, whose nephew Philip Mountbatten was now the Duke of Edinburgh. As such, Browning became the head of the Princess' personal staff. Browning also juggled other duties. In 1948 he was involved with the 1948 Summer Olympics as Deputy Chairman of the British Olympic Association, and commandant of the British team. From 1944 to 1962 he was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club; on stepping down in 1962, he was elected its first admiral. Upon the death of King George VI in 1952, the Duchess of Edinburgh came to the throne as Queen Elizabeth II, and Browning and his staff became redundant, as the Queen was served by the large staff of the monarch. The domestic staff remained at Clarence House, where they continued to serve the Queen Mother; the remainder were reorganised as the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh, with Browning as treasurer, the head of the office, and moved into a new and larger office at Buckingham Palace. Like the Duke they served, the office had no constitutional role, but supported his sporting, cultural and scientific interests. Browning became involved with the Cutty Sark Trust, set up to preserve the famous ship, and the administration of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award. In June 1953, Browning and du Maurier attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Browning had been drinking since the war, but it had now become chronic. This led to a severe nervous breakdown in July 1957, forcing his resignation from his position at the Palace in 1959. Du Maurier had known he had a mistress in Fowey, but his breakdown brought to light two other girlfriends in London. For her part, du Maurier confessed to her own wartime affair. For his services to the Royal Household, Browning was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953, and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in 1959. He retreated to Menabilly, the mansion that had inspired du Maurier's novel Rebecca, which she had leased and restored in 1943. He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Cornwall in March 1960. Browning caused a scandal in 1963 when, under the influence of prescription drugs and alcohol, he was involved in an automobile accident in which two people were injured. He was fined £50 and forced to pay court and medical costs. He died from a heart attack at Menabilly on 14 March 1965. Legacy Browning was portrayed by Dirk Bogarde in the film A Bridge Too Far, which was based on the events of Operation Market Garden. A copy of Browning's uniform was made to Bogarde's measurements from the original in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum. The Airborne Forces Museum, which opened in 1969, was for many years located in Browning Barracks, which had been built in 1964 and named after Browning. Browning Barracks remained the depot of the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces until 1993. The museum moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford in 2008, and Browning Barracks was sold for housing development. Notes References External links British Army Officers 1939−1945 |- |- 1896 births 1965 deaths Airborne warfare Bobsledders at the 1928 Winter Olympics British Army generals of World War II British Army personnel of World War I British male bobsledders Commanders of the Legion of Merit Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Companions of the Order of the Bath Deputy Lieutenants of Cornwall Du Maurier family Foreign recipients of the Legion of Merit Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Grenadier Guards officers Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Olympic bobsledders of Great Britain People educated at Eton College People educated at West Downs School People from Kensington Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Academics of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst British Army generals Military personnel from London

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South Orange, officially the Township of South Orange Village, is a suburban township in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the village's population was 16,198, reflecting a decline of 766 (-4.5%) from the 16,964 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 574 (+3.5%) from the 16,390 counted in the 1990 Census. Seton Hall University is located in the township. "The time and circumstances under which the name South Orange originated will probably never be known," wrote historian William H. Shaw in 1884, "and we are obliged to fall back on a tradition, that Mr. Nathan Squier first used the name in an advertisement offering wood for sale" in 1795. Other sources attribute the derivation for all of The Oranges to King William III, Prince of Orange. Of the 565 municipalities in New Jersey, South Orange Village is one of only four with a village type of government; the others are Loch Arbour, Ridgefield Park and Ridgewood. South Orange Village dates back to May 4, 1869, when it was formed within South Orange Township (now Maplewood). On March 4, 1904, the Village of South Orange was created by an act of the New Jersey Legislature and separated from South Orange Township. In 1978, the village's name was changed by referendum to "The Township of South Orange Village", becoming the first of more than a dozen Essex County municipalities to reclassify themselves as townships in order take advantage of federal revenue sharing policies that allocated townships a greater share of government aid to municipalities on a per capita basis. History What is now South Orange was part of a territory purchased from the Lenape Native Americans in 1666 by Robert Treat, who founded Newark that year on the banks of the Passaic River. The unsettled areas north and west of Newark were at first referred to as the uplands. South Orange was called the Chestnut Hills for a time. There are two claimants to the first English settlement in present-day South Orange. In 1677 brothers Joseph and Thomas Brown began clearing land for a farm in the area northwest of the junction of two old trails that are now South Orange Avenue and Ridgewood Road. A survey made in 1686 states, "note this Land hath a House on it, built by Joseph Brown and Thomas Brown, either of them having an equal share of it" located at the present southwest corner of Tillou Road and Ridgewood Road. Minutes of a Newark town meeting of September 27, 1680, record that "Nathaniel Wheeler, Edward Riggs, and Joseph Riggs, have a Grant to take up Land upon the Chesnut Hill by Rahway River near the Stone House". The phrasing shows that a stone house already existed near (not on) the property. Joseph Riggs (seemingly the son of Edward Riggs) had a house just south of the Browns' house, at the northwest corner of South Orange Avenue and Ridgewood Road, according to a road survey of 1705. The same road survey locates Edward Riggs's residence near Millburn and Nathaniel Wheeler's residence in modern West Orange at the corner of Valley Road and Main Street. Wheeler's property in South Orange extended east of the Rahway River including the site of an old house now known as the "Stone House", standing on the north side of South Orange Avenue just to the west of Grove Park. By 1756 or earlier this property was owned by Samuel Pierson. A survey of adjoining property in 1767 mentions "Pierson's house" forming accidentally the earliest documentation of a house on the property, which may be much older. Bethuel Pierson, son of Samuel, lived in this house and when he inherited it in 1773/74 he was said to live "at the mountain plantation by a certain brook called Stone House Brook." Sometime during his ownership (he died in 1791) "Bethuel Pierson had a stone addition added to his dwelling-house, which he caused to be dedicated by religious ceremonies". This would appear to be the stone-walled portion of the "Stone House". Stone House Brook runs west along the north side of the east–west road, past the "Stone House" and joining the Rahway River at about the location of the Brown and Riggs houses already noted. The oldest parts of the Pierson house are the oldest surviving structure in South Orange. A deed of 1800 locates a property as being in "the Township of Newark, in the Parish of Orange, at a place called South Orange", marking the end of the name Chestnut Hills. Orange had been named after the ruler of England, William of Orange. Most of modern South Orange became part of Orange Township in 1806, part of Clinton Township in 1834, and part of South Orange Township in 1861. South Orange Village split off from South Orange Township in 1869 due to the desire for extensive privileges in the conduct of public affairs. South Orange Village became a haven for those who wanted freedom from the commotion of city life after the end of the American Civil War. A majority of South Orange Township became what is now known as Maplewood, New Jersey. Gordon's Gazetteer circa 1830 describes the settlement as having "about 30 dwellings, a tavern and store, a paper mill and Presbyterian church". A country resort called the Orange Mountain House was established in 1847 on Ridgewood Road in present-day West Orange, where guests could enjoy the "water cure" from natural spring water and walk in the grounds that extended up the slope of South Mountain. The hotel burned down in 1890. The only remnants today are the names of Mountain Station and the Mountain House Road leading west from it to the site of the hotel. South Orange could be reached by the Morris and Essex Railroad which opened in 1837 between Newark and Morristown. As of 1869, the M&E became part of the main line of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad which ran from Hoboken to Buffalo with through trains to Chicago. The Montrose neighborhood was developed after the Civil War. Its large houses on generous lots attracted wealthy families from Newark and New York City during the decades from 1870 to 1900. The Orange Lawn Tennis Club was founded in 1880 at a location in Montrose, and in 1886 it was the location of the first US national tennis championships. The club moved to larger grounds on Ridgewood Road in 1916. Major tournament events were held at the club throughout the grass court era, and even into the mid-1980s professional events would occasionally be held there. What is now the Baird Community House was up until about 1920 the clubhouse for a golf course that encompassed what is now Meadowlands Park. Until regrading was performed during the 1970s, the outline of one of the course's sand traps was still visible near the base of Flood's Hill, a spot that has historically been one of the favorite sledding spots in Essex County. The construction of Village Hall in 1894 and the "old" library building in 1896 indicate how the village was growing by that date. Horsecar service from Newark started in 1865, running via South Orange Avenue to the station. Electric trolley cars began running the line in 1893 and by about 1900 a branch of this line also ran down Valley Street into Maplewood. Another separate trolley line, eventually dubbed the "Swamp Line", ran from the west side of the station north through what is now park land and along Meadowbrook Lane into West Orange where it ended at Main Street. An old postcard photo shows a station shelter at Montrose Ave. The DL&W rebuilt the railroad through town in 1914–1916, raising the tracks above street level and opening new station buildings at South Orange and Mountain Station. In September 1930, a frail Thomas Edison (he would die about a year later) inaugurated electric train service on the M&E between Hoboken and South Orange, with further extensions of service to Morristown and Dover being initiated over the coming months. The South Orange Library Association was organized by William Beebe, president of the Republican Club, where on November 14, 1864, a group of men and women met. Books were donated and the library was established in a corner room on the second floor of the Republican Club where it remained until 1867 when it was moved to a second floor room of the building next door on South Orange Avenue, near Sloan Street. It stayed there until 1884, when the building, with the library still on its second floor, was moved by horses up South Orange Avenue to the northwest corner of Scotland Road. Although supported as yet only by members' dues and a few gifts of money which were put into an endowment fund, in 1886 a new association was formed to establish a free circulating library and reading room which took over the loan books and other property of the old association. It was during this period, before Village Hall was built, that Village Trustees met in the Library's room. On May 1, 1889, the library was moved to a ground floor space at 59 South Orange Avenue. At an annual meeting in 1895, Library Trustees considered the question of obtaining a library building and Eugene V. Connett's offer of a library site on the corner of Scotland Road and Taylor Place, with condition that $7,500 be subscribed, was accepted and the subscription was met. On May 8, 1896, the library was moved into the building on that corner. A referendum held on April 27, 1926, showed that citizens had voted ten to one in favor of the town taking over full support of the library. It thereupon became "The South Orange Public Library." In February, 1929, the Village Trustees passed an ordinance providing funds to construct a rear wing on the library and to provide a Children's Room in the basement, book stacks and a balcony on the floor above, together with rehabilitation work on the older part of the building. In November 1968, the new library building on the corner of Scotland Road and Comstock Place was dedicated. Good transportation and a booming economy caused South Orange and neighboring communities to begin a major transformation in the 1920s into bedroom communities for Newark and New York City. Large houses were built in the blocks around the Orange Lawn Tennis club, while in other areas, especially south of South Orange Avenue, more modest foursquare houses were constructed. The only large area not developed by 1930 was the high ground west of Wyoming Avenue. There were two rock quarries within the village supplying trap rock for construction. Kernan's operated as late as the 1980s at the top of Tillou Road. The town's other larger businesses were lumber and coal yards clustered around the railroad station that supplied them. The town's business district is still located in the blocks just east of the station. The old Morris and Essex Railroad is operated today by NJ Transit. Midtown Direct, initiated in 1996, offers service directly into Penn Station in Midtown Manhattan, and has since caused a surge in real estate prices as the commute time to midtown dropped from about 50 minutes to 35, as the service eliminated the need for passengers to transfer to PATH trains at Hoboken. As a result, demand for commuter parking permits in lots adjoining the train and bus stations is extremely high, with a waiting list as long as five years for commuter parking spots. Historic designations South Orange has a number of places listed on the State and National Historic Registers. Old Stone House by the Stone House Brook (ID#1364), 219 South Orange Avenue - First mentioned in a document in 1680, the house has been owned by the township which has sought to sell it to ensure that it will be restored. Baird Community Center (ID#3146), 5 Mead Street - The Baird offers arts programs, including the Pierro Gallery of South Orange and The Theater on 3, along with preschool and other educational programming. Chapel of the Immaculate Conception (ID#4121), 400 South Orange Avenue, dates back to Seton Hall's move to South Orange and serves as the center focus of its campus. Eugene V. Kelly Carriage House (Father Vincent Monella Art Center) (ID#1360), Seton Hall University, South Orange Avenue Montrose Park Historic District (ID#3147), roughly bounded by South Orange Avenue, Holland Road, the City of Orange boundary and the NJ Transit railroad right-of-way Mountain Station Railroad Station (ID#1361), 449 Vose Avenue Old Main Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Historic District (ID#3525), Morris and Essex Railroad Right-of-Way (NJ Transit Morristown Line), from Hudson, Hoboken City to Warren, Washington Township, and then along Warren Railroad to the Delaware River. Prospect Street Historic District (ID#4), bounded by South Orange Avenue on the north, Tichenor Avenue on the east, Roland Avenue on the south and railroad track on the west South Orange Fire Department (ID#41), First Avenue and Sloan Avenue South Orange station (ID#1362), 19 Sloan Street South Orange Village Hall (ID#1363), constructed in 1894 at the corner of South Orange Avenue and Scotland Road Temple Sharey Tefilo Israel (ID#78), 432 Scotland Road Local character The village is one of only a few in New Jersey to retain gas light street illumination (others include Riverton, Palmyra, Trenton Mill Hill neighborhood, and Glen Ridge). The gaslight, together with the distinctive Village Hall, has long been the symbol of South Orange. Many of the major roads in town do have modern mercury vapor streetlights (built into gaslight frames), but most of the residential sections of the town are still gas-lit. A proposal to replace all the gaslights in town with electric streetlights was explored as both a cost-saving and security measure during the 1970s. And although the changeover to electric was rejected at the time, the light output of the lamps was increased to provide more adequate lighting. There have been claims that South Orange has more operating gaslights than any other community in the United States. In 2010, the village initiated a project that would automatically shut the lamps in the morning and light them at dusk, as part of an effort to save as much as $400,000 each year in energy costs for the 1,438 gas lamps across the village. As of 2019, these devices have not been installed. Architecture is extremely varied. Most of the town is single-family wood-framed houses, however, there are a few apartment buildings from various eras as well as townhouse-style condominiums of mostly more recent vintage. Houses cover a range that includes every common style of the Mid-Atlantic United States since the late nineteenth century, and in sizes that range from brick English Cottages to giant Mansard-roofed mansions. Tudor, Victorian, Colonial, Ranch, Modern, and many others are all to be found. Most municipal government structures date from the 1920s, with a few being of more modern construction. Many residents commute to New York City, but others work locally or in other parts of New Jersey. South Orange has a central business district with restaurants, banks, and other retail and professional services. There are a few small office buildings, but no large-scale enterprise other than Seton Hall University. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 2.85 square miles (7.38 km2), including 2.85 square miles (7.37 km2) of land and <0.01 square miles (<0.01 km2) of water (0.07%). South Orange is bordered by the Essex County municipalities of Maplewood, Newark, West Orange, Orange, and East Orange. South Orange also comes close to bordering both Livingston and Millburn. The East Branch of the Rahway River, which originates in West Orange, flows through the entire length of the township. Most of the time it is a trickle but flows can be heavy after rain. In the past it would occasionally overflow its banks and flood low-lying parts of town an issue that was addressed by United States Army Corps of Engineers flood control projects that remediated the problem in the mid-1970s. The western part of the town sits on the eastern slope of South Mountain (elevation <660 feet (201 m)), leveling into a small valley near the central business district. At the top of the slope, the western edge of the town runs along the eastern border of South Mountain Reservation. South Orange contains the historic Montrose district, Newstead, Tuxedo Park, and Wyoming sections. Seton Hall University is located in the southeast quadrant of the township. Climate South Orange has a humid continental climate (Dfa). Demographics South Orange is a wealthy and diverse township and has one of the largest Jewish communities in Essex County, along with nearby Livingston and Millburn. 2010 Census The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $123,373 (with a margin of error of +/- $7,803) and the median family income was $147,532 (+/- $9,218). Males had a median income of $86,122 (+/- $7,340) versus $71,625 (+/- $9,896) for females. The per capita income for the township was $49,607 (+/- $4,022). About 2.5% of families and 7.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.4% of those under age 18 and 4.5% of those age 65 or over. 2000 Census As of the 2000 United States Census there were 16,964 people, 5,522 households, and 3,766 families residing in the township. The population density was 5,945.3 people per square mile (2,298.2/km2). There were 5,671 housing units at an average density of 1,987.5 per square mile (768.3/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 60.41% White, 31.30% African American, 0.09% Native American, 3.89% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.57% from other races, and 2.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.93% of the population. There were 5,522 households, out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.2% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.8% were non-families. 25.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.26. In the township the population was spread out, with 22.3% under the age of 18, 17.5% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.1 males. The median income for a household in the township was $83,611, and the median income for a family was $107,641. Males had a median income of $61,809 versus $42,238 for females. The per capita income for the township was $41,035. About 1.9% of families and 5.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.6% of those under age 18 and 5.4% of those age 65 or over. Parks and recreation The township has a municipal swimming pool open to all residents. In most area communities, municipal pool memberships are restricted or costly, but the pool in South Orange was built on land willed by a wealthy resident to the town for common use and under the terms of the deal the pool had to remain inexpensive for the residents. Residents may purchase an annual pass for a fee of $35, which provides access to the South Orange Community Pool and full access to all other community facilities and programs; non-residents may use the pool for a small fee on a per visit basis on a guest pass that must be purchased by a resident. The original pool, built in the 1920s, is among the first free community pools to be built in the United States, and was replaced by an Olympic-size pool in 1972. The South Orange River Greenway is currently under construction. The River Greenway will be a promenade for bicyclists and pedestrians that will connect part of West Third Street in South Orange with West Parker Avenue in Maplewood. Several abandoned buildings will be removed near the South Orange Department of Public Works facility to make way for the River Greenway. Arts and culture The Baird Center, located in Meadowland Park, houses the South Orange Department of Recreation and Cultural Affairs, and hosts many activities. Most of the department's programs are housed in The Baird or in adjoining Meadowland Park. The center offers arts programs, including the Pierro Gallery of South Orange, The Theater on 3, and other arts spaces, along with preschool and other educational, arts and recreational programming. The Baird Center is undergoing extensive renovation starting in late 2019. The Baird hosts events together with SOPAC, including the long-running Giants of Jazz concert series. The Pierro Gallery of South Orange, located within The Baird and operating as part of the South Orange Department of Recreation and Cultural Affairs, encourages community involvement in the visual arts and exhibits the non-commercial works of contemporary artists working in the field, in addition to providing arts education and serving local artists. Exhibitions often include the work of area artists, with a juried "Essex Exposed" exhibition conducted twice each year offering materials created by artists from Essex County. South Orange Performing Arts Center (SOPAC) is located at 1 SOPAC Way, located next to the South Orange station. The performance venue is a 415-seat proscenium theater, with a five-screen Bow Tie Cinemas movie theater, and a dance studio/rental space in the same complex. SOPAC presents music, family, dance, theater, and comedy programs throughout the year. Artists and companies who have performed at SOPAC include Paquito D'Rivera, the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, Olympia Dukakis, Richie Havens, Yo-Yo Ma, James Marsters, Eddie Palmieri, Madeleine Peyroux, Paula Poundstone, Anoushka Shankar, Phoebe Snow, Angie Stone, Sweet Honey in the Rock, Dionne Warwick, and Nancy Wilson. In partnership with Seton Hall University, SOPAC has presented Seton Hall Arts Council events, including a Classical Concert Series, Jazz 'n the Hall, and Seton Hall Theatre—student theater productions. The plans for SOPAC were first conceived in the mid-1990s as part of an effort by the village to develop the downtown area. Seton Hall University partnered with SOPAC and construction in August 2004. The complex opened in November 2006 to the general public, with Paula Poundstone performing at the opening and cellist Yo-Yo Ma performing later that month. Founded in 1949, the South Orange Symphony is a full-sized symphony orchestra made up of volunteer amateur and semi-professional musicians with a wide range of musical backgrounds led by a professional conductor. The ensemble plays repertoire that covers the full range of classical literature from the 18th century to today, and presents three free concerts each year in Sterling Hall at the South Orange Middle School. Government South Orange provides the usual facilities for a municipality of this size; fire, police, a library of over 90,000 volumes, a municipal pool, a recreation center, parks, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, trash and yard waste removal provided by contractors, Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV, among others. As noted above, the school board is shared with adjacent Maplewood. Local government South Orange is governed under a Special Charter granted by the New Jersey Legislature. The township is one of 11 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that operate under a special charter. The governing body is comprised of a six-member board of trustees and a village president (equivalent to a mayor), all of which are unpaid positions. Trustees are elected in non-partisan elections on an at-large basis to staggered four-year terms of office with three trustee seats up for election in odd-numbered years. The village president serves a four-year term of office. Local political parties are formed on an ad-hoc basis, generally focused on key issues of local concern; national political parties do not officially participate in township elections. , the Village President of South Orange is Sheena Collum, whose term of office ends May 14, 2023. Members of the Board of Trustees are Walter Clarke (2021), Donna Coallier (2023), Karen Hartshorn Hilton (2021), Summer Jones (2023), Steve Schnall (2021) and Bob Zuckerman (2023). In the May 2015 municipal election, Sheena Collum was elected as Village President, making her the first woman to serve in the position, while Deborah Davis Ford, Howard Levison and Mark Rosner ran unopposed and won new terms of office on the Board of Trustees. With three incumbents not running for re-election in the May 2013 election, the slate of Walter Clarke, Sheena Collum and Stephen Schnall running together as South Orange 2013 were elected to four-year terms, with the support of Village President Alex Torpey. In the municipal election held in May 2011, with fewer than 10% of the registered voters casting ballots, 23-year-old Alex Torpey was elected as the youngest Village President in the history of South Orange by a margin of 14 votes, while trustees Deborah Davis Ford, Howard Levison and Mark Rosner were re-elected to four-year terms of office, having run unopposed. In the 2009 elections with two incumbents not running for re-election, Michael Goldberg was elected to another four-year term, along with newcomers Janine Bauer and Nancy Gould, by a nearly 2-1 margin. Federal, state and county representation South Orange is located in the 10th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 27th state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, South Orange had been split between the and the 10th Congressional District, a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections. Politics As of 2019, there are a total of 13,564 registered voters in South Orange Village. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 83.1% of the vote (6,566 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 16.1% (1,270 votes), and other candidates with 0.8% (62 votes), among the 7,962 ballots cast by the township's 12,623 registered voters (64 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 63.1%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 81.1% of the vote (7,228 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 17.6% (1,569 votes) and other candidates with 0.6% (53 votes), among the 8,913 ballots cast by the township's 12,243 registered voters, for a turnout of 72.8%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 77.3% of the vote (6,641 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 21.9% (1,883 votes) and other candidates with 0.4% (45 votes), among the 8,590 ballots cast by the township's 10,990 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 78.2. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 68.3% of the vote (3,314 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 30.3% (1,469 votes), and other candidates with 1.4% (67 votes), among the 4,963 ballots cast by the township's 12,656 registered voters (113 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 39.2%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 74.6% of the vote (4,275 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 19.5% (1,119 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 4.8% (273 votes) and other candidates with 0.5% (29 votes), among the 5,727 ballots cast by the township's 12,184 registered voters, yielding a 47.0% turnout. Education The township shares a common school system, the South Orange-Maplewood School District, with the adjacent town of Maplewood. The district has a single high school (located in Maplewood, nearly on the border of the two towns), two middle schools, a central pre-school and neighborhood elementary schools, distributed between the two municipalities. district has a single high school (located in Maplewood) two middle schools a central pre-school and neighborhood elementary schools in each municipality. As of the 2019–20 school year, the district, comprised of 11 schools, had an enrollment of 7,353 students and 576.1 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.8:1. Schools in the district (with 2019–20 school enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Montrose Early Childhood Center (133 students, in PreK; located in Maplewood), Seth Boyden Elementary Demonstration School (493 students, in grades K–5 located in Maplewood), Clinton Elementary School (605, K–5; Maplewood), Jefferson Elementary School (544, 3–5; Maplewood), Marshall Elementary School (518, K–2; South Orange), South Mountain Elementary School (647, K–5; South Orange), South Mountain Elementary School Annex (NA, K–1; South Orange), Tuscan Elementary School (K–5, 637; Maplewood), Maplewood Middle School (827, 6–8; Maplewood), South Orange Middle School (786, 6–8; South Orange) and Columbia High School (1,967, 9–12; Maplewood). Private schools Our Lady of Sorrows School is a K-8 elementary school operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark, which also oversaw the now-defunct all-girls Marylawn of the Oranges High School. Higher education Seton Hall University, which serves approximately 9,700 students, was founded in 1856 by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark and named after Elizabeth Ann Seton, the first American Catholic saint. The Division I university is located along the east side of South Orange Avenue, the community's main boulevard. Transportation Roads and highways , the township had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality and by Essex County. The county roads serving South Orange include County Route 510 (South Orange Avenue) and County Route 577 (Wyoming Avenue). Principal local roads include Valley Street / Scotland Road, Irvington Avenue and Centre Street. Public transportation South Orange is served by two NJ Transit railroad stations: the South Orange station, located on South Orange Avenue near the intersection of Sloan Street and the Mountain Station, located in the Montrose section of South Orange. The two stations provide service along the Morris and Essex Line to Newark Broad Street Station and either to New York Penn Station (some stopping at Secaucus Junction) or Hoboken Terminal. NJ Transit operates two bus lines that run through South Orange. These include the 92 route which goes from South Orange train station to Branch Brook Park in Newark, and the 107 route which goes from South Orange Train Station to the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York City. The 31 Coach USA Bus which travels between South Orange and Newark Penn Station, also makes stops along South Orange Avenue. There is a shuttle connecting South Orange to Livingston, timed with connecting Morristown Line trains. Local media WSOU-FM, "Seton Hall's Pirate Radio", is a non-commercial educational public radio station licensed to South Orange since 1948 with studios, offices, and transmitter on the campus of Seton Hall University while operating at 89.5 FM. The News-Record weekly newspaper reports on both South Orange and Maplewood. "The Village Green", a hyperlocal news site, reports on both South Orange and Maplewood, and includes a daily email newsletter. "The South Orange Patch" Local news and events and latest headlines from South Orange, NJ Patch. https://patch.com/new-jersey/southorange “The Gaslight” is a quarterly newsletter managed by the local government that focuses on the on-goings of South Orange, NJ. Additionally, the newsletter offers advertisements sponsoring local public figures, businesses and job opportunities for the general public. Community information The town was the first in the nation to have an affinity credit card, the idea of the municipal affinity credit card being originated by former village president William Calabrese. When the town was wired for telephones and electricity in the early 20th century, the poles and wires were not allowed to run along the curb lines of streets as they do in most towns. In some sections they run along property lines in the middle of blocks, and in others they run underground. This is aesthetically pleasing but complicates access to the lines, and it delayed the introduction of cable television. Occasional proposals to replace gas lights with electric lights run across the obstacle that there is no source of electric power along the streets. The current 761, 762, and 763 telephone exchanges used for most lines in South Orange and Maplewood, originated as the exchange names South Orange 1,2, and 3. South Orange's full official name is the "Township of South Orange Village." This name was originally adopted in lieu of the Village of South Orange because it allowed South Orange to receive more federal aid that was directed to Townships during the 1970s as many federal authorities were unfamiliar with the New Jersey municipal system, in which a township is not formally different from any other municipal designation. Other municipalities in New Jersey also adopted similar strategies, notably the Township of the Borough of Verona. South Orange was the first municipality in New Jersey to recognize civil unions for homosexual couples. Exactly one hour after unions became legal in South Orange, they were recognized in neighboring Maplewood. Notable people References External links The Township of South Orange Village School Data for the South Orange-Maplewood School District, National Center for Education Statistics News-Record (newspaper serving Maplewood and South Orange since 1958) Orange Lawn Tennis Club South Orange Historical and Preservation Society South Orange-Maplewood Community Coalition on Race (Community organization providing information about town for prospective buyers and organizing events for current residents) South Orange-Maplewood Place (Website providing information about South Orange and Maplewood) South Orange-Maplewood School District South Orange Performing Arts Center The South Orange Public Library South Orange Village Center Alliance (Not-for-profit management entity of South Orange Village Special Improvement District) South Orange Symphony Orchestra (South Orange's community orchestra) 1869 establishments in New Jersey Populated places established in 1869 Special Charters in New Jersey The Oranges, New Jersey Townships in Essex County, New Jersey

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A march, as a musical genre, is a piece of music with a strong regular rhythm which in origin was expressly written for marching to and most frequently performed by a military band. In mood, marches range from the moving death march in Wagner's Götterdämmerung to the brisk military marches of John Philip Sousa and the martial hymns of the late 19th century. Examples of the varied use of the march can be found in Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, in the Marches Militaires of Franz Schubert, in the Marche funèbre in Chopin's Sonata in B flat minor, the "Jäger March" in the by Jean Sibelius, and in the Dead March in Handel's Saul. Characteristics Marches can be written in any time signature, but the most common time signatures are , (alla breve , although this may refer to 2 time of Johannes Brahms, or cut time), or . However, some modern marches are being written in or time. The modern march tempo is typically around 120 beats per minute. Many funeral marches conform to the Roman standard of 60 beats per minute. The tempo matches the pace of soldiers walking in step. Both tempos achieve the standard rate of 120 steps per minute. Each section of a march typically consists of 16 or 32 bars, which may repeat. Most importantly, a march consists of a strong and steady percussive beat reminiscent of military field drums. A military music event where various marching bands and units perform is called tattoo. Marches frequently change keys once, modulating to the subdominant key, and occasionally returning to the original tonic key. If it begins in a minor key, it modulates to the relative major. Marches frequently have counter-melodies introduced during the repeat of a main melody. Marches frequently have a penultimate dogfight strain in which two groups of instruments (high/low, woodwind/brass, etc.) alternate in a statement/response format. In most traditional American marches, there are three strains. The third strain is referred to as the "trio". The march tempo of 120 beats or steps per minute was adopted by the Napoleonic army in order to move faster. Since Napoleon planned to occupy the territory he conquered, instead of his soldiers carrying all of their provisions with them, they would live off the land and march faster. The French march tempo is faster than the traditional tempo of British marches; the British call marches in the French tempo quick marches. Traditional American marches use the French or quick march tempo. There are two reason for this: First, U.S. military bands adopted the march tempos of France and other continental European nations that aided the U.S. during its early wars with Great Britain. Second, the composer of the greatest American marches, John Philip Sousa, was of Portuguese and German descent. Portugal used the French tempo exclusively—the standard Sousa learned during his musical education. A military band playing or marching at the traditional British march tempo would seem unusually slow in the United States. March music originates from the military, and marches are usually played by a marching band. The most important instruments are various drums (especially snare drum), horns, fife or woodwind instruments and brass instruments. Marches and marching bands have even today a strong connection to military, both to drill and parades. Marches, which are played at paces with multiples of normal heartbeat, can have a hypnotic effect on the marching soldiers, rendering them into a trance, This effect was widely known already in the 16th century, and was employed to lead the soldiers in closed ranks against the enemy fire in the 16th and 17th century wars. March music is often important for ceremonial occasions. Processional or coronation marches, such as the popular coronation march from Le prophète by Giacomo Meyerbeer and the many examples of coronation marches written for British monarchs by English composers, such as Edward Elgar, Edward German, and William Walton, are all in traditional British tempos. History Marches were not notated until the late 16th century; until then, time was generally kept by percussion alone, often with improvised fife embellishment. With the extensive development of brass instruments, especially in the 19th century, marches became widely popular and were often elaborately orchestrated. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Gustav Mahler, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Charles Ives, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Alban Berg, Sergei Prokofiev, Paul Hindemith, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Leonard Bernstein wrote marches, sometimes incorporating them into operas, sonatas, suites, and symphonies. The popularity of John Philip Sousa's band marches has been unmatched. The style of the traditional symphony march can be traced back to symphonic pieces from renaissance era, such as pieces written for nobility. National styles European march music Many European countries and cultures developed characteristic styles of marches. Britain British marches typically move at the standard pace of 120 beats per minute, have intricate countermelodies (frequently appearing only in the repeat of a strain), have a wide range of dynamics (including unusually soft sections), use full-value stingers at the ends of phrases (as opposed to the shorter, marcato stinger of American marches). The final strain of a British march often has a broad lyrical quality to it. Archetypical British marches include "The British Grenadiers" and those of Major Ricketts, such as the well-known "Colonel Bogey March" and "The Great Little Army". Scottish bagpipe music makes extensive use of marches played at a pace of approximately 90 beats per minute. Many popular marches are traditional and of unknown origin. Notable examples include Scotland the Brave, Highland Laddie, Bonnie Dundee and Cock of the North. Retreat marches are set in 3/4 time, such as The Green Hills of Tyrol and When the Battle's O'er. The bagpipe also make use of slow marches such as the Skye Boat Song and the Cradle Song. These are set in 6/8 time and are usually played at around 60 beats per minute if played by only pipe bands (and 120 if played with a military band). Those marches indicative of the light infantry and rifle regiments of the Army (today The Rifles and the Royal Gurkha Rifles), like "Silver Bugles" and "Bravest of the Brave", move at a faster 140 beats per minute pace and feature the distinctive bugle sounds common to the bands of these units (plus bagpipes for the Gurkhas). Germany and Austria German marches move at a very strict tempo of 110 beats per minute, and have a strong oom-pah polka-like/folk-like quality resulting from the bass drum and low-brass playing on the downbeats and the alto voices, such as peck horn and snare drums, playing on the off-beats. This provides a very martial quality to these marches. The low brass is often featured prominently in at least one strain of a German march. To offset the rhythmic martiality of most of the strains, the final strain (the trio) often has a lyrical (if somewhat bombastic) quality. Notable German and Austrian march composers include Carl Teike ("Alte Kameraden"), Hermann Ludwig Blankenburg, Johann Gottfried Piefke ("Preußens Gloria"), Johann Strauss I ("Radetzky-Marsch"), Johann Strauss II, Hans Schmid, Josef Wagner, and Karl Michael Ziehrer. Sweden Swedish marches have many things in common with the German marches, much due to historical friendship and bonding with states like Prussia, Hesse and, from 1871 and on, Germany. The tempo is strict and lies between 110 and 112 beats per minute. The oom-pah rhythm is common, although it is rarely as distinctive as in a typical German march. The first bars are nearly always played loudly, followed by a cheerful melody, often with pronounced countermelodies in the euphoniums and trombones. At least one strain of a Swedish march is usually dedicated to the low brass, where the tubas also play the melody, with the rest of the instruments playing on the off-beats. The characteristics of the trio vary from march to march, but the final strain tends to be grand and loud. Examples of Swedish marches are "Under blågul fana" by Viktor Widqvist and "På post för Sverige" by Sam Rydberg. France French military marches are distinct from other European marches by their emphasis on percussion and brass, often incorporating bugle calls as part of the melody or as interludes between strains. Most French marches are in common metre and place a strong percussive emphasis on the first beat of each bar from the band and field music drumlines, hence the characteristic BOOM-whack-whack-whack rhythm. Many, though not all French marches (in particular marches dating from the period of the French Revolution) make use of triplet feel; each beat can be felt as a fast triplet. Famous French marches include "Le Régiment de Sambre et Meuse", "La Victoire est à Nous", "Marche de la garde consulaire à Marengo", "La Galette", the "Chant du départ", "Le Chant des Africains", "Le Caïd", "la Marche Lorraine" and "Le Boudin". While many are of the classic quick march time used today, there are several which are of slow time, harking to the slow and medium marches of soldiers of the French forces during the Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Part of the French Foreign Legion's current march music inventory includes at lot of slow marches. Also, there are marches similar to those of British rifle regiments which are used by the Chasseur infantry battalions of the Army. Greece Greek marches typically combine French and German musical traditions, due to the modern Greek State's history of Germanic Royal Dynasties, combined with Francophile governments as well as French and Bavarian officers and military advisors, who brought their respective musical traditions with them, with later British influences. Among the most famous marches are "Famous Macedonia" (Μακεδονία Ξακουστή), a march to commemorate Greece's victory in the Balkan Wars, "Greece never dies" (Η Ελλάδα ποτε δεν πεθαίνει), "The Aegean Sailor" (Ο Ναύτης του Αιγαίου), "The Artillery" (Το Πυροβολικό), "From flames, Crete" (Από φλόγες, η Κρήτη), and "The Army Marches Forth" (Πέρναει ο Στρατός). Almost all Greek marches have choral versions. Many of these marches, in the choral versions, are also popular patriotic songs, which are taught to Greek children in school and are sung along on various occasions, such as national holidays and parades. "Famous Macedonia" also serves as the unofficial anthem of the Greek Region of Macedonia. The Greek Flag March () is the sole march used during the parading of the Greek Flag at ceremonies. Composer Margaritis Kastellis contributed to the development of many Greek pieces for military bands only. Netherlands Dutch marches typically feature a heavy intro, often played by the trombones, euphoniums, drums, and tubas, followed by a lighthearted trio and a reasonably fast and somewhat bombastic conclusion, while maintaining occasional bugle calls due to the former wide presentce of field music formations (particularly in the Army). Dutch emphasis on low brass is also made clear in that Dutch military bands use sousaphones, which have a more forward projection of sound, rather than the regular concert tubas used by most other European military styles. Some well-known Dutch march composers are Jan Gerard Palm, Willy Schootemeyer, Adriaan Maas, Johan Wichers, and Hendrik Karels. By far, most Dutch military bands perform their music on foot; however, some Dutch regiments (most notably the Trompetterkorps Bereden Wapens) carry on a Dutch tradition in which its historical bicycle infantry had a mounted band, thus playing march music on bikes. Italy Italian marches have a very light musical feel, often having sections of fanfare or soprano obbligatos performed with a light coloratura articulation. This frilly characteristic is contrasted with broad lyrical melodies reminiscent of operatic arias. It is relatively common to have one strain (often a first introduction of the final strain) that is played primarily by the higher-voiced instruments or in the upper ranges of the instruments' compass. A typical Italian march is "Il Bersagliere" (The Italian Rifleman) by Boccalari. Uniquely, the Bersaglieri regiments always move at a fast jog, and their running bands play at this pace, with marches like "Passo di Corsa dei Bersaglieri" (Jog March of the Bersaglieri) and "Flick Flock" as great examples. Spain The most characteristic Spanish march form is the pasodoble. Spanish marches often have fanfares at the beginning or end of strains that are reminiscent of traditional and popular music. These marches often move back and forth between major and (relative) minor keys, and often show a great variation in tempo during the course of the march reminiscent of a prolonged Viennese rubato. Military marches are an adapted form of the pasodoble, which feature strong percussion and have British and French influences as well, as well as German, Austrian and Italian elements. Typical Spanish marches are "Amparito Roca" by Jaime Teixidor, "Los Voluntarios" by Gerónimo Giménez, and "El Turuta" by Roman de San Jose. Many of these marches are also of patriotic nature. Czech Republic Notable Czech (Bohemian) march composers include František Kmoch and Julius Fučík, who wrote "Entrance of the Gladiators". Russia, Ukraine and Belarus While many of the marches of Tsarist Russia share similar characteristics with German marches of the period, and indeed some were directly borrowed from Germany (such as "Der Königgrätzer Marsch") and later on France and Austria, the indigenous, pre-revolutionary Russian march has a distinctly Russian sound, with powerful strains in minor keys repeated with low brass with occasional flashes of major chords between sections. The Soviet period produced a large number of modern marches incorporating both Russian themes and structure reminiscent of Dutch marches. Frequently in major keys, Soviet marches often span a wide range of dynamics while maintaining a strong melody well-balanced with the percussion, entering the bombastic range without overpowering percussion as is common with French marches. They are often in the A-B/Cb-A form or ternary form. Agapkin's Farewell of Slavianka is one common example of the classical Russian march, while a notable example of a Soviet-style Russian march is Isaak Dunayevsky's "March of the Enthusiasts" (Марш энтузиастов) and Vasily Solovyov-Sedoi's V Put. Other military marches include the March of 108th Saratov Infantry Regiment and the March of the Defenders of Moscow. In Ukraine, military marches were originally written to emulate the Russian model, with folk songs and natively Ukrainian marches only recently being used. The Zaporizhian March (also known as the Cossack march) is one of the main marches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and even replaced Farewell of Slavianka in 1991 as the official march being played during the induction of recruits to the military. The same concept is applied in Belarus but on a much more toned down style due to the fact that the country still borrows Russian marches. The few homegrown military marches in Belarus include the Our Fatherland's Flag (Айчыны нашай сцяг), as well as the remastered Motherland My Dear (Радзіма мая дарагая), Victory March (Марш Перамогi) and Song from 45 (Письмо из 45-го). Other marches include the Vajacki marš of the Belarusian Democratic Republic. American march music The true march music era existed from 1855 to the 1940s when it was overshadowed by jazz, which the march form influenced (especially in ragtime). American march music cannot be discussed without mentioning "The March King", John Philip Sousa, who revolutionized the march during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some of his most famous marches are "Semper Fidelis", "The Washington Post", "The Liberty Bell", and "The Stars and Stripes Forever". Sousa's marches are typically marked by a subdued trio, as in "The Stars and Stripes Forever" in which the rest of the band becomes subordinated to arguably the most famous piccolo solo in all of music. Typically, an American march consists of a key change, quite often happening in coordination with the Trio. The key may change back before the song is over, especially if the Trio ends well before the last few bars of the march. A specialized form of the typical American march music is the circus march, or screamer, typified by the marches of Henry Fillmore and Karl King. These marches are performed at a significantly faster tempo (140 to 200 beats per minute) and generally have an abundance of runs, fanfares, and other showy features. Frequently, the low brass has one or more strains (usually the second strain) in which they are showcased with both speed and bombast. Stylistically, many circus marches employ a lyrical final strain which (in the last time through the strain) starts out maestoso (majestically, slower and more stately) and then, in the second half of the strain, speeds up to end the march faster than the original tempo. Marches continued to be commissioned throughout the 20th century to commemorate important American events. In the 1960s, Anthony A. Mitchell, director of the United States Navy Band, was commissioned to write "The National Cultural Center March" for the center that would later become known as the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. Asian march music The Caucasus The Caucasus consisting of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia often have a Soviet/Russian influence due to the three countries period under the USSR. Following the Russo-Georgian War, all Russian military marches in the repertoire of the Military Band of the National Guard of Georgia were weeded out in favor of native Georgian marches. Many Armenian patriotic military marches were developed during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In Azerbaijan, many military marches such as Azadlıq Marşı (Freedom's March) and Görüş Marşı (Slow March) are used as inspection marches while others such as the March of the Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy or the Marş «Vətən» (Fatherland March) are used in military parades. Other marches are holdovers from the Soviet era, such as Yaxşı Yol (Farewell). Bangladesh Bengali march music tradition began in the 19th century, during the Bengali Renaissance by the Bengali nationalists. Kazi Nazrul Islam, the national poet of Bangladesh and active revolutionary during the Indian Independence Movement create a separate subgenre of Bengali music known as Nazrul Geeti included march music against fascism and oppression. His writings and music greatly inspired Bengalis of East Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The most famous of Bengali marches is the Notuner Gaan, which is the national march of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Among the most popular Bengali marches are the following: Pralayollas (প্রলয়োল্লাস (Pralay.ōllās); The Ecstasy of Destruction or Destructive Euphoria) Kandari Hushiar (কান্ডারী হুশিয়ার (Kānḍārī Huśiy.ār); Captain Alert) (Marchpast of the Bangladesh Navy) Mora Jhonjhar Moto Uddam (মোরা ঝঞ্ঝার মত উদ্দাম (Mōrā Jhañjhār Mata Uddām); A Mountain Song) (Marchpast of the Bangladesh Air Force) Iran We are armed with Allahu Akbar Japan Japan's march music (Koushinkyoku, 行進曲) tradition began in the 19th century after the country's ports were forced open to foreign trade by the Perry Expedition. An influx of Western musical culture that the newly arrived traders and diplomats brought with them swept through Japanese musical culture, leaving a lasting legacy on the country's music. Japanese and foreign musicians of the time sought to impart Western musical forms to the Japanese, as well as combining Japanese-style melodies with Western-style harmonization. Furthermore, with Japan's government and society stabilized after the Meiji Restoration, the country sought to centralize and modernize its armed forces, with the armed forces of France and Prussia serving as models. All of these helped augur in what would later become modern Japanese music. The march genre, already sharing roots with the preexisting tradition of "gunka", or military songs, became very popular, especially in the years after Japan's victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War. One of the earliest and most enduring of Japanese marches is the Defile March (分列行進曲) composed in 1886 by Charles Leroux, an officer with the French Army serving as an advisor to the Imperial Japanese Army. Originally two separate marches based on Japanese melodies—Fusouka (扶桑歌) and Battotai (抜刀隊), inspired by the Satsuma Rebellion and reportedly a favorite song of the Emperor Meiji—they were later combined in the march currently recognized today. It soon became a very popular band standard, with the Imperial Japanese Army adopting it as their signature march. After World War II the JGSDF and the Japanese police would adopt the march, where it continues to be a core part of their repertoire. In the years before 1945, many distinguished composers such as Yamada Kōsaku, Nakayama Shimpei, Hashimoto Kunihiko, Setoguchi Tōkichi, and Eguchi Yoshi (Eguchi Gengo) all contributed to the genre. Some were military and nationalist in tone. Others, like Nakayama's 1928 Tokyo March (東京行進曲), were meant for popular consumption and wholly unrelated to military music. Among the most popular Japanese marches are the following: Defile March (分列行進曲) (Marchpast of the Imperial Japanese Army and of today's Japan Ground Self-Defense Force) Warship March (Gunkan, 行進曲「軍艦」) (Marchpast of the Imperial Japanese Navy and of today's Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force) Kankanshiki March (観艦式行進曲) Kimigayo March (君が代行進曲) Pacific March (太平洋行進曲) Patriotic March (愛国行進曲) Oozora (行進曲「大空」) (Marchpast of the Self-Defence Forces) Tokyo Olympic March (オリンピック・マーチ), composed for the 1964 Summer Olympics Shukuten march (祝典行進曲) (For crown prince Akihito celebration of marriage in 1959) Sora no Seiei (空の精鋭) (Marchpast of Japan Air Self-Defence Force) Philippines The Philippine march tradition is a mix of European and American traditions plus local musical styles. Several famous Philippine composers composed marches, and even Julián Felipe composed the march that would become Lupang Hinirang, the national anthem. Several marches are adaptations of local folk music, others have a patriotic feeling. The Philippine march music tradition began in the 19th century, during the Philippine Revolution, as an offshoot of the Spanish march tradition. This is a popular form of music as a battle hymn in the same way as in the US or France specially if Filipino soldiers are going to war or winning battles, is also the way of the Filipino to express their nationalistic affection to their native land. This style of music was also popular during the Philippine–American War and during the Second World War. During the late 1960s at the time of Marcos era, this form of music begun to be widely used as a part of military drills, Parades and exercises of the Armed Forces, National Police and Coast Guard. Some famous marches are: Thailand Thailand's late king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, is a march composer. His most famous march piece, the "Royal Guards March", is played by military bands during the Thai Royal Guards parade at the Royal Plaza at Bangkok every 2 December yearly. It reflects the use of German and British military band influences in Thai military music. China Chinese marches tend to originate from time of the Second Sino-Japanese War, with very few still being performed that were composed before 1930 (one notable exception to this is the Military anthem of China, which dates back to the late Qing Dynasty with lyrics commissioned by Zeng Guofan). They are typically written in a major key, and performed at around 120 beats per minute. Prussian style oom pah rhythm is heavily used, seen in the Presentation March and March Past of the People's Liberation Army. The most famous of Chinese marches is the March of the Volunteers, which is the national anthem of the People's Republic of China. North Korea North Korean marches are heavily influenced by the Soviet military band tradition mixed with Korean influences. Most of the marches are dedicated to the party and to their revolution and leaders. Use of a grandiose brass sound is almost always present in the music. Many marches are adapted from the North Korean revolutionary and patriotic song tradition, known as the genre. Among the more popular North Korean marches played during state ceremonies are: Victorious Military Parade Footsteps Song of the Korean People's Army Guerrillas' March Long Live Great General Kim Il-sung Defend with our lives the Supreme Commander Defending the Headquarters of Revolution Defending Kim Jong-un with our Lives Our Revolutionary Armed Forces Follows Only the Marshal Song of Guards Units' Pride Song of National Defense General of Korea Song of the Proclamation of the Democratic People's Republic Death to US Aggressors Look at Us July 27 March Song of the Coast Artillerymen Turkey Modern Turkey's national anthem is the march, "İstiklâl Marşı", which has an aggressive tune. Generally, old Turkish marches from the Ottoman Empire have aggressive lyrics, for instance in "Mehter Marşı". It is notable that Mozart and Beethoven also wrote popular Turkish marches. Modern marches played during ceremonies include the Atatürk March, played as the march-in and march-off piece of military bands in military parades and ceremonies. Central Asia Central Asian march traditions have spanned centuries and consists of many different military and national cultures. The main five Central Asian nations (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) commonly utilize Russian military marches during state functions, although they have made much quicker efforts unlike their Ukrainian and Belarusian counterparts to distinguish their military traditions from Russia. Most Central Asian nations have a Turkic culture and therefore uses marches with a mix of Russian and Turkish traditions. Tajikistan is an outlier in that it has a more Persian musical tradition. Afghanistan, like Tajikistan, has military marches that are similar to those in Iran, but with more recent American and British influence in combination with the Russian tradition. Some the more popular Central Asian marches are the following: March of Ablai Khan (Kazakhstan) Kirghiz March (Kyrgyzstan) Morşi Didor (Tajikistan) Niyazov's Honour March (Turkmenistan) Slow March of the Turkmen Flag (Turkmenistan) Sunny March (Uzbekistan) Mustaqillik March (Uzbekistan) Latin American march music Although inspired by German, Spanish and French military music, marches of South and Central America are unique in melody and instrumentation. Argentina Argentine marches are inspired by its military history and the influx of European immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. Cayetano Alberto Silva's "San Lorenzo march" is an example that combines German and French military musical influences. Other examples include the "Avenue of the Camelias" March and the March of the Malvinas, used during the Falklands War and in military parades and ceremonies. Brazil Brazilian military marches are popular called by the name "Dobrado", a reference to the most popular type of bar on this music genre, the 2/4. This type of music is influenced by the European and American march styles. Almost all states of Brazil have contributed to the growth of this tradition with a number of marches composed by local musicians, many of patriotic nature. Most popular composers are Antônio Manuel do Espírito Santo, with "Cisne Branco" (the official march of the Navy), "Avante Camaradas" e "Quatro Dias de Viagem" and Pedro Salgado, with "Dois corações" e "Coração de Mãe". Manoel Alves' "Batista de Melo" March, played widely in military and civil parades, while being the song of the Brazilian Army artillery and quartermaster services, is de facto the army's quick march past tune. Colombia Colombian military march music, like "The National Army of Colombia Hymn", "Commandos March" and "Hymn of the Colombian Navy" is an adaptation of the European and the American march styles. Venezuela Venezuela's "The Indio and the Conquistador" is the official marchpast of the Military Academy of Venezuela. It is more famous for being played in slow time in military parades and ceremonies. Also famous is the official double march of the National Armed Forces of Venezuela's special forces and airborne units, "Carabobo Reveille", and the "Slope Arms" March, played in ceremonies featuring the Flag of Venezuela and the first march in the beginning of parades. Marches like these (including the anthem of the 114th Armored Battalion "Apure Braves", "Fatherland Beloved") show British, American and Prussian influence. Mexico Mexican marches, like the "March of the Heroic Military College", "Airborne Fusiliers March", "National Defense March" and the "Viva Mexico March", are all inspired by American, Spanish, and French military music but have a faster beat. Cuba Cuban military marches are inspired by both American, Spanish and Soviet military music. German military marches such as the Yorckscher Marsch and Preußens Gloria are commonly used by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces Band during official functions such as military parades. A notable Cuban military march is the Hymn of July 26 (Himno del 26 de Julio). Other musical compositions include the Marcha de la alfabetización and the Marcha De La Revolución. Peru Other Latin American marches are inspired by both European and Native American influences, such as the Peruvian marches "Los peruanos Pasan" and "Sesquicentenario" and the Ecuadorian military march "Paquisha". Chile Marches from Chile are a mix of European march music especially the German march tradition, and many are locally composed. Los viejos estandartes, the official march of the Chilean Army, is one such example. Several German, British and French marches (and even the US march Semper Fidelis) are also used by military and civil bands in parades and ceremonies most especially during national holidays. See also Authorized marches of the Canadian Forces Drum cadence Heritage of the March Military cadence Martial music Classical music References Further reading * External links Dr. Stephen Rhodes, podcast on history of the march Military music

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For a more comprehensive treatment with full quotes of newspaper articles refer Wikibooks chapter on VIN Geraldton The Coastal radio station VIN was a wireless telegraphy station at Geraldton, Western Australia which commenced operation on 12 May 1913. It was the first station in Western Australia constructed by the Commonwealth of Australia. The station VIP Perth / Fremantle / Applecross had commenced previously, but that station had been constructed by the Australasian Wireless Company under contract to the Commonwealth. The station provided a vital link between VIP and VIZ Roebourne during the daytime (then to VIO Broome and VIW Wyndham and stations further north) and particularly when land telegraph systems failed. Operationally the station's duties remained relatively constant for several decades, being essentially a communications link between the huge numbers of ships that worked on the Western Australian coastline as well as the mail liners that connected Australia to Europe. Organisational changes Organisational control was constantly changing: initially a possibly unwanted part of the Postmaster-General's_Department, but with officers professionally classed following the commencement of WW1, informally within the scope of the Defence Department late in WW1, a reluctant transferee to the Department of the Navy as the Royal Australian Naval Radio Service (RANRS) after the conclusion of WW1 transferred back to the Postmaster-General's Department in 1922 bought under the control of Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd as it increased its grasp of Australian wireless in 1928 the hard assets of the coastal radio network formally sold to AWA Upon commencement of WW2, again the coastal radio network control vested in the Defence Department in 1946 briefly under the control of the PMG in 1948 transferred to the newly created Overseas Telecommunications (OTC) Precursors In the early 1900s, Geraldton was essentially a port town and saw many vessels both docking at the port and passing nearby on their way to northern Australia and to Europe. But the coastline was not yet well charted and was littered with many small rocky islands and reefs, all of which presented significant danger to the shipping trade. The proprietors of the Geraldton Guardian were well versed in the problem, its pages regularly reporting lost or damaged ships. Equally, with great forethought, they saw the solution to the problem. Following the sad loss of the SS Windsor, in February 1908 they proposed both additional lighthouses and provision of wireless telegraphy stations along the coastline. Still in July 1909, at the time of the arrival at Fremantle of the first wireless-equipped merchant ship (RMS Mantua), the Geraldton Guardian was advocating for a wireless station for Geraldton. In July 1912 the Commonwealth Meteorologist visited Geraldton investigating a number of weather phenomenon unique to the Northwest coast of Western Australia and noted the benefits arising from a wireless station at Geraldton and foreshadowed the establishment of a continent-circling network of wireless stations. The following month, August 1912, John Graeme Balsille, the Commonwealth Wireless Expert formally announced that the Government was proceeding with the establishment of a network of coastal wireless stations and that Geraldton would be one of the initial locations. The Geraldton Guardian waxed lyrical in its announcement later in the month of August 1912 of the proposed establishment of the Geraldton station. In September 1912, Balsillie was comprehensively interviewed by a journalist from "The West Australian" and was advised that, following the completion of the capital city stations, priority was now being given to establishment of the WA coastal stations, indeed that the Geraldton station might be commenced as early as three weeks hence. A few days later, the Sunday Times also interviewed Balsillie who reiterated the short timetable proposed for the Geraldton station. The interview demonstrated Balsillie's straightforward and matter-of-fact manner which is precisely how he proceeded with the establishment of the stations. Construction As foreshadowed by Balsillie, initial work soon commenced and the project supervisor W. M. Sweeney arrived in Geraldton at the end of September 1912 and quickly identified the Residency site on Francis street as being the most suitable. Evidently local council was so keen to see the station established that no opposition was raised to the use of the prime site, and materials were already being delivered on site in the first week of December 1912. Construction of the station was proceeding apace towards the end of December 1912 with a team of eight carpenters constructing the 180 foot mast, 21 inches square consisting of Oregon planks steel bolted together. A further interview with Sweeney was published in the Geraldton Express a few days later which provided further detail of the overall construction and layout of the station. It noted that Sweeney was being assisted on site in wireless matters by Mr. Cox and that the mechanical aspects of the construction were being oversighted by Mr. R. D. Munson of the Public Works Department. Early in January 1913, the Geraldton Express noted that work by the Public Works Department was proceeding satisfactorily and estimated that the buildings would be complete in about three weeks' time. Mid January 1913, the new Peak Hill-Nullagine telegraph line was announced as being in service, which led to consideration of the unreliability of the old line & potential risks remaining with the new line. But it was noted that the coastal radio chain being established provided a key alterative route in case of emergencies. When the coastal chain of wireless stations was first announced, the necessary total number of stations was thought to be about 30, being almost every major port in the nation. But as commissioning proceeded, it became clear that the reliable range for the lower power stations was greater than expected. Carnarvon, about 450km North of Geraldton had been nominated as a likely site, but on 11 January 1913 it was announced that Carnarvon would not be established since Geraldton would be able to service Carnarvon's requirements (in conjunction with the land telegraph system). In February 1913, a few months after the fact, the Commonwealth Gazette announced the purchase of Bullivant's Patent Flexible Steel Wire and Bullivant's Galvanized Wire Rigging Rope for VIN as necessary for antenna and mast rigging. In March 1913, further rigging wire was announced as having been purchased for Station VIN. By mid-January 1913, the jury mast essential to raising the transmitting mast had arrived at Geraldton on the Minderoo and that task was set to commence in a matter of days. The main mast was raised to the perpendicular on 18 January 1913. The activity in the heart of the town was a visual spectacle that was not equalled for many years and a number of townsfolk turned out to observe (as reported by the Geraldton Guardian). The report of the activity by the Guardian Express emphasised the nautical flavour added by the eight man sailor gang doing the hard lifting with a liberal spread of maritime dialect as the work progressed: "Brace up the top guy"; Ay! Ay! Sir!; "Ho! Ho! Boy!"; "Make fast"; and finally the mast was "Four square to all the winds that blow." The demands on Sweeney's time and resources did not abate but rather increased as the Government relented to local representations and prioritised the Wyndham station for completion also. Sweeney had to juggle available staff and problems with availability of the necessary oregon timbers began to emerge. By mid-February 1913 the mast and buildings were complete. While the transmitting apparatus was not operational, the receivers were installed and reception was obtained from the Perth coastal station and two ships in Fremantle port. In March 1913, the PMG's Department called for tenders for the supply of 2,500 gallons of petroleum for station VIN. This would be a continuing requirement for many years until Geraldton had its own electricity supply and the station could be serviced. The transmitter and all equipment for the station was provided by a 15-h.p. "Gardner" Oil Engine, direct coupled to a "Westinghouse" D.C. Generator. The unit was purchased from Noyes Bros. (Melbourne) Propty. Ltd., 499-501 Bourke-street, Melbourne for an amount of £285, as announced in the Commonwealth Gazette of 14 June 1913. There was some competition between the various crews erecting the masts and stations. The record set by the Geraldton crew for mast erection did not last long, being announced on 30 March 1913 as broken by the Esperance team with a time of 5½ hours, though the latter mast was only 160 ft. high, compared to 180 ft. for the Geraldton mast. There had been little progress when two months later in mid-April 1913 it was advised that the promised transmitter still had not been despatched from the Shaw Wireless Works and was still "undergoing testing" in Sydney. With little more to do pending the arrival of the transmitting apparatus, Sweeney returned to Perth on 4 April 1913. Finally in early May 1913 the transmitter and ancillaries arrived on the Aeon and completion commenced in earnest. On 10 May 1913 it was reported that the transmitter had tested successfully on site and official commencement was imminent. On 12 May 1913, a brief report in the Geraldton Express stated simply that "Wireless.— The wireless station is now ready for public work." The following day the rate of progress in the coastal radio network was well illustrated. When announcing the commencement of the Geraldton station it was also stated that VIR Rockhampton would commence in three days' time, while VIC Cooktown and VIE Esperance would commence the following week. Initial operation Two days after commencement of the station, it was operating commercially, with an underwhelming volume of traffic. Local A. H. du Boulay had the honour of lodging the first commercial radiogram and was rewarded two hours later with a reply from the RMS Malwa. An increase in business volume was foreshadowed following enactment of the Navigation Act. It was noted that VIN appeared to be able to receive ships south of VIP somewhat better than VIP itself. The Commonwealth Gazette of 19 July 1913 advertised vacancies for Officers-in-charge for 12 coastal stations outside the major metropolitan centres. The positions were in the Professional Division following advice by Balsillie and generally reflected superior pay and conditions compared to other telegraphists in the Department. Following the exciting times of station construction and initial operation, ordinary life soon set in and in October 1913 a local resident was complaining about the fire risk of long grass in the station paddock. Towards the end of January, Mr. Lamb, officer in charge of the Geraldton Wireless Station was reported returning from his holiday. In May 1914, Mr. Lamb concluded his period as officer-in-charge of the Geraldton station and was transferred to VIP Perth. He was replaced by Mr. Mortimer. World War I On 3 August 1914 the Minister for Defence notified the imposition of censorship on all radiotelegraphic traffic within the Commonwealth. Following the commencement of World War One in August 1914, the local authorities were quick to point out that the wireless station was both a key target and quite defenceless. A few days later the Geraldton Mayor advised that the WA Premier had communicated to him that the matter of protection of the wireless station had been referred to the military authorities. On 18 August 1914 Lieut. Gibbings received instructions to mount a guard at the wireless station consisting of one officer and 20 men. Unfortunately the military reserve utilised for guard duty were mostly youthful and not fully convinced of the seriousness of their task. Within a week of commencement their shenanigans drew comment in the Geraldton Express. Within a few weeks the station guard had cause to draw bayonets and an intruder was apprehended at the station. Under questioning at the local court it became clear that the culprit was having a psychotic break and he was remanded for medical assessment. Generators supplied power to the station, but these were typically used primarily to charge a bank of batteries for actual equipment operation. Maintaining battery charge was an ongoing issue and significant supplies of sulphuric acid were required to achieve this. A single tender in September 1914 called for 2,490 lbs of sulphuric acid across 10 stations. By November 1914 it became clear that the number of persons at the station was causing a sanitary problem and the matter was brought to the attention of council. Lieut. Everett, the commanding officer of the station guard, sought to keep his men engaged and participation in local sports events were regularly reported. In February 1915, Commander of the guard (Lieut. E. S. Everett) departed for the Osborne School of Instruction and was replaced by Second Lieut. Hutton. On 27 January 1915 Arthur McDonald of the wireless station staff married local girl Rose Ethell at St. John's Church, Geraldton. In March 1915, Mark Mortimer was appointed as Officer-in-Charge at the Geraldton wireless station. Again in April 1915, the tom-foolery of the young guards was cause for comment in the Geraldton Express. The staff of the wireless station recognized their community responsibilities and in April 1915 donated £2 9s. to the Moore Benefit. The brief return to Geraldton in April 1915 of local boy Lieut. Gibbings on leave from the war was cause for joy and direct news of the war in several arenas in the town. Application of the War Precautions Act resulted in minimal news of the wireless stations themselves, but Broome's "Nor' West Echo" took a broad interpretation and reported on how a merchant ship was able to evade the Emden thanks to news of its movements broadcast by the Broome station. With the sinking of the Emden, the German threat to the Northwest coast was greatly diminished and early in May 1915 it was announced that the wireless guard to the Geraldton wireless station would be demobilised. Two of the wireless station staff, Pell and Hooker, volunteered for war service in June 1915 and were expected to depart the station shortly. A few weeks later it was reported that A. E. Pell would be departing on 9 July for training at the Blackboy Hill camp and thence to the Wireless Troop in Melbourne. Hooker was to follow as soon as a relieving officer was available. A. E. Pell was replaced early in July 1915 by Mr. Broomhill. In September 1915 both A. E. Pell and B. Hooker, having joined the service were still at the signallers camp at Broadmeadows, Victoria training new recruits in the art of wireless telegraphy. The Commonwealth Gazette of 31 August 1916 noted that Clement George Benger Meredith was now the Wireless station Officer-in-Charge. Royal Australian Naval Radio Service The transfer of officers and staff from the Wireless Branch of the Postmaster-General's Department to the Department of Navy was not supported by the personnel. Issues were a loss of professional status, modest loss of pay, loss of general terms and conditions of service and being subject to military discipline. In June 1916 a large deputation of staff met with the Minister for the Navy to air their grievances. In September 1916 A. E. Pell recounted his war experiences by letter to a local friend, noting that after 6 months in Melbourne as a wireless instructor he had been sent to Persia and was presently in a Bombay hospital recovering from fever. A sad and brief report in March 1917 was to effect that Corporal W. Pass, formerly of the wireless station guard had made the ultimate sacrifice in France. The Commonwealth Gazette of 6 September 1917 announced the abolition of the position of Officer-in-Charge, Geraldton wireless station, Postmaster-General's Department (together with all other positions associated with the coastal radio network), associated with the transfer of control to the Royal Australian Naval Radio Service. After much debate and prevarication, the Royal Australian Naval Radio Service was finally created in March 1917 as part of an overall restructure of the Navy, following on from the review by the Naval Board. As a result all pertinent staff of the PMG were transferred to Department of the Navy's RANRS. In August 1917 the impact of the war on the Western Australia coast was diminishing and domestic matters assumed greater attention. Odd noises emanating from the vicinity of the wireless station were variously attributed to secret activities therein. Further enquiry revealed that the offending noise from the wireless station was simply a nearby failing windmill. Another former member of the wireless station guard, Private George Compton, gave the ultimate sacrifice in July 1918. Post World War I Mr H. Selfe, was reported as being on the Wireless Station Staff. The Royal Australian Navy Radio Service was formally disbanded on 28 October 1920. The appointments of all the officers were terminated. PMG control resumes The Commonwealth Gazette of 21 April 1921 announced a partial restructure of the Radiotelegraph Branch including the abolition of the position of Radio Station Master, Geraldton. AWA control Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) was never reticent in claiming records and exceptional performance, and a December 1922 report advised of a record daytime reception by the Geraldton station of the SS Katoomba at sea of over 1100 miles. In June 1923 the Geraldton station was the first to receive messages concerning the loss and subsequent search for the Trevassa. In fact, those first reports from the Geraldton station about the loss of the Trevassa were initially doubted in Perth. But the arrival of the SS Moreton Bay at Fremantle, the ultimate source of the initial reports, quickly dispelled those doubts. Mr. Reginald Charles Goodland was on the staff of the station in 1924 and 1925, then returned to the Perth station. He passed in an accident near VIP and this news was received with sadness by his many friends Geraldton. By the 1920s Australia's capacity for weather forecasting and reporting had greatly improved. The northwest coast of Western Australia regularly saw intense cyclone activity during the summer months of the southern hemisphere and the coastal radio network played a vital role in distributing weather information to coastal shipping. In the April 1926 cyclone, the Geraldton station served both to broadcast weather information from the Weather Bureau to coastal shipping and to collect weather reports from shipping in the region to assist the Bureau in their forecasting and reporting. A secondary role for the coastal radio network was as an emergency alternative telegraphic route when the land telegraph system sustained damage. This occurred in July 1926 when land telegraph lines along coastal Western Australia were severely damaged by storms and the Geraldton wireless station became a vital link in the telegraphic network. The Geraldton station operated with power from its own diesel generator for more than 13 years. Finally the local electricity supply had expanded to the point where it could support the station and it was connected to the town grid in November 1926. Sale of Station to AWA On 2 November 1928 the prospect of agreement by the Commonwealth government to the sale of the coastal radio network to Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. was cause for the firm to postpone its annual general meeting by one month. The Commonwealth Gazette of 8 November 1928 formally detailed the sale of the coastal radio network to Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) and listed 17 Australian and 9 Pacific stations. The following week it was formally announced that all of the Australian and Pacific Island stations of the coastal radio network including the cornerstone Applecross station had been sold to AWA for an amount of £39,574. It was confirmed that this was in accordance with the original 1922 agreement between the Commonwealth and AWA. A further statement again detailed the specific list of stations with 17 services in Australia (including the Geraldton station) and a further 9 in the Pacific Islands. The stated reason for the sale was that the stations are no longer required by the Federal Government for any public purpose, but that where necessary, army reservations set out in the Crown grants were withheld. George Franklin Cook had spent some years at the Geraldton wireless station circa 1927, but returned to Fremantle circa 1928. In February 1929 he was gathering firewood with his brother and fell from a tree, sustaining serious injuries. He died at the Fremantle hospital some weeks later. The Abrolhos Islands off the coast of Geraldton displayed both extreme natural beauty and horrific risk to coastal navigation. To explore the possibilities for tourism, Geraldton council despatched a party to visit the islands for ten days in June 1929. Harold Cox was the senior wireless officer at the Geraldton wireless station and accompanied the group, providing wireless communication facilities. AWA dominated the market in Australia for wireless fitout on ships in the late 1920s, and in June 1929 at the time of the maiden voyage of the "Westralia," provided a comprehensive summary of its work undertaken which included coastal radio equipment, lifeboat equipment and broadcast band repeaters. Daylight communication with the Geraldton station was established at distance ranging from 800 to 1000 miles. Station modernised By late 1930 the work of the wireless station had expanded to the point where building additions were required and these were approved by council in September 1930. The original 180 ft. timber mast which had served the station faithfully for more than 17 years was by the end of 1930 no longer economically maintainable. It was finally lowered on 6 November 1930. Operation at the station was maintained using a temporary mast for several days until a replacement steel mast was installed the following week. The new mast was of tubular steel and a telescopic design. Despite the improvements in technology over the years, the process of raising the mast using a jury mast and winch was closely similar to the task undertaken in 1913. The work was undertaken by supervising project engineer Sydney Trim and mechanic S. Broomehall. The Marconi School of Wireless was a significant part of the AWA wireless combine and played a major role in training interested individuals for future roles in the Navy and military, as well as wireless operators for shipping and coastal stations, also broadcasting. In more remote areas such as Geraldton, the local coastal station participated in the recruitment and tuition of its students. In February 1931, the wireless station was added to the Council's rate book, no doubt as a result of the change of ownership of the property. In March 1931 there was a change in senior staffing at the wireless station. Mr. H. E. Cox, the officer in charge for some years departed for Sydney. His duties were assumed by Mr. E. H. Smellie who had been at Geraldton for about one year, while Mr. H. B. Wolfe was to assume Smellie's former duties in short order. Sydney Trim, the AWA engineer charged with renovating and upgrading the coastal radio network, returned to Sydney in July 1931 after a two year journey circumnavigating Australia visiting most of the coastal stations. Trim had oversighted the replacement of the VIN mast in November 1930 during that tour. Other projects included VIO Broome (replacement mast, replacement 5kW main transmitter & new emergency transmitter), Cockatoo Island (new wireless telephony system), VIN Geraldton (replacement mast, replacement 2kW main transmitter and new emergency transmitter), VIE Esperance (replacement mast and replacement 2kW main transmitter), VID Darwin (replacement mast, replacement 5kW main transmitter and new emergency transmitter), VIA Adelaide (replacement masts, complete station refurbishment) and VIP Fremantle / Perth (new police communications system). Wolfe's recent arrival was confirmed in July 1931, noting he had previously been at VID Darwin for 3½ years and was much appreciating the change in climate. AWA had rather recently expanded its sphere of operations beyond solely manufacture and retail of broadcast transmitters into ownership and control of individual broadcast stations. 4TO Townsville was to be the newest addition to the group, commencing in October 1931. Harold Cox, recently senior wireless officer at the Geraldton station had been successful in being appointed chief engineer at 4TO. Newman Pusey had been on staff at the wireless station for several years, but in July 1933 received notice of his transfer to VII the Thursday Island station. He was to marry in August 1933 and depart for the north shortly afterwards. It was announced in October 1933 that E. H. Smellie, after some 3½ years at the Geraldton station, had been transferred to VIO Broome and would depart the station in the following month. The coastal radio stations provided generally excellent alternative communication lines during outages of the land telegraph system. But Murphy's law could come to bear and during an outage near Coolgardie in April 1935, when Geraldton wireless was called to assist, it was found that that station itself was unavailable due to a battery recharge being underway. The Geraldton wireless station was fully integrated into the post office telegraphy network which in September 1935 included some 160 stations and 800 substations linked by over 13,000 miles of landlines. The ability to communicate directly with VIP Perth, 24 hours a day, provided invaluable redundancy with the landline network and this capacity was only matched by one other coastal radio station being VIE Esperance. The location of the wireless transmitter within the body of the town was certain to cause blanketing interference to local broadcast receivers due to high levels of radiofrequency signals. But the people of the town seemed to accept the interference as a necessary consequence of this vital service. The residents were less tolerant however of the electrical interference resulting from unsupressed electrical motors in the town and the matter was raised at a Council meeting in March 1936. In July 1938 it was announced that VIO Broome and VIN Geraldton had been fitted with higher power main transmitters. Stated reason was to improve communication between Broome and Perth at times of land telegraph outages, however better communication in the event of war would also have been a factor. World War II Even prior to the declaration of World War 2 in September 1939, the Geraldton militia mounted a guard at the wireless station, emphasising its strategic importance. Security at VIN Geraldton was further enhanced in January 1940 by the passing of the National Security Act which imposed severe penalties for, inter alia, photographing or sketching wireless installations. In August 1940 Mr. R. C. Anderson, wireless officer at VIN Geraldton for the previous four years, received advice of promotion to officer-in-charge of VIO Broome and was to leave Geraldton the following month. December 1940 saw the arrival of C. Lemmon at VIN, having transferred from VIO Broome and he quickly became involved in community activities in Geraldton. The years 1941 through 1944 saw a dearth of information in contemporary publications due to the application of the National Security Act, but increased in mid-1945 as Japanese forces were finally pushed back. Prime Minister Chifley was particularly proud of the part Western Australia played in its defence and again developments in coastal radio were singled out for praise. It was noted that the Geraldton station maintained communications with coastal shipping as well as broader monitoring duties. OTC In February 1947 the Overseas Telecommunications Commission (Australia) assumed control of all external telecommunications services previously operated by Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. This included the entire Australian coastal radio network. From June 1948, the Geraldton station was the key station in a radiocommunications network with 4 smaller stations located at different islands in the Abrolhos Islands. The network was to assist exchange of messages of both a commercial and personal nature with the mainland. The Mangrove Island station of the Abrolhos Island network proved invaluable when the Starling ran aground in Whales Bay in October 1950. Enabling communication with the mainland and rendering of emergency assistance upon his return to Geraldton. Participants and staff Design, construction, maintenance John Graeme Balsillie, 1913, Commonwealth Wireless Expert who designed the wireless system deployed and oversighted the network establishment Walter Moss Sweeney, 1913, construction project supervising engineer for the Postmaster-General's Department R. C. Cox, 1913, assistant project engineer for the Postmaster-General's Department R. D. Munson, 1913, project foreman-rigger for the Public Works Department's portion of the construction project Sydney Trim, 1930, mast replacement project supervising engineer for Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. S. Broomehall, 1930, mast replacement project mechanic for Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. Station staff James Joseph Wiseman Lamb, senior wireless officer, March? 1913 to May 1914 Mark Mortimer, senior wireless officer, May 1914 to ?? Arthur McDonald, wireless officer, circa January 1915 A. E. Pell, wireless officer, ?? to July 1915 (leave for war service) B. Hooker, wireless officer, ?? to August 1915 (leave for war service) Broomhill, wireless officer, July 1915 to ?? H. Selfe, wireless officer, circa May 1920 Louis Alfred Fontaine, wireless officer, circa Jun 1923 E. W. Tymms, wireless officer, circa April 1925 Reginald Charles Goodland, wireless officer, January 1924 to December 1925 George Franklin Cook, wireless officer, circa 1928 Harold E. Cox, senior wireless officer, circa 1929 to March 1931 Newman Dobson Pusey, ??, 1926 to August 1933 E. H. Smellie, wireless operator, 1930 to March 1931; senior wireless operator, March 1931 to November 1933 H. B. Wolfe, wireless operator, March 1931 to ?? F. H. Chrismas, senior wireless officer, circa November 1935 to May 1949+ R. C. Anderson, wireless officer, circa September 1936 to September 1940; relief January 1949 to May 1949 C. Lemmon, ??, December 1940 to ?? Station guard WW1 Second Lieut Gibbings, guard commander August 1914 to ?? Second Lieut E. S. Everett, guard commander ?? to February 1915 Second Lieut Hutton, guard commander February 1915 to ?? Corporal W. Pass, guard troop, died France February 1917 "no greater love" Private George Compton, guard troop August 1914 to January 1915, died France July 1918 "no greater love" H. H. Opie, guard commander ?? to ?? Further reading Bastock, John. Ships on the Australia Station, (Child & Associates Publishing Pty Ltd, Frenchs Forest, 1988) Burger, David. Callsign History Australia - Australian Amateur Radio Callsigns, (IEEE, 2014) online Carty, Bruce. Australian Radio History (4th ed. Sydney, 2013) Curnow, Geoffrey Ross. "The history of the development of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia to 1942, with especial reference to the Australian Broadcasting Commission: a political and administrative study". online Durrant, Lawrence. The seawatchers : the story of Australia's Coast Radio Service (angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1986) Trove NLA Geeves, P. "The Dawn of Australia's Radio Broadcasting". online Given, Donald Jock. "Transit of Empires: Ernest Fisk and the World Wide Wireless". (Melbourne, 2007) Griffen-Foley, Bridget. Changing Stations the story of Australian commercial radio Hadlow, Martin Lindsay. "Wireless and Empire ambition: wireless telegraphy/telephony and radio broadcasting in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, South-West Pacific (1914-1947): political, social and developmental perspectives". (Martin Hadlow, Brisbane, 2016) Harte, Bernard. When Radio Was The Cat's Whiskers (Rosenberg Publishing, 2002) Hewitson, Peter. Australian MCS; A brief history of the Australian Coastal Radio Service (Website) Johnstone, James. Coastal Radio Stations (Webpages) Jolly, Rhonda. Media ownership and regulation: a chronology (Canberra, 2016) Jones, Colin. Something in the air : a history of radio in Australia (Kenthurst, 1995) Jose, Arthur W. The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914-1918; Volume IX, The Royal Australian Navy (Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 9th Ed, 1941) Online (especially Chapter XIV: Sundry services: Radio-Telegraphy, Censorship, Coaling, etc.) MacKinnon, Colin. Australian Radio Publications and Magazines (Ian O'Toole, 2004) online Muscio, Winston T. Australian Radio, The Technical Story 1923–1983 (Kangaroo Press, 1984) Ross, John F. A History of Radio in South Australia 1897–1977 (J. F. Ross, 1978) Ross, John F. Handbook for Radio Engineering Managers (Butterworths, 1980) Ross, John F. Radio Broadcasting Technology, 75 Years of Development in Australia 1923–1998 (J. F. Ross, 1998) Shawsmith, Alan. Halcyon Days, The Story of Amateur Radio in VK4, Queensland (Boolarong Publications, 1987) Umback, Rick. Constituting Australia's International Wireless Service: 1901-1922 (Rick Umback, 1916, Canberra) Online (PhD. thesis, focus on Beam Wireless and its origins with emphasis on wireless telegraphy era, detailed analysis) United States, Navy Department, Bureau of Steam Engineering. List of wireless telegraph stations of the world, 1912 (Government Printing Office, 1912) Online Walker, R. R. The Magic Spark: 50 Years of Radio in Australia (Hawthorn Press, 1973) White, Thomas H. Early Radio Station Lists Issued by the U.S. Government (Website) Online (includes HTMLs of all known copies of Wireless Telegraph Stations of the World 1906 to 1912 with, inter alia, lists of merchant ship and shore station callsigns) Wireless Institute of Australia (editor Wolfenden, Peter). Wireless Men & Women at War (Wireless Institute of Australia, Melbourne, 2017) In-line citations Geraldton 1913 establishments in Australia

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The savings and loan crisis of the 1980s and 1990s (commonly dubbed the S&L crisis) was the failure of 1,043 out of the 3,234 savings and loan associations (S&Ls) in the United States from 1986 to 1995. An S&L or "thrift" is a financial institution that accepts savings deposits and makes mortgage, car and other personal loans to individual members (a cooperative venture known in the United Kingdom as a building society). The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions from 1986 to 1989, whereupon the newly established Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) took up these responsibilities. The RTC closed or otherwise resolved 747 institutions from 1989 to 1995 with an estimated book value between $402 and $407 billion. In 1996, the General Accounting Office (GAO) estimated the total cost to be $160 billion, including $132.1 billion taken from taxpayers. In 1979, the Federal Reserve of the United States raised the discount rate that it charged its member banks from 9.5 percent to 12 percent in an effort to reduce inflation. The building of S&Ls had issued long-term loans at fixed interest rates that were lower than the interest rate at which they could borrow. In addition, the S&Ls had the liability of the deposits which paid higher interest rates than the rate at which they could borrow. When interest rates at which they could borrow increased, the S&Ls could not attract adequate capital, from deposits to savings accounts of members for instance, and they became insolvent. Rather than admit to insolvency, some S&Ls took advantage of lax regulatory oversight to pursue highly speculative investment strategies. This had the effect of extending the period where S&Ls were likely technically insolvent. These adverse actions also substantially increased the economic losses for the S&Ls than would otherwise have been realized had their insolvency been discovered earlier. One extreme example was that of financier Charles Keating, who paid $51 million financed through Michael Milken's "junk bond" operation, for his Lincoln Savings and Loan Association which at the time had a negative net worth exceeding $100 million. Others, such as author and financial historian Kenneth J. Robinson or the account of the crisis published in 2000 by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), give multiple reasons as to why the S&L crisis came to pass. In no particular order of significance, they identify the rising monetary inflation beginning in the late 1960s spurred by simultaneous domestic spending programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" programs coupled with the military expenses of the continuing Vietnam War that continued into the late 1970s. The efforts to end the rampant inflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s by raising interest rates brought on a recession in the early 1980s and the beginning of the S&L crisis. Deregulation of the S&L industry, combined with regulatory forbearance, and fraud worsened the crisis. Background The "thrift" or "building" or "savings and loans associations" industry has its origins in the British building society movement that emerged in the late 18th century. American thrifts (also known as "building and loans" or "B&Ls") shared many of the same basic goals: to help the working class save for the future and purchase homes. Thrifts were not-for-profit cooperative organizations that were typically managed by the membership and local institutions that served well-defined groups of aspiring homeowners. While banks offered a wide array of products to individuals and businesses, thrifts often made only home mortgages primarily to working-class men and women. Thrift leaders believed they were part of a broader social reform effort and not a financial industry. According to thrift leaders, B&Ls not only helped people become better citizens by making it easier to buy a home, they also taught the habits of systematic savings and mutual cooperation which strengthened personal morals. The thrift associations and their ideals were famously portrayed in the 1946 film It's a Wonderful Life. The first thrift was formed in 1831, and for 40 years there were few B&Ls, found in only a handful of Midwestern and Eastern states. This situation changed in the late 19th century as urban growth and the demand for housing related to the Second Industrial Revolution caused the number of thrifts to explode. The popularity of B&Ls led to the creation of a new type of thrift in the 1880s called the "national" B&L. The "nationals" were often for-profit businesses formed by bankers or industrialists that employed promoters to form local branches to sell shares to prospective members. The "nationals" promised to pay savings rates up to four times greater than any other financial institution. The Depression of 1893 (resulting from the financial Panic of 1893, which lasted for several years) caused a sharp decline in members, and so "nationals" experienced a sudden reversal of fortunes. Because a steady stream of new members was critical for a "national" to pay both the interest on savings and the hefty salaries for the organizers, the falloff in payments caused dozens of "nationals" to fail. By the end of the 19th century, nearly all the "nationals" were out of business (National Building and Loans Crisis). This led to the creation of the first state regulations governing B&Ls, to make thrift operations more uniform, and the formation of a national trade association to not only protect B&L interests, but also promote business growth. The trade association led efforts to create more uniform accounting, appraisal, and lending procedures. It also spearheaded the drive to have all thrifts refer to themselves as "savings and loans", not B&Ls, and to convince managers of the need to assume more professional roles as financiers. In the 20th century, the two decades that followed the end of World War II were the most successful period in the history of the thrift industry. The return of millions of servicemen eager to take up their prewar lives led to an unprecedented post-war housing crisis and boom with a dramatic increase in new families, and this so-called "baby boom" caused a surge in new mostly suburban home construction, and vast expansion beyond the central core cities with additional commercial development on radiating spoke roads and highways plus the additional construction by 1956, during the Eisenhower administration of the Interstate Highways system throughout the country allowed the explosion of suburban communities in formerly rural surrounding counties. By the 1940s S&Ls (the name change for many associations occurred gradually after the late 1930s) provided most of the financing for this expansion, which now had some sort of state regulation which predated the later similar regulation of banks instituted after the 1929 Stock Market "Crash" and the later "bank holiday" of the beginning of the administration of 32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt in March 1933, and the subsequent requirements and regulations in the "New Deal" programs to combat the Great Depression. The result was strong industry expansion that lasted through the early 1960s. An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the United States Congress took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as stagflation, wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as disintermediation. At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for mortgages that in turn limited the ability of the S&Ls to generate income. In response to these complex economic conditions, thrift managers resorted to several innovations, such as alternative mortgage instruments and interest-bearing checking accounts, as a way to retain funds and generate lending business. Such actions allowed the industry to continue to record steady asset growth and profitability during the 1970s even though the actual number of thrifts was falling. Despite such growth, there were still clear signs that the industry was chafing under the constraints of regulation. This was especially true with the large S&Ls in the Western United States that yearned for additional lending powers to ensure continued growth. Despite several efforts to modernize these laws in the 1970s, few substantive changes were enacted. In 1979, the financial health of the thrift industry was again challenged by a return of high interest rates and inflation, sparked this time by a doubling of oil prices and exacerbated by dwindling resources of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) It was not a small problem: In 1980 there were more than 4,000 savings & loans institutions with assets of $600 billion, of which $480 billion were mortgage loans, many of them made at low interest rates fixed in an earlier era. In the United States, this was 50 percent of the entire home mortgage market. In 1983, the FSLIC's reserves for failures amounted to around $6 billion, whereas, according to Robinson (footnoted), the cost of paying off insured depositors in failed institutions would have been around $25 billion. Hence, regulators were forced into "forbearance"—allowing insolvent institutions to remain open—and to hope that they could grow out of their problems. Causes Deregulation In the early 1980s Congress passed two laws intended to deregulate the Savings and Loans industry, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 and the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982. These laws allowed thrifts to offer a wider array of savings products (including adjustable-rate mortgages), but also significantly expanded their lending authority and reduced regulatory oversight. These changes were intended to allow S&Ls to "grow" out of their problems, and as such represented the first time that the government explicitly sought to influence S&L profits as opposed to promoting housing and home ownership. Other changes in thrift oversight included authorizing the use of more lenient accounting rules to report their financial condition, and the elimination of restrictions on the minimum numbers of S&L stockholders. Such policies, combined with an overall decline in regulatory oversight (known as forbearance), would later be cited as factors in the collapse of the thrift industry. Between 1982 and 1985, S&L assets grew by 56% (compared to growth in commercial banks of 24%). In part, the growth was tilted toward financially weaker institutions which could only attract deposits by offering very high rates and which could only afford those rates by investing in high-yield, risky investments and loans. The deregulation of S&Ls in 1980, by the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act signed by President Jimmy Carter on March 31, 1980, gave the thrifts many of the capabilities of commercial banks without the same regulations as banks, and without explicit FDIC oversight. Savings and loan associations could choose to be under either a state or a federal charter. This decision was made in response to the dramatically increasing interest rates and inflation rates that the S&L market experienced due to vulnerabilities in the structure of the market. Immediately after deregulation of the federally chartered thrifts, state-chartered thrifts rushed to become federally chartered, because of the advantages associated with a federal charter. In response, states such as California and Texas changed their regulations to be similar to federal regulations. End of inflation Another factor contributing to the crisis was the efforts of the Federal Reserve to wring inflation out of the economy, marked by Paul Volcker's speech of October 6, 1979, with a series of rises in short-term interest rates. This led to a scenario in which increases in the short-term cost of funding were higher than the return on portfolios of mortgage loans, a large proportion of which may have been fixed-rate mortgages (a problem that is known as an asset-liability mismatch). Interest rates continued to rise, placing even more pressure on S&Ls as the 1980s dawned and leading to increased focus on high interest-rate transactions. According to Zvi Bodie, professor of finance and economics at Boston University School of Management, writing in the St. Louis Federal Reserve Review, "asset-liability mismatch was a principal cause of the Savings and Loan Crisis". Forbearance The relatively greater concentration of S&L lending in mortgages, coupled with a reliance on deposits with short maturities for their funding, made savings institutions especially vulnerable to increases in interest rates. As inflation accelerated and interest rates began to rise rapidly in the late 1970s, many S&Ls began to suffer extensive losses. The rates they had to pay to attract deposits rose sharply, but the amount they earned on long-term, fixed-rate mortgages did not change. Losses began to mount. This led to a regulatory response of forbearance, which is arguably the cause of the turmoil that the S&L market experienced. Many insolvent thrifts were allowed to remain open, and their financial problems only worsened over time. Moreover, capital standards were reduced both by legislation and by decisions taken by regulators. Federally chartered S&Ls were granted the authority to make new (and ultimately riskier) loans other than residential mortgages. Imprudent real estate lending In an effort to take advantage of the real estate boom (outstanding U.S. mortgage loans: 1976 $700 billion; 1980 $1.2 trillion) and high interest rates of the late 1970s and early 1980s, many S&Ls lent far more money than was prudent, and to ventures which many S&Ls were not qualified to assess, especially regarding commercial real estate. L. William Seidman, former chairman of both the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and the Resolution Trust Corporation, stated, "The banking problems of the '80s and '90s came primarily, but not exclusively, from unsound real estate lending". Peter Lynch, a mutual fund manager at Fidelity Investments, believed lack of oversight on property debt was a key factor in the savings and loan crisis. He was heavily invested in S&Ls before and during the crisis via the Magellan Fund. Lynch generally thought they were good investments but also noted most of the troubled S&Ls were privately held, and thus faced less scrutiny from shareholders who might have noted and objected to questionable property loans and holdings that contributed to the crisis. Brokered deposits Deposit brokers, somewhat like stockbrokers, are paid a commission by the customer to find the best certificate of deposit (CD) rates and place their customers' money in those CDs. Previously, banks and thrifts could only have five percent of their deposits be brokered deposits; the race to the bottom caused this limit to be lifted. A small one-branch thrift could then attract a large number of deposits simply by offering the highest rate. To make money off this expensive money, it had to lend at even higher rates, meaning that it had to make more, riskier investments. This system was made even more damaging when certain deposit brokers instituted a scam known as "linked financing". In "linked financing", a deposit broker would approach a thrift and say he would steer a large amount of deposits to that thrift if the thrift would lend certain people money. The people, however, were paid a fee to apply for the loans and told to give the loan proceeds to the deposit broker. Major causes according to United States League of Savings Institutions The following is a detailed summary of the major causes for losses that hurt the savings and loan business in the 1980s: Lack of net worth for many institutions as they entered the 1980s, and a wholly inadequate net worth regulation. Decline in the effectiveness of Regulation Q in preserving the spread between the cost of money and the rate of return on assets, basically stemming from inflation and the accompanying increase in market interest rates. Absence of an ability to vary the return on assets with increases in the rate of interest required to be paid for deposits. Increased competition on the deposit gathering and mortgage origination sides of the business, with a sudden burst of new technology making possible a whole new way of conducting financial institutions generally and the mortgage business specifically. Savings and Loans gained a wide range of new investment powers with the passage of the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act and the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act. A number of states also passed legislation that similarly increased investment options. These introduced new risks and speculative opportunities which were difficult to administer. In many instances management lacked the ability or experience to evaluate them, or to administer large volumes of nonresidential construction loans. Elimination of regulations initially designed to prevent lending excesses and minimize failures. Regulatory relaxation permitted lending, directly and through participations, in distant loan markets on the promise of high returns. Lenders, however, were not familiar with these distant markets. It also permitted associations to participate extensively in speculative construction activities with builders and developers who had little or no financial stake in the projects. Fraud and insider transaction abuses from employees. A new type and generation of opportunistic savings and loan executives and owners – some of whom operated in a fraudulent manner – whose takeover of many institutions was facilitated by a change in FSLIC rules reducing the minimum number of stockholders of an insured association from 400 to one. Dereliction of duty on the part of the board of directors of some savings associations. This permitted management to make uncontrolled use of some new operating authority, while directors failed to control expenses and prohibit obvious conflict of interest situations. A virtual end of inflation in the American economy, together with overbuilding in multifamily, condominium type residences and in commercial real estate in many cities. In addition, real estate values collapsed in the energy states – Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma – particularly due to falling oil prices – and weakness occurred in the mining and agricultural sectors of the economy. Pressures felt by the management of many associations to restore net worth ratios. Anxious to improve earnings, they departed from their traditional lending practices into credits and markets involving higher risks, but with which they had little experience. The lack of appropriate, accurate, and effective evaluations of the savings and loan business by public accounting firms, security analysts, and the financial community. Organizational structure and supervisory laws, adequate for policing and controlling the business in the protected environment of the 1960s and 1970s, resulted in fatal delays and indecision in the examination/supervision process in the 1980s. Federal and state examination and supervisory staffs insufficient in number, experience, or ability to deal with the new world of savings and loan operations. The inability or unwillingness of the Bank Board and its legal and supervisory staff to deal with problem institutions in a timely manner. Many institutions, which ultimately closed with big losses, were known problem cases for a year or more. Often, it appeared, political considerations delayed necessary supervisory action. Major causes and lessons learned In 2005, former bank regulator William K. Black listed a number of lessons that should have been learned from the S&L Crisis that have not been translated into effective governmental action: Fraud matters, and control frauds pose unique risks. It is important to understand fraud mechanisms. Economists grossly underestimate its prevalence and impact, and prosecutors have difficulties finding it, even without the political pressure from politicians who receive campaign contributions from the banking industry. Control fraud can occur in waves created by poorly designed deregulation that creates a criminogenic environment. Waves of control fraud cause immense damage. Control frauds convert conventional restraints on abuse into aids to fraud. Conflicts of interest matter. Deposit insurance was not essential to S&L control frauds. There are not enough trained investigators in the regulatory agencies to protect against control frauds. Regulatory and presidential leadership is important. Ethics and social forces are restraints on fraud and abuse. Deregulation matters and assets matter. The SEC should have a chief criminologist. Control frauds defeat corporate governance protections and reforms. Stock options increase looting by control frauds. The "reinventing government" movement should deal effectively with control frauds. Failures In 1980, the United States Congress granted all thrifts, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. Designed to help the thrift industry retain its deposit base and to improve its profitability, the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (DIDMCA) of 1980 allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, accept negotiable order of withdrawal accounts from individuals and nonprofit organizations, and invest up to 20 percent of their assets in commercial real estate loans. The damage to S&L operations led Congress to act, passing the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) in August 1981 and initiating the regulatory changes by the Federal Home Loan Bank Board allowing S&Ls to sell their mortgage loans and use the cash generated to seek better returns soon after enactment; the losses created by the sales were to be amortized over the life of the loan, and any losses could also be offset against taxes paid over the preceding ten years. This all made S&Ls eager to sell their loans. The buyers – major Wall Street firms – were quick to take advantage of the S&Ls' lack of expertise, buying at 60% to 90% of value and then transforming the loans by bundling them as, effectively, government-backed bonds by virtue of Ginnie Mae, Freddie Mac, or Fannie Mae guarantees. S&Ls were one group buying these bonds, holding $150 billion by 1986, and being charged substantial fees for the transactions. In 1982, the Garn-St Germain Depository Institutions Act was passed and increased the proportion of assets that thrifts could hold in consumer and commercial real estate loans and allowed thrifts to invest 5 percent of their assets in commercial loans until January 1, 1984, when this percentage increased to 10 percent. A large number of S&L customers' defaults and bankruptcies ensued, and the S&Ls that had overextended themselves were forced into insolvency proceedings themselves. The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC), a federal government agency that insured S&L accounts in the same way the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insures commercial bank accounts, then had to repay all the depositors whose money was lost. From 1986 to 1989, FSLIC closed or otherwise resolved 296 institutions with total assets of $125 billion. An even more traumatic period followed, with the creation of the Resolution Trust Corporation in 1989 and that agency's resolution by mid-1995 of an additional 747 thrifts. A Federal Reserve Bank panel stated the resulting taxpayer bailout ended up being even larger than it would have been because moral hazard and adverse selection incentives that compounded the system's losses. There also were state-chartered S&Ls that failed. Some state insurance funds failed, requiring state taxpayer bailouts. Home State Savings Bank In March 1985, it came to public knowledge that the large Cincinnati, Ohio-based Home State Savings Bank was about to collapse. Ohio Governor Dick Celeste declared a bank holiday in the state as Home State depositors lined up in a "run" on the bank's branches to withdraw their deposits. Celeste ordered the closure of all the state's S&Ls. Only those that were able to qualify for membership in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation were allowed to reopen. Claims by Ohio S&L depositors drained the state's deposit insurance funds. A similar event involving Old Court Savings and Loans took place in Maryland. Midwest Federal Savings & Loan Midwest Federal Savings & Loan was a federally chartered savings and loan based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until its failure in 1990. The St. Paul Pioneer Press called the bank's failure the "largest financial disaster in Minnesota history". The chairman, Hal Greenwood Jr., his daughter, Susan Greenwood Olson, and two former executives, Robert A. Mampel, and Charlotte E. Masica, were convicted of racketeering that led to the institution's collapse. The failure cost taxpayers $1.2 billion. The Megadeth song "Foreclosure of a Dream" is presumed to have been written about this particular failure. Megadeth's then bassist Dave Ellefson contributed lyrics to the song after his family's Minnesota farm was in jeopardy as a result of the S&L financial crisis. Lincoln Savings and Loan The Lincoln Savings collapse led to the Keating Five political scandal, in which five U.S. senators were implicated in an influence-peddling scheme. It was named for Charles Keating, who headed Lincoln Savings and made $300,000 as political contributions to them in the 1980s. Three of those senators, Alan Cranston (D–CA), Don Riegle (D–MI), and Dennis DeConcini (D–AZ), found their political careers cut short as a result. Two others, John Glenn (D–OH) and John McCain (R–AZ), were rebuked by the Senate Ethics Committee for exercising "poor judgment" for intervening with the federal regulators on behalf of Keating. Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989, at a cost of $3.4 billion to the federal government (and thus taxpayers). Some 23,000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings. Silverado Savings and Loan Silverado Savings and Loan collapsed in 1988, costing taxpayers $1.3 billion. Neil Bush, the son of then Vice President of the United States George H. W. Bush, was on the Board of Directors of Silverado at the time. Neil Bush was accused of giving himself a loan from Silverado, but he denied all wrongdoing. The U.S. Office of Thrift Supervision investigated Silverado's failure and determined that Neil Bush had engaged in numerous "breaches of his fiduciary duties involving multiple conflicts of interest". Although Bush was not indicted on criminal charges, a civil action was brought against him and the other Silverado directors by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation; it was eventually settled out of court, with Bush paying $50,000 as part of the settlement, The Washington Post reported. As a director of a failing thrift, Bush voted to approve $100 million in what were ultimately bad loans to two of his business partners. And in voting for the loans, he failed to inform fellow board members at Silverado Savings & Loan that the loan applicants were his business partners. Neil Bush paid a $50,000 fine, paid for him by Republican supporters, and was banned from banking activities for his role in taking down Silverado, which cost taxpayers $1.3 billion. An RTC suit against Bush and other Silverado officers was settled in 1991 for $26.5 million. Scandals Jim Wright On June 9, 1988, the House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct adopted a six-count preliminary inquiry resolution representing a determination by the committee that in 69 instances there was reason to believe that Rep. Jim Wright (D–TX) violated House rules on conduct unbecoming a Representative. A report by special counsel implicated him in a number of influence peddling charges, such as Vernon Savings and Loan, and attempting to get William K. Black fired as deputy director of the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) under Gray. Wright resigned on May 31, 1989, to avoid a full hearing after the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct unanimously approved a statement of alleged violation April 17. Keating Five On November 17, 1989, the Senate Ethics Committee investigation began of the Keating Five, Alan Cranston (D–CA), Dennis DeConcini (D–AZ), John Glenn (D–OH), John McCain (R–AZ), and Donald W. Riegle Jr. (D–MI), who were accused of improperly intervening in 1987 on behalf of Charles H. Keating Jr., chairman of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association. Keating's Lincoln Savings failed in 1989, costing the federal government over $3 billion and leaving 23,000 customers with worthless bonds. In the early 1990s, Keating was convicted in both federal and state courts of many counts of fraud, racketeering and conspiracy. He served four and a half years in prison before those convictions were overturned in 1996. In 1999, he pleaded guilty to a more limited set of wire fraud and bankruptcy fraud counts, and sentenced to the time he had already served. Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 As a result of the savings and loan crisis, Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA), which dramatically changed the savings and loan industry and its federal regulation. The highlights of the legislation, which was signed into law on August 9, 1989, were: The Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) were abolished. The Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS), a bureau of the United States Treasury Department, was created to charter, regulate, examine, and supervise savings institutions. The Federal Housing Finance Board (FHFB) was created as an independent agency to replace the FHLBB, i.e. to oversee the 12 Federal Home Loan Banks (also called district banks) that represent the largest collective source of home mortgage and community credit in the United States. The Savings Association Insurance Fund (SAIF) replaced the FSLIC as an ongoing insurance fund for thrift institutions (like the FDIC, the FSLIC was a permanent corporation that insured savings and loan accounts up to $100,000). SAIF is administered by the FDIC. The Resolution Trust Corporation (RTC) was established to dispose of failed thrift institutions taken over by regulators after January 1, 1989. The RTC will make insured deposits at those institutions available to their customers. FIRREA gives both Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae additional responsibility to support mortgages for low- and moderate-income families. The legislation also required S&Ls to meet minimum capital standards (some of which were risk-based) and raised deposit-insurance premiums. It limited to 30% of their portfolios loans not in residential mortgages or mortgage-related securities and set down standards preventing concentrations of loans to single borrowers. It required them to completely divest themselves of junk bonds by July 1, 1994, meanwhile segregating junk bond holdings and direct investments in separately capitalized subsidiaries. Consequences While not part of the savings and loan crisis, many other banks failed. Between 1980 and 1994 more than 1,600 banks insured by the FDIC were closed or received FDIC financial assistance. From 1986 to 1995, the number of federally insured savings and loans in the United States declined from 3,234 to 1,645. This was primarily, but not exclusively, due to unsound real estate lending. The market share of S&Ls for single family mortgage loans went from 53% in 1975 to 30% in 1990. U.S. General Accounting Office estimated cost of the crisis to around $160.1 billion, about $124.6 billion of which was directly paid for by the U.S. government from 1986 to 1996. That figure does not include thrift insurance funds used before 1986 or after 1996. It also does not include state run thrift insurance funds or state bailouts. The federal government ultimately appropriated $105 billion to resolve the crisis. After banks repaid loans through various procedures, there was an estimated net loss to taxpayers of somewhere between ($123.8–132.1) 124 and 132 billion dollars by the end of 1999. The concomitant slowdown in the finance industry and the real estate market may have been a contributing cause of the 1990–1991 economic recession. Between 1986 and 1991, the number of new homes constructed dropped from 1.8 million to 1 million, the lowest rate since World War II. Some commentators believe that a taxpayer-funded government bailout related to mortgages during the savings and loan crisis may have created a moral hazard and acted as encouragement to lenders to make similar higher risk loans during the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis. See also Financial crisis Fractional-reserve banking List of corporate scandals List of largest U.S. bank failures Resolution Trust Corporation Subprime mortgage crisis Tax Reform Act of 1986 Cottage Savings Association v. Commissioner, a United States Supreme Court case dealing with the tax consequences of the S&L crisis United States v. Winstar Corp., a U.S. Supreme Court case that gives a concise but useful history of the crisis and the accounting practices that aggravated that crisis. Notes References Savings and Loan Crisis External links FDIC: The S&L Crisis: A Chrono-Bibliography The Cost of Savings & Loan Crisis: Truth & Consequences Classic Financial and Corporate Scandals (Mis)Understanding a Banking Industry in Transition by William K. Black, from Dollars & Sense Nov/Dec 2007 Economic crises in the United States Financial services in the United States Presidency of Ronald Reagan Presidency of George H. W. Bush Reagan administration controversies George H. W. Bush administration controversies 1980s economic history 1990s economic history

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The Leipzig Salient was the British term for a German defensive position built in 1915 on the Somme in France, during the First World War, opposite the village of Authuille which contained the Leipzig Redoubt on its west face. The position was to the south-west of the site of the later Thiepval Memorial, north-east of the La Boisselle–Authuille and Thiepval–Aveluy crossroads. The German front line bulged around a quarry which the Germans fortified and enclosed with Hindenburg Trench, across the chord of the salient. A redoubt named the (Wonderwork to the British) lay beyond, on a reverse slope. Nab Valley lay on the east side, Thiepval was to the north, with the fortified Mouquet Farm and the village of Pozières to the north-west. On the First day on the Somme (1 July 1916), the Leipzig Salient was attacked by the 1/17th Highland Light Infantry (17th HLI) of the 32nd Division. The battalion crept forward at ready to rush the German defences as soon as the British barrage lifted at The Scots advanced until short of the German front line, rushed the redoubt when the barrage lifted and caught the German garrison sheltering in their quarry dugouts at the centre of the redoubt. The 17th HLI pressed on to the next objective but were forced back to the Leipzig Redoubt and consolidated with parties of the 2nd King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. The 17th HLI was joined at the redoubt by parties of the 11th Border Regiment, 1st Dorset Regiment and the 19th Lancashire Fusiliers (3rd Salford Pals) during the day and the 17th HLI was withdrawn overnight. British and German attacks at the salient continued during July, when the Reserve Army divisions north of the Albert–Bapaume road reverted to trench warfare, in which the 32nd, 25th and 49th divisions (X Corps) occupied Leipzig Redoubt in turn during the rest of the month. The divisions were to push forward to improve their positions and to prevent the Germans from withdrawing troops for operations against the Fourth Army to the south. Both sides made costly attacks but could rarely consolidate gains before being forced out by counter-attacks. Intermittent operations at the Leipzig Salient continued as part of the Battle of Pozières and the Battle of Thiepval Ridge when the Thiepval Spur was captured by the 18th (Eastern) Division. Background 1914 On 29 September the 26th Reserve Division attacked eastwards towards Albert and Thiepval on the north side of the Bapaume–Albert road with Reserve Infantry Brigade 51. Thiepval was occupied unopposed but French troops were found to have dug in at Thiepval Wood and German patrols were held up at the Ancre crossings which the French had blocked with barbed wire. An attack by a company of Infantry Regiment 180 on Authuille was brought to a standstill south-west of Thiepval. A French counter-attack from Hamel began in the evening and in the early hours of 30 September, two German companies were surrounded and had to break out to the east. Somme fortifications On the Somme front, the fortification plan ordered by Falkenhayn in January 1915 had been completed during the year. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt wide to two belts wide and about apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid high. The front line had been increased from one trench line to three, apart, the first trench occupied by sentry groups, the second () for the bulk of the front-trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry-posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dugouts had been deepened from to , apart and large enough for . An intermediate line of strong points (the ) about behind the front line was also built. Communication trenches ran back to the reserve position, renamed the second position, which was as well-built and wired as the first position. The second position was beyond the range of Allied field artillery, to force an attacker to stop and move field artillery forward before an attack. After the (Autumn battles) of 1915, a third defensive position another back from the was begun in February 1916 and was almost complete on the Somme front when the battle began. German artillery was organised in a series of (barrage sectors); each officer was expected to know the batteries covering his section of the front line and the batteries ready to engage fleeting targets. A telephone system with lines buried deep for behind the front line, was built to connect the front line to the artillery. The Somme defences had two inherent weaknesses which the rebuilding had not remedied. The front trenches were on a forward slope, lined by white chalk from the subsoil and easily seen by ground observers. The defences were crowded towards the front trench, with a regiment having two battalions near the front-trench system and the reserve battalion divided between the and the second position, all within and most troops within of the front line, accommodated in the new deep dugouts. The concentration of troops at the front line on a forward slope guaranteed that it would face the bulk of an artillery bombardment, directed by ground observers on clearly marked lines. Granatloch (Leipzig Salient) The German fortification programme led to the building of a redoubt south of Thiepval known as (Leipzig Salient to the British), where the German line bulged westwards around a derelict chalk quarry. To the south-west lay the Ovillers–Authuille and Thiepval–Aveluy crossroads and more defensive works, Hindenburg Trench, Lemberg Trench and the (named after Theodor von Wundt, commander of Reserve Infantry Brigade 51) and known as the Wonderwork by the British, were dug behind the redoubt. Nab Valley lay to the east, Thiepval was to the north and to the north-east near Pozières lay the fortified Mouquet Farm. The salient blocked the route to Redoubt at the top of Bazentin Ridge, from which the spurs leading south and south-west could be outflanked. The was an irregularly shaped six-sided trench network higher up the spur which, with the other fortified places and villages, commanded the approaches to . Prelude German defensive preparations The German front line opposite X Corps was held by eight battalions in the centre of the sector occupied by the 26th Reserve Division, mostly raised in the Kingdom of Württemberg and part of the XIV Reserve Corps ( Hermann von Stein). Opposite the 32nd Division the defences were held by I and II battalions, Reserve Infantry Regiment 99 of Reserve Infantry Brigade 55, each having three companies in the front line and one in reserve, with headquarters in Mouquet Farm to the east. At the south end of the 26th Reserve Division area, Thiepval south was held by Infantry Regiment 180, which had been moved south from Serre in June. The German defences ran along the northern slope of the Ovillers Spur, bent eastwards into Nab Valley then westwards to enclose the west end of Thiepval Spur and the western fringe of Bazentin Ridge, then north to St Pierre Divion on the Ancre river. On most of the front, the German defences were on higher ground but convex slopes meant that much of the Ancre valley to the west was in dead ground. Authuille and Thiepval woods on the east bank of the Ancre and Aveluy Wood on the west side, covered much of the ground behind the British front line, in which assembly positions could be built unseen and then occupied by British troops, as they massed for the attack. The village of Thiepval was opposite the centre of the X Corps sector, on a spur within the German front position, at the junction with Bazentin Ridge. During the British preparatory bombardment, most of the sixty dwellings in the village were demolished but the house cellars were covered by fallen masonry, which protected them from all but super-heavy shells. None of the German machine-gun positions was hit and shelters excavated under the village, provided accommodation for the garrison during the bombardment and protected ammunition stores and machine-guns, ready to be moved into the open. A chain of cellars, on the west fringe of the village, had been joined to form a connected line of machine-gun posts, which had been kept silent to surprise an attacker. The château ruins in the south-west corner had also been fortified. Both sets of machine-guns could sweep all the upper western slope of Thiepval Spur and enfilade an attack further south as far as Authuille. South of Thiepval, lay the Leipzig Redoubt, at the west end of the Leipzig Salient, containing many machine-guns, which dominated no man's land, from wide to the west and the south, the narrowest point being opposite Leipzig Redoubt. In the German third or reserve trench, four fortified works had been built, the (Wonderwork) on the reverse slope to the south of the Leipzig Redoubt, out of sight of British ground observers and placed to stop an advance over the spur, if the front trenches were overrun. A second redoubt was built at the back of Thiepval and Redoubt atop the Bazentin Ridge, commanding the village and ridge below. Further north the fortified village of St Pierre Divion anchored the first position on the Ancre. An attack on the Leipzig Salient could be engaged by machine-guns in the on Ovillers Spur across Nab Valley, opposite the Nab. On the northern flank, (Beaucourt Redoubt) covered the north and north-west slopes of Bazentin Ridge. A second position had been dug from Mouquet Farm to Grandcourt, protected by an intermediate line, from which the Mouquet Switch and the Hansa Line connected to Redoubt. Behind the second position, another back, lay the third position, construction of which had begun in late 1915 after the Franco-British offensives of September 1915, which had shown that two defensive positions were no longer sufficient. British offensive preparations The 49th (West Riding) Division, in corps reserve, was to transfer to the command of Lieutenant-General Hubert Gough, commander of the Reserve Army as soon as the assault divisions had taken their objectives, having moved forward before dawn to Aveluy Wood, ready to cross the Ancre. Bridges and causeways had been built for the occasion, shellfire having damaged the banks of the Ancre, which when canalised, had been raised above the old course of the river and had since reverted to marsh. X Corps had two heavy artillery groups and two counter-battery groups under the same commander with two 15-inch, two 12-inch, twelve 9.2-inch, twelve 8-inch and twenty 6-inch howitzers; twenty-eight 60-pounder and four 4.7-inch guns. The field artillery had a hundred and twenty-eight 18-pounder guns, thirty-six 4.5-inch howitzers and a of twelve French field guns from the 20th Artillery Regiment. The artillery had been well dug in and covered with steel joists and of soil; there was a heavy gun for each and a field gun for each of front. The bombardment plan had six lifts for the heavy artillery, in which the super-heavy howitzers were to lift seven minutes early. A creeping barrage had not been planned but the were to "search" from trench to trench in ten lifts, the were to bombard strong points and move back at the same time as the field guns, the bombardment lifting from the German front trench at zero hour, to the reserve line from the Wonderwork to Redoubt and St Pierre Divion. No discretion was allowed to subordinate commanders over the bombardment but two howitzers were kept separate from the barrage, to bombard machine-gun nests about Thiepval. The spur from Auchonvillers to Mesnil and Aveluy Wood, gave good observation to the British and many posts were built along it, particularly a length called Brock's Benefit. The northern part of the corps front had a better view over German positions than the south, which was blocked by Aveluy Wood and it was believed that more damage had been done opposite the 36th Division, the wire being cut well north of Thiepval and reasonably well at the Leipzig Redoubt. Assembly trenches were dug just before the attack, which tired out many of the troops due to attack. British plan of attack The X Corps area ran north for , from the III Corps boundary at Authuille Wood in the middle of Nab Valley, along the lower slope of the Thiepval Spur east of the Ancre river to Hamel, where the line crossed to the west bank and over Auchonvillers Spur for another , to the boundary with VIII Corps. The corps plan was to capture the Thiepval Spur in one attack, which would obtain positions from which the German front would be overlooked as far as Serre north of the Ancre and Pozières and Contalmaison to the south. Both divisions practised on trenches built to resemble the German defences, in which the 32nd Division was to attack on the right of the corps area, from the Leipzig Salient to Thiepval village. Just before the last bombardment began at a cloud gas attack was to begin from cylinders put in no man's land the night before. The division was to assemble low on the Thiepval Spur from Authuille to Thiepval woods, with a section of a field company attached to each brigade. The 97th and 96th brigades were to attack the west face of the spur from the Leipzig Salient to Thiepval and then advance across Nab Valley. The southern face of Leipzig Salient was not to be attacked, since it was anticipated that it would be outflanked by the advance to the north. The 97th Brigade (Brigadier-General John Jardine) was to attack on an front, with the right flank to attack the Leipzig Salient with the 17th and 16th battalions, Highland Light Infantry (HLI) leading and the 2nd Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry (2nd KOYLI) in support. The forward companies of the 17th HLI were to advance from the British front line at until from the German front trench, ready to rush the trench as soon as the artillery lifted. As soon as the redoubt was captured, the 11th Battalion, Border Regiment would advance against the southern face from Authuille Wood and mop up the defences, after which all the 97th Brigade would advance towards Mouquet Farm. When the Wonderwork, village and Redoubt had been captured, both divisions were to advance on the German intermediate position across the spur and summit of Bazentin Ridge, to the Mouquet Switch in the 32nd Division sector. When this position had been captured and consolidated, the reserve brigades of both divisions would pass through and attack the second position (Mouquet Farm–Grandcourt Line) at after zero hour. Battle 1 July 97th Brigade The forward companies of the 17th HLI advanced at until they were from the German front trench. When the bombardment lifted at the Highlanders rushed the Leipzig Salient and captured the redoubt at the head of the salient. The German garrison was caught under cover in the quarry, which covered an area of around which the redoubt had been built and taken prisoner. The 17th HLI pressed on to Hindenburg Trench about further on but the machine-gunners in the Wonderwork caught them in the open, inflicted many casualties and repulsed the attack. The commander of the 161st Brigade Royal Field Artillery (RFA) could see that the infantry advance had been halted that the barrage was moving into the German defences and that no troops from the III Corps on the right or the 32nd Division were following it. Jardine ordered two batteries to be taken out of the planned bombardment and switched to the defences behind Leipzig Redoubt, despite orders forbidding local discretion and the survivors of the 17th HLI were able to retire to the redoubt. Infantry Regiment 180, which held the Leipzig Salient and the ground as far south as the Albert–Bapaume road, had during the preparatory bombardment and on the right flank, the 3rd Company reported that British troops had got into sectors C8 and C9 in the Reserve Infantry Regiment 99 area just to the north. Sector P1 was at risk of envelopment but a frontal attack was repulsed and the 7th Company arrived to reinforce. The trenches leading north were blocked but British attacks continued and both infantry regiments arranged a counter-attack for Bombers attacked from north and south and by had recaptured most of Sector P1 and met in Hindenburg Trench. The British hold on (Leipzig Redoubt) was maintained and the Germans blamed a lack of hand grenades for the failure to complete the recapture of the salient. Jardine ordered two batteries to be taken out of the planned bombardment and switched to the defences behind Leipzig Redoubt, despite orders forbidding local discretion, with this support the survivors of the 17th HLI were able to retire to the redoubt. The right flank companies of the 2nd KOYLI arrived at the redoubt and joined in the consolidation but attempts to renew the advance up the slope were costly failures. Bombing attacks up the trenches on the flanks of the redoubt towards Hindenburg Trench and Lemberg Trench, also failed. At the 11th Border advanced from Authuille Wood on schedule, under the impression that the advance had gone well, due to the view being obscured by smoke and dust and was immediately engaged by the machine-gunners in the to the south. The battalion pressed on despite devastating casualties and small groups on the left flank got into the redoubt and linked with the 17th HLI but most of the survivors were pinned down in no man's land and rallied in Authuille Wood later in the day. On the left flank of the brigade, the 16th HLI and the left flank companies of the 2nd KOYLI due to capture the Wonderwork were not able to get into the German front trench, which had not been severely damaged by the preliminary bombardment and where the wire was uncut. As the 16th HLI had crept forward before the lift of the bombardment, machine-gun fire had begun from the trenches and the château. The men rose to charge when the bombardment lifted and a great volume of machine-gun fire met them, from emplacements which were invisible to the artillery observers watching the attack. The infantry were stopped at the wire and found that every gap was covered by a machine-gun. A few parties on the right flank managed to reach the Leipzig Redoubt but in the centre and on the left flank, the survivors were pinned down in no man's land and swept by machine-gun fire at any sign of movement. 96th Brigade The 16th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers (16th Northumberland) and the 15th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers (15th Lancashire) leading the 96th Brigade attack, were shot down immediately the attack began by the machine-gunners in Thiepval. The 16th Lancashire in support moved forward to the vacant front trenches as the attack began and the 2nd Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers (2nd Inniskilling) were in reserve in the valley. The 16th Northumberland attacked towards the south and centre of Thiepval but hardly advanced from the front line, before lines of troops were mown down and attempts to get forward by short rushes were also checked by continuous machine-gun fire. The effect of the German machine-guns, gave the German infantry time to emerge from shelter and some climbed onto the trench parapet to get a better view of the attackers and engage them with rifle fire. The last company of the 16th Northumberland, mounted the fire step of the British front trench to return fire against the German soldiers visible opposite. On the left flank, the 15th Lancashire were also swept by machine-gun fire from Thiepval but about of the leading companies got into the German front line, while the garrison was still underground and charged into the village. The Germans were able to emerge from shelter and occupy the front trench, cutting off the fusiliers and stopping the troops further back from entering the trench. The party in the village managed to reach 36th Division troops, who had broken through the German line north of Thiepval. The troops in the village were seen by Royal Flying Corps (RFC) contact patrol crews, who sent reports of the sightings to the X Corps headquarters throughout the day. Air reports were confirmed by the 32nd Division headquarters and led to it being assumed that the east end of the village had been captured and no more artillery fire was directed at the village. At Major-General William Rycroft the 32nd Division commander, sent orders for the attacking brigades to hold fast, while an attempt to outflank Thiepval from the north was organised. At Rycroft sent orders for the 96th Brigade opposite Thiepval to send the 2nd Inniskillings forward along the left flank, to reinforce the 15th Lancashire, who were reported to have broken through into the village. Brigadier-General Clement Yatman, the 96th Brigade commander, had assembled half of the 16th Lancashire at Johnson's Post, in the eastern fringe of Thiepval Wood and ordered them forward to the north end of Thiepval to join the 15th Lancashire and rendezvous with the 36th Division at the Crucifix, south of Redoubt. As soon as the advance began at the machine-gunners in Thiepval swept them with bullets. After several attempts to advance across no man's land, the attempt was suspended and Rycroft informed of the failure. On the right of the 32nd Division, the 14th Brigade (Brigadier-General Charles Compton), held in reserve to pass through the 97th and 96th brigades to the German intermediate position, had moved forward on schedule from Aveluy and Authuille to Authuille Wood. 14th Brigade Dust and smoke over the battlefield and intermittent reports from artillery and contact patrol observers, had led to the commanders in the 32nd Division at first gaining the impression that the initial attack had gone well. The 14th Brigade moved forward in two columns from shelters and at the 1st Battalion, Dorset Regiment in the lead of the left-hand column advanced in artillery formation behind a screen of skirmishers. As the battalion debouched from Authuille Wood, machine-gunners in the opened fire and only 66 men reached Leipzig Redoubt. The two following companies were pinned down in the wood and the British front line. The commander of the 19th Lancashire behind the 1st Dorset, had a smoke screen made by the brigade Stokes mortars to cover the right flank and then sent forward three companies to the Leipzig Redoubt. The companies advanced in waves of but were shot down despite the smoke; only 42 men made it across. Word was sent back from the redoubt not to send more troops forward, as the area was overcrowded. Two Russian saps dug before the attack were opened and secure contact established with the redoubt. The right-hand column saw the fate of the leading column and was held back in Authuille Wood. At Rycroft contacted Lieutenant-General Thomas Morland, the corps commander, to report on the situation and suggested that another attempt be made to skirt round the north side of Thiepval and then work south to get behind Thiepval, the defences further down the Thiepval Spur and the Wonderwork to cut and the other communication trenches leading back to Courcellete, east. Rycroft applied for reinforcements from the 49th Division to follow the 2nd Inniskilling, which was preparing to advance. The 14th Brigade would reinforce the Leipzig Redoubt and attack Hindenburg and Lemberg trenches from the south and west, as the northern flanking move began. Morland agreed and the corps heavy howitzers were ordered to bombard the far side of the Thiepval Spur, the Wonderwork, the Nab Valley trenches and the from A bombardment on the west side of Thiepval and the château was not fired, as the 15th Lancashire were still thought to be in the village. The bombardment was spread over too wide an area to be effective and had no effect on the Germans on the Thiepval Spur. Half of the 2nd Inniskilling and parties of the 96th Brigade advanced at from Thiepval Wood and were at once engaged with machine-gun fire and repulsed. On the right flank in the 14th Brigade area, half of the 2nd Battalion, Manchester Regiment advanced from Authuille Wood along communication trenches and then moved forward on the left, through the other half of the battalion, on ground not commanded by the machine-guns in the . By the two companies had reached Leipzig Redoubt with little loss but attempts to bomb forward to Hindenburg and Lemberg trenches, were defeated by German bombers who had blocked the trenches. So many British troops packed the trenches that it was difficult to move and a stalemate ensued. By nightfall only the Lepizig Redoubt was still held by the 32nd Division and engineers moved forward to consolidate. The 2nd Manchester of the 14th Brigade and two companies of the 2nd KOYLI from the 97th Brigade took over from the 17th HLI and the remnants of the 16th HLI which were withdrawn. German counter-attacks against the flanks of the redoubt were repulsed and the collection of wounded from no man's land began, helped by gunners and engineers who used blankets to carry casualties but took until 3 July. Once the wounded had reached divisional dressing stations the facilities proved sufficient but the transport of supplies and water to the front line, was slowed by traffic jams. Most of the water pipes installed before the offensive were cut by artillery fire and the Germans moved forward a gun on the Grandcourt–Beaucourt rail line at night, to fire along the Ancre valley, which further slowed the delivery of supplies. Air operations X Corps operations were supported by 4 Squadron RFC, which could observe the deeper advances made by isolated parties of British troops. A special reconnaissance of Thiepval from was made during the afternoon but the failure of the attacks on the village made the penetrations north of the Leipzig Redoubt untenable. 2–22 July 2–3 July By the morning of 2 July, X Corps had gained a small foothold in the Leipzig Salient and part of the German front line opposite the 36th Division. The extent of British casualties north of the Albert–Bapaume road was not known at the Fourth Army headquarters and General Henry Rawlinson ordered that attacks were to continue. X Corps and VIII Corps to the north, were to capture the German front position and the intermediate line from Mouquet Farm to Serre. Gough was sent to take over command of X Corps and VIII Corps and the 25th Division (Major-General Guy Bainbridge) was transferred from reserve to X Corps. Gough had intended to attack Thiepval with the 49th and 32nd divisions and the 48th Division of VIII Corps but eventually changes of plan, led to the attack being reduced to two brigades of the 32nd Division. The objectives for the division were set on an line, from the east end of the Leipzig Redoubt to the Wonderwork. The 14th Brigade had taken over from the 97th Brigade at the redoubt and the 75th Brigade attached from the 25th Division. The 75th Brigade had arrived from reserve at on 2 July. The change of plan and an increase in the 32nd Division attack frontage to to include Thiepval Château did not reach Rycroft until Twenty minutes before the attack began at Gough called to report that X Corps could not attack until but would co-operate by forming a smoke screen and using half of the corps artillery ammunition to support the III Corps to the south. Communication failures due to German artillery-fire cutting telephone cables, caused most of the 32nd Division artillery to begin the planned barrage and fire half its ammunition on the original frontage and then fire its remaining ammunition on the wider attack front of the revised plan. The 14th Brigade attack was conducted by two companies of the 15th HLI, which attacked from the Leipzig Salient after having defeated several German attacks. The Highlanders got into the German front trench at but were then pushed out and a second attempt was also repulsed. The 75th Brigade attack by three battalions on the northern flank, met uncut wire on the flanks and the leading waves were cut down by machine-gun fire or overwhelmed in the German trenches. About 60 men of the 11th Battalion, Cheshire Regiment made their way to the Leipzig Redoubt. I Battalion, Reserve Infantry Regiment 99 was reinforced during the attack by a company of Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 8 of the 10th Bavarian Division. The attack was abandoned and the survivors pinned down in no man's land were brought back. During the night of the remainder of the 32nd Division was relieved by the 25th Division. 4–22 July The Reserve Army was ordered to return to trench warfare and X Corps to push forward from its footholds in the German front line. On 4 July, German artillery-fire fell on the X Corps area, followed by bombing attacks on the 25th Division in the Leipzig Salient and against the 49th Division further north which failed, as did raids during the night by the 49th Division. At on 5 July, the 25th Division attacked on a front at the Leipzig Salient; the 1st Battalion Wiltshire Regiment of the 7th Brigade got a foothold in Hindenburg Trench, then repulsed a determined counter-attack. Early on 7 July a German attack by two companies of the 3rd Guard Division a company of Infantry Regiment 185 and four more attacked the 49th Division positions north of Thiepval, recaptured the last positions taken by the 36th Division on 1 July. At on 7 July, the Germans tried to rush the Leipzig Redoubt from the front and both flanks. The attack was defeated by the 1st Wiltshire and was then followed by German bombing attacks until An attack by two companies of the 1st Wiltshire planned earlier, went ahead despite the confusion and captured the German front line, with help from snipers who moved forward in the dark and used steel-nosed bullets to engage German machine-guns. The ground was then held with help from the 3rd Battalion Worcestershire Regiment and a company of the 8th Battalion, Loyal North Lancashire, against German counter-attacks and artillery-fire. The main effort of X Corps was made south of the Leipzig Salient against Ovillers for the next few days. On the night of the 49th Division had extended its sector south and taken over Leipzig Redoubt from the 25th Division, which concentrated against Ovillers. During the Battle of Bazentin Ridge The Reserve Army continued operations to prevent German troops opposite from being moved south, against the Fourth Army. On the 11th Cheshire, 3rd Worcester and the 8th North Lancashire attacked and managed to capture a small amount of ground. The Leipzig Salient, was bombarded by German artillery with gas and lachrymatory shells on 15 July, followed by an attack at dawn by Infantry Regiment 185 of Division Burckhardt, accompanied by bombers and flame-thrower crews, which made little progress and was costly for both sides. On 21 July, another bombing attack was made by the Germans. For a combined attack by the French Sixth and the British Fourth armies, planned for the night of the Reserve Army contributed attacks towards Pozières and the 49th Division attacked the Leipzig Salient on 22 July. The 4th York and Lancaster, attempted a surprise attack and was repulsed. At on 23 July, the 4th KOYLI attacked but was not able to consolidate its gains, before being forced back by a counter-attack from both flanks and the centre. Aftermath Analysis In 1932, James Edmonds, the British official historian, wrote that III Corps had neglected the south side of Nab Valley, which made the neglect of the north side by X Corps worse, because the trenches in the Nab Valley re-entrant faced a large area of no man's land, from which enfilade machine-gun fire began as soon as the attack commenced. Edmonds wrote that it had been an unfortunate mistake to put the inter-corps boundary along such a valley. Reserve Infantry Regiment 99 reported that their defensive success on 1 July was mainly due to machine-guns, all of which were operational when the attack began. The 3rd Company of Infantry Regiment 180 in Leipzig Redoubt was annihilated in hand-to-hand fighting but the garrison of Thiepval to the north was protected by the shelters beneath the village. Reinforcements were only needed against the 36th Division to the north. In the rest of the Infantry Regiment 180 sector, the German positions were intact at the end of 1 July. In 2005, Prior and Wilson wrote that German prisoners were abused by men of the 2nd Manchester, who made the captives run through German artillery-fire and prevented them, at bayonet point, from entering trenches. Prior and Wilson also wrote that the Germans managed to inflict many casualties on the British behind the British front line, particularly from positions dominating the exits of Authuille Wood. The 32nd Division attack had failed everywhere except at the Leipzig Redoubt, because the British artillery had not destroyed the German strong points or many German guns. The capture of the redoubt was contained and most attempts to reinforce by the British were costly failures. Casualties The 32nd Division suffered on 1 July. Infantry Regiment 180 lost at the Leipzig Salient and Nab Valley to the south and inflicted about on the 32nd Division and the 8th Division, which attacked Ovillers. In the attack on 3 July, the 75th Brigade had On 7 July, the 1st Wiltshire had about and the 3rd Worcester, Subsequent operations Operations around the Leipzig Redoubt continued during the Battle of Pozières and concluded in late September in the Battle of Thiepval Ridge Notes Footnotes References Further reading External links 1914–1918.net sacred ground Somme Thiepval Historic Trips World War I Battle Fields Somme Thiepval Battle of the Somme Somme (department) Redoubts Conflicts in 1916 1916 in France Battles of the Western Front (World War I) Battles of World War I involving France Battles of World War I involving Germany Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom

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Manuel de Trujillo y Torres (November 1762 – July15, 1822) was a Spanish American publicist and diplomat. He is best known for being received as the first ambassador of Colombia by U.S. President James Monroe on June19, 1822. This act represented the first U.S. recognition of a former Spanish colony's independence. Born in Spain, he lived as a young adult in the colony of New Granada (present-day Colombia). After being implicated in a conspiracy against the monarchy he fled in 1794, arriving in the United States in 1796. From Philadelphia he spent the rest of his life advocating for independence of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Working closely with newspaper editor William Duane he produced English- and Spanish-language articles, pamphlets and books. During the Spanish American wars of independence he was a central figure in directing the work of revolutionary agents in North America, who frequently visited his home. In 1819 Torres was appointed a diplomat for Venezuela, which that year united with New Granada to form Gran Colombia. As chargé d'affaires he negotiated significant weapons purchases but failed to obtain public loans. Having laid the groundwork for the diplomatic recognition of Colombia, he died less than a month after achieving this goal. Though largely unknown today, he is remembered as an early proponent of Pan-Americanism. Early life Manuel Torres was born in the Spanish region of Córdoba in early November 1762. His mother's family was from the city of Córdoba while his father's side was probably from nearby Baena. He was descended from the minor nobility on both sides of his family, a class with social stature but not necessarily wealth. In the spring of 1776 the young Torres sailed to Cuba with his maternal uncle Antonio Caballero y Góngora, who was consecrated there as bishop of Mérida in the Viceroyalty of New Spain (modern Mexico). Torres would later attribute his republican ideals to his uncle, a man of the Enlightenment who was an extensive collector of books, art, and coins. After Caballero y Góngora was promoted to archbishop of Santa Fé de Bogotá the family arrived in New Granada (modern Colombia) on June 29, 1778. At age 17 Torres began working for the secretariat of the Viceroyalty and for the royal treasury. In the following seven years he learned finance and was able to observe the political and social conflicts in New Grenada, including the Revolt of the Comuneros. This was also the time of the American Revolution, which Spain joined against Great Britain. Caballero y Góngora became viceroy in 1782 and ruled as a liberal modernizer. Torres went to France in early 1785 to study at the , where he spent about a year and half learning military science and mathematics. As lieutenant of engineers () he probably aided Colonel Domingo Esquiaqui's survey and helped reorganize the colonial garrisons. On presentation by the archbishop-viceroy, Torres was gifted land near Santa Marta by CharlesIV and established a successful plantation, which he named San Carlos. Torres married and at San Carlos had a daughter. He became involved with political liberals of Bogotá's class (i.e., native New Granadians of European descent), joining a secret club led by Antonio Nariño where radical ideas were discussed freely. When in 1794 Nariño and other club members were implicated in a conspiracy against the Crown, Torres fled New Granada without his family. He first went to Curaçao, and in 1796 to Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States. Arrival in Philadelphia Spanish Americans heading north tended to go to Philadelphia, Baltimore or (French-controlled) New Orleans, centers of commercial relations with the colonies. Philadelphia in particular was a symbol of republican ideals, which may have attracted Torres. Its trade with the Spanish colonies was significant and the American Philosophical Society was the first learned society in the U.S. to nominate Spanish American members. At St.Mary's Church he joined a cosmopolitan community of Roman Catholics, including many from Spanish and French America. Quick to make American contacts, Torres became close friends with William Duane, who became editor of the Philadelphia newspaper Aurora in 1798. The editor continually published Torres' views on Spanish American independence in the paper, whose contents would be copied by others. Torres translated Spanish pamphlets for Duane, and sometimes translated Duane's editorials to Spanish. In Spanish America the purpose of this literature was to praise the United States as an example of independent representative government to be emulated; in the United States it was to increase support for the independence movements. Initially Torres was quite wealthy and received remittances from his wife, which helped him make important social connections. However, he had his money invested in risky merchant ventures; on one occasion he lost $40,000, on another $70,000—thus he was forced to live more modestly in later years. Three years after Torres' arrival, a "Spaniard in Philadelphia" wrote the pamphlet (released in English as Observations on the Commerce of Spain with her Colonies, in Time of War). The author, probably Torres, criticizes Spanish colonialism. In particular, Spain monopolized trade with the colonies to their detriment: during wartime the mother country could not supply the colonies with essential goods, and in peacetime the prices were too high. The author's solution is to implement a system of free trade in the Americas. The pamphlet was reprinted in London by William Tatham. Torres' residence increased the attraction of Philadelphia for Spanish American revolutionaries. Torres probably met Francisco de Miranda (also exiled after a failed conspiracy) in 1805, shortly before Miranda's failed expedition to the Captaincy General of Venezuela, and he met with Simón Bolívar in 1806. The Spanish minister to the United States, Carlos Martínez de Irujo, reported Torres' activity to his superiors. Coordinating revolutionaries During the instability caused by Napoleon Bonaparte's conquest of Spain—the Peninsular War—the people of the colonies followed the model of Peninsular Spanish provinces by organizing juntas to govern in the absence of central rule. Advocates of independence, who called themselves Patriots, argued that sovereignty reverted to the people when there was no monarch. They clashed with the Royalists, who supported the authority of the Crown. Starting in 1810 the Patriot juntas successively declared independence, and Torres was their natural point of contact in the United States. Brokered weapons shipments Although President James Madison's administration officially recognized no governments on either side, Patriot agents were permitted to seek weapons in the U.S., and American ports became bases for privateering. Torres acted as an intermediary between the newly arrived agents and influential Americans, such as introducing (Simón's brother) to wealthy banker Stephen Girard. Juan Vicente successfully purchased weapons for Venezuela, but was lost at sea on his return journey in 1811. Together with Telésforo de Orea from Venezuela, and Diego de Saavedra and Juan Pedro de Aguirre from Buenos Aires, Torres brokered a plan to purchase 20,000 muskets and bayonets from the U.S. government. Girard agreed to finance the plan on the joint credit of Buenos Aires and Venezuela, but Secretary of State James Monroe blocked it by refusing to reply. Saavedra and Aguirre managed to ship only 1,000 muskets to Buenos Aires, but by the end of 1811 Torres had helped Orea supply Venezuela with about 24,000 weapons. New purchasers continued to arrive, and the supplies were an important contribution while the revolutionaries were suffering many defeats. The new Spanish minister, Luís de Onís, covertly attempted to disrupt the weapons shipments. He became aware of the plan to purchase from the U.S. arsenal due to being informed by a postman. Onís reported on these subversive activities and his agents harassed suspected revolutionaries like Torres. Francisco Sarmiento and Miguel Cabral de Noroña, two associates of Onís, attempted to assassinate Torres in 1814—apparently on the minister's orders. Due to his aid for the revolution, Torres' estate in Royalist-controlled New Granada was confiscated after his wife and daughter died. Public writing Running out of money during this period, Torres sustained himself in part by teaching. With Louis Hargous he wrote an adaptation for both English- and Spanish-teaching of Nicolas Gouïn Dufief's Nature Displayed in Her Mode of Teaching Language to Man. The lengthy book's title page styles Torres and Hargous as "professors of general grammar"; in the introduction they argue the importance to Americans of studying Spanish literature. Influential revised editions by Mariano Velázquez de la Cadena were published in New York (1825) and London (1826). Soon after Nature Displayed followed the 1812 pamphlet ("A Republican's Manual for the Use of a Free People"), which Torres probably wrote. Structured as a dialog, the anonymous pamphlet offers a defense of the U.S. system of government based on the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and argues it should be a model for Spanish America. The contents suggest the author is "a conservative partisan of Jeffersonian democracy". Besides Duane's Aurora, Torres sent news and opinion to Baptis Irvine's Baltimore Whig and New York Columbian, Jonathan Elliot's City of Washington Gazette, and Hezekiah Niles' Baltimore Weekly Register. He acquainted himself with notables such as Congressman Henry Clay, lawyer Henry Marie Brackenridge, Baltimore Postmaster John Stuart Skinner, Judge Theodorick Bland and Patent Office head William Thornton. Especially the support of Clay, who became a champion of Spanish American independence in Congress, permitted him to lobby many influential officials. Economic proposals Torres' lobbying included domestic affairs; in February1815, near the end of War of 1812 that had preoccupied the American public, he wrote two letters to President Madison describing a proposal for fiscal and financial reform. This included an equal and direct tax on all property, which Torres considered more just; ultimately he calculated a $1million budget surplus under his scheme and suggested gradual elimination of the national debt. In his December5 message to Congress, Madison did propose two ideas that Torres had favored: the establishment of a second Bank of the United States and utilizing it to create a uniform national currency. The same year, Torres authored An Exposition of the Commerce of Spanish America; with some Observations upon its Importance to the United States. This work, published in 1816, was the first inter-American handbook. Torres plays on Anglo-American rivalry by arguing for the importance of establishing American over British commercial interests in this critical region, just as revolutionary agents in Britain suggested the opposite. Applying political economy, he observes that a country with a negative balance of trade—like the United States—needs a source of gold and silver specie—like South America—to stabilize its currency and economy. The political commentary is interwoven with practical advice to merchants, followed by conversion tables between currencies and units of measure. He momentarily returned to economics in April1818. Through Clay, Torres suggested to Congress that he had discovered a new way to make revenue collection and spending more efficient, which he would reveal in detail if he was promised a share of the government's savings. The preliminary proposal was referred to the House Committee on Ways and Means, which declined to examine it for being too complex. Philadelphia junta By 1816, Spanish American propagandists had solidified American public opinion in favor of the Patriots. However, the propaganda victories did not translate into practical success: the Royalists reconquered New Granada and Venezuela by May 1816. Pedro José Gual, who had come to the United States to represent those governments, instead worked with Torres on a plan to liberate New Spain. They were joined by a number of other agents to form a "junta" of their own, which included Orea, Mariano Montilla, José Rafael Revenga, Juan Germán Roscio from Venezuela, Miguel Santamaría from Mexico, as well as from Buenos Aires. This Philadelphia junta surrounding Torres conspired in mid-1816 to invade a New Spanish port using ships commanded by French privateer Louis Aury. This plan failed because Aury's fleet was reduced to seven ships, making it unable to capture any major port. But the plotters were able to organize a force under the recently arrived General Francisco Xavier Mina (despite the obstructions of José Alvarez de Toledo, an acquaintance of Torres who was actually spying for Onís). The operation was funded by a group of merchants from Baltimore, where Torres traveled to oversee it. The exiled priest Servando Teresa de Mier had traveled to the U.S. with Mina, and became a good friend of Torres. He brought to Mexico with him two copies of Torres' Exposition and one of the . The expedition sailed September 1816, but in just over a year Mina was captured and shot. Another of the agents to join the junta was Lino de Clemente, who in 1816 came to the United States as Venezuelan chargé d'affaires (a diplomat of the lowest rank). Torres became his secretary in Philadelphia. Clemente was one of the men who signed Gregor MacGregor's commission to seize Amelia Island off the coast of Florida, what became a political scandal known as the Amelia Island affair. All who had been involved became intolerable to Monroe. The Philadelphia junta effectively disbanded because of the event, which Simón Bolívar disavowed. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams refused any further communication with Clemente. Although Torres participated, he had discreetly avoided public involvement. (Privately he derided "Don Quixote" Aguirre and Pazos.) In October1818, Bolívar thus instructed Clemente to return home and to transfer his duties as chargé d'affaires to Torres. Diplomat for Colombia Torres' appointment coincided with a turn in the wars of independence. Where before the situation had been dire, the Patriot forces under Bolívar began a campaign to liberate New Granada and achieved a famous victory at the Battle of Boyacá. When Torres received his diplomatic credentials he was authorized "to do in the United States everything possible to put an immediate end to the conflict in which the patriots of Venezuela are now engaged for their independence and liberty." Venezuela and New Granada united on December17, 1819, to form the Republic of Colombia (a union called Gran Colombia by historians). Francisco Antonio Zea was first appointed Colombia's envoy to the United States but never went there; Torres was authorized to take over his duties on May15, 1820, and thus formally empowered to negotiate for the republic. He would try to secure its independence by three methods: by purchasing weapons and other military supplies, by obtaining a loan, and by obtaining diplomatic recognition of its government. Weapons purchases With the help of Samuel Douglas Forsyth, an American citizen sent from Venezuela by Bolívar, Torres was instructed to procure thirty thousand muskets on credit. This sum was not realistically available from private sources, in part due to the Panic of 1819. Torres did make substantial deals, especially with Philadelphia merchant Jacob Idler, who represented a network of business associates. In one such contract, signed April4, 1819, Idler promised a total of $63,071.50 of supplies, including 4,023 muskets and 50 quintals of gunpowder. After delivery Colombia was obliged to make payment in gold, silver or the tobacco produce of the Barinas province. More agreements on this model followed as merchants gained confidence with the news of successive Patriot victories. From December1819 to April1820 negotiated contracts worth $108,842.80 () and in the summer, Torres made a deal for the Colombian navy. Although Torres repeatedly wrote to his superiors about the great importance of maintaining Colombia's credit among American merchants, the government failed to make payment as agreed. In spite of this Torres was able to negotiate continued shipments, even with merchants who had unpaid claims. After independence, such claims became a significant problem of U.S. relations with South America; Idler's estate would litigate them up to the end of the century. Nevertheless, Torres obtained from Idler 11,571 muskets, and other supplies such as shoes and uniforms. They arrived in Venezuela in 1820–1821 aboard the Wilmot and Endymion. In February 1820, Torres came to Washington to purchase twenty thousand muskets from the U.S. government—a source that could fill what he could not obtain from private merchants. Monroe delayed by responding that the Constitution prevented him from selling weapons without the consent of Congress, but his cabinet considered a missive from Torres. This missive argued for the sale by emphasizing the common interests of the American republics against the European monarchies. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun and Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson were supportive, and Torres had estimated the House of Representatives was in his favor. However, Secretary of State Adams emphatically spoke against what he considered a violation of American neutrality, causing the cabinet to unanimously decline the request in a meeting on March29. The next day Adams explained his feelings to Monroe: Despite this skepticism, Adams trusted Torres to inform him on Spanish American affairs, perhaps because Torres was also strongly supportive of the United States. Torres made six repeat visits to Adams through February19, 1821, without success. Attempted borrowing Recognizing the financial difficulty the Colombian government was in, Torres attempted to borrow money in the United States on its behalf. Aided by a letter of introduction from Henry Clay, in the fall of 1819 he proposed a $500,000 loan () to Langdon Cheves, president of the Second Bank of the United States. It would be repaid with Colombian bullion, which the Bank was severely short of, within 18 months. When the Bank stated it had no authority to lend to foreign governments, Torres restated his proposal as a of bullion. He also contacted Adams, who said the government had no objection and left it to the Bank directors' judgment, and gained Cheves' support. Despite continued negotiation this loan was never finalized—let alone Bolívar's bolder proposal for the Bank to take on the entirety of Venezuela's national debt in exchange for the Santa Ana de Mariquita silver mine in New Granada. Colombia had poor credit, and Torres believed the distressed Bank was actually unable to make the loan. To improve Colombia's financial reputation Torres circulated several public memorials, and he continued to seek loans from other sources. Idler introduced him to Philip Contteau, the American agent of the Dutch merchant firm Mees, Boer and Moens. On April8, 1820, Torres and Contteau negotiated a loan of $4million ($) at eight percent interest. Colombia would maintain a state monopoly on Barinas tobacco, and would give sole control of the tobacco to Mees, Boer and Moens until the proceeds had repaid the loan. These terms were sent to Colombia and Holland for approval. Torres was instructed to borrow as much as $20million ($), an impossible request. He did hope to build on his success by borrowing an additional $1million ($) with participation from the U.S. government. He made the request to Adams during the winter of 1820–1821, and obtained support from Monroe and Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford. However, like the weapons purchase, this proposal failed due to Adams' commitment to neutrality. The loan in its original form was approved by the Colombian government, but before the Dutch lenders could agree to it Barinas was recaptured by the Royalists. Without the source of tobacco on which repayment depended, the bankers rejected the loan. Thus, Torres was ultimately unable to borrow any money for Colombia. Historian Charles Bowman assessed Torres as a talented negotiator with an "exceptional knowledge of high finance", who failed due to circumstances beyond his control. Influence in pamphleteering In June 1821, Mier returned to Philadelphia after escaping imprisonment in Havana, and moved into Torres' house. (Another Spanish American agent, Vicente Rocafuerte, was already living there.) Connected through Freemasonry, Torres became a father figure to Mier, signing his letters He gradually drew Mier away from constitutional monarchism and toward the republican model of the United States. In doing so Torres tried to provide a political-philosophical basis for Mier's radicalism. The pair encouraged Colombia to send a diplomat to Mexico, hoping to counter the rising monarchism there. When Mier published his as well as a new edition of Bartolomé de Las Casas' , Torres paid the costs. Torres, Mier and Rocafuerte worked together to publish numerous articles over the next few months. The nature of their cooperation is disputed. Historian José de Onís mentions that "some Spanish American critics assert that Torres' works are generally regarded as having been written by Mier and Vicente Rocafuerte. This would be hard to verify." But Charles Bowman gives the opposite interpretation: "It is likely that several of the works generally attributed to either Mier or Rocafuerte were actually from Torres' pen." In particular, Bowman believes a pamphlet bearing Mier's name, , was actually Torres' work. Discussing political organization after the revolution, the author suggests a "Spanish America Divided in Two Grand Departments, North and South, or Septentrional and Meridional." Bowman bases this attribution on a moderation uncommon for Mier, and the use of statistics Mier would not have known. Torres' motive for publishing it under Mier's name would have been to avoid controversy and thus protect his influence with Adams. During this period Torres also became friends with Richard W. Meade, a Philadelphia merchant who had in 1820 returned from imprisonment in Spain. He had a claim against the Spanish government that the Adams–Onís Treaty required him to collect from the U.S. government instead. Meade was a pewholder of St. Mary's Church, like Torres. Through the diplomat, Mier and Meade began working together in a controversy surrounding the parish priest, William Hogan, who had been excommunicated. Torres did not get publicly involved in the battle of pamphlets; Mier left Philadelphia for Mexico in September 1821, traveling with a Colombian passport Torres had issued him. Diplomatic recognition On the same day the U.S. Senate voted to ratify the Adams–Onís Treaty, February19, 1821, Torres met with Adams. The next day he formally requested the recognition of Colombia "as a free and independent nation, a sister republic". He expected that first the United States would take possession of the new territory, while in the meantime Colombia gained increasing military control over its own, and that recognition would soon follow. Torres suffered a three-month illness in late 1821 but on November30 wrote to Adams reporting the latest developments in Colombia. He glorified its achievement of near-total military victory, the extent of its population and territory, and its potential for commerce: The purpose of these boasts was to underscore the importance of the U.S. being the first to recognize its independence, to which Torres added warnings about the unstable politics of Mexico and Peru. The letter received significant publicity because of its extensive information and ambitious statement of Colombia's importance. President Monroe noted the success of Colombia and the other former colonies in his December3 message to Congress, a signal that recognition was imminent. Torres wrote letters to Adams on December30 and January2 reporting Colombia's new constitution, a sign the republic was stable. He hoped to go to Washington to state the case for recognition in person, but was prevented by illness and poverty. The House of Representatives asked the administration on January30 to report on the state of South America. Colombia's de facto independence as a republic, and the conclusion of Adams' treaty with Spain, encouraged the hesitant administration that the time was ripe for recognition. During this same period, the Colombian government was starting to see the prospect of recognition as hopeless. Torres' health declined intermittently over the winter; his weakening disposition was attributed to asthma and severe overwork. "If I could move to a good climate where there were no books, paper, or pen and where I could speak of politics in a word, ... with my little garden and a horse to carry me about, perhaps I could convalesce", he wrote to Mier. But in March, Monroe reported to the House that the Spanish American governments had "a claim to recognition by other powers which ought not to be resisted." The formerly reluctant Adams dismissed a protest by Spanish minister Joaquín de Anduaga by calling the recognition "the mere acknowledgment of existing facts". By May4, the House and Senate had sent Monroe resolutions in support of recognition and an appropriation to put this into effect; this news was greatly celebrated in Colombia. Pedro José Gual, now the Colombian secretary of state and foreign relations, wrote to Bolívar that Torres deserved sole credit for the achievement. The question remained when to send ministers and whom to recognize first. At this time, Torres was the only authorized agent in the United States for any of the Patriot governments. It was Adams' suggestion that Torres should be received as chargé d'affaires immediately, with the United States reciprocating after other diplomats arrived; Monroe agreed to thus formalize his existing relationship with Torres. The chargé was invited on May23 but delayed by his poor health. Nevertheless, he insisted on traveling to Washington. At 1p.m. on June19, Torres was received at the White House by Adams and Monroe. The weakened Torres told them of the importance of recognition to Colombia, and wept when the President said how satisfied he was for Torres to be received as its first representative. Indeed, he was the first representative from any Spanish American government. On leaving the short meeting, Torres gave Adams a print of the Colombian constitution. Before Torres departed Washington, Adams visited him on June21; he promised Adams to work for equal tariffs on American and European goods in Colombia, and predicted would be sent to the U.S. as permanent diplomat. Adams published a satisfied announcement in the National Intelligencer. Death In rapidly declining health, Torres returned to Hamiltonville, now in West Philadelphia, where that spring he had purchased a new home. Duane was with him when he died there at 2p.m. on July15, 1822, at age59. On July17, the funeral procession began from Meade's house, which was joined by Commodore Daniels of the Colombian navy and prominent citizens. The procession went to St.Mary's, where the requiem mass was held by Father Hogan and Torres was buried with military honors. Ships in the harbor held their flags at half-mast. This highly unusual display of honor was not only because Torres was well-liked, but also because he was the first foreign diplomat to die in the United States. An obituary named him "the Franklin of South America". Duane and Meade were the executors of his estate. Not yet aware of his death, the Colombian government appointed him consul-general and (as he had predicted) sent Salazar as envoy to succeed him. Legacy Sources for Torres' life include his voluminous correspondence, his published writing, newspaper articles, and Adams and Duane's memoirs. His long exile from Colombia has tended to obscure him in diplomatic history compared to his contemporaries; indeed his grave site was forgotten until rediscovered by historian Charles Lyon Chandler in 1924. R. Dana Skinner called him "the first panamericanist" that year. During the U.S. Sesquicentennial Exposition in 1926, a plaque was placed at St. Mary's that honors him as "the first Latin American diplomatic representative in the United States of America." It was a gift "from the government of Colombia and Philadelphian descendants of his friends", including Duane's great-great-grandson. The ceremony was attended by Colombian minister Enrique Olaya, who held him up as a model for cooperation of the peoples of the New World. Responding to an accusation by Spanish writer J. E. Casariego that Torres was a traitor to his native Spain, Nicolás García Samudio in 1941 called him a patriot, even the originator of the Monroe Doctrine—though that specific claim has been met skeptically. A 1946 article suggested Torres had not been given a large enough place in Colombian diplomatic histories, and likewise praised him as a "precursor of pan-Americanism". In the United States, Torres is given modest attention in general diplomatic histories, but his importance is promoted by historians of Spanish American agents. In the judgment of José de Onís, Torres was "the most successful of all the Spanish American agents". Charles H. Bowman Jr. wrote a master's thesis and a series of articles about Torres in the 1960s and 1970s. To celebrate the 150th anniversary of U.S.–Latin American relations in 1972, the Permanent Council of the Organization of American States held a session in Philadelphia because it was the home of Manuel Torres. However, Emily García documented that in 2016 Torres was obscure even to the archivists of St. Mary's, where the plaque still hangs. That he is mostly unknown today, despite being celebrated in his time and with the plaque, is for her illustrative that "Latinos inhabit a paradoxical position in the larger U.S. national imaginary." Her book chapter analyzes him as the embodiment of a culture bridge that existed between Philadelphia and Spanish America: while he helped spread U.S. ideals to the south, he also brought Spanish influences to the north. This dual nature is characteristic of Torres' life and thinking. Works English translation 1800. Notes Citations Bibliography 1762 births 1822 deaths Ambassadors of Colombia to the United States Colombian writers Writers from Philadelphia People of the Colombian War of Independence American people of Spanish descent Spanish emigrants to Colombia Colombian Roman Catholics Catholics from Pennsylvania

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The following events occurred in November 1912: Friday, November 1, 1912 General Mario García Menocal, the nominee of Cuba's Conservative Party, was elected President of Cuba, defeating Vice-president Alfredo Zayas.<ref name=Britannica>The Britannica Year-Book 1913: A Survey of the World's Progress Since the Completion in 1910 of the Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1913) pp. xxxix - xli</ref> The Bulgarian Army occupied Demotika, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace. Pope Pius X sent a letter to Portuguese Roman Catholic clergy condemning Portugal's Law of Separation of the State and the Church (Lei da Separação do Estado das Igrejas) and censured those clergy who had accepted stipends under the law. The Germany to Russia Gordon Bennett Cup hot air balloon race, from Stuttgart to Moscow, was won by the French team of Maurice Bienaimé and René Rumpelmayer. In Warsaw, then part of the Russian Empire Lieutenant Dahm of the Imperial German Army was sentenced to five years hard labor for espionage. A federal grand jury in Omaha, Nebraska, indicted five railroads for illegal rebate policies in violation of the Elkins Act. The last of the cattle from the XIT Ranch, once one of the largest in the Texas Panhandle at 150,000 head, were sold off at auction. Born: Gunther Plaut, German-Canadian rabbi and author, eighth president of the Canadian Jewish Congress, contributor to the Canadian Jewish News, recipient of the Order of Canada, in Münster, Germany (d. 2012) Died: Homer Lea, American writer, advisor to Sun Yat-sen during the 1911 Revolution (b. 1876) Saturday, November 2, 1912 The Ottoman Army retreated to Çatalca, Turkey, ending the Battle of Lule Burgas at a cost of 22,000 killed or wounded for the Ottoman Empire. King Peter of Serbia entered Uskub (now Skopje) after it was captured from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War. Former Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II was taken to Constantinople from Salonika. Royal Navy battleships and destroyers were ordered to Turkish waters. Adolfo Díaz, who had been named President of Nicaragua by the National Assembly in October 1911, was elected by popular vote, without opposition. Three days before the presidential election, candidate Woodrow Wilson sustained a head injury when his limousine struck a hole in the street and threw him against the car's ceiling. The accident took place in Hightstown, New Jersey, at the intersection of Main Street and Monmouth Street, and although the impact was hard enough that his glasses were broken, no stitches were required to close the wound. Ottoman Army troops rallied at Tcherkesskeui in the Marmara Region. An explosion on the battleship USS Vermont near Norfolk, Virginia, killed two men and seriously injured another four people. The first airplane flights in Japan by Imperial Japanese Navy personnel were made by two officers at Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal using Farman and Curtiss seaplanes. Sunday, November 3, 1912 At Urga, Mongolia, the Russian Empire concluded a treaty with the country. The Russian Minister to China, Ivan Korostovets negotiated a pact with Mongolia's Foreign Minister, Mijiddorjin Khanddorj. In return for Russia's recognition of "Outer Mongolia" as an autonomous state to be protected from China, the Mongolian government would give Russia "most favored nation" status for trade and mining and timber rights. The Turkish government appealed to the Great Powers (France, Germany, and the United Kingdom) to intervene in the Balkan Wars, a claim which was rejected the next day by France. The Greek Army captured Preveza, Epirus. Louth beat Antrim 1–7 to 1–2 in the final for the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship in front of a crowd of 13,000 spectators at Jones Road in Dublin. Born: Alfredo Stroessner, Paraguayan state leader, 42nd President of Paraguay, in Encarnación, Paraguay (d. 2006) Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier, French partisan fighter, member of the French Resistance during World War II, recipient of the Legion of Honour, in Paris (d. 1996) Monday, November 4, 1912 The British House of Commons rejected, by a vote of 265–162, a proposed amendment to the Home Rule Bill that would have set up proportional representation for an Irish legislature. The Greek Army captured Yenidje, Central Macedonia. French Astronomer Alphonse Borrelly discovered a new comet while observing at Marseille. The keel was laid for USS Nevada at Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts. A rail line of in length opened between Zeerust and Ottoshoop in Transvaal, South Africa. Born: Vadim Salmanov, Soviet composer, known for his collaborations with conductor Yevgeny Mravinsky, in Saint Petersburg (d. 1978) Tuesday, November 5, 1912 Woodrow Wilson was elected President of the United States, with former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt and incumbent U.S. President William Howard Taft finishing in second and third place, respectively."WILSON WINS— He Gets 409 Electoral Votes; Roosevelt, 107, and Taft, 15", New York Times, November 6, 1912, p. 1 Several state elections were also held with the following results: Democrat Park Trammell was elected to state governor of Florida. Democrat Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne defeated Republican incumbent Charles S. Deneen for governorship of Illinois. Democrat Woodbridge Nathan Ferris was elected governor of Michigan. Republican Adolph Olson Eberhart was elected governor of Minnesota. Democrat Elliot Woolfolk Major defeated Republican candidate John C. McKinley for state governor of Missouri. Democrat incumbent Coleman Livingston Blease was re-elected state governor of South Carolina. Republican Frank M. Byrne defeated Democrat Edwin S. Johnson for state governor of South Dakota. Republican Henry D. Hatfield was elected governor of West Virginia. Arizona, Kansas, Michigan and Oregon became the latest states to approve women's suffrage in state and local elections, but Wisconsin's men rejected the right of women to vote. In the Battle of Monastir, Serbian forces under the command of General Radomir Putnik army inflicted heavy casualties on Turkish forces, with the Turks losing more than half of their battle force, having 25,000 killed and wounded, and 2,000 taken prisoner."Fall of Monastir Reported", New York Times, November 7, 1912 The Greek Army captured Prilep, Macedonia. Wheeler County, Georgia, was created from the western section of Montgomery County by approval of voters for an amendment to the state constitution. On November 14, the town of Alamo would become the county seat. Wednesday, November 6, 1912 Turkish Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha summoned the Council of Ministers and Generals for a meeting at Istanbul to decide whether to continue the war with the Balkan League or seek peace. The Council elected to continue the war. Ottoman forces defeated Greek forces near what is now Amyntaio, Greece. Born: George Cakobau, Fijian state leader, second Governor-General of Fiji (d. 1989) Vashti McCollum, American activist, advocated for separation of church and state as plaintiff in McCollum v. Board of Education, which struck down religious instruction in American public schools, in Lyons, New York (d. 2006) Thursday, November 7, 1912 Jack Johnson, the reigning world heavyweight boxing champion and controversial African-American athlete, was indicted by a federal grand jury in Chicago for violation of the Mann Act. Belle Schreiber, a white prostitute, testified that Johnson had arranged for her railroad trip from Chicago to Pittsburgh for immoral purposes. Johnson was convicted six months later, and fled to France. He eventually served a one-year sentence in 1920 at the federal penitentiary in Leavenworth, Kansas. The largest French battleship, France, was launched from the shipyard at Saint-Nazaire, France. The silent film drama The Honor of the Family was released by the Rex Motion Picture Company. The film was supposedly the film debut of Lon Chaney, but could not be confirmed as the film and production and casting notes have been lost. The Manx English play The Charm by Christopher R. Shimmin was first performed by The Peel Players on the Isle of Wight. Ernest Riebe's cartoon Mr. Block made its debut in The Industrial Worker. Born: Henry Evans, New Zealand geologist, known for discovering major bauxite in Weipa, Australia, in Greymouth, New Zealand (d. 1990) Friday, November 8, 1912 The Greek Army reached the Aegean Sea port city of Salonika (in Turkish, Selanik) hours ahead of the Bulgarian Army, and, at 8:00 pm local time, arranged terms of surrender of the city by Ottoman Empire forces without firing a shot. Although Salonika was prepared for an attack from the sea, it had no fortification to defend against an assault from the surrounding land. Both Bulgaria and Greece had historical claims to the port city, which had been Thessalonica in ancient Greece, and Solun in the Bulgarian Empire in medieval times; "the Bulgarians were outraged at having been deprived of their prize", which would have given Bulgaria a port on the Aegean and access to the Mediterranean Sea, and the loss of Salonika would lead to the Second Balkan War, with Bulgaria fighting Greece and Serbia. Born: June Havoc, Canadian-American film and television actress, known for film roles including Gentleman's Agreement, daughter to Rose Thompson Hovick and sister to Gypsy Rose Lee, as Ellen Evangeline Hovick, in Vancouver (d. 2010) Saturday, November 9, 1912 A rail line of in length opened between Newington and Tzaneen in Transvaal, South Africa. Led by Jim Thorpe, the Carlisle Indians defeated the Army Cadets, 27–6, in a college football game at West Point, New York. Future U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, playing for Army, tackled Thorpe and forced a fumble. Later in the game, Eisenhower injured his right knee while attempting to bring down Thorpe again. Died: Mahuta Tāwhiao, 58, New Zealand indigenous noble, third King of the Māori people (b. 1855) Sunday, November 10, 1912 The Far Eastern Party, consisting of Douglas Mawson, Xavier Mertz, Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis, and 17 husky dogs, set off from their camp to begin a disastrous surveying trip of the unexplored George V Land in Antarctica as part of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Ninnis and most of the team's supplies would disappear into a crevasse on December 14, and Mertz would die of malnutrition in January, but an emaciated Mawson would survive to return to camp by February 8, and live until 1958. The final major storm of the season began to form in the Caribbean Sea south of Hispaniola. Born: Jean-Hilaire Aubame, Gabonese politician, cabinet minister to the Léon M'ba administration, in Libreville, Gabon (d. 1989) Birdie Tebbetts, American baseball player, catcher for the Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox and Cleveland Indians from 1936 to 1952, manager for the Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Braves and the Cleveland Indians in Burlington, Vermont (d. 1999) Died: Ramón Corral, Mexician state leader, 6th Vice president of Mexico (b. 1854) Louis Cyr, 49, Canadian strongman, credited by the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness as the strongest man who ever lived (b. 1863) Julius Wayland, 58, American newspaper publisher and activist, founder of Appeal to Reason which promoted socialism (suicide) (b. 1854) Monday, November 11, 1912 Eighteen people were killed and 90 injured in a railroad crash at Yazoo City, Mississippi."Nineteen Are Dead in Railway Wreck near New Orleans", Milwaukee Sentinel, November 11, 1912, p. 1 Chile and Peru resumed diplomatic relations that had been severed in 1910. The tropical storm that started in the Caribbean Sea was officially recorded as it moved past Cacique, Colón in Panama. British physicist Lawrence Bragg presented his derivation of Bragg's law for the angles for coherent and incoherent scattering from a crystal to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Japanese Government Railways extended the Echigo Line in the Niigata Prefecture, Japan, with stations Hisumi, Arahama, Kariwa, Nishiyama, and Ishiji serving the line. Born: Larry LaPrise, American songwriter, best known for the popular song "The Hokey Pokey", in Detroit (d. 1996) Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr., American painter, father of boxing champion Muhammad Ali, in Louisville, Kentucky (d. 1990) Died: Ridgley C. Powers, 75, American politician, 29th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1836) Tuesday, November 12, 1912 José Canalejas, the Prime Minister of Spain, was assassinated in Madrid by anarchist Manuel Pardiñas, who then shot himself. Canalejas had stopped in front of a bookstore when Pardiñas fired three shots at close range from a Browning pistol. The fate of Captain Robert Falcon Scott and his fellow Antarctic explorers on the British Terra Nova Expedition was confirmed when their bodies were found by a search party led by Edward L. Atkinson. A bamboo pole was spotted in the snow by party member C. S. Wright. The frozen bodies of Scott, "Birdie" Bowers and Edward Wilson were found in a tent buried beneath the snow, along with their journals, undeveloped film and supplies. The news would not reach the rest of the world until February 11, 1913. A months long strike among miners in Waihi, New Zealand turned violent when police and non-union miners attempted to raid the miners' union wall. Union worker Fred Evans exchanged gunfire with the police, wounding a police officer and another non-union miner before a constable subdued him with a blow to the head. Evans never recovered from the blow and died the following day from the head injury. Evans became one of the workers who died in industrial actions in New Zealand. Two American cruisers, USS Montana and USS Tennessee, were sent to the Mediterranean Sea to protect American citizens during the Balkan Wars. The first news story about the Piltdown Man was published in Manchester Guardian, which reported the discovery by Charles Dawson in southern England of the earliest known ancestor of man under the headline, "The Earliest Man? A Skull Millions of Years Old- One of the Most Important of Our Time". The discovery would be exposed as a hoax in 1953. Lieutenant Yōzō Kaneko performed a public demonstration of naval flight for the Imperial Japanese Navy fleet review at Yokohama, Japan, piloting a Farman seaplane while accompanied by Lieutenant Sankichi Kōno who flew a Curtiss seaplane. Wednesday, November 13, 1912 China's Foreign Minister Liang Men Ting resigned in protest over the government's handling of Mongolia's treaty with Russia. Fifteen people were killed and 20 injured in a railway accident at Irvington, Indiana, a suburb of Indianapolis. Train No. 36 of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railway was speeding from Cincinnati to Chicago when it collided with a freight train. The tropical storm strengthened to a Category 1 hurricane as it moved east of Nicaragua. Film actor and producer Helen Gardner released Cleopatra, her first film through her company The Helen Gardner Picture Players in Tappan, New York. The film was adapted from a play by Victorien Sardou and featured Gardner in the title role, the first feature-length film to feature the Egyptian monarch. The musical The Red Petticoat by Rida Johnson Young and Jerome Kern opened at the Daly's 30th St. Theatre in New York City and ran for only 61 performances. A statue commemorating Chief Seattle was formally unveiled by his great-great-granddaughter Myrtle Loughery in Tilikum Place, Seattle.Sherwood, Donald. Tilikum Place. Sherwood Park History Files. Seattle Parks and Recreation. Retrieved 2012-05-06. Born: Claude Pompidou, French philanthropist, co-founder of Centre Pompidou, wife of French President Georges Pompidou, as Claude Jacqueline Cahour in Château-Gontier, France (d. 2007) Thursday, November 14, 1912 Álvaro Figueroa Torres, the Count of Romanones, was appointed as the new Prime Minister of Spain. The Pennsylvania Railroad’s premier Chicago to New York train was christened the Broadway Limited (named for the railroad’s four-track main line, not the New York City Theater District). The city of Eldoret was created by European settlers in British East Africa, and named after the Maasai language word for a stony river. Born: Barbara Hutton, American socialite, heiress to the Woolworth fortune, sometimes dubbed the "Poor Little Rich Girl", in New York City (d. 1979) Tung-Yen Lin, Chinese-American engineer, developer of prestressed concrete, in Fuzhou, China (d. 2003) Friday, November 15, 1912 Turkish Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha proposed to King Ferdinand of Bulgaria to negotiate a ceasefire and peace between the two nations, while Greece, Serbia and Montenegro continued to advance on all fronts. Vincent Astor reached his 21st birthday and inherited the fortune of his father, John Astor, who had died exactly seven months earlier in the sinking of the Titanic. The $150,000,000 bequest under Astor's will would be the equivalent of 3.4 billion dollars in 2012. The Genesee Valley Canal Railroad merged with another rail line to form the Pennsylvania and Rochester Railroad in New York. Born: Albert Baez, Mexican-American physicist, contributor to the development of the X-ray microscope, father of singers Joan Baez and Mimi Fariña, in Puebla, Mexico (d. 2007) Jacob DeShazer, American air force pilot, member of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo, recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross, in West Stayton, Oregon (d. 2008) Saturday, November 16, 1912 The Napoleonic Code was amended in France to provide for recognition of paternity of illegitimate children. The Bober River dam was inaugurated by Kaiser Wilhelm near the village of Mauer in Silesia (now the dam over the Bóbr River at Pilchowice in Poland). Sunday, November 17, 1912 Turkey halted an invasion by Bulgaria at the First Battle of Çatalca, less than 20 miles from the capital at Istanbul. Because of the heavy casualties sustained by the invaders, the Bulgarian General Staff abandoned its plans during the First Balkan War to capture Istanbul (Constantinople) or Adrianople. Kilkenny successfully defended their All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship title against Cork, defeating them 2–1 to 1–3 in the final before a crowd of 18,000 spectators at Jones Road in Dublin. Franz Kafka began writing his famous novella The Metamorphosis, in German under the title "Die Verwandlung". Composer Igor Stravinsky completed the writing of the musical score for the well-known ballet The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du Printemps). Born: Charles "Bebe" Rebozo, American business leader, founder of the Key Biscayne Bank & Trust, best friend and confidant of U.S. President Richard Nixon, in Tampa, Florida (d. 1998); Jack Lescoulie, American broadcaster, host of NBC's Today, in Sacramento, California (d. 1987) Died: Richard Norman Shaw, 81, Scottish architect, best known for his planning design for Bedford Park, London (b. 1831) Monday, November 18, 1912 A volunteer Greek force under command of Spyros Spyromilios overthrew local Ottoman authorities in the Himara coast along the Ionian Sea (now part of southern Albania). Personnel from various foreign navies landed at Istanbul to protect their citizens residing in Turkey. The hurricane in the Caribbean strengthened to Category 3 with wind speeds recorded at 115 mph (185 km/h) when it hit the western coast of Jamaica. The heavy winds combined with heavy rain caused extensive flooding, destroying some 5,000 buildings and causing a 25% loss of banana tree crops. Montego Bay was hit particularly hard, with 42 killed and another 300 left homeless. Hong Kong Governor Francis Henry May directed the British colony's two streetcar companies and the Star Ferry company to stop accepting Chinese coins for payment of its fares, and to accept only Hong Kong coins. Since there were relatively few Hong Kong coins in circulation, many passengers were unable to pay their fares and the response was a public boycott of mass transportation. Ultimately, Governor May would succeed in ridding the colony of foreign coinage and currency. Cotton County, Oklahoma, was created from the southern portion of Comanche County. Born: Vic Hey, Australian rugby player, five-eighth for the Western Suburbs Magpies, Leeds Rhinos, Dewsbury Rams and Australia national rugby league team from 1929 to 1949, in Liverpool, New South Wales, Australia (d. 1995) Hilda Nickson, British romance writer, author of over 60 romance novels and vice-president of the Romantic Novelists' Association, wife to writer Arthur Nickson, in Maltby, England (d. 1977) Died: Richard Edward O'Connor, Australian judge, third Justice of the High Court of Australia (b. 1851) Tuesday, November 19, 1912 An earthquake killed more than 70 people in and around Acambay, Mexico. Most died in the collapse of a church, where the victims were women attending mass, and the male priests. The Balkan League telegraphed to the Ottoman Empire their terms for a peace treaty. A vastly superior Serbian force of over 100,000 men overwhelmed an Ottoman force of 38,000 men at Bitola, Macedonia. Eighteen people were killed in a railway accident at Gull Lake, Ontario. Born: George Emil Palade, Romanian-American microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for developing the electron microscope, in Iași, Romania (d. 2008) Wednesday, November 20, 1912 A ceasefire on the Chatalja line between Bulgaria and Turkey took effect while peace terms were discussed. The hurricane that struck Jamaica two days earlier weakened to a minor storm south of Cuba before dissipating two days later north on Honduras. In total, the storm killed 105 people throughout the Caribbean and causing $1.5 million (1912 USD) in property damage, with most of the damage and casualties in Jamaica. Lieutenant Charles Becker and three other persons were found guilty of the murder of Herman Rosenthal. Pietro Bertolini was appointed as the first Minister of the Colonies for Italy, due to the recent acquisition of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and the Dodecanese Islands. The History of Medicine Society held its first meeting, under the chairmanship of Sir William Osler, in London with 160 people in attendance. Born: Otto von Habsburg, Austrian noble, last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary (d. 2011); Ram Gopal, Indian dancer, promoter of Indian classical dance in the west, in Bangalore, India (d. 2003) Thursday, November 21, 1912 The Turkish government rejected the Balkan League's terms for peace as unacceptable, and war resumed on all fronts. In what one historian would later describe as "the greatest victory in the history of the Bulgarian navy," four torpedo boats attacked the Ottoman Empire cruiser Hamidiye on the Black Sea "and scored at least one hit", causing some casualties and some damage to the bow. The Imperial Japanese Navy battleship Hiei was launched. On November 13, 1942, in the Battle of Guadalcanal, it would become the first Japanese battleship to face American ships in war, and the first ever to be sunk. Born: Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, Saudi theologian, second Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, in Riyadh (d. 1999) Eleanor Powell, American film actress and dancer, known for tap dance routines for musical films including Broadway Melody of 1938 and Born to Dance, in Springfield, Massachusetts (d. 1982) Friday, November 22, 1912 The Entente Cordiale, military alliance between the United Kingdom and France, was strengthened by an exchange of notes between French Ambassador Paul Cambon and the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, providing for joint action in the event of war. The Nigerian Protectorate Order was signed by King George at Windsor Castle, unifying the Northern Nigeria Protectorate and the colony of Southern Nigeria, effective January 1, 1914. Sir Frederick Lugard became Governor of both entities prior to the merger and would become the first Governor-General of Nigeria. Native chiefs were arrested by British colonial authorities in Sierra Leone to halt the cannibalistic "Human Leopard" practice. John Flammang Schrank, who had shot and wounded former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt on October 14, was found to be insane by a board of five physicians in Milwaukee, who wrote that Schrank was "suffering from insane delusions, grandiose in character and of a systematized variety... we are of the opinion he is unable to converse intelligently with counsel on the conduct of his defense." Sports club Deportivo Cali was established in Cali, Colombia, where it eventually developed its successful association football program for Categoría Primera A. Born: Doris Duke, American socialite and philanthropist, daughter to James Buchanan Duke, known for her foundations including the Newport Restoration Foundation and Duke University AIDS research foundation, in New York City (d. 1993) Died: Otto Lessing, German sculptor, best known for his interior designs and architectural sculptures for the Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, and Reichsgericht in Berlin (b. 1846) Saturday, November 23, 1912 The freighter Rouse Simmons, carrying a cargo of Christmas trees, sank in a violent ice storm on Lake Michigan, taking all 13 of its crew with it. Its wreckage would be discovered in 1971. Eugene V. Debs, who had recently run for President of the United States on the Socialist Party ticket, was indicted by a federal grand jury in Fort Scott, Kansas, on charges of obstruction of justice. Charged also were Fred D. Warren, editor of the Girard, Kansas, newspaper The Appeal to Reason, and Warren's lawyer, J. I. Sheppard. All three were accused of having paid $200 to a federal witness, to induce him to avoid testifying in their trial for misuse of the postal system. Revolutionary syndicalist organizations in Italy leave the Confederazione Generale del Lavoro trade union and form the Unione Sindacale Italiana. At New Haven, Connecticut, unbeaten and untied Harvard University (8-0-0) visited unbeaten Yale University (7-0-1) for what would prove to be the championship of the 1912 college football season. Wisconsin and Penn State would also finish the season with perfect records. South Africa beat Scotland 16–0 in a rugby union test match in Inverleith, Scotland during their European tour. The drama The Eldest Son by John Galsworthy opened at the Kingsway Theatre in London and ran for 47 performances. Born: Tyree Glenn, American jazz musician, trombone player for Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, in Corsicana, Texas (d. 1974) George O'Hanlon, American actor, best known as the voice of George Jetson in the television animated series The Jetsons, in New York City (d. 1989) Virginia Prince, American activist, founder of the Society for the Second Self which advocated transgender rights, in Los Angeles (d. 2009) Died: Charles Bourseul, 83, Belgian engineer, developed the concepts that lead to the invention of the telephone (b. 1829) Sunday, November 24, 1912 Forty-four people were killed and 60 injured in a mass panic at a movie theater in Bilbao, Spain. Twenty-four miners were killed at Alais, France. The death toll would have been higher had the blast not occurred between shifts. Te Rata was crowned as the new King of the Māori people in New Zealand. Born: Teddy Wilson, American jazz musician, pianist for Louis Armstrong, Lena Horne, Benny Goodman, Billie Holiday, and Ella Fitzgerald, in Austin, Texas (d. 1986) Monday, November 25, 1912 William Merlaud-Ponty, the colonial Governor-General of French West Africa, ruled that the drafting of Africans into forced labor (prestations) would be allowed in order to build the colony's infrastructure. An explosion at a starch factory in Waukegan, Illinois, killed 8 people and injured 27, while four other employees of the Corn Products Company were missing. Three delegates each from Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire met at the Turkish town of Bahçeköy, near Çatalca, Turkey to discuss peace. Nazim Pasha, the commander of the Turkish forces, shook hands with his counterpart, General Savoff of Bulgaria. A cyclone destroyed Tacloban, the capital of the Leyte island in the Philippines, and killed 310 people on the islands of Samar, Leyte and North Fanay. The first trade union ever founded in China was created by the nation's goldsmiths. Born: Francis Durbridge, English writer, best known for his Paul Temple detective series, in Kingston upon Hull, England (d. 1998) Died: Isidor Rayner, 62, American politician, U.S. Senator of Maryland between 1887 and 1912 (b. 1850) Tuesday, November 26, 1912 Eleven men, of the Imperial Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet, were executed at Sevastopol after being convicted of mutiny. Amoako Atta III, King of the Akyem Abuakwa state in Ghana, was removed from office by British colonial authorities. In Salem, Massachusetts, leaders of the Lawrence textile strike were acquitted of charges of murder resulting from the strike. Joseph Caruso had been indicted for the killing of Anna LoPizzo, who died during a strike-related riot, and Joseph J. Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti had been charged as accessories for conspiracy to incite the January 12 riot. Born: Eric Sevareid, American journalist, member of the Murrow Boys and anchor for CBS Evening News, in Velva, North Dakota (d. 1992) Died: John T. Brush, 67, American sports executive, owner of the Indianapolis Hoosiers (b. 1845) Robert Knight, 86, American industrialist, co-founder of Fruit of the Loom (b. 1826) Princess Marie, 67, Belgian noble, Countess of Flanders and mother of King Albert I of Belgium (b. 1845) Wednesday, November 27, 1912 France and Spain signed a treaty dividing Morocco into two separate protectorates, with a 350 square mile zone around Tangier being an "international zone". Spain's holdings would be administered from Tétouan and consist of 20,000 square km in the north and 23,000 in the south. Bulgarian forces defeated Ottoman troops near that is now Peplos, Evros, Greece. Sir Edward Henry, the Police Commissioner for London, was wounded by a man who shot him three times as the chief was returning from Scotland Yard to his residence in Kensington. The attacker, identified as a Mr. Bowes, had been denied a license to operate a taxicab and was angered that Chief Henry would not reconsider the ruling. Thursday, November 28, 1912 The Albanian Declaration of Independence was made by 83 delegates to the All-Albanian Congress at the Ottoman Empire city of Vlorë, bringing an end to more than 400 years of Turkish rule. Between 1393 and 1501, Ottoman forces had incorporated the Albanian homeland into the Empire. Ismail Qemali, an Albanian who had served as an Ottoman colonial governor for Tripolitania, was proclaimed the leader of the new nation. General Yaver Pasha and 9,000 Turkish troops surrendered to the Bulgarian Army at Dedeagach. Bulgaria would later lose the territory to Greece in World War I, and the city would be renamed Alexandroupoli. General Mehmet Esat Bülkat and his force of 10,000 Ottoman troops defeated a Greek force of 3,800 at Driskos in the Ottoman-held territory of what is now northern Greece. Ad Wolgast lost his World Lightweight Championship to Willie Ritchie following a 16th round foul at Colma, California. Ritchie held onto the title until 1914. St. Anthony of Padua Church was dedicated in New Bedford, Massachusetts. Born: Morris Louis, American painter, member of the Washington Color School movement, in Baltimore (d. 1962) Alan Gewirth, American philosopher, promoter of moral rationalism in the United States, author of Reason and Morality, in Union City, New Jersey (d. 2004) Died: Walter Benona Sharp, 41, American industrialist, co-founder of the Sharp-Hughes Tool Company (b. 1870) Friday, November 29, 1912 In College Park, Maryland, most of Maryland Agricultural College was destroyed by fire, with all of the dormitories and administration buildings, and most of the classrooms of being devastated. The college would rebuild, become a coeducational institution with the admission of women students, be renamed the University of Maryland in 1920, and grow to become one of the leading public universities in the United States. Greek poet Lorentzos Mavilis, 52, who had volunteered for the Greek Army to fight in the First Balkan War, was killed in battle at Driskos. Reportedly, his last words were, "I expected many honors from this war, but not the added honor that I offer my life for my Greece." Born: John Templeton, American-British business leader and philanthropist, founder of the Templeton Growth Fund and Templeton College at the University of Oxford, in Winchester, Tennessee (d. 2008) Saturday, November 30, 1912 Eladio Victoria resigned as President of the Dominican Republic and was replaced by the Archbishop of Santo Domingo, Monsignor Adolfo Alejandro Nouel, who pledged to organize free elections under the supervision of the United States. As a result, most hostilities in the country's civil war effectively ended. A.E.B. Danquah was installed by British authorities in Ghana as King Ofori Atta I to rule the Akyem Abuakwa state. As the first literate monarch in Ghana, he would reign until 1943. The Waihi miners' strike ended in New Zealand. The Hamilton Alerts defeated the Toronto Argonauts 11–4 to win the 4th Grey Cup, the only time the club won the Canadian football championship. South Africa shut out Ireland 38–0 in a rugby union test match in Dublin during their European tour. Born: Hugo del Carril, Argentine actor, film director and singer, known for films including Dark River, in Buenos Aires (d. 1989) Nihat Erim, Turkish state leader, 13th Prime Minister of Turkey, in Kandıra, Turkey (d. 1980, assassinated) Gordon Parks, American photographer and film director, covered the civil rights movement for Life magazine, and films including Shaft and The Learning Tree'', in Fort Scott, Kansas (d. 2006) Died: Robert Collyer, 88, British-American clergy, first minister of the First Unitarian Church of Chicago, early supporter of women's suffrage (b. 1823) Dharmavaram Ramakrishnamacharyulu, 60, Indian playwright, author of more than 30 original plays in the Telugu language (b. 1853) References 1912 1912-11 1912-11 1912 1912-07 1912-07

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The Orange Free State (, , abbreviated as OVS) was an independent Boer sovereign republic under British suzerainty in Southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century, which ceased to exist after it was defeated and surrendered to the British Empire at the end of the Second Boer War in 1902. It is one of the three historical precursors to the present-day Free State province. Extending between the Orange and Vaal rivers, its borders were determined by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1848 when the region was proclaimed as the Orange River Sovereignty, with a British Resident based in Bloemfontein. Bloemfontein and the southern parts of the Sovereignty had previously been settled by Griqua and by Trekboere from the Cape Colony. The Voortrekker Republic of Natalia, founded in 1837, administered the northern part of the territory through a landdrost based at Winburg. This northern area was later in federation with the Republic of Potchefstroom which eventually formed part of the South African Republic (Transvaal). Following the granting of sovereignty to the Transvaal Republic, the British sought to drop their defensive and administrative responsibilities between the Orange and Vaal rivers, while local European residents wanted the British to remain. This led to the British recognising the independence of the Orange River Sovereignty and the country officially became independent as the Orange Free State on 23 February 1854, with the signing of the Orange River Convention. The new republic incorporated the Orange River Sovereignty and continued the traditions of the Winburg-Potchefstroom Republic. The Orange Free State developed into a politically and economically successful republic and for the most part enjoyed good relationships with its neighbours. It was annexed as the Orange River Colony in 1900. It ceased to exist as an independent Boer republic on 31 May 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging at the conclusion of the Second Boer War. Following a period of direct rule by the British, it attained self-government in 1907 and joined the Union of South Africa in 1910 as the Orange Free State Province, along with the Cape Province, Natal, and the Transvaal. In 1961, the Union of South Africa became the Republic of South Africa. The Republic's name derives partly from the Orange River, which in turn was named in honour of the Dutch ruling family, the House of Orange, by the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon. The official language in the Orange Free State was Dutch. History First settlements Europeans first visited the country north of the Orange River towards the close of the 18th century. One of the most notable visitors was the Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon, who mapped the region and gave the Orange River its name. At that time, the population was sparse. The majority of the inhabitants appear to have been members of the Sotho people (colonial form Basuto), but in the valleys of the Orange and Vaal were Korana and other Khoikhoi, and in the Drakensberg and on the western border lived numbers of Bushmen. Early in the 19th century Griqua established themselves north of the Orange. Boer immigration In 1824 farmers of Dutch, French Huguenot and German descent known as Trekboers (later named Boers by the English) emerged from the Cape Colony, seeking pasture for their flocks and to escape British governmental oversight, settling in the country. Up to this time the few Europeans who had crossed the Orange had come mainly as hunters or as missionaries. These early migrants were followed in 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek. These emigrants left the Cape Colony for various reasons, but all shared the desire for independence from British authority. The leader of the first large party, Hendrik Potgieter, concluded an agreement with Makwana, the chief of the Bataung tribe of Batswana, ceding to the farmers the country between the Vet and Vaal rivers. When Boer families first reached the area they discovered that the country had been devastated, in the northern parts by the chief Mzilikazi and his Matabele in what was known as the Mfecane, and also by the Difaqane, in which three tribes roamed across the land attacking settled groups, absorbing them and their resources until they collapsed because of their sheer size. Consequently, large areas were depopulated. The Boers soon came into collision with Mzilikazi's raiding parties, which attacked Boer hunters who crossed the Vaal River. Reprisals followed, and in November 1837 the Boers decisively defeated Mzilikazi, who thereupon fled northward and eventually established himself on the site of the future Bulawayo in Zimbabwe. In the meantime another party of Cape Dutch emigrants had settled at Thaba Nchu, where the Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. These Barolong had trekked from their original home under their chief, Moroka II, first south-westwards to the Langberg, and then eastwards to Thaba Nchu. The emigrants were treated with great kindness by Moroka, and with the Barolong the Boers maintained uniformly friendly relations after they defeated Mzilikazi. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary republican form of government. After the defeat of Mzilikazi the town of Winburg (so named by the Boers in commemoration of their victory) was founded, a Volksraad elected, and Piet Retief, one of the ablest of the Voortrekkers, chosen "governor and commandant-general". The emigrants already numbered some 500 men, besides women and children and many servants. Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers were constantly added to, and Retief, Potgieter and other leaders crossed the Drakensberg and entered Natal. Those that remained were divided into several parties. British rule Meanwhile, a new power had arisen along the upper Orange and in the valley of the Caledon. Moshoeshoe, a minor Basotho chief, had welded together a number of scattered and broken clans which had sought refuge in that mountainous region after fleeing from Mzilikazi, and had formed the Basotho nation which acknowledged him as king. In 1833 he had welcomed as workers among his people a band of French Protestant missionaries, and as the Boer immigrants began to settle in his neighborhood he decided to seek support from the British at the Cape. At that time the British government was not prepared to exercise control over the immigrants. Acting upon the advice of Dr John Philip, the superintendent of the London Missionary Society’s stations in South Africa, a treaty was concluded in 1843 with Moshoeshoe, placing him under British protection. A similar treaty was made with the Griqua chief Adam Kok III. By these treaties, which recognised native sovereignty over large areas on which Boer farmers were settled, the British sought to keep a check on the Boers and to protect both the natives and Cape Colony. The effect was to precipitate collisions between all three parties. The year in which the treaty with Moshoeshoe was made, several large parties of Boers recrossed the Drakensberg into the country north of the Orange, refusing to remain in Natal when the British annexed the newly formed Boer republic of Natalia to form the Colony of Natal. During their stay in Natal the Boers inflicted a severe defeat on the Zulus under Dingane in the Battle of Blood River in December 1838, which, following on the flight of Mzilikazi, greatly strengthened the position of Moshoeshoe, whose power became a menace to that of the Boer farmers. Trouble first arose, however, between the Boers and the Griqua in the Philippolis district. Some of the Boer farmers in this district, unlike their fellows dwelling farther north, were willing to accept British rule. This fact induced Mr Justice Menzies, one of the judges of the Cape Colony then on circuit at Colesberg, to cross the Orange and proclaim the country British territory in October 1842. The proclamation was disallowed by the Governor, Sir George Napier, who, nevertheless, maintained that the Boer farmers remained British subjects. After this episode the British negotiated their treaties with Adam Kok III and Moshoeshoe. The treaties gave great offence to the Boers, who refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the native chiefs. The majority of the Boer farmers in Kok's territory sent a deputation to the British commissioner in Natal, Henry Cloete, asking for equal treatment with the Griquas, and expressing the desire to come under British protection under such terms. Shortly afterwards hostilities between the farmers and the Griqua broke out. British troops moved up to support the Griquas, and after a skirmish at Zwartkopjes (2 May 1845) a new arrangement was made between Kok and Peregrine Maitland, the then Governor of Cape Colony, virtually placing the administration of his territory in the hands of a British resident, a post filled in 1846 by Captain Henry Douglas Warden. The place purchased by Captain (afterwards Major) Warden as the seat of his court was known as Bloemfontein, and it subsequently became the capital of the whole country. Bloemfontein lay to the south of the region settled by Voortrekkers. Boer governance The Volksraad at Winburg during this period continued to claim jurisdiction over the Boers living between the Orange and the Vaal and was in federation with the Volksraad at Potchefstroom, which made a similar claim upon the Great Boers living north of the Vaal. In 1846 Major Warden occupied Winburg for a short time, and the relations between the Boers and the British were in a continual state of tension. Many of the farmers deserted Winburg for the Transvaal. Sir Harry Smith became governor of the Cape at the end of 1847. He recognised the failure of the attempt to govern on the lines of the treaties with the Griquas and Basotho, and on 3 February 1848 he issued a proclamation declaring British sovereignty over the country between the Orange and the Vaal eastward to the Drakensberg. Sir Harry Smith's popularity among the Boers gained for his policy considerable support, but the republican party, at whose head was Andries Pretorius, did not submit without a struggle. They were, however, defeated by Sir Harry Smith in the Battle of Boomplaats on 29 August 1848. Thereupon Pretorius, with those most bitterly opposed to British rule, retreated across the Vaal. Orange River Sovereignty In March 1849 Major Warden was succeeded at Bloemfontein as civil commissioner by Mr C. U. Stuart, but he remained the British resident until July 1852. A nominated legislative council was created, a high court established and other steps taken for the orderly government of the country, which was officially styled the Orange River Sovereignty. In October 1849 Moshoeshoe was induced to sign a new arrangement considerably curtailing the boundaries of the Basotho reserve. The frontier towards the Sovereignty was thereafter known as the Warden line. A little later the reserves of other chieftains were precisely defined. The British Resident had, however, no force sufficient to maintain his authority, and Moshoeshoe and all the neighboring clans became involved in hostilities with one another and with the Europeans. In 1851 Moshoeshoe joined the republican party in the Sovereignty in an invitation to Pretorius to recross the Vaal. The intervention of Pretorius resulted in the Sand River Convention of 1852, which acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal but left the status of the Sovereignty untouched. The British government (under the first Russell administration), which had reluctantly agreed to the annexation of the country, had, however, already repented its decision and had resolved to abandon the Sovereignty. Lord Henry Grey, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, in a dispatch to Sir Harry Smith dated 21 October 1851, declared, "The ultimate abandonment of the Orange Sovereignty should be a settled point in our policy." A meeting of representatives of all European inhabitants of the Sovereignty, elected on manhood suffrage, held at Bloemfontein in June 1852, nevertheless declared in favour of the retention of British rule. At the close of that year a settlement was at length concluded with Moshoeshoe, which left, perhaps, that chief in a stronger position than he had hitherto been. There had been ministerial changes in England and the Aberdeen ministry, then in power, adhered to the determination to withdraw from the Sovereignty. Sir George Russell Clerk was sent out in 1853 as special commissioner "for the settling and adjusting of the affairs" of the Sovereignty, and in August of that year he summoned a meeting of delegates to determine upon a form of self-government. At that time there were some 15,000 Europeans in the country, many of them recent immigrants from Cape Colony. There were among them numbers of farmers and tradesmen of British descent. The majority of the whites still wished for the continuance of British rule provided that it was effective and the country guarded against its enemies. The representations of their delegates, who drew up a proposed constitution retaining British control, were unavailing. Sir George Clerk announced that, as the elected delegates were unwilling to take steps to form an independent government, he would enter into negotiations with other persons. " And then," wrote George McCall Theal, "was seen forced the strange spectacle of an English commissioner addressing men who wished to be free of British control as the friendly and well-disposed inhabitants, while for those who desired to remain British subjects and who claimed that protection to which they believed themselves entitled he had no sympathising word." While the elected delegates sent two members to England to try and induce the government to alter their decision, Sir George Clerk speedily came to terms with a committee formed by the republican party and presided over by Mr J. H. Hoffman. Even before this committee met a royal proclamation had been signed (30 January 1854) "abandoning and renouncing all dominion" in the Sovereignty. The Orange River Convention, recognising the independence of the country, was signed at Bloemfontein on 23 February by Sir George Clerk and the republican committee, and in March the Boer government assumed office and the republican flag was hoisted. Five days later the representatives of the elected delegates had an interview in London with the colonial secretary, the Duke of Newcastle, who informed them that it was now too late to discuss the question of the retention of British rule. The colonial secretary added that it was impossible for England to supply troops to constantly advancing outposts, "especially as Cape Town and the port of Table Bay were all she really required in South Africa." In withdrawing from the Sovereignty the British government declared that it had "no alliance with any native chief or tribes to the northward of the Orange River with the exception of the Griqua chief Captain Adam Kok [III]". Kok was not formidable in a military sense, nor could he prevent individual Griquas from alienating their lands. Eventually, in 1861, he sold his sovereign rights to the Free State for £4000 and moved with his followers to the district later known as Griqualand East. On the abandonment of British rule, representatives of the people were elected and met at Bloemfontein on 28 March 1854, and between then and 18 April were engaged in framing a constitution. The country was declared a republic and named the Orange Free State. All persons of European blood possessing a six months' residential qualification were to be granted full burgher rights. The sole legislative authority was vested in a single popularly elected chamber of the Volksraad. Executive authority was entrusted to a president elected by the burghers from a list submitted by the Volksraad. The president was to be assisted by an executive council, was to hold office for five years and was eligible for re-election. The constitution was subsequently modified but remained of a liberal character. A residence of five years in the country was required before aliens could become naturalised. The first president was Josias Philip Hoffman, but he was accused of being too complaisant towards Moshoeshoe and resigned, being succeeded in 1855 by Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff, one of the voortrekkers, who had previously taken an active part in the affairs of the Natalia Republic. Conflict with the South African Republic Distracted among themselves, with the formidable Basotho power on their southern and eastern flank, the troubles of the infant state were speedily added to by the action of the Transvaal Boers of the South African Republic. Marthinus Pretorius, who had succeeded to his father's position as commandant general of Potchefstroom, wished to bring about a confederation between the two Boer states. Peaceful overtures from Pretorius were declined, and some of his partisans in the Orange Free State were accused of treason in February 1857. Thereupon Pretorius, aided by Paul Kruger, conducted a raid into the Orange Free State's territory. On learning of the invasion, President Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff proclaimed martial law throughout the country. The majority of the burghers rallied to his support, and on 25 May, the two opposing forces faced one another on the banks of the Rhenoster. President Boshoff not only got together some 800 men within the Orange Free State, but he received offers of support from Commandant Stephanus Schoeman, the Transvaal leader in the Zoutpansberg district and from Commandant Joubert of Lydenburg. Pretorius and Kruger, realising that they would have to sustain attack from both north and south, abandoned their enterprise. Their force, too, only amounted to some three hundred. Kruger came to Boshoff's camp with a flag of truce, the "army" of Pretorius returned north and on 2 June a treaty of peace was signed, each state acknowledging the absolute independence of the other. The conduct of Pretorius was stigmatised as "blameworthy." Several of the malcontents in the Orange Free State who had joined Pretorius permanently settled in the Transvaal, and other Orange Free Staters who had been guilty of high treason were arrested and punished. This experience did not, however, heal the party strife within the Orange Free State. In consequence of the dissensions among the burghers, President Boshoff tendered his resignation in February 1858, but was for a time induced to remain in office. The difficulties of the state were at that time so great that the Volksraad in December 1858 passed a resolution in favour of confederation with the Cape Colony. This proposition received the strong support of Sir George Grey, the then Governor of Cape Colony, but his view did not commend itself to the British government, and was not adopted. In the same year, the disputes between the Basotho and the Boers culminated in open war. Both parties laid claims to land beyond the Warden line, and each party had taken possession of what it could, the Basotho being also expert cattle-lifters. In the war the advantage rested with the Basotho; thereupon the Orange Free State appealed to Sir George Grey, who induced Moshoeshoe to come to terms. On 15 October 1858, a treaty was signed defining the new boundary. The peace was nominal only, while the burghers were also involved in disputes with other tribes. Mr. Boshoff again tendered his resignation in February 1859 and retired to Natal. Many of the burghers would have at this time welcomed union with the Transvaal, but learning from Sir George Grey that such a union would nullify the conventions of 1852 and 1854 and necessitate the reconsideration of Great Britain's policy towards the native tribes north of the Orange and Vaal rivers, the project was dropped. Commandant Marthinus Wessel Pretorius was, however, elected President in place of Boshoff. Though unable to effect a durable peace with the Basotho, or to realise his ambition for the creation of a single united Boer republic, Pretorius oversaw a period of increased strength and prosperity for the Orange Free State. The fertile district of Bethulie as well as Adam Kok's territory was acquired, and there was a considerable increase in the Boer population. The burghers generally, however, had little confidence in their elected rulers and little desire for taxes to be levied. Wearied like Boshoff, and disillusioned with the affairs of the Orange Free State, Pretorius resigned the presidency in 1863 and moved to the Transvaal. After an interval of seven months, Johannes Brand, an advocate at the Cape bar, was elected president. He assumed office in February 1864. His election proved a turning-point in the history of the country, which, under his guidance, became peaceful and prosperous. But before peace could be established an end had to be made of the difficulties with the Basothos. Moshoeshoe continued to menace the Free State border. Attempts at accommodation made by the Governor of Cape Colony, Sir Philip Wodehouse, failed, and war between the Orange Free State and Moshoeshoe was renewed in 1865. The Boers gained considerable successes, and this induced Moshoeshoe to sue for peace. The terms exacted were, however, too harsh for a nation yet unbroken to accept permanently. A treaty was signed at Thaba Bosiu in April 1866, but war again broke out in 1867, and the Free State attracted to its side a large number of adventurers from all parts of South Africa. The burghers thus reinforced gained at length a decisive victory over their great antagonist, every stronghold in Basutoland save Thaba Bosiu being stormed. Moshoeshoe now turned to Sir Philip Wodehouse for preservation. His call was heeded, and in 1868 he and his country were taken under British protection. Thus the thirty years' strife between the Basothos and the Boers came to an end. The intervention of the Governor of Cape Colony led to the conclusion of the treaty of Aliwal North (12 February 1869), which defined the borders between the Orange Free State and Basutoland. The country lying to the north of the Orange River and west of the Caledon River, formerly a part of Basutoland, was ceded to the Orange Free State, and became known as the Conquered Territory. A year after the addition of the Conquered Territory to the state another boundary dispute was settled by the arbitration of Robert William Keate, lieutenant-governor of Natal. By the Sand River Convention, independence had been granted to the Boers living "north of the Vaal", and the dispute turned on the question as to what stream constituted the true upper course of that river. Keate decided on 19 February 1870 against the Free State and fixed the Klip River as the dividing line, the Transvaal thus securing the Wakkerstroom and adjacent districts. Diamonds discovered The Basutoland difficulties were no sooner arranged than the Free Staters found themselves confronted with a serious difficulty on their western border. In the years 1870–1871 a large number of foreign diggers had settled on the diamond fields near the junction of the Vaal and Orange rivers, which were situated in part on land claimed by the Griqua chief Nicholas Waterboer and by the Orange Free State. The Free State established a temporary government over the diamond fields, but the administration of this body was satisfactory neither to the Free State nor to the diggers. At this juncture Waterboer offered to place the territory under the administration of Queen Victoria. The offer was accepted, and on 27 October 1871 the district, together with some adjacent territory to which the Transvaal had laid claim, was proclaimed, under the name of Griqualand West, British territory. Waterboer's claims were based on the treaty concluded by his father with the British in 1834, and on various arrangements with the Kok chiefs; the Free State based its claim on its purchase of Adam Kok's sovereign rights and on long occupation. The difference between proprietorship and sovereignty was confused or ignored. That Waterboer exercised no authority in the disputed district was admitted. When the British annexation took place a party in the Volksraad wished to go to war with Britain, but the counsels of President Johannes Brand prevailed. The Free State, however, did not abandon its claims. The matter involved no little irritation between the parties concerned until July 1876. It was then disposed of by Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon, at that time Secretary of State for the Colonies, who granted to the Free State a £90,000 payment "in full satisfaction of all claims which it considers it may possess to Griqualand West." Lord Carnarvon declined to entertain the proposal made by Mr Brand that the territory should be given up by Great Britain. In the opinion of historian George McCall Theal, the annexation of Griqualand West was probably in the best interests of the Free State. "There was," he stated, "no alternative from British sovereignty other than an independent diamond field republic." At this time, largely owing to the struggle with the Basothos, the Free State Boers, like their Transvaal neighbors, had drifted into financial straits. A paper currency had been instituted, and the notes, known as "bluebacks", soon dropped to less than half their nominal value. Commerce was largely carried on by barter, and many cases of bankruptcy occurred in the state. The influx of British and other immigrants to the diamond fields, in the early 1870s, restored public credit and individual prosperity to the Boers of the Free State. The diamond fields offered a ready market for stock and other agricultural produce. Money flowed into the pockets of the farmers. Public credit was restored. "Bluebacks" recovered par value, and were called in and redeemed by the government. Valuable diamond mines were also discovered within the Free State, of which the one at Jagersfontein was the richest. Capital from Kimberley and London was soon provided with which to work them. Peaceful relations with neighbours The relations between the British and the Orange Free State, after the question of the boundary was settled, remained perfectly amicable down to the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899. From 1870 onward the history of the state was one of quiet, steady progress. At the time of the first annexation of the Transvaal the Free State declined Lord Carnarvon's invitation to federate with the other South African communities. In 1880, when a rising of the Boers in the Transvaal was threatening, President Brand showed every desire to avert the conflict. He suggested that Sir Henry de Villiers, Chief Justice of Cape Colony, should be sent into the Transvaal to endeavour to gauge the true state of affairs in that country. This suggestion was not acted upon, but when war broke out in the Transvaal, Brand declined to take any part in the struggle. In spite of the neutral attitude taken by their government a number of the Orange Free State Boers, living in the northern part of the country, went to the Transvaal and joined their brethren then in arms against the British. This fact was not allowed to influence the friendly relations between the Free State and Great Britain. In 1888 Sir Johannes Brand died. During the period of Brand's presidency a great change, both political and economic, had come over South Africa. The renewal of the policy of British expansion had been answered by the formation of the Afrikaner Bond, which represented the aspirations of the Afrikaner people, and had active branches in the Free State. This alteration in the political outlook was accompanied, and in part occasioned, by economic changes of great significance. The development of the diamond mines and of the gold and coal industries – of which Brand saw the beginning – had far-reaching consequences, bringing the Boer republics into contact with the new industrial era. The Orange Free Staters, under Brand's rule, had shown considerable ability to adapt their policy to meet the altered situation. In 1889 an agreement made between the Orange Free State and the Cape Colony government, whereby the latter was empowered to extend, at its own cost, its railway system to Bloemfontein. The Orange Free State retained the right to purchase this extension at cost, a right it exercised after the Jameson Raid. Having accepted the assistance of the Cape government in constructing its railway, the state also in 1889 entered into a Customs Union Convention with them. The convention was the outcome of a conference held at Cape Town in 1888, at which delegates from Natal, the Free State and the Cape Colony attended. Natal at this time had not seen its way to entering the Customs union, but did so at a later date. Renewal of hostilities In January 1889 Francis William Reitz was elected president of the Orange Free State. Reitz had no sooner got into office than a meeting was arranged with Paul Kruger, president of the South African Republic, at which various terms were discussed and decided upon regarding an agreement dealing with the railways, terms of a treaty of amity and commerce, and what was called a political treaty. The political treaty referred in general terms to a federal union between the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, and bound each of them to help the other, whenever the independence of either should be assailed or threatened from without, unless the state so called upon for assistance should be able to show the injustice of the cause of quarrel in which the other state had engaged. While thus committed to an alliance with its northern neighbour no change was made in internal administration. The Free State, in fact, from its geographical position reaped the benefits without incurring the anxieties consequent on the settlement of a large Uitlander population on the Witwatersrand. The state, however, became increasingly identified with the reactionary party in the South African Republic. In 1895 the Volksraad passed a resolution, in which they declared their readiness to entertain a proposition from the South African Republic in favour of some form of federal union. In the same year Reitz retired from the presidency of the Orange Free State. The 1896 presidential election to succeed him was won by M. T. Steyn, a judge of the High Court, who took office in February 1896. In 1896 President Steyn visited Pretoria, where he received an ovation as the probable future president of the two Republics. A further offensive and defensive alliance between the two Republics was then entered into, under which the Orange Free State took up arms on the outbreak of hostilities between the British and the South African Republic in October 1899. In 1897 President Kruger, bent on still further cementing the union with the Orange Free State, had visited Bloemfontein. It was on this occasion that Kruger, referring to the London Convention, spoke of Queen Victoria as a kwaaje Vrouw (angry woman), an expression which caused a good deal of offence in England at the time, but which, in the phraseology of the Boers, was not meant by President Kruger as insulting. In December 1897 the Free State revised its constitution in reference to the franchise law, and the period of residence necessary to obtain naturalization was reduced from five to three years. The oath of allegiance to the state was alone required, and no renunciation of nationality was insisted upon. In 1898 the Free State also acquiesced in the new convention arranged with regard to the Customs Union between the Cape Colony, Natal, Basutoland and the Bechuanaland Protectorate. But events were moving rapidly in the Transvaal, and matters had proceeded too far for the Free State to turn back. In May 1899 President Steyn suggested the conference at Bloemfontein between President Kruger and Sir Alfred Milner, but this act was too late. The Free Staters were practically bound to the South African Republic, under the offensive and defensive alliance, in case hostilities arose with Great Britain. The Orange Free State began to expel British subjects in 1899, and the first act of the Second Boer War was committed by Orange Free State Boers, who, on 11 October 1899, seized a train upon the border belonging to Natal. For President Steyn and the Free State of 1899, neutrality was impossible. A resolution was passed by the Volksraad on 27 September declaring that the state would observe its obligations to the Transvaal whatever might happen. After the surrender of Piet Cronjé in the Battle of Paardeberg on 27 February 1900, Bloemfontein was occupied by the British troops under Lord Roberts from 13 March onward, and on 28 May a proclamation was issued annexing the Free State to the British dominions under the title of Orange River Colony. For nearly two years longer the burghers kept the field under Christiaan de Wet and other leaders, but by the articles of peace signed on 31 May 1902 British sovereignty was acknowledged. Politics Divisions The country was divided into the following districts: Bloemfontein district: Bloemfontein, Reddersburg, Brandfort, Bethany, Edenburg Caledon River district: Smithfield Winburg district: Winburg, Ventersburg Harrismith district: Harrismith, Frankfort Kroonstad district: Kroonstad, Heilbron Boshof district: Boshof Jacobsdal district: Jacobsdal Philippolis district: Philippolis Bethulie district: Bethulie Bethlehem district: Bethlehem Rouxville district: Rouxville Lady Brand district: Lady Brand, Ficksburg Pniel district: Pniel Foreign relations The Orange Free State was one of two Boer Republics, alongside the Transvaal, able to persist and prosper long enough to gain international recognition. The Orange Free State would eventually establish diplomatic relations with the Netherlands, France, Germany, Belgium, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In addition to connections with the Great Powers, the Orange Free State maintained political ties, manifested in varying forms with neighboring Transvaal and regularly sent and received official missions to and from regional significant native African tribes. The Consulates of the Orange Free State Despite the republics small size, immense distance and relative historical poverty, the Orange Free State established consuls of official representation in several European states and in the United States of America between 1855 and 31 May 1902, when the republic ceased to exist. The first, and throughout the existence of the republic, most important consular post was the Consulate General of the Orange Free State in the Netherlands. Between 1871 and 1902, the consul general in the Netherlands at times also held diplomatic prerogatives, with the title of 'special envoy'. In this capacity the incumbent was charged with negotiating and concluding treaties with other states and international organisations on behalf of the Orange Free State government. Demographics An estimate in 1875: White: 75,000; Native and Coloured: 25,000. The first census, carried out in 1880, found that 'Europeans' made up 45.7% of the population. Bloemfontein, the capital, had 2,567 inhabitants. The 1890 census, which was reportedly not very accurate, found a population of 207,503. In 1904 the colonial census was taken. The population was 387,315, of whom 225,101 (58.11%) were blacks, 142,679 (36.84%) were whites, 19,282 (4.98%) were coloureds and 253 (0.07%) were Indians. The largest cities were Bloemfontein (33,883) (whites – 15,501 or 45.74%), Harrismith (8,300) (whites – 4,817 or 58.03%), Kroonstad (7,191) (whites – 3,708 or 51.56%). In 1911 population was 528,174, of whom 325,824 (61.68%) were blacks, 175,189 (33.16%) were whites, 26,554 (5.02%) were coloureds and 607 (0.11%) were Indians. The capital, Bloemfontein, had a population of 26,925. See also Postal orders of the Orange Free State Postage stamps and postal history of the Orange Free State List of former sovereign states Natalia Republic Consulates of the Orange Free State Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property Witzieshoek revolt Notes References External links National Anthem of the Orange Free State (1854–1902) on YouTube States and territories established in 1854 History of South Africa Former countries in Africa Former republics States and territories disestablished in 1902 Free State (province) 1854 establishments in South Africa 1902 disestablishments in South Africa South Africa and the Commonwealth of Nations

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The Blood Sisters is a 2018 Philippine drama television series directed by Jojo Saguin, starring Erich Gonzales in three characters: Erika, Carrie, and Agatha. The series premiered on ABS-CBN's Primetime Bida evening block and worldwide on The Filipino Channel from February 12, 2018 to August 17, 2018, replacing Wildflower. Plot This fictional story follows the lives of triplets, separated as infants, and the complex events that bring them together. The main story line revolves around Erika Castillo, an exotic dancer in a club in Davao City. Her work as an entertainer helps provide for her son's medical bills, but her job exposes her to the seedy darkness and dangers of the business, and that is what happened one evening when she witnesses a waitress murder a syndicate member in the club's private dancing room. The killer, known only as Ana Cruz quickly disappears and the syndicate is eager to retrieve a ledger they think Erika took. They send assassins to silence her. With her life and her son's safety at risk, Erika leaves him with her friend Bruce (Ogie Diaz) and escapes to Manila. With the help of her best friend Tonio (Ejay Falcon), she searches for “Ana” and the ledger. The assassins catch up with her in Manila, but she manages to escape and Fate hurls another woman along their path. The woman, Carrie Almeda, is a dead ringer for Erica, and the killers mistake her for Erika. They shoot and abduct her. Meanwhile, Erika finds herself assuming her double's identity, hiding under the safety net of Carrie Almeda's world for a brief time. 27 years ago, a childless couple, Debbie and Norman Almeda (Dina Bonnevie and Jestoni Alarcon) hire Adele (Cherry Pie Picache), their housekeeper, to serve as surrogate mother to carry their fertilized eggs in her womb. What originally started as a Surrogacy Agreement between Adele and the couple falls through when Adele suffers a miscarriage. With no viable fertilized eggs left for another In vitro fertilisation and desperate for a child, Norman seduces Adele and gets her pregnant again. They continue the surrogacy charade, with Debbie none the wiser, but Adele changes her mind shortly before she delivers and escapes from the Almedas. Unaware that Adele gives birth to triplets, Norman hires men to get their child back as he undertakes a search himself. Norman tracks Adele in Davao City and takes the infant Agnes away from her arms. By a cruel twist of fate, Almeda's men snatch the other infant, Almira, from Adele's mother at the wet market nearby. Norman assumes his men made a mistake and notifies them that he already has the infant, so the kidnappers leave Almira in an empty carton in a garbage dump. For the next 26 years the triplets Almira, Agnes and Agatha (all played by Erich Gonzales) live separate lives with no idea about each other. Agnes is renamed Carrie, and raised by the wealthy Almedas in Santa Rosa, Laguna and grows up in affluence. She is a sophisticated, highly educated and accomplished professional with a medical degree in obstetrics and gynecology from Sweden. On the other hand, Almira's life is diametrically different because the infant is abandoned in the streets, is fostered by a Tanod (a Barangay or Barrio Police Enforcer) in Davao City and grows up in extreme poverty. Almira is renamed Erika, simple and kind, but having not gone past high school, is not able to get out of the poverty she grew up in. To augment her income to meet her son's medical needs, she works as a stripper and lives in the seedy world of criminals. On the opposite side of their family spectrum, the third infant grows up as lost as her other siblings. While many would invariably assume that Agatha, the only infant left with Adele, was the most fortunate of the triplet, the truth is far from everyone's assumptions. After the kidnapping, Adele moves to Benguet with her mother and the remaining baby. Although Agatha is raised be her grandmother in middle class comfort, she resents her absent mother, who works as an OFW in Dubai for the past 26 years. Agatha grows up never lacking for material needs. She is private school educated, but she was constantly bullied by her upper class, rich classmates who looked down at her and her mother's job as a maid. The bullying drives her sociopathic personality to achieve a much higher status in life. Her anger increases when she meets her sisters, living in the upper echelon of society, a status she feels she was deprived. In contrast to her two sisters, Agatha is narcissistic, mean spirited, entitled, and takes her comfortable life in Baguio for granted and desires to escape to Manila for a more glamorous, upscale life. Back in the Bermudez-Almeda mansion in Santa Rosa, Erika ends the charade when she learns that Carrie is getting married in two weeks to Dr. Samuel Hechanova, and that Carrie is an obstetrician for the Bermudez Medical Center, a large Medical and Infertility facility owned by her family. The idea that she can pretend to be an Obstetrician and gynecologist appalls her. The siblings' lives collide when Erika leaves the safety of Carrie's life and runs away. That same night, in a heavily guarded location in Tanay, Rizal, Carrie wakes up from a coma and using her skills as a physician, sutures her gunshot wound and escapes her captors. Fate brings the sisters together and Carrie utilizes their medical facility to determine if they are related. A DNA test using a blood sample from Erika's scarf confirms they are twins. The twins return to their respective families, agreeing to keep their relationship secret while Carrie figures out the truth. Using Carrie's private condo as their meeting place, they spend time getting acquainted and discover that despite their contrasting lives, they both share an unexplained sadness and emptiness. Erika points out Carrie's controlling mother and cold grandmother pales in comparison to Erika's life in the streets, a baby left in the dump without any birth certificate as she passed through the hands of several foster parents. Meanwhile, Erika's search for Anna Cruz leads to the morgue and a dead end, and the syndicate focuses on Erika. Carrie, on the other hand, seeks answers from her mother who finally admits to the surrogacy but knows nothing about a Multiple birth. Carrie reveals Erika's existence to the Almedas, who are shocked but overjoyed that they have twins. Learning that Erika's life is in danger, she moves into the Almeda mansion with her son Jolo and friend Bruce. But life in a significantly more comfortable surrounding is not as easy as she expected. Grandmother Rosemarie and cousin Andrea are suspicious of her. Unknown to Deborah and Norman, in a secluded estate in Batangas owned by Deborah's family, exists a sinister secret, a luxurious facility covering for a baby farm called Paraiso. The farm's secret operations is run by Dr. Rosemarie Bermudez and the Solomon syndicate, the same syndicate looking for Erika and the ledger that would threaten to blow up their entire operations. Paraiso hides beneath their fertility centre, which when discovered, will complicate and imperil the triplets' lives. While the twins are curious to meet the woman who carried them, that project takes a back seat to Norman's and Deborah's desire for Erika's immediate integration into the Bermudez-Almeda family, legally adopting Erika and her son Jolo. It is at this time that Fate hurls yet another thunderbolt. The twins discover they have a third sibling. Adele's world in Baguio shatters when Agatha discovers she is one of triplet siblings. Angry at her mother for keeping this information from her, Agatha escapes to Manila and finds her lost siblings but their reunion is far from happy. Despite being welcomed into the Almeda family, Agatha is not content. She desires to own their wealthy life, a lifestyle she feels robbed of, a life she feels entitled to. Agatha's sociopathic personality turns her against the people who love her, as she undermines her siblings and sets out to take the Almedas' and Bermudez' fortune and destroy them completely. The Bermudez-Almeda family relationships disintegrate as Agatha stirs up conflict and division, when she teams up with Rocco, Fabian's bastard. They successfully expose the Solomon syndicate and shut down Paraiso. The exposure and capture of the Solomons exposes Rosemarie's connection with their illegal activities, effectively stripping her of her medical license, and her status in the medical industry. While Rosemarie loses her medical license and the Solomons are in prison serving time, Agatha and Rocco take over the syndicate's leadership. The lucrative baby farming is replaced with Child trafficking for Organ harvesting, selling children as organ donors. They recruit an unlikely ally, Dr. Rosemarie Bermudez, who is eager to get her hands on the fortune she lost. With the growing demand for organ harvesting, the pair use Rosemarie's doctor skills to medically screen the captive children and provide certification of their viable human organs for their international clientele. Jolo, Erika's son, is kidnapped by Rocco's syndicate and then later sold to a foreigner organ buyer for his dying son. The transaction and exchange was successful and Jolo would have been lost forever. But Erika does not give up. She fights the organ buyer with all her ferocity, uses all her street smarts, finds him, and rescues him from the syndicate. While Jolo recovers from the trauma of his kidnapping, Erika and her family recognize the significance of Jolo's testimony. She agrees for him to becomes a material witness against the syndicate. Erika is able to piece together the information she has gathered and connects the dots to Rocco and Agatha. Rocco convinces Agatha to assassinate her Sister and nephew, but she loses her nerve. Rocco attempts to do it himself but shoots Carrie instead as she spots him in the window, taking the bullet meant for her sister as she tries to warn and block Carrie. While Carrie fights for her life, Agatha is conflicted after seeing Carrie in the hospital and overhears Rocco tell Sahara he is merely playing Agatha. In retaliation, Agatha steals all their money. Meanwhile, Jolo's testimony on the woman doctor who tends to the kidnapped children and a girl with a tattoo on her ankle leads Authorities to Dr. Rosemarie and Agatha, and both are captured and incarcerated. He also positively identifies Rocco, who is fighting another war with the escaped convicts Solomons. All are bent on their revenges against one another, and after the money Agatha hid. They capture Agatha and torture her. Soon after Carrie wakes up from her coma and reveals a masked man attempted to shoot Erika. Greg Solomon decides to go abroad with Ginny to keep her away from danger, leaving Fabian with his bastard son, Rocco. Samuel finds and confronts Fabian about his father's death and attempts to shoot him but did not have the stomach to kill. However, he tricked Patron into admitting the truth about Manuel's death, secretly videotaped their conversation. As he escapes with Erika, he, along with Agatha are seriously wounded. During the violent shootout, Erica runs over Sahara and kills her. Rocco mourns his sister's death. Worrying about Agatha's survival under Rocco's hands, Adele finds the money Agatha hid and arranges for an exchange. Adele brings a portion of the money and offers herself as hostage for Agatha's release. Agatha has to retrieve the rest of the money to save her mother. Meanwhile, as Samuel lays dying in the hospital, Erika accepts his proposal to marry him. He passes away shortly. Erika, Vida and Tessa mourn his untimely death. On the other hand, Agatha asks help from Dante (Thou Reyes) to sneak into their house to get the remaining money. The three sisters are finally reunited and on the same team. Agatha is touched by the concern and love everyone has towards her as they raised money to meet Rocco's ransom demand, and realizes how much they loved her despite her mistakes. This was the key that turned her around. Determined to return to Rocco to retrieve her mother who was left hostage in her place, the three sisters plan to work together. They all dress in Agatha's persona to intentionally confuse Rocco and his father and discover both were bent on taking the money and run alone. The two men shoot each other during the crossfire. Rocco survives, but his half brother Greg arrives in time to see Rocco mourning his father, and the two half brothers get into a fight, and Rocco kills him. After a metal beam collapses on him, Rocco is apprehended. In the finale, the triplets celebrate their birthday in Agatha and Rosemarie's prison cell, with Adele, Debbie, Norman, Tonyo, and Agatha's friends. Tonyo and Carrie also announce their engagement. Cast and characters In The Blood Sisters, the story revolves around nine characters who appear in almost every scene. They are the triplets Erika, Carrie and Agatha, separated as infants, who reunite under the most complicated circumstances, and are embroiled in strife and conflicts with one another. The 3 love interests are Samuel a successful doctor in love with Erika; Rainier, Greg's illegitimate son, and Agatha's lover; Tonyo, Erika's best friend in love with Carrie. Three characters create the hostility in the story arcs: Andrea, Rocco, and Fabian. Andrea is the triplets' cousin who wants to usurp all the Bermudezes wealth; Rocco is Fabian's abandoned son who seeks vengeance on his father; and Fabian merciless Syndicate leader who despises his son's deformed face. Six other characters incite the ensuing conflicts: Debbie is the triplets’ mother who loses them midway in the series when she learns she is not their biological mother. She blames her loss and unhappiness on Adele, directing her anger towards her throughout. Adele is the triplets’ biological mother whose poor life decisions is the root of the conflict in the story. Equally to blame is Norman, the triplets’ biological father. His deceit adversely impacts everyone's lives. Rosemarie is the Bermudez matriarch, driven by greed and power, destroying lives without any moral conscience. Sahara is Rocco's sister, loyal only to her brother, and despises Agatha. Greg is Rocco's half brother, the ruthless son of Patron. Together with his father, their goal is to eliminate Erika who they blame for their downfall. Central characters Erika Castillo (Aliases: Erika Bermudez Almeda / Almira / Erika Magtibay Almeda) Played by Erich Gonzales The eldest of the triplets. Unlike her twins, Erika lived a dangerous life since her juvenile years. Despite the environment she was in, she remains simple and kind. Dr. Carrie Ann Bermudez Almeda (Alias: Agnes / Carrie Ann Magtibay Almeda) Played by Erich Gonzales The second of the triplets. A sophisticated and loving sister to Erika and daughter to Adele, Norman, and Debbie. Her stepmother, Debbie loved her completely even after she learned that she was not her biological daughter. European-educated and the most successful among her sisters. Agatha Magtibay Almeda (Alias: Agatha Bermudez Almeda) Played by Erich Gonzales The youngest of the triplets. She is resentful, insatiable and a rebellious sister to Carrie and Erika. Agatha has a complicated relationship towards her mother, Adele. Dr. Samuel Hechanova Played by Enchong Dee A wealthy pediatrician, and Carrie's ex-fiancé, member of the prominent Hechanova family. His family is one of the biggest investors of the Bermudez Medical Center. His father Manuel Hechanova is a co-founder of the hospital. Although he was originally in love with Carrie, he develops feelings for Erika as the story progresses. He helps Erika find her son when Jolo was kidnapped, and later obtains information of Rosemarie's involvement in his father's death. He obtains evidence of Fabian admitting to getting his father killed. He later gets shot by Rocco. He dies in the hospital, but not before proposing to Erika. Rainier Lacuesta Played by AJ Muhlach Agatha's lover, he is the illegitimate son of the Syndicate's head of operations (Greg). Brenda despises Rainier and wants to take him out of the picture. Rainier is tasked to find Erika and the ledger. He is cunning, manipulative, and arrogant. He later develops feelings for Agatha. He is Rocco's nephew. Later, he, together with Greg's wife (Brenda) and daughters, dies in an ambush planned by Rocco and Sahara. Antonio "Tonyo" Alipio Played by Ejay Falcon Erika's childhood best friend in Manila. Tonyo takes care of Erika's son and Uncle Bruce after Erika flees the syndicate. He finds the Paraiso ledger and gives it to Erika for safekeeping. He later develops feelings for Carrie. In the end, he and Carrie are engaged. Andrea Bermudez Played by Maika Rivera The treacherous socialite cousin of the triplets, with ambitions to steal all Rosemarie's wealth. She is one of the characters in the show that creates the conflict. She hates Rosemarie for maltreating her and her parents and plots to kill Rosemarie and take over her operations. Just like her "cousin" Agatha, Andrea seeks power and wealth but the two characters are constantly in conflict. Adopted by Dr. Rosemarie Bermudez, she is frustrated by the presence of the triplets, who she considers detriment to her goals. She tries to kill her grandmother and blames the failed deed on Erika. Despite their shared goals, Andrea hates Agatha. Together with her mother, they plan to steal all their family's wealth from the Bermudezes. But she is too late, she admits to Debbie that she pushes Mamita, because she has a loss of help from Rosemarie. Later, she apologizes to Rosemarie, but forgiven. Rocco Fernandez Played by Jake Cuenca Rocco is Sahara's half brother and a criminal. He is the Patron's illegitimate who abandons him when he was still a child due to his severely disfigured face. He has never forgiven his father for abandoning him, and plots to destroy Fabian and his family. Growing into an adult, he undergoes facial reconstruction, resulting into a new face and identity altogether. He is responsible for the explosion that destroys the Paraiso. He will do everything to take Paraiso from Fabian as revenge. He befriends Erika to gain her trust, and information about the Patron, and secretly partners with Agatha as they plot to take over the baby farm. He successfully executes his first revenge on Fabian by ambushing and killing Greg's family, effectively cutting off the Patron's powerful right-hand man. He successfully bombs Paraiso and takes over the Solomon syndicate, leading the child trafficking and kidnapping ring. In the end, both Carrie and Erika spray fire on Rocco's face, making his face disfigured again, and he got injured by fallen steel bars. Now he will be jailed in prison forever, suffering the excruciating pain from the amputation of both of his legs after he got injured from fruitlessly dealing with the triplets. Recurring characters Dr. Deborah Marie "Debbie" Bermudez-Almeda – played by Dina Bonnevie, Rosemarie's only daughter, an obstetrician and fertility expert. She is Norman's wife, unaware of Adele and Norman's deception. Later, she discovers that she is not the triplets' biological mother and plans to seek vengeance against Adele but is torn with her genuine love for Carrie, the infant she raised as her own. Adele Magtibay/Manang Celia – the biological mother of the triplets, played by Cherry Pie Picache, Norman's former girlfriend who worked as maid in the Bermudez mansion. She had agreed to a surrogate agreement to carry Deborah's child in exchange for payment to cover her father's hospital bills. She later miscarriages. Norman seduces Adele and gets her pregnant again without Debbie's knowledge. Unwilling to give up the child she is carrying, Adele escapes the Bermudezes and delivers triplets. Adele's character contributes to the conflicts in the story. Her neglect towards Agatha during her formative years resulted to Agatha's sociopathic personality. Her desire to make amends for her mistakes does not sit well with her daughters. The dynamics of her relationship within the Almedas and the Bermudez family is always chaotic and adversarial. In the end, she forgives Agatha and celebrates her birthday in prison. Norman Almeda – played by Jestoni Alarcon, the triplets' biological father, Debbie's husband, and Adele's former boyfriend. He kidnaps the infant Carrie from Adele and his men are responsible for losing Erika. Desperate for a child, he seduced Adele after the latter miscarried his and Debbie's child conceived in vitro and carried by Adele as surrogate. Dr. Rosemarie "Mamita" Bermudez - played by the veteran actress Tessie Tomas, Deborah's cunning and selfish mother who despises Norman, the triplets, Fabian, Andrea, and Andrea's mother. She is a wealthy and skilled doctor who engages in illegal baby farms with Fabian. Later, she discovers Norman's secret and reveals to Debbie that the triplets are not her real daughters. Fabian "Patron" Solomon, played by the veteran actor Dante Rivero. He is the leader of the syndicate and owner of the illegal baby farm Paraiso. Fabian is cunning and evil, having disowned Rocco, his natural child. He intends to leave his organization to Greg and Rainier when he is gone. He thinks Erika has their ledger and wants to kill her, unaware that the waitress who killed their accountant and stole the ledger was Ana Cruz. He is killed by his son, Rocco. Sahara Fernandez – played by Nathalie Hart, she is Rocco's half Sister and one of Rocco's moles in Fabian's organization. She befriends Tonyo and Erika to get information about the Bermudezes and the Patron. She is part of Rocco's team who ambushed and killed Rainier and Greg's family. She hates Agatha because of her bad attitude. She told Fabian that Erika caused the delay of the delivery of their illegal business, he retaliates by kidnapping Jolo, Erika's son. Later, Sahara steals the 10 million money and switches it to counterfeit money to make Patron angry at Rosemarie. Later, she and Rocco bomb and destroy Paraiso. She kidnaps Jolo following Rocco's orders, who catches sight of Jolo before he detonated the bomb. They do not return Jolo to Erika, and gives the boy to Emman, Jolo's Father, instead. Erika runs Samuel's car over her while trying to escape with Samuel, killing her. Greg Solomon, one of the major opposing characters, played by Ian De Leon, he is Rainier's cunning, ruthless and abusive father, Patron's son and Rocco's paternal half brother. He is also the underboss of the illegal syndicate of Patron called Paraiso. He plans to seek vengeance because of his wife and family's death. In the end, he was stabbed to death by Rocco. Vida Hechanova, played by the veteran actress Pilar Pilapil, a doctor and a rival of Rosemarie, she is very wealthy and Samuel's grandmother. She is against Carrie and Samuel's relationship. She and Erika are friends. Vida is cold and easy to get angry. Pam – played by Pamu Pamorada, she is Agatha's trusted best friend. Bruce – played by Ogie Diaz, he is Erika's best friend and Tonyo's uncle. Dante – played by Thou Reyes, a friend to Agatha and Pam, he tolerates Agatha's schemes but sometimes stops it. He likes Agatha. Mimi – played by Alora Sasam, one of the Bermudez family servants who dislikes Agatha for her bad attitude. She is also a good friend to Erika. Brenda Solomon – played by Tanya Garcia, she is Greg's wife and the mother of two daughters with Greg. Brenda is remorseless and cruelly malicious towards Rainier. She perishes during Rocco's ambush. Ligaya Magtibay – played by Ruby Ruiz, she is Adele's mother and the triplets grandmother. She raised Agatha when Adele worked as an OFW in other country. Tessa Hechanova – played by Dindi Gallardo, Samuel's cold and arrogant mother, she doesn't approve of Carrie and Samuel's relationship. She will do everything to keep her son away from Carrie. Later, she confronts and antagonizes Rosemarie, after Samuel tells her that Rosemarie is also involved in Manuel's death. Juancho - played by Sandino Martin, he is one of the members of the syndicate. He was raised by Greg and Fabian, the mastermind of Ana Cruz death and tricked Patron. It is revealed that he is Rocco's ally. He is accidentally killed by Tonyo. Ondoy – played by Neil Coleta, Agatha and Pam's friend. Gabo – played by Raven Molina, Agatha and Pam's friend. Jolo Castillo / Jolo Almeda Suarez – played by Karlo Ezekiel Torres, Erika's son with Emman. Ginny - played by Francine Diaz, the eldest daughter of Greg Solomon who survived the ambush. At first, Ginny is cruel and evil to Erika but later redeems and becomes kind-hearted. Hanna - played by Cessa Moncera, second daughter of Greg and younger sister of Ginny, she is killed along with Rainer and his girlfriend due to the ambush set by Rocco. Condrad – played by Paolo Serrano Patron's bodyguard Marcus - played by Mark Marasigan, one of Rocco's men Police Insp. Marciano - played by Mike Loren, who works as Head Agent at National Bureau Investigation Minor characters Young Agatha/Erika/Carrie – played by Heart Ramos, the juvenile lead character who plays the young Erika, Carrie and the evil Agatha. Emman Suarez – played by Patrick Garcia, the egoistic father of Erika's son who abandons them. Later, he returns to get Jolo from Erika. Chito – played by Lander Vera Perez, the syndicate's bookkeeper, killed by Ana Cruz. Laura / Ana Cruz – played by Janice Hung, she murders the accountant to obtain the ledger and is killed by Juancho. She is also a skilled martial artist. Maria — the series minor character played by Mara Lopez, one of the surrogate mothers who tries to escape Paraiso and killed by Fabian. Daryl Ong – himself/singer, a minor character. Dr. Manuel Hechanova – played by Ricardo Cepeda, Samuel's father, killed by the syndicate Odet – played by John Lapus, Agatha's neighbor in Baguio. Lorraine – played by Ana Capri, Rocco and Sahara's mother. Young Rocco Fernandez – played by Marco Masa, the series' minor character he played the evil young Rocco. Young Sahara Fernandez – played by Angelika Rama, the series' minor character, the young Sahara. Reception Production Conceptualization The original concept of the show is about non-identical twins generally assumed to be played by Erich Gonzales and Louise delos Reyes. However, the production unit decided to go with entertainment head Deo Endrinal's idea of recreating the 1999 hit TV series, and rehashing the subplot of Saan Ka Man Naroroon where Claudine Barretto played triplets with distinct contrasting characteristics. As a result of the concept's drastic change, Erich Gonzales was retained to play the role of the triplets while Louise delos Reyes joined Asintado. The first teaser, launched in December 2017, caught the attention of the public due to the obvious similarity with Claudine's previous show, including casting Cherry Pie Picache, who in both series played the biological mother of the triplets. Jojo Saguin, the director of the series, clarified that while the inspiration of the show is similar, the series will have an additional twist: tackle the issue of surrogacy. See also List of ABS-CBN drama series List of programs aired by Jeepney TV References External links Philippine telenovelas ABS-CBN drama series Philippine action television series Philippine crime television series Television series by Dreamscape Entertainment Television ABS-CBN television drama filmed in high definition 2018 Philippine television series debuts 2018 Philippine television series endings Espionage television series Television series about revenge Filipino-language television shows Television shows filmed in the Philippines Works about organized crime in the Philippines

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COVID-19 vaccination in Canada is an ongoing, intergovernmental effort coordinated between the bodies responsible in the Government of Canada to acquire and distribute vaccines to individual provincial and territorial governments who in turn administer authorized COVID-19 vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. Provinces have worked with local municipal governments, hospital systems, family doctors and independently owned pharmacies to aid in part, or in full with vaccination rollout. The vaccination effort in full is the largest such immunization effort in the nation's history. The vaccination effort began December 14, 2020 and is currently ongoing. Health Canada is responsible for approval and regulation of vaccines (and other pharmaceuticals), while the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) is responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention. Vaccines are authorized by Health Canada, purchased by the Government of Canada and distributed by PHAC to individual provinces and territories in tranches based on various factors such as population size and prioritized peoples. The National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) has also issued recommendations on how vaccines should be distributed, in what intervals and to which populations. NACI has also been involved in recommendations on the use or disuse of vaccines to certain ages or populations. The National Research Council Canada (NRC) has made investments in the domestic development of vaccine candidates, including candidates by the University of Saskatchewan and Variation Biotechnologies. In May 2020, the NRC announced a planned agreement to conduct clinical trials of a vaccine candidate by Chinese company CanSino Biologics, and plans to manufacture it at its facilities in Montreal once authorized. However, the deal collapsed due to strained Canada–China relations, and the federal government later announced commitments to purchase vaccines being produced by AstraZeneca, Moderna, Pfizer and Janssen. In early 2021, both Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna did not ship the agreed upon quantities of secured vaccines to Canada and other countries, due to manufacturing challenges. This caused a vaccine shortage and significant slowdown in vaccine rollout. By mid-February 2021, significant increases in manufacturing and delivery of vaccines in conjunction with a recommendation by NACI to extend second dose administration to a maximum of 16 weeks resulted in a larger ramp-up in vaccine delivery across the nation and by July 2021, Canada's vaccine supply had grown to allow a return to shortened dose intervals. Following Health Canada's emergency authorization of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine on December 9, 2020, mass vaccination efforts began across the country on December 14, 2020. The agency later authorized the Moderna vaccine on December 23, 2020. On February 26, 2021, Health Canada authorized the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine for use. Following concerns of blood clotting events the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was largely discontinued for use, and those who had already received a first dose were encouraged to receive an mRNA vaccine as their second dose. The Janssen vaccine was authorized on March 5, 2021; however, Canada did not receive a delivery of the Janssen vaccine until April 28, 2021; which was then destroyed due to contamination issues at its factory of origin. Use of Janssen was put on hold until November 2021, when the government acquired doses for use with vaccine-hesitant populations. Canada became the first country to authorize a COVID-19 vaccine for people younger than 16 after approving Pfizer's vaccine for children aged 12 to 15 on May 5, 2021. In August 2021, the Moderna vaccine was authorized for use in children aged 12 and up. On September 16, 2021, Health Canada granted full approval to the Moderna and Pfizer vaccines and in November 2021, Health Canada approved the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines for use as booster (or third doses). On November 19, 2021, Health Canada approved the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine (with a lower dosage) for children aged five to eleven. On February 17, 2022, Health Canada approved the Novavax vaccine, which is the first approved COVID-19 protein subunit vaccine. Background and timeline Preparations In March 2020, the federal government announced a CA$275 million investment for "coronavirus research and medical countermeasures" and on April 23, 2020, over CA$1 billion in additional financial support was announced. This funding for "national medical research strategy to fight COVID-19" included "vaccine development, the production of treatments, and tracking of the virus." Nancy Harrison and Cédric Bisson are co-chairs of the Therapeutics Task Force (TTF), which is tasked with prioritizing "financial support for promising COVID-19 treatment projects." The secretariat of the Therapeutics Task Force is housed at the Department of Innovation, Science and Industry (ISED). Joanne Langley and J. Mark Lievonen are the co-chairs of the Vaccine Task Force (VTF) advising the federal government on "vaccine development, related bio-manufacturing and international partnerships". The secretariat of the VTF is supported by the National Research Council of Canada (NRC). The NRC was tasked with identifying potential vaccine candidates, and helping to expedite clinical trials and approval of them in Canada. Failed CanSino agreement The NRC signed agreements with several companies that had been developing vaccine candidates, including Variation Biotechnologies (which has a facility in Ottawa), and the University of Saskatchewan Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization–International Vaccine Centre (VIDO–InterVac). Canada did not have facilities capable of producing COVID-19 vaccines at the outbreak of the pandemic; the NRC earmarked $45 million to upgrade its laboratories in Montreal in anticipation of vaccine production. On May 6, 2020, the NRC reached an agreement with Chinese pharmaceutical company CanSino Biologics to conduct clinical trials for its COVID-19 vaccine candidate Ad5-nCoV at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia. The NRC cited its "strong collaborative history" with CanSino, and past work on adenovirus vaccines, as part of its decision. CanSino's candidate was the first to enter phase II trials, and was considered by the VTF to be one of the top candidates. The NRC would have received "a non-exclusive right to use, produce, and reproduce the vaccine for emergency pandemic use", free-of-charge. The agreement was announced by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on May 12 during a press briefing, and trials were expected to begin within the next two weeks. The trials were formally approved on May 15; the NRC stated that it hoped to produce between 70,000 and 100,000 doses of the CanSino vaccine per-month. The CanSino agreement was impacted by Canada's strained relations with China; the shipments of vaccine doses were blocked by Chinese customs, and the State Council of the People's Republic of China refused to authorize the shipment. In July 2020, after reports emerged over the delays, the NRC stated that CanSino "[remained] very committed to the Canadian clinical trials." Agreements with Moderna, Pfizer, and AstraZeneca With the CanSino deal falling through, and the VTF revising its recommendations based on clinical trial data from other countries, Minister of Public Services and Procurement Anita Anand announced on August 5, 2020, that the federal government had committed to purchasing doses of the Moderna and Pfizer–BioNTech vaccines. In anticipation of a COVID-19 vaccine, the Canadian government purchased more than 75 million hypodermic needles and syringes. After the NRC found that its current lab would not meet good manufacturing practices Prime Minister Trudeau announced on August 31 a federal investment of $126 million to "design, construct, commission and qualify a new biomanufacturing facility"—the Biologics Manufacturing Centre, which was projected to be completed by the end of July 2021. It would be built next to the NRC's current Royalmount site in Montreal and have a production capacity of approximately 2 million does per-month". In September 2020, the federal government committed to purchasing 20 million doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine. It also announced that it would make a $440 million investment in the COVAX initiative, to help fund the equitable procurement of COVID-19 vaccines worldwide. In November 2020, Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole criticized the federal government for focusing too heavily on the CanSino agreement, arguing that he "would not have put all our eggs in the basket of China." On November 20, 2020, Pfizer-BioNTech submitted it's vaccine for emergency authorization to Health Canada. Initial approvals and rollout On December 9, 2020, Health Canada authorized emergency use of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine under the Interim Order Respecting the Importation, Sale and Advertising of Drugs for Use in Relation to COVID-19. The Public Health Agency of Canada supervises the rollout and administration of the vaccine. By mid-December 2020, Pfizer had agreements to supply 20million doses to Canada. Healthcare institutions began administering the first 30,000 doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine in Canada on December 14. A total of 249,000 doses was expected to be delivered by the end of 2020. Because of the cold storage logistics, the initial doses were delivered to 14 distribution sites in the provinces, with none being sent to the Canadian territories since they could not properly store the vaccine. The 14 original distribution sites are located in St. John's, Halifax, Charlottetown, Miramichi, Quebec City, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Regina, Edmonton, Calgary, and two in the Greater Vancouver area. The Canadian government expects the vaccine to be administered to high-priority groups, designated by each province, until the end of March. Most provinces were first prioritizing some subset of healthcare workers, except for Quebec, which is prioritizing residents of long-term care homes, as well as British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, which are prioritizing both. Most provinces also have plans to expand priority status to additional groups—such as the elderly, or adults in Indigenous communities—before expanding to the general public. In the same week as initial vaccinations for the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, Health Canada authorized the Moderna vaccine on December 23, and it was announced that Canada would receive 168,000 doses of the Moderna vaccine before the end of 2020. Unlike the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine, the Moderna vaccine does not require extreme cold temperature storage which meant that as of December 28, Northwest Territories and Yukon had received their first shipments of 7,200 each of the Moderna vaccine. Vaccinations in each territory are not scheduled to occur until mid-January. On February 2, 2021, Trudeau announced a deal with Novavax to produce COVID-19 vaccines at the Biologics Manufacturing Centre, making it the first to be produced domestically. The Novavax COVID-19 vaccine is currently awaiting approval by Health Canada. This is the first deal signed by Canada that allows a domestic manufacturing of a foreign vaccine. The contract with Novavax is for 52 million doses of the vaccine. Following VTF and TTF recommendations, the federal government announced investment in two biomanufacturing companies—Vancouver-based Precision NanoSystems Incorporated (PNI) and Markham, Ontario-based Edesa Biotech Inc. (Edesa). PNI, biotechnology company, will receive up to $25.1 million to build a "$50.2 million biomanufacturing centre to produce vaccines and therapeutics for the prevention and treatment of diseases such as infectious diseases, rare diseases, cancer and other areas of unmet need". Edesa will receive up to $14 million to Edesa Biotech to "advance work on a monoclonal antibody therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome, which is the leading cause of COVID-19 deaths. By February 2021, the NRC and the ISED support for domestically-produced vaccines and therapeutics for COVID-19 included $37 million in stage 1 funding for six vaccine candidates, and seven therapeutics candidates. Manufacturing delays In mid to late January, details emerged about manufacturing delays by both authorized vaccines made by Pfizer and Moderna affecting the country's vaccine rollout in late January through the month of February. On February 3, the European Commission approved delivery of COVID-19 vaccines to Canada, in spite of production constraints in Europe. Canada was one of many countries that applied for delivery and does not have its own manufacturing capacity. By February 4, Major General Fortin said while that Pfizer explained its dramatically lower vaccine shipments—with a decrease of 80% in all Pfizer shipments—as caused by "plant upgrades at a facility in Belgium", Moderna has offered no explanation for similar delays. By early 2021, the speed of Canada's deployment of COVID-19 vaccines had become the topic of widespread public discussion, along with the related question of why the vaccines were not being produced in Canada. Fortin said that 180,000 Moderna doses had arrived in Canada on the morning of February 4 and Canada is "still expecting 2 million Moderna doses by the end of March. On February 4, Fortin said that about 70,000 Pfizer-BioNTech doses will arrive in the next week. On February 3, COVAX published the country-by-country vaccine distribution forecast to COVAX participants—Canada will receive 1,903,200 doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine by the end of the first half of 2021. On February 12, the minister of Public Services and Procurement Canada (PSPC) announced that Canada had "negotiated an accelerated delivery schedule for Pfizer-BioNTech’s COVID-19 vaccine." By the end of September, Canada will receive the 40 million Pfizer-BioNTech doses. Return to regular shipments Major General Fortin announced on February 18, that the period in which Canada experienced limited supplies, is now over and there will be an "abundance of supplies" in the spring and summer months. This will result in a "significant scaling-up of immunization plans in provinces." Pfizer's new "locked in" delivery schedule includes 475,000 doses in February and 444,600 per week in March, according to the PHAC's vaccine distribution tracker. A February 18, 2021 article in New York Times said that Canadians were concerned about the rollout of the vaccination program. According to the same Times columnist, who had interviewed those involved in "vaccine development, epidemiology, infection control and medical supply chains", they all said it was not surprising that Canada's rollout was not happening as planned. While they could understand why Canadians were frustrated, they said, this is the "nature of new vaccines". Approval of Oxford-AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson On February 26, Health Canada authorized the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine for use. The agency authorized the use of two versions of the same vaccine, one to originate from the United Kingdom, and the other produced in India by the Serum Institute of India (trade name "Covishield"). The first shipment of 500,000 doses of Oxford-AstraZeneca arrived on March 3, 2021. The doses were marked with an April 2, 2021 expiry date, necessitating speedy administration. The Janssen COVID-19 vaccine was authorized on March 5, 2021, to become the fourth vaccine to receive Health Canada approval. The vaccine was the first single-dose vaccine to be authorized in Canada. Delivery times for the vaccine remain unknown. After an agreement was reached with Pfizer to move up some deliveries, it was projected a total of 8 million vaccine doses (from three suppliers) will be available in Canada by the end of March 2021. To maximize distribution of first doses, NACI issued a recommendation that second doses be administered up to four months after the first dose. Minister Anand confirmed on March 26, 2021, that 1.5 million Oxford-AstraZeneca shots would arrive from the United States on March 30, 2021, and that 10 million shots of the Johnson & Johnson vaccine would arrive between April and September 2021. Vaccination ramp-up and increase in deliveries In mid-April 2021, the Government of Canada reached a deal with Pfizer to receive 8 million more vaccines on top of what was already ordered, with more than 2 million vaccines coming into the country per week beginning in the month of May. Moderna however continued to delay deliveries and slashed an order for the end of April from 1.2 million vaccines to 650,000. Due to public frustration with variable vaccine booking systems across the country, a small volunteer group known as Vaccine Hunters Canada created a website, Twitter and Facebook page to help "eligible Canadians find vaccines." The group posts relevant information on appointments available, eligibility requirements and other tips to the public that might otherwise not be common knowledge. On April 28, 2021, the City of Toronto officially partnered with the group to provide them end of day information in regards to vaccine availability and appointments that are currently unused, as well as information for pop-up vaccine clinics. The first shipment of the Johnson & Johnson vaccine arrived in Canada on April 28, 2021. The country received 304,800 doses of the single-shot vaccine in its first shipment. However, Health Canada held the shipment for a safety review, citing production issues at the facilities of Emergent BioSolutions. In May 2021, NACI stated a recommendation that mRNA-based vaccines were preferred over viral vector vaccines such as the AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson vaccines due to the rare risk of post-vaccination embolic and thrombotic events, with vice-chairman Shelly Deeks stating that "individuals need to have an informed choice to be vaccinated with the first vaccine that’s available, or to wait for an mRNA vaccine." NACI received criticism for the recommendation, with critics arguing that it contradicted the view that patients should receive the first vaccine they are offered, and that the statement was mixed messaging over the safety of the vaccines that could lead to increased hesitancy. On May 5, 2021, Canadian health officials authorized Pfizer's vaccine for adolescents 12 to 15 years old, becoming the first country in the world to do so. On May 11 and 12, multiple provinces, including Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan, announced that they would suspend their use of the AstraZeneca vaccine for first doses, citing supply shortages, with some provinces also citing the blood clot risk. Deliveries from manufacturers continued to accelerate in mid-May. In the week of May 16, Canada was expected to receive a record 4.5 million doses of the two mRNA vaccines from Pfizer and Moderna. In British Columbia, the Vancouver Coastal Health authority apologized on May 31 after accidentally administering the Moderna vaccine to 12 adolescents who were to receive the Pfizer vaccine per the approval. 50% vaccination milestone and second doses By May 22, 2021, at least half of the overall population had received at least one vaccine dose, with Canada having administered 20.328 million vaccine doses overall. The country has passed other large countries in coverage like the U.S. vaccination program. As new arrivals of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine came into the country in late May, provinces chose whether to administer second doses, for example as Ontario is going forward with, or providing people who took a first dose to choose a different second vaccine, as in British Columbia. The country's percentage of single doses had been disproportionately high in comparison to second doses, due to NACI's earlier recommendations for intervals of up to four months. This led to calls from medical experts for provinces to prioritize second doses, citing the possibility having only one dose would make populations vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 variants. By late-May, amid an increased supply, several provinces had begun to shorten their intervals for second doses. NACI followed suit on May 28, issuing new guidance that second doses should be administered "as soon as possible", especially to high-risk individuals. For the week following the Victoria Day weekend, Canada expected a smaller vaccine shipment than normal, as Pfizer–BioNTech sent more vaccine the previous week. The government had previously indicated that Canada would have 55 million doses delivered by the end of July 2021, but this mostly included Pfizer distributions. Moderna had now committed to delivering 11 million doses in July 2021, with 5 million of those doses potentially arriving in June. Combined with an expected 9 million Pfizer doses to be delivered, this would be enough to give Canada 68 million doses by the end of July. Vaccine mandates and full approval On August 13, 2021, Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs Dominic LeBlanc and Transport Minister Omar Alghabra announced that the federal government plans to mandate the vaccination of all federal public servants, employees in federally-regulated transport industries, and passengers of commercial air travel, interprovincial rail service, and large marine vessels with overnight accommodations (e.g. cruise ships). The government will also "expect" the vaccination of all employees in industries regulated by the Canada Labour Code. At the time of the announcement, the Government of Canada estimated that there are approximately 19,000 employers and 1,235,000 employees (8% of all workers in Canada) subject to the vaccine mandate. Soon after the announcement by the Government of Canada, some provinces began mandating vaccination for their public servants, starting with the Ontario government, who announced on August 17 that public health services and school boards will be required to have a "vaccination policy" in place that would require an employee to either be fully vaccinated or undergo regular testing. The same day, the Quebec government announced that healthcare workers in both the public and private sector must be fully vaccinated by October 1, 2021. New Brunswick was the next province to follow, mandating vaccination or regular testing for provincial public servants. On August 27, 2021, the Moderna vaccine was authorized for emergency use in children aged 12 and up. On September 16, 2021, with the expiration of the aforementioned Interim Order, Health Canada officially granted full approval to the Moderna and Pfizer vaccines for individuals aged 12 and older. Approval for younger children and boosters On October 18, 2021, Pfizer-BioNTech submitted the vaccine for approval to Health Canada for children aged five to eleven. The submission called for smaller doses of the same vaccine used for adults. A few days later, Canada ordered 2.9 million child-dose Pfizer vaccines. In late October, NACI recommended the use of booster shots (third doses) of vaccines for certain immunocompromised peoples, people over the age of 70, people who had received a full series of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine or Janssen vaccine and those in healthcare following 6 months of full vaccination. Many provinces then followed suit. On November 19, Health Canada approved the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for children aged five to eleven. Health Canada recommended children receive the smaller doses, with an interval of at least 8 weeks between vaccinations. Doses began to arrive several days later. Amid the discovery of the Omicron variant, NACI will review information on recommendations for booster shots for most adults. Prime Minister Trudeau said that if boosters were offered to all, Canada would have ample supply. Some provinces have begun offering boosters to those outside of NACI recommendations in advance. On January 28, 2022, truckers from across Canada drove to Ottawa to protest against mandatory vaccination for truckers crossing the border from the U.S. to Canada. Vaccination by province and territory Vaccine rollout In December 2020, NACI issued initial recommendations for a multi-stage rollout of vaccines that would prioritize specific populations, beginning with people 70 and older, healthcare workers, employees and residents of long-term care facilities, and Indigenous people. The rollout then progressed towards other vulnerable groups, including first responders, essential workers, and people with comorbidities, before opening up to the wider general public. Additionally, 198,370 Moderna, 5,850 Pfizer-BioNTech and 460 Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine doses have been kept for "Federal Application" for use with the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC), Canadian Armed Forces and the Correctional Service of Canada. Vaccine mandates, policies and measures On a federal scale, the Government of Canada mandated all federal workers be vaccinated by October 29, 2021, or face termination. Travellers over the age of 12 on all federally regulated modes of transportation (such as domestic and international flights departing from most airports in Canada, those riding on Via Rail and Rocky Mountaineer trains as well as cruise ships) were required to show proof of full vaccination against COVID-19 beginning October 30, 2021. Although up until November 30, 2021, the government offered a one-month grace period to offer those who were not yet fully vaccinated against COVID-19 to provide a recently negative test prior to boarding. Since the implementation of the vaccine mandate, wrongful dismissal lawsuits from fired unvaccinated workers have been piling up. Legal scholars also questioned the constitutionality of vaccine mandates, not only on the basis of individual exemptions, but also the extent of the impact that firing so many workers would have on the Canadian population at-large. Alternatively, Si Wen Shen from the Université de Montréal Faculty of Law proposed the idea of provincial governments invoking Section 33 (notwithstanding clause) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in order to circumvent any legal challenges on constitutional grounds. Many private companies nationwide like Air Canada and major accounting firms have mandated vaccination policies internally. Most education institutions like colleges and universities nationwide have announced mandates for employees and students and for-profit long-term care home companies such as Chartwell Retirement Residences, Revera and Sienna Senior Living have all announced mandates for vaccination for employees. The following is a table representing individual provincial measures, policies and mandates for vaccination requirements by province and territory: National vaccination progress and orders There are several COVID-19 vaccines at various stages of development around the world. the Canadian government had invested over $1 billion, including pre-placed orders for seven different vaccines, four of which are now authorized for use by Health Canada. These pre-orders total more than 400 million doses. Six of the seven vaccines require two doses each to be effective, with the exception of the Janssen Pharmaceutica (Johnson & Johnson) vaccine which only requires one dose. Pharmacological data and developments As the COVID-19 vaccines are relatively new, certain aspects of delivery and pharmacological care of the products have changed rapidly over the course of the vaccination program. Second dose administration Early in the vaccination effort, debate on when to administer the second dose of the approved vaccines appeared medically and politically. Each manufacturer had recommended respectively 21 days apart for Pfizer-BioNTech; 28 days apart for Moderna; and 4–12 weeks apart for Oxford-AstraZeneca. New data suggested the manufacturer's recommendation could be lengthened, in theory allowing for more people to be vaccinated as supply efforts ramped up. Stanley Plotkin and Neal Halsey wrote an article published by Oxford Clinical Infectious Diseases that urged single dose interim use in order to extend vaccination to as many people as possible until vaccine availability improved. Several other articles and media provided evidence for delaying 2nd doses in the same line of reasoning. The province of Quebec began to withhold second dose administration, and eventually adopted a 90-day strategy. The National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) had initially only recommended a maximum of 42 days in between doses. The province of British Columbia had also followed suit and began plans to extend second dose administration to a four-month delay. On March 4, 2021, the National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) recommended that a maximum of four months or 112 days could be achieved effectively between second doses. Other provinces began to adjust their administration programme based on the federal-level recommendation. Quebec no longer recommends a second dose for those previously infected with COVID-19, as the immunity is considered strong enough. People still wanting to receive a second dose will be allowed to get it. Beginning May 24, 2021, Saskatchewan became one of the first provinces to offer second dose administration on a shortened interval timeline, allowing people to book second dose appointments based on their age (beginning 80+) or first dose administration date. Meanwhile, Ontario allowed people who received their first dose of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine between March 10 and 19, 2021 to book second dose appointments of the same vaccine. Pfizer-BioNTech vial capacity In January 2021, the province of Saskatchewan discovered it could draw extra doses of the Pfizer vaccine out of vials labelled as having 5 doses. As Pfizer prepared for industrial retooling to match international demands for its vaccine, causing a supply slowdown in Canada in January and February 2021, the company announced that their vials indeed contained 6 doses of vaccine, rather than 5. Health Canada accepted the relabelling of the product, however the revelation required the acquisition of millions of low dead space syringes in order to extract the last dose from the vial. Pfizer-BioNTech storage requirements Initially the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine was required to be stored at ultra-cold temperatures (between -80 and -60 °C) in perpetuity, until application (in which time after dilution, the vaccine must be used within 6 hours). On February 25, Health Canada recommended that the vaccine could be stored at regular freezer temperatures (between -25 and -15 °C) for up to two weeks. Oxford-AstraZeneca age range On March 1, 2021, two days after the first delivery of the vaccine, the NACI announced that it would recommend that the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine not be given to patients older than 65 due to “the insufficiency of evidence of efficacy in this age group at this time.” This recommendation was based on clinical trial data that only went as far as December 7, 2020. Quebec did not follow this recommendation, but its own Immunization Committee recommended that the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines be given to higher-priority groups in the event of limited vaccine availability (with the AstraZeneca vaccine given to lower-priority groups). On March 16, NACI revised its recommendations based on newly obtained efficacy data from other countries. On March 29, 2021, NACI recommended that the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine not be given to patients younger than 55, citing reports of a rare, increased risk of blood clots with low levels of blood platelets (post-vaccination embolic and thrombotic events). Most provinces adhered to this recommendation. In April 2021, due to the third wave of infections, and increased hesitancy towards the vaccine due to these side effects, multiple provinces (including Alberta and Ontario) went against NACI guidance and began to distribute the vaccine to people as young as 40. On April 23, NACI changed its guidance to recommend the vaccine be offered to patients as young as 30 years old if benefits outweigh the risks, and the patient "does not wish to wait for an mRNA vaccine". Cessation of Oxford-AstraZeneca in certain provinces Due to increased reports of post-vaccination embolic and thrombotic events, on May 11, 2021, the provinces of Alberta and Ontario decided to cease offering first dose appointments of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine. On May 12, Nova Scotia and Manitoba also announced similar restrictions, with Quebec following the next day. Mixing of vaccines Health Canada and NACI began looking into the possibility of mixing different vaccines in about April 2021. As the future of AstraZeneca vaccines in Canada became increasingly uncertain, due to both shipment delays and the risk of rare blood clots, and preliminary data on the subject became increasingly available, provincial governments' interest in the proposal grew. In early May, Quebec became the first province to approve of the mixing of an adenovirus vaccine (AstraZeneca) with an mRNA vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech or Moderna), albeit only under certain circumstances: only people under 45 who have received a first dose of the AstraZeneca vaccine would be able to receive one of the mRNA vaccines as their second dose. A couple of weeks earlier, Quebec had exceptionally allowed for the mixing of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines to go ahead in long-term care homes, as the supply of Moderna doses was low. On May 20, it was announced that Canada would be performing its own country-wide study on the effectiveness of mixing vaccines. On June 1, NACI approved the mixing of the three approved vaccines in Canada (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and AstraZeneca-Oxford). Specifically, they recommended mixing a first dose of the AstraZeneca vaccine with a second dose of one of the mRNA vaccines and mixing a first dose of a Pfizer or Moderna vaccine with a second dose of either mRNA vaccine. Two weeks later, they changed their recommendations to suggest that a second dose of one of the mRNA vaccines after a first shot of AstraZeneca is "preferred", due to new evidence that seems to demonstrate an improved immune response on a mixed vaccine schedule. Rollout strategies In December 2020, the NACI issued initial recommendations for a multi-stage rollout of vaccines that would prioritize specific populations in sequence, beginning with residents 70 and older, health care workers, and the employees and residents of long-term care facilities (due to the pandemic's disproportionate impact on them); and progressing towards wider age ranges, first responders, essential workers, and residents with comorbidities, before progressing towards the wider general public. Key people Brigadier-General Krista Brodie, Vice President Logistics and Operations, PHAC (began role May 17, 2021) Patty Hajdu, Minister of Health Harjit S. Sajjan, Minister of National Defence Anita Anand, Minister of Public Services and Procurement Brigadier-General Simon Bernard, logistics Former Major-General Dany Fortin, Vice President Logistics and Operations, PHAC (left the role on May 14, 2021, due to an unspecified military investigation) See also COVID-19 vaccination in Quebec Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines Notes References External links COVID-19 pandemic in Canada Canada

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The Zanzibar Revolution ( Thawrat Zanjibār) occurred in 1964 and led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries. Zanzibar was an ethnically diverse state consisting of a number of islands off the east coast of Tanganyika which had been granted independence by Britain in 1963. In a series of parliamentary elections preceding independence, the Arab minority succeeded in retaining the hold on power it had inherited from Zanzibar's former existence as an overseas territory of Oman. Frustrated by under-representation in Parliament despite winning 54% of the vote in the July 1963 election, the mainly African Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) allied itself with the left-wing multiracial Umma Party, and early in the morning of 12 January 1964 ASP member John Okello mobilised around 600–800 revolutionaries on the main island of Unguja (Zanzibar Island). Having overrun the country's police force and appropriated their weaponry, the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Town where they overthrew the Sultan and his government. Reprisals against Arab and South Asian civilians on the island followed; the resulting death toll is disputed, with estimates ranging from several hundred to 20,000. The moderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the country's new president and head of state, and positions of power were granted to Umma party members. The new government's apparent communist ties concerned Western governments. As Zanzibar lay within the British sphere of influence, the British government drew up a number of intervention plans. However, the feared communist government never materialised, and because British and American citizens were successfully evacuated, these plans were not put into effect. Meanwhile, the Communist Bloc powers of East Germany and the Soviet Union, along with the anti-Soviet People's Republic of China, established friendly relations with the new government by recognising the country and sending advisors. Karume succeeded in negotiating a merger of Zanzibar with Tanganyika to form the new nation of Tanzania, an act judged by contemporary media to be an attempt to prevent communist subversion of Zanzibar. The revolution ended 200 years of Arab dominance in Zanzibar, and is commemorated on the island each year with anniversary celebrations and a public holiday. Background The Zanzibar Archipelago, now part of the Southeast African republic of Tanzania, is a group of islands lying in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika. It comprises the main southern island of Unguja (also known as Zanzibar), the smaller northern island of Pemba, and numerous surrounding islets. With a long history of Arab rule dating back to 1698, Zanzibar was an overseas territory of Oman until it achieved independence in 1858 under its own Sultanate. In 1890 during Ali ibn Sa'id's reign, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, and although never formally under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire. By 1964, the country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. Zanzibar had a population of around 230,000 Africans—some of whom claimed Persian ancestry and were known locally as Shirazis—and also contained significant minorities in the 50,000 Arabs and 20,000 South Asians, who were prominent in business and trade. The various ethnic groups were becoming mixed and the distinctions between them had blurred; according to one historian, an important reason for the general support for Sultan Jamshid was his family's ethnic diversity. However, the island's Arab inhabitants, as the major landowners, were generally wealthier than the Africans; the major political parties were organised largely along ethnic lines, with Arabs dominating the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) and Africans the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP). The ZNP looked towards Egypt as its model, which caused some tensions with the British colonial officials, but Zanzibar had been for centuries dominated by its Arab elite, and the Colonial Office could not imagine a Zanzibar ruled by black Africans. In January 1961, as part of the process of decolonisation, the island's British authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections. Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibar's Parliament, so further elections were held in June with the number of seats increased to 23. The ZNP entered into a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party (ZPPP) and this time took 13 seats, while the ASP, despite receiving the most votes, won just 10. Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP and civil disorder broke out, resulting in 68 deaths. To maintain control, the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties, filled the civil service with its own appointees, and politicised the police. In 1963, with the number of parliamentary seats increased to 31, another election saw a repeat of the 1961 votes. Due to the layout of the constituencies, which were gerrymandered by the ZNP, the ASP, led by Abeid Amani Karume, won 54 percent of the popular vote but only 13 seats, while the ZNP/ZPPP won the rest and set about strengthening its hold on power. The Umma Party, formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP, was banned, and all policemen of African mainland origin were dismissed. This removed a large portion of the only security force on the island, and created an angry group of paramilitary-trained men with knowledge of police buildings, equipment and procedures. Furthermore, the new Arab-dominated government made it clear that in foreign policy, the Sultanate of Zanzibar would be seeking close links with the Arab world, especially Egypt and had no interest in forging relationships with the nations on the African mainland as the black majority wished. Slavery had been abolished in Zanzibar in 1897, but much of the Arab elite who dominated the island's politics made little effort to hide their racist views of the black majority as their inferiors, a people fit only for slavery. In Parliament, the Minister of Finance Juma Aley responded to questions from Karume by insultingly saying he need not answer questions from a mere "boatman". Aley further explained in another speech in Parliament that if Arabs were over-represented in the Cabinet, it was not because of racism, but rather it was only because the mental abilities of blacks were so abysmally low and the mental abilities of Arabs like himself were so high, a remark that enraged the black majority. Memories of Arab slave-trading in the past (some of the older blacks had been slaves in their youth) together with a distinctly patronizing view of the Arab elite towards the black majority in the present meant that much of the black population of Zanzibar had a ferocious hatred of the Arabs, viewing the new Arab-dominated government as illegitimate. The government did not help broaden its appeal to the black majority by drastically cutting spending in schools in areas with high concentrations of blacks. The government's budget with its draconian spending cuts in schools in black areas was widely seen as a sign that the Arab-dominated government was planning to lock the blacks in a permanent second-class status. Complete independence from British rule was granted on 10 December 1963, with the ZNP/ZPPP coalition as the governing body. The government requested a defence agreement from the United Kingdom, asking for a battalion of British troops to be stationed on the island for internal security duties, but this was rejected as it was deemed inappropriate for British troops to be involved in the maintenance of law and order so soon after independence. Much of the cabinet which was seeking closer ties with Egypt (ruled by the radical, anti-Western nationalist Nasser) did not want British troops in Zanzibar anyway. British intelligence reports predicted that a civil disturbance, accompanied by increasing communist activity, was likely in the near future and that the arrival of British troops might cause the situation to deteriorate further. However, many foreign nationals remained on the island, including 130 Britons who were direct employees of the Zanzibar government. In 1959, a charismatic Ugandan named John Okello arrived in Pemba, working as a bricklayer and in February 1963 moved to Zanzibar. Working as an official in the Zanzibar and Pemba Paint Workers' Union and as an activist in the ASP, Okello had built himself a following and almost from the moment that he arrived on Zanzibar had been organizing a revolution that he planned to take place shortly after independence. Revolution Around 3:00 am on 12 January 1964, 600–800 poorly armed, mainly African insurgents, aided by some of the recently dismissed ex-policemen, attacked Unguja's police stations, both of its police armouries, and the radio station. The attackers had no guns, being equipped only with spears, knives, machetes, and tire irons, having only the advantage of numbers and surprise. The Arab police replacements had received almost no training and, despite responding with a mobile force, were soon overcome. Okello himself led the attack on the Ziwani police HQ, which also happened to be the largest armory on the island. Several of the rebels were shot down, but the police were overwhelmed by sheer numbers, with Okello impressing his men with his courage by personally attacking a police sentry and having wrestled his rifle from him, used it to bayonet the policeman to death. Arming themselves with hundreds of captured automatic rifles, submachine guns and Bren guns, the insurgents took control of strategic buildings in the capital, Zanzibar Town. At about 7:00 am, Okello made his first radio broadcast from a local radio station his followers had captured two hours earlier, calling upon the Africans to rise up and overthrow the "imperialists". At the time, Okello only referred to himself as "the field marshal", which prompted much speculation on Zanzibar about the identity of this mysterious figure leading the revolution, who spoke his Swahili with a thick Acholi accent that was unfamiliar on Zanzibar. Within six hours of the outbreak of hostilities, the town's telegraph office and main government buildings were under revolutionary control, and the island's only airstrip was captured at 2:18 pm. In the countryside, fighting had erupted between the Manga, as the rural Arabs were called, and the Africans. The Manga were armed mainly with hunting rifles, and once the arms seized from the police stations reached the rebels in the countryside, the Manga were doomed. In Stone Town, the fiercest resistance was at the Malindi police station, where under the command of Police Commissioner J.M. Sullivan (a British policeman who stayed on until a local replacement could be hired), all of the rebel attacks were repulsed, not least because the insurgents tended to retreat whenever they came under fire. Sullivan only surrendered the Melindi station late in the afternoon after running out of ammunition, and marched his entire force (not one policeman had been killed or wounded) down to the Stonetown wharf to board some boats that took them out to a ship, the Salama to take them away from Zanzibar. Throughout Stone Town, shops and homes owned by Arabs and South Asians had been looted while numerous Arab and South Asian women were gang-raped. The Sultan, together with Prime Minister Muhammad Shamte Hamadi and members of the cabinet, fled the island on the royal yacht Seyyid Khalifa, and the Sultan's palace and other property were seized by the revolutionary government. At least 80 people were killed and 200 injured, the majority of whom were Arabs, during the 12 hours of street fighting that followed. Sixty-one American citizens, including 16 men staffing a NASA satellite tracking station, sought sanctuary in the English Club in Zanzibar Town, and four US journalists were detained by the island's new government. Not knowing that Okello had given orders to kill no whites, the Americans living in Stone Town fled to the English Club, where the point for evacuation was. Those travelling in the car convoy to the English Club were shocked to see the battered bodies of Arab men lying out on the streets of Stone Town with their severed penises and testicles shoved into their mouths. As part of Okello's carefully laid out plans, all over the island, gangs of Africans armed with knives, spears and pangas (machetes) went about systematically killing all the Arabs and South Asians they could find. The American diplomat Don Petterson described his horror as he watched from his house as he saw a gang of African men storm the house of an Arab, behead him in public with a panga, followed by screams from within his house as his wife and three children were raped and killed, followed by the same scene being repeated at the next house of an Arab, followed by yet another and another. After taking control of Stone Town on the first day, the revolutionaries continued to fight the Manga for control of the countryside for at least two days afterwards with whole families of Arabs being massacred after their homes had been stormed. According to the official Zanzibari history, the revolution was planned and headed by the ASP leader Abeid Amani Karume. However, at the time Karume was on the African mainland as was the leader of the banned Umma Party, Abdulrahman Muhammad Babu. The ASP branch secretary for Pemba, Ugandan-born ex-policeman John Okello, had sent Karume to the mainland to ensure his safety. Okello had arrived in Zanzibar from Kenya in 1959, claiming to have been a field marshal for the Kenyan rebels during the Mau Mau uprising, although he actually had no military experience. He maintained that he heard a voice commanding him, as a Christian, to free the Zanzibari people from the Muslim Arabs, though Zanzibaris themselves were predominantly Muslim and it was Okello who led the revolutionaries—mainly unemployed members of the Afro-Shirazi Youth League—on 12 January. One commentator has further speculated that it was probably Okello, with the Youth League, who planned the revolution. There appears to have been three different plots to overthrow the government, led by Karume, Babu and Okello, but it was Okello's plan which was furthest advanced and it was he who struck the blow that brought down the Sultan's regime. Okello was not widely known in Zanzibar, and the government was more concerned with monitoring the ASP and Umma rather than a little-known and barely literate house painter and minor union official. Okello was a complete mystery to the world at the time of the revolution, and MI5 reported to Whitehall that he was an ex-policeman who fought with the Mau Mau in Kenya and had been trained in Cuba in the art of revolutionary violence. Okello himself at a press conference several days later angrily denied having ever been to Cuba or China, stating that he was a Christian whose motto was "Everything can be learned from the Bible". During the revolution, there was an orgy of violence committed against the South Asian and Arab communities with thousands of women being raped by Okello's followers, and much looting and massacres of Arabs all over the island. The American diplomat Don Petterson described the killings of Arabs by the African majority as an act of genocide. Petterson wrote "Genocide was not a term that was as much in vogue then, as it came to be later, but it is fair to say that in parts of Zanzibar, the killing of Arabs was genocide, pure and simple". Okello frequently went on the radio to urge his followers in thunderous Old Testament language to kill as many Arabs as possible, with the maximum of brutality. As a Pan-African nationalist who made his followers sing "God Bless Africa" whenever he marched through the streets, Okello appealed to the black majority, but at the same time, as a militant Christian who claimed to hear the voice of God in his head, Okello's appeal on an island whose population was 95% Muslim was limited. Aftermath A Revolutionary Council was established by the ASP and Umma parties to act as an interim government, with Karume heading the council as President and Babu serving as the Minister of External Affairs. The country was renamed the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba; the new government's first acts were to permanently banish the Sultan and to ban the ZNP and ZPPP. Seeking to distance himself from the volatile Okello, Karume quietly sidelined him from the political scene, although he was allowed to retain his self-bestowed title of field marshal. However, Okello's revolutionaries soon began reprisals against the Arab and Asian population of Unguja, carrying out beatings, rapes, murders, and attacks on property. He claimed in radio speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of his "enemies and stooges", but actual estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly, from "hundreds" to 20,000. Some Western newspapers give figures of 2,000–4,000; but the higher numbers may be inflated by Okello's own broadcasts and exaggerated reports in some Western and Arab news media. The killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves was documented by an Italian film crew, filming from a helicopter, for Africa Addio and this sequence of film comprises the only known visual document of the killings. Many Arabs fled to safety in Oman, although by Okello's order no Europeans were harmed. The post-revolution violence did not spread to Pemba. By 3 February Zanzibar was finally returning to normality, and Karume had been widely accepted by the people as their president. A police presence was back on the streets, looted shops were re-opening, and unlicensed arms were being surrendered by the civilian populace. The revolutionary government announced that its political prisoners, numbering 500, would be tried by special courts. Okello formed the Freedom Military Force (FMF), a paramilitary unit made up of his own supporters, which patrolled the streets and looted Arab property. The behaviour of Okello's supporters, his violent rhetoric, Ugandan accent, and Christian beliefs were alienating many in the largely moderate Zanzibari and Muslim ASP, and by March many members of his FMF had been disarmed by Karume's supporters and the Umma Party militia. On 11 March Okello was officially stripped of his rank of Field Marshal, and was denied entry when trying to return to Zanzibar from a trip to the mainland. He was deported to Tanganyika and then to Kenya, before returning destitute to his native Uganda. In April the government formed the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and completed the disarmament of Okello's remaining FMF militia. On 26 April Karume announced that a union had been negotiated with Tanganyika to form the new country of Tanzania. The merger was seen by contemporary media as a means of preventing communist subversion of Zanzibar; at least one historian states that it may have been an attempt by Karume, a moderate socialist, to limit the influence of the radically left-wing Umma Party. Babu had become close to Chinese diplomats who had arranged for several shipments of arms to be sent to Zanzibar to allow the Umma Party to have a paramilitary wing. Both Karume and President Nyerere of Tanganyika were concerned that Zanzibar was starting to become a hot-spot of Cold War tensions as American and British diplomats competed for influence with Soviet, Chinese and East German diplomats, and having a union with the non-aligned Tanganyika was considered the best way of removing Zanzibar from the world spotlight. However, many of the Umma Party's socialist policies on health, education and social welfare were adopted by the government. Foreign reaction British military forces in Kenya were made aware of the revolution at 4:45 am on 12 January, and following a request from the Sultan were put on 15 minutes' standby to conduct an assault on Zanzibar's airfield. However, the British High Commissioner in Zanzibar, Timothy Crosthwait, reported no instances of British nationals being attacked and advised against intervention. As a result, the British troops in Kenya were reduced to four hours' standby later that evening. Crosthwait decided not to approve an immediate evacuation of British citizens, as many held key government positions and their sudden removal would further disrupt the country's economy and government. Within hours of the revolution, the American ambassador had authorised the withdrawal of US citizens on the island, and a US Navy destroyer, the USS Manley, arrived on 13 January. The Manley docked at Zanzibar Town harbour, but the US had not sought the Revolutionary Council's permission for the evacuation, and the ship was met by a group of armed men. Permission was eventually granted on 15 January, but the British considered this confrontation to be the cause of much subsequent ill will against the Western powers in Zanzibar. Western intelligence agencies believed that the revolution had been organised by communists supplied with weapons by the Warsaw Pact countries. This suspicion was strengthened by the appointment of Babu as Minister for External Affairs and Abdullah Kassim Hanga as Prime Minister, both known leftists with possible communist ties. Britain believed that these two were close associates of Oscar Kambona, the Foreign Affairs Minister of Tanganyika, and that former members of the Tanganyika Rifles had been made available to assist with the revolution. Some members of the Umma Party wore Cuban military fatigues and beards in the style of Fidel Castro, which was taken as an indication of Cuban support for the revolution. However this practice was started by those members who had staffed a ZNP branch office in Cuba and it became a common means of dress amongst opposition party members in the months leading up to the revolution. The new Zanzibar government's recognition of the German Democratic Republic (the first African government to do so) and of North Korea was further evidence to the Western powers that Zanzibar was aligning itself closely with the communist bloc. Just six days after the revolution the New York Times stated that Zanzibar was "on the verge of becoming the Cuba of Africa", but on 26 January denied that there was active communist involvement. Zanzibar continued to receive support from communist countries and by February was known to be receiving advisers from the Soviet Union, the GDR and China. Cuba also lent its support with Che Guevara stating on 15 August that "Zanzibar is our friend and we gave them our small bit of assistance, our fraternal assistance, our revolutionary assistance at the moment when it was necessary" but denying there were Cuban troops present during the revolution. At the same time, western influence was diminishing and by July 1964 just one Briton, a dentist, remained in the employ of the Zanzibari government. It has been alleged that Israeli spymaster David Kimche was a backer of the revolution with Kimche in Zanzibar on the day of the Revolution. The deposed Sultan made an unsuccessful appeal to Kenya and Tanganyika for military assistance, although Tanganyika sent 100 paramilitary police officers to Zanzibar to contain rioting. Other than the Tanganyika Rifles (formerly the colonial King's African Rifles), the police were the only armed force in Tanganyika, and on 20 January the police absence led the entire Rifles regiment to mutiny. Dissatisfied with their low pay rates and with the slow progress of the replacement of their British officers with Africans, the soldiers' mutiny sparked similar uprisings in both Uganda and Kenya. However, order on the African mainland was rapidly restored without serious incident by the British Army and Royal Marines. The possible emergence of an African communist state remained a source of disquiet in the West. In February, the British Defence and Overseas Policy Committee said that, while British commercial interests in Zanzibar were "minute" and the revolution by itself was "not important", the possibility of intervention must be maintained. The committee was concerned that Zanzibar could become a centre for the promotion of communism in Africa, much like Cuba had in the Americas. Britain, most of the Commonwealth, and the USA withheld recognition of the new regime until 23 February, by which time it had already been recognised by much of the communist bloc. In Crosthwait's opinion, this contributed to Zanzibar aligning itself with the Soviet Union; Crosthwait and his staff were expelled from the country on 20 February and were only allowed to return once recognition had been agreed. British military response Following the evacuation of its citizens on 13 January, the US government stated that it recognised that Zanzibar lay within Britain's sphere of influence, and would not intervene. The US did, however, urge that Britain cooperate with other Southeast African countries to restore order. The first British military vessel on the scene was the survey ship HMS Owen, which was diverted from the Kenyan coast and arrived on the evening of 12 January. Owen was joined on 15 January by the frigate Rhyl and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship Hebe. While the lightly armed Owen had been able to provide the revolutionaries with an unobtrusive reminder of Britain's military power, the Hebe and Rhyl were different matters. Due to inaccurate reports that the situation in Zanzibar was deteriorating, the Rhyl was carrying a company of troops of the first battalion of the Staffordshire Regiment from Kenya, the embarkation of which was widely reported in the Kenyan media, and would hinder British negotiations with Zanzibar. The Hebe had just finished removing stores from the naval depot at Mombasa and was loaded with weapons and explosives. Although the Revolutionary Council was unaware of the nature of Hebe'''s cargo, the Royal Navy's refusal to allow a search of the ship created suspicion ashore and rumours circulated that she was an amphibious assault ship. A partial evacuation of British citizens was completed by 17 January, when the army riots in Southeast Africa prompted Rhyl's diversion to Tanganyika so the troops she was carrying could assist in quelling the mutiny. In replacement, a company of the Gordon Highlanders was loaded aboard Owen so an intervention could still be made if necessary. The aircraft carriers Centaur and Victorious were also transferred to the region as part of Operation Parthenon. Although never enacted, Parthenon was intended as a precaution should Okello or the Umma party radicals attempt to seize power from the more moderate ASP. In addition to the two carriers, the plan involved three destroyers, Owen, 13 helicopters, 21 transport and reconnaissance aircraft, the second battalion of the Scots Guards, 45 Commando of the Royal Marines and one company of the second battalion of the Parachute Regiment. The island of Unguja, and its airport, were to be seized by parachute and helicopter assault, followed up by the occupation of Pemba. Parthenon would have been the largest British airborne and amphibious operation since the Suez Crisis. Following the revelation that the revolutionaries may have received communist bloc training, Operation Parthenon was replaced by Operation Boris. This called for a parachute assault on Unguja from Kenya, but was later abandoned due to poor security in Kenya and the Kenyan government's opposition to the use of its airfields. Instead Operation Finery was drawn up, which would involve a helicopter assault by Royal Marines from HMS Bulwark, a commando carrier then stationed in the Middle East. As Bulwark was outside the region, Finery's launch would require 14 days' notice, so in the event that a more immediate response was necessary, suitable forces were placed on 24 hours' notice to launch a smaller scale operation to protect British citizens. With the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 23 April, there were concerns that the Umma Party would stage a coup; Operation Shed was designed to provide for intervention should this happen. Shed would have required a battalion of troops, with scout cars, to be airlifted to the island to seize the airfield and protect Karume's government. However, the danger of a revolt over unification soon passed, and on 29 April the troops earmarked for Shed were reduced to 24 hours' notice. Operation Finery was cancelled the same day. Concern over a possible coup remained though, and around 23 September Shed was replaced with Plan Giralda, involving the use of British troops from Aden and the Far East, to be enacted if the Umma Party attempted to overthrow President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. An infantry battalion, tactical headquarters unit and elements of the Royal Marines would have been shipped to Zanzibar to launch an amphibious assault, supported by follow-on troops from British bases in Kenya or Aden to maintain law and order. Giralda was scrapped in December, ending British plans for military intervention in the country. Legacy One of the main results of the revolution in Zanzibar was to break the power of the Arab/Asian ruling class, who had held it for around 200 years. Despite the merger with Tanganyika, Zanzibar retained a Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives which was, until 1992, run on a one-party system and has power over domestic matters. The domestic government is led by the President of Zanzibar, Karume being the first holder of this office. This government used the success of the revolution to implement reforms across the island. Many of these involved the removal of power from Arabs. The Zanzibar civil service, for example, became an almost entirely African organisation, and land was redistributed from Arabs to Africans. The revolutionary government also instituted social reforms such as free healthcare and opening up the education system to African students (who had occupied only 12% of secondary school places before the revolution). The government sought help from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and People's Republic of China for funding for several projects and military advice. The failure of several GDR-led projects including the New Zanzibar Project, a 1968 urban redevelopment scheme to provide new apartments for all Zanzibaris, led to Zanzibar focusing on Chinese aid. The post-revolution Zanzibar government was accused of draconian controls on personal freedoms and travel and exercised nepotism in appointments to political and industrial offices, the new Tanzanian government being powerless to intervene. Dissatisfaction with the government came to a head with the assassination of Karume on 7 April 1972, which was followed by weeks of fighting between pro- and anti-government forces. A multi-party system was eventually established in 1992, but Zanzibar remains dogged by allegations of corruption and vote-rigging, though the 2010 general election was seen to be a considerable improvement. The revolution itself remains an event of interest for Zanzibaris and academics. Historians have analysed the revolution as having a racial and a social basis, with some stating that the African revolutionaries represent the proletariat rebelling against the ruling and trading classes, represented by the Arabs and South Asians. Others discount this theory and present it as a racial revolution that was exacerbated by economic disparity between races. Within Zanzibar, the revolution is a key cultural event, marked by the release of 545 prisoners on its tenth anniversary and by a military parade on its 40th. Zanzibar Revolution Day has been designated as a public holiday by the government of Tanzania; it is celebrated on 12 January each year. The Mapinduzi Cup (Revolution Cup), an association football knockout competition is organized by the Zanzibar Football Association in early January between 6–13 January to mark the revolution day (12 January). References Citations Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading Fouéré, Marie-Aude and William C. Bissell (eds.) (2018). Social Memory, Silenced Voices, and Political Struggle: Remembering the Revolution in Zanzibar. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota. . . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar: Formation of Tanzania and Its Challenges, . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Why Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania, . Mwakikagile, Godfrey. The Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar: Product of the Cold War?'', . 1964 in Tanzania 1964 in Zanzibar 20th-century revolutions African and Black nationalism in Africa Anti-Arabism in Africa Anti-Indian racism in Africa Conflicts in 1964 Genocides in Africa History of Zanzibar January 1964 events in Africa Massacres of ethnic groups Rebellions in Africa Sultanate of Zanzibar Wars involving Zanzibar Massacres in the 1960s

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The 45th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army, part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard, from 1920 to 1968. Headquartered mostly in Oklahoma City, the guardsmen fought in both World War II and the Korean War. The 45th Infantry Division guardsmen saw no major action until they became one of the first National Guard units activated in World War II in 1941. They took part in intense fighting during the invasion of Sicily and the attack on Salerno in the 1943 Italian Campaign. Slowly advancing through Italy, they fought in Anzio and the Beachhead breakout to the capture of Rome. After landing in France during Operation Dragoon, they joined the 1945 drive into Germany that ended the War in Europe. Sunday April 29th 1945 the 3rd Bataillon of the 157th Infantry Regiment of the 45th Infantry Division liberated the Dachau concentration camp near Munich. After brief inactivation and subsequent reorganization as a unit restricted to Oklahomans, the division returned to duty in 1951 for the Korean War. It joined the United Nations troops on the front lines during the stalemate of the second half of the war, with constant, low-level fighting and trench warfare against the People's Volunteer Army of China that produced little gain for either side. The division remained on the front lines in such engagements as Old Baldy Hill and Hill Eerie until the end of the war, returning to the U.S. in 1954. The division remained a National Guard formation until its downsizing in 1968. Several units were activated to replace the division and carry on its lineage. Over the course of its history, the 45th Infantry Division sustained over 25,000 battle casualties, and its men were awarded ten Medals of Honor, twelve campaign streamers, the Croix de Guerre and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation. History With the outbreak of World War I, troops of the National Guard were formed into the units which exist today, with the Colorado Guard forming the 157th Infantry Regiment, the Arizona Guard forming the 158th Infantry Regiment, and the New Mexico Guard forming the 120th Engineer Regiment. These units were attached to the 40th Infantry Division and deployed to France where they were used as "depot" forces to provide replacements for front-line units. They returned home at the end of the war. The Oklahoma Guard units that would later become the 179th Infantry Regiment and 180th Infantry Regiment were assigned to the 36th Infantry Division and would earn a combat participation credit during the Meuse-Argonne Campaign in France as the 142nd Infantry. Inter-war years On 19 October 1920, units of the Oklahoma National Guard were organized as part the 45th Infantry Division, also manned with troops from Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. The division was formed and federally recognized as a National Guard unit on 3 August 1923 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It was assigned the 89th Infantry Brigade of the Colorado and Arizona National Guards, and the 90th Infantry Brigade of the Oklahoma National Guard. As a consequence of these militia roots, when the division was properly organized, many of its members were marksmen and outdoorsmen from the remote frontier regions of the Southwestern United States. The division's first commander was Major General Baird H. Markham. The 45th Infantry Division engaged in regular drills but no major events in its first few years, though the division's Colorado elements were called in to help quell a large coal mining strike. The onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s severely curtailed its funding for training and equipment. Major General Roy Hoffman took command in 1931, followed by Alexander M. Tuthill, Alexander E. McPherren in 1935, and William S. Key in 1936. In 1937, the division's troops were once again called up, this time to help manage a locust plague affecting Colorado. The division's original shoulder sleeve insignia, approved in August 1924, featured a Hooked Cross, a common Native American symbol, as a tribute to the Southwestern United States region which had a large population of Native Americans. However, with the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, with its infamous haken kreuz symbol, the 45th Division stopped using the insignia. After a long process of reviewing design submissions, a design by Woody Big Bow, a Kiowa artist from Carnegie, Oklahoma, was chosen for the new shoulder sleeve insignia. The new insignia featured the Thunderbird, another Native American symbol, and was approved in 1939. On 16 September 1940, the 45th Infantry Division, under Major General William S. Key, was federalized from state control. It was one of four National Guard divisions to be federalized, alongside the 30th, the 41st and 44th Infantry Divisions, originally for a one-year period. Its men immediately began basic combat training at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. In August 1941, the 45th Infantry Division took part in the Louisiana Maneuvers, the largest peacetime exercises in U.S. military history. The division was assigned to VIII Corps with the 2nd Infantry Division and the 36th Infantry Division, camped near Pitkin, Louisiana. Still operating with outmoded equipment from World War I, the division did not perform well during these exercises. With poor weather and bad equipment, the undertrained 45th Infantry Division was criticized by officers who considered it "feeble." In spite of these deficiencies, less than one month later, the men's tour of duty was extended for another eighteen months, much to their chagrin, because of concerns of an impending American entry into World War II. World War II Throughout 1942, it continued this training at Camp Barkeley, Texas, before moving to Fort Devens, Massachusetts, to undergo amphibious assault training in preparation for an invasion of Italy. It then moved to Pine Camp, New York briefly for winter warfare training, but was hampered by continuously poor weather. In January 1943 it moved to Fort Pickett, Virginia, for its final training. The division, now commanded by Major General Troy H. Middleton, a Regular Army soldier and highly distinguished World War I veteran, moved to the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation's Camp Patrick Henry to await combat loading on the transports. The division's two combat commands, the 89th and 90th Infantry Brigades, were not activated, as the army favored smaller and more versatile regimental commands for the new conflict. The 45th Infantry Division was instead based around the 157th, 179th, and 180th Infantry Regiments. Also assigned to the division were the 158th, 160th, 171st, and 189th Field Artillery Battalions, the 45th Signal Company, the 700th Ordnance Company, the 45th Quartermaster Company, the 45th Reconnaissance Troop, the 120th Engineer Combat Battalion, and the 120th Medical Battalion. Sicily The 45th Division sailed from the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation for the Mediterranean region on 8 June 1943, combat loaded aboard thirteen attack transports and five cargo attack vessels as convoy UGF-9 headed by the communications ship . By the time the 45th Division landed in North Africa on 22 June 1943, the Allies had largely secured the African theater. As a result, the division was not sent into combat upon arrival and instead commenced training at Arzew, French Morocco, in preparation for the invasion of Sicily. Allied intelligence estimated that the island was defended by approximately 230,000 troops, the majority of which were drawn mostly from weak Italian formations and two German divisions which had been reconstituted after being destroyed earlier. Against this, the Allies planned to land 180,000 troops, including the 45th Infantry Division, which was assigned to Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's II Corps, part of the U.S. Seventh Army under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, for the operation. The division was subsequently assigned a lead role in the amphibious assault on Sicily, coming ashore on 10 July. Landing near Scoglitti, the southernmost U.S. objective on the island, the division advanced north on the U.S. force's eastern flank. After initially encountering resistance from armor of the Hermann Goering Division, the division advanced, supported by paratroopers of the 505th Parachute Regimental Combat Team, part of the 82nd Airborne Division, who landed inland on 11 July. The paratroopers, conducting their first combat jump of the war after six weeks of training in Tunisia, then set up to protect the 45th's flank against German counterattack, but without weapons to counter heavy armor, the paratroopers had to rely on support from the 2nd Armored Division to repulse the German Tiger I tanks. As the division advanced towards its main objective to capture the airfields at Biscari, and Comiso, German forces were pushed back. For most of the first two weeks while the division moved slowly north, it encountered only light resistance from Italian forces fighting delaying actions. Italian and German forces resisted fiercely at Motta Hill on 26 July, however, and for four days the 45th Division was held up there. After this, the division was allocated to drive towards Messina, being ordered by the Seventh Army commander to cover the distance as quickly as possible. The 45th Division spent a few days in that city, but on 1 August, the division was withdrawn from the front line for rest and rear-guard patrol duty, after which the division was assigned to Major General Ernest J. Dawley's VI Corps, part of the U.S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, in preparation for the invasion of mainland Italy. Salerno On 3 September 1943, Italy surrendered to the Allied powers. Hoping to occupy as much of the country as humanly possible before the German Army could react, the U.S. Fifth Army prepared to attack Salerno. On 10 September, elements of the division conducted its second landing at Agropoli and Paestum with the 36th Infantry Division, on the southernmost beaches of the attack. Opposing them were elements of the German 29th Panzergrenadier Division and XVI Panzer Corps. Against stiff resistance, the 45th pushed to the Calore River after a week of heavy fighting. The Fifth Army was battered and pushed back by German forces until 20 September, when Allied forces were finally able to break out and establish a more secure beachhead. On 3 November it crossed the Volturno River and took Venafro. The division had great difficulty moving across the rivers and through the mountainous terrain, and the advance was slow. After linking up with the British Eighth Army, which had advanced from the south, the combined force, under the 15th Army Group, commanded by British General Sir Harold Alexander, was stalled when it reached the Gustav Line. Until 9 January 1944, the division, now under Major General William W. Eagles (replacing Major General Middleton who, struck down with arthritis, was sent to England to command VIII Corps in the Normandy invasion), inched forward into the mountains reaching St. Elia, north of Monte Cassino, before moving to a rest area. Anzio Allied forces conducted a frontal assault on the Gustav Line stronghold at Monte Cassino, and VI Corps, under Major General John P. Lucas from 20 September, was assigned to Operation Shingle, detached from the 15th Army Group to land behind enemy lines at Anzio on 22 January 1944. For this mission, CCA (Combat Command A) of the 1st Armored Division was attached to the 45th Infantry Division. Landing on schedule, VI Corps surprised the Germans, but Major General Lucas's decision to consolidate the beachhead instead of attacking gave the Germans time to bring the LXXVI Panzer Corps forward to oppose the landings. One regiment of the 45th (the 179th Infantry) went ashore with the landings. In company with the British 1st Infantry Division, they advanced north along the Anzio-Albano road and captured the Aprilia "factory", but encountered ingrained resistance from German armored units a few miles further on. Lucas then ordered the rest of the division ashore. The 45th Division was deployed on the southeastern side of the beachhead, along the lower Mussolini Canal. On 30 January 1944, when VI Corps advanced from the beaches, it encountered heavy resistance and took heavy casualties. VI Corps was stopped at the "Pimlott Line" (the perimeter of the beachhead), and the fight became a battle of attrition. The first major German counterattack came in early February, was against the British 1st Division. Two regiments of the 45th (the 179th and 157th Infantry) were sent to the Aprilia sector to reinforce the British. The 179th Infantry and a tank battalion of CCA tried to recapture Aprilia but were repulsed. Lucas then moved the rest of the 45th Division to the left-center of the perimeter, at Aprilia and along the west branch of the Mussolini Canal. For the next few months the 45th Infantry Division was mostly stuck in place, holding its ground during repeated German counterattacks, and subjected to bombardment from aircraft and artillery. On 16 February, a major German attack struck the 45th, and nearly broke through the 179th Infantry on 18 February. Lucas sent famed U.S. Army Ranger leader Colonel William Orlando Darby to assume command of the 157th Infantry, and the Germans were repulsed. The next three months were spent on the defensive, with the 45th engaged in trench warfare, alike to that in World War I. On 23 May, VI Corps, now commanded by Major General Lucian Truscott, went on the offensive, breaking out of the beachhead to the northeast, with the 45th Division forming the left half of the attack. By 31 May, the German defenses were shattered, and the 45th Division turned northwest, toward the Alban Hills and Rome. On 4 June the 45th Division crossed the Tiber River below Rome, and entered the city along with other VI Corps troops. Men of the 45th Division were the first Allied troops to reach the Vatican. On 16 June, the 45th Division withdrew for rest in preparation for other operations. At this time, VI Corps was attached to the Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General Alexander Patch, itself part of the 12th Army Group under Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers. The 45th, 36th, and 3rd Infantry Divisions were pulled from the line in Italy in preparation for Operation Dragoon (formerly Anvil), the invasion of southern France. Dragoon was originally planned to coincide with the Normandy landings in the north, but was delayed until August because of a shortage of landing craft. France and Germany The 45th Infantry Division participated in its fourth amphibious assault landing during Operation Dragoon on 15 August 1944, at St. Maxime, in Southern France. The 45th Infantry Division landed its 157th and 180th regimental combat teams and captured the heights of the Chaines de Mar before meeting with the 1st Special Service Force. The German Army, reeling from the Battle of Normandy, in which it had suffered a major defeat, pulled back after a short fight, part of an overall German withdrawal to the east following the landings. Soldiers of the 45th Infantry Division engaged the dispersed forces of German Army Group G, suffering very few casualties. The U.S. Seventh Army, along with Free French forces, were able to advance north quickly. By 12 September, the Seventh Army linked up with Lieutenant General George S. Patton's U.S. Third Army, advancing from Normandy, joining the two forces at Dijon. Against slight opposition, it spearheaded the drive for the Belfort Gap. The 45th Infantry Division took the strongly defended city of Epinal on 24 September. The division was then reassigned to V Corps, under the command of Major General Leonard T. Gerow, for its next advance. On 30 September the division crossed the Moselle River and entered the western foothills of the Vosges, taking Rambervillers. It would remain in the area for a month waiting for other units to catch up before crossing the Mortagne River on 23 October. The division remained on the line with the U.S. 6th Army Group the southernmost of three army groups advancing through France. After the crossing was complete, the division was relieved from V Corps and assigned to Major General Wade H. Haislip's XV Corps. The division was allowed a one-month rest, resuming its advance on 25 November, attacking the forts north of Mutzig. These forts had been designed by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1893 to block access to the plain of Alsace. The 45th Division next crossed the Zintzel River before pushing through the Maginot Line defenses. During this time much of the division's artillery assets were attached to the 44th Infantry Division to provide additional support. The 45th Infantry Division, now commanded by Major General Robert T. Frederick, who had previously commanded the 1st Special Service Force, was reassigned to VI Corps on New Year's Day. From 2 January 1945, the division fought defensively along the German border, withdrawing to the Moder River. It sent half of its artillery to support the 70th Infantry Division. On 17 February the division was pulled off the line for rest and training. Once this rest period was complete, the division was assigned to XV Corps for the final push into German territory. The 45th moved north to the Sarreguemines area and smashed through the Siegfried Line, on 17 March taking Homburg on the 21st and crossing the Rhine between Worms and Hamm on the 26th. The advance continued, with Aschaffenburg falling on 3 April, and Nuremberg on the 20th. The division crossed the Danube River on 27 April, and liberated 32,000 captives of the Dachau concentration camp on 29 April 1945. The division captured Munich during the next two days, occupying the city until V-E Day and the surrender of Germany. During the next month, the division remained in Munich and set up collection points and camps for the massive numbers of surrendering troops of the German armies. The number of POWs taken by the 45th Division during its almost two years of fighting totalled 124,840 men. The division was then slated to move to the Pacific theater of operations to participate in the invasion of mainland Japan on the island of Honshu, but these plans were scrubbed before the division could depart after the surrender of Japan, on V-J Day. Allegations of war crimes During and after the war, courts-martial were convened to investigate possible war crimes by members of the division. In the first two cases, dubbed the Biscari massacre, occurred on 14 July 1943, American troops from C Company, 180th Infantry Regiment, were alleged to have shot 74 Italian and two German prisoners in Acate following the capture of an airfield in the area. George Patton, the Seventh Army commanding general, asked Omar Bradley, II Corps commanding general, to get the cases dismissed to prevent bad press, but Bradley refused. A non-commissioned officer, Sergeant Horace T. West, 33 years old, later confessed to the crimes in the first incident and was found guilty. On the second incident, Captain John T. Compton ordered Italian soldiers to be lined up and shot; the officer claimed he had only been following orders and was acquitted. In a third incident, the Army considered court-martialling several officers of the 157th Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Felix L. Sparks after servicemen were accused of massacring German soldiers who were surrendering at the Dachau concentration camp in 1945. Some of the German troops were camp guards; the others were sick and wounded troops from a nearby hospital. The soldiers of the 45th Division who liberated the camp were outraged at the malnourishment and maltreatment of the 32,000 prisoners they liberated, some barely alive, and all victims of the Holocaust. After entering the camp, the soldiers found boxcars filled with dead bodies of prisoners who had succumbed to starvation or last-minute executions, and in rooms adjacent to gas chambers they found naked bodies piled from the floor to the ceiling. The cremation ovens, which were still in operation when the soldiers arrived, contained bodies and skeletons as well. Some of the victims apparently had died only hours before the 45th Division entered the camp, while many others lay where they had died in states of decomposition that overwhelmed the soldiers' senses. Accounts conflict over what happened and over how many German troops were killed. After investigating the incident, the Army considered court-martialling several officers involved, but Patton successfully intervened. The Seventh Army was being disbanded and Patton had been appointed Military Governor of Bavaria, placing the matter in his hands. Some veterans of the 45th Infantry Division have said that only 30 to 50 German soldiers were killed and that very few were killed trying to surrender, while others have admitted to killing or refusing to treat wounded German guards. Confessed murderer Frank Sheeran later recalled his war service as the time when he first developed a callousness to the taking of human life. Sheeran claimed to have participated in numerous massacres and summary executions of German POWs, acts which violated the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the 1929 Geneva Convention on POWs. In later interviews with Charles Brandt, he divided such massacres into four categories: Revenge killings in the heat of battle. Sheeran told Brandt that, when a German soldier had just killed his close friends and then tried to surrender, he would often "send him to hell, too". He described often witnessing similar behavior by fellow GIs. Orders from unit commanders during a mission. When describing his first murder for organized crime, Sheeran recalled: "It was just like when an officer would tell you to take a couple of German prisoners back behind the line and for you to 'hurry back'. You did what you had to do." The Dachau massacre and other reprisal killings of concentration camp guards and trustee inmates. Calculated attempts to dehumanize and degrade German POWs. While Sheeran's unit was climbing the Harz Mountains, they came upon a Wehrmacht mule train carrying food and drink up the mountainside. The female cooks were first allowed to leave unmolested, then Sheeran and his fellow GIs "ate what we wanted and soiled the rest with our waste". Then the Wehrmacht mule drivers were given shovels and ordered to "dig their own shallow graves". Sheeran later joked that they did so without complaint, likely hoping that he and his buddies would change their minds. But the mule drivers were shot and buried in the holes they had dug. Sheeran explained that by then, he "had no hesitation in doing what I had to do." After the war During World War II, the 45th Division fought in 511 days of combat. Nine soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during their service with the 45th Infantry Division: Van T. Barfoot, Ernest Childers, Almond E. Fisher, William J. Johnston, Salvador J. Lara, Jack C. Montgomery, James D. Slaton, Jack Treadwell, and Edward G. Wilkin. Soldiers of the division also received 61 Distinguished Service Crosses, three Distinguished Service Medals, 1,848 Silver Star Medals, 38 Legion of Merit medals, 59 Soldier's Medals, 5,744 Bronze Star Medals, and 52 Air Medals. The division received seven distinguished unit citations and eight campaign streamers during the conflict. Most of the division returned to New York in September 1945, and from there went to Camp Bowie, Texas. On 7 December 1945, the division was inactivated from the active duty force and its members reassigned to other Army units. The following year, on 10 September 1946, the 45th Infantry Division was reconstituted as a National Guard unit. Instead of comprising units from several states, the post-war 45th was an all-Oklahoma organization. During this time the division was also reorganized and as a part of this process the 157th Infantry was removed from the division's order of battle and replaced with the 279th Infantry Regiment. During this time, the U.S. Army underwent a drastic reduction in size. At the end of World War II, it contained 89 divisions, but by 1950, there were just 10 active divisions in the force, along with a few reserve divisions such as the 45th Infantry Division which were combat-ineffective. The division retained many of its best officers as senior commanders as the force downsized, and it enjoyed a good relationship with its community. The 45th in this time was regarded as one of the better-trained National Guard divisions. Regardless, by mid-1950 the division had only 8,413 troops, less than 45 percent of its full-strength authorization. Only 10 percent of the division's officers and five percent of its enlisted men had combat experience with the division from World War II. Korean War At the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, the U.S. Army looked to expand its force again to prepare for major conflict. After the North Korean People's Army invaded the Republic of Korea, four understrength U.S. divisions on occupation duty in Japan were rushed to South Korea to stand alongside the Republic of Korea Army. These were the 7th Infantry Division, the 1st Cavalry Division, the 24th Infantry Division, and the 25th Infantry Division, which were all under the control of the Eighth United States Army. Due to drastic reductions in U.S. military spending following the end of World War II, these divisions were equipped with worn-out or obsolete weaponry and suffered from a shortage of anti-armor weapons capable of penetrating the hulls of the North Korean T-34 tanks. Reinforcement pool Initially, the division was used to provide a pool of reinforcements for the divisions which had been sent to the Korean War theater, and in January 1951 it provided 650 enlisted fillers for overseas service. Later that month, it was given 4,006 new recruits for its three infantry regiments and artillery assets, and each unit created a 14-week training program to prepare these new soldiers for combat. Because of heavy casualties and slow reinforcement rates, the Army looked to the National Guard to provide additional units to relieve the beleaguered Eighth Army. At the time, the 45th Infantry Division was comprised overwhelmingly of high school students or recent graduates and only about 60 percent of its divisional troops had conducted training and drills with the division for a year or more. Additionally, only about 20 percent of its personnel had prior experience of military service from World War II. Nevertheless, the division was one of four National Guard divisions identified as being among the most prepared for combat based on the effectiveness of its equipment, training, and leadership. As a result, in February 1951, the 45th Infantry Division was alerted that it would sail for Japan. In preparation for the deployment, the division was sent to Fort Polk, Louisiana, to begin training and to fill its ranks. After its basic training was complete, the division was sent to Japan in April 1951 for advanced training and to act as a reserve force for the Eighth United States Army, then fighting in Korea. The involvement of the National Guard in the fighting in Korea was further expanded when the 40th Infantry Division of the California Army National Guard received warning orders for deployment as well. Initial struggles On 1 September 1950, the 45th Infantry Division was activated as the first National Guard division to be deployed to the Far East theater since World War II. Nevertheless, it was not deployed to Korea until December 1951, when its advanced training was complete. Following its arrival, the division moved to the front line to replace the 1st Cavalry Division, who were then delegated to the Far East reserve, having suffered over 16,000 casualties in less than 18 months of fighting. Though the 45th remained de facto segregated as an all-white unit in 1950, individual unit commanders went to great lengths to integrate reinforcements from different areas and ethnicity into their units. By 1952, it was fully integrated. Additionally, in an effort to reduce the burden on the National Guard, troops from the division were often replaced by enlisted and drafted soldiers from the active duty force. When it arrived in Korea, only half the division's manpower were National Guard troops, and over 4,500 guardsmen left between May and July 1952, continually replaced by more active duty troops, including an increasing number of African Americans. Though the division was no longer an "All-Oklahoma" unit, leaders opted to keep its designation as the 45th Infantry Division. By the time the division was in place, the battle lines on both sides had largely solidified, leaving the 45th Infantry Division in a stationary position as it conducted attacks and counterattacks for the same ground. The division was put under the command of Eighth Army's I Corps for most of the conflict. It was deployed around Chorwon and assigned to protect the key routes from that area into Seoul. The terrain was difficult and the weather was poor in the region. The division suffered its first casualty on 11 December 1951. Initially, the division did not fare well, though it improved quickly. Its anti-aircraft and armor assets were used as mobile artillery, which continuously pounded Chinese positions. The 45th, in turn, was under constant artillery and mortar attack. It also conducted constant small-unit patrols along the border seeking to engage Chinese outposts or patrols. These small-unit actions made up the majority of the division's combat in Korea. Chinese troops were well dug-in and better trained than the troops of the inexperienced 45th, and it suffered casualties and frequently had to disengage when it was attacked. In the division's first few months on the line, Chinese forces conducted three raids in its sector. In retaliation, the 245th Tank Battalion sent nine tanks to raid Agok. Two companies of Chinese forces ambushed and devastated a patrol from the 179th Infantry a short time later. In the spring, the division launched Operation Counter, which was an effort to establish 11 patrol bases around Old Baldy Hill. The division then defended the hill against a series of Chinese assaults from the Chinese 38th Army. Final engagements and the end of the war The 45th Infantry Division, along with the 7th Infantry Division, fought off repeated Chinese attacks all along the front line throughout 1952, and Chinese forces frequently attacked Old Baldy Hill into the fall of that year. Around that time, the 45th Infantry Division relinquished command of Old Baldy Hill to the 2nd Infantry Division. Almost immediately the Chinese launched a concentrated attack on the hill, overrunning the U.S. forces. Heavy rainstorms prevented the divisions from retaking the hill for around a month, and when it was finally retaken it was heavily fortified to prevent further attacks. The 245th Tank Battalion was sent to assault Chinese positions throughout late 1952, but most of the division held a stationary defensive line against the Chinese. In early 1953, North Korean forces launched a large-scale attack against Hill 812, which was then under the control of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 179th Infantry. The ensuing Battle of Hill Eerie was one of a series of larger attacks by Chinese and North Korean forces which produced heavier fighting than the previous year had seen. These offensives were conducted largely in order to secure a better position during the ongoing truce negotiations. Chinese forces continued to mount concentrated attacks on the lines of the UN forces, including the 45th Infantry Division, but the division managed to hold most of its ground, remaining stationary until the end of the war in the summer of 1953. During the Korean War the 45th Infantry Division suffered 4,004 casualties, consisting of 834 killed in action and 3,170 wounded in action. The division was awarded four campaign streamers and one Presidential Unit Citation. One soldier from the division, Charles George, was awarded the Medal of Honor while serving in Korea. After Korea The division briefly patrolled the Korean Demilitarized Zone following the signing of the armistice ending the war, but most of its men returned home and reverted to National Guard status on 30 April 1954. Its colors were returned to Oklahoma on 25 September of that year, formally ending the division's presence in Korea. The division remained as a unit of the Oklahoma National Guard, and participated in no major actions throughout the rest of the 1950s save regular weekend and summer training exercises. In 1963, the formation was reorganized in accordance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan, which saw the establishment of a 1st, 2nd and 3rd Brigade within the division. These brigades would see no major deployments or events, and were inactivated five years later in 1968. That same year, due to the perceived lack of need for so many large formations in the Army National Guard, the 45th Infantry Division was inactivated, as part of a larger move to reduce the number of Army National Guard divisions from 15 to eight, while increasing the number of separate brigades from seven to 18. In its place, the independent 45th Infantry Brigade (Separate) was established. The 45th Infantry Brigade received all of the 45th Division's lineage and heraldry, including its shoulder sleeve insignia. Also activated from division assets were the 45th Field Artillery Group, later redesignated the 45th Fires Brigade, and the 90th Troop Command. Honors The 45th Infantry Division was awarded eight campaign streamers and one foreign unit award in World War II and four campaign streamers and one foreign unit award in the Korean War, for a total of twelve campaign streamers and two foreign unit decorations in its operational history. Museum The 45th Infantry Division Museum is located in Oklahoma City, and includes a substantial collection of cartoons by World War II cartoonist Bill Mauldin, who served with it during the war. Commanding Generals Note: Similarity of dates for General Muldrow and commanders beginning with General Ruffner is because 45th Infantry Division, AUS, was retained in Korea while twin unit, 45th Infantry Division, NGUS, was activated in Oklahoma. References Notes Citations Sources External links 45th Infantry Division Museum 45th Infantry Division History and Reenactments The 45th: The Story of the 45th Infantry Division Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Forty-fifth Infantry Division (OKANG) 045th Infantry Division, U.S. Infantry Division, U.S. 045 Military units and formations established in 1924 USInfDiv0045 Infantry divisions of the United States Army in World War II Military units and formations disestablished in 1968 Divisions of the United States Army National Guard Military units and formations in Oklahoma 1968 disestablishments in Oklahoma

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The Jewel of Seven Stars is a horror novel by Irish writer Bram Stoker, first published by Heinemann in 1903. The story is a first-person narrative of a young man pulled into an archaeologist's plot to revive Queen Tera, an ancient Egyptian mummy. It explores common fin de siècle themes such as imperialism, the rise of the New Woman and feminism, and societal progress. Prepublication issues toward a US edition were deposited for copyright by Doubleday, Page & Company in December 1902 and January 1903 but the first US edition was published by Harper & Brothers in 1904. Plot summary Malcolm Ross, a young barrister, is awakened in the middle of the night and summoned to the house of famous Egyptologist Abel Trelawny at the request of Abel's daughter, Margaret, of whom Malcolm is enamoured. Once Malcolm arrives at the house, he meets Margaret, Superintendent Dolan, and Doctor Winchester, and learns why he has been called: Margaret, hearing strange noises from her father's bedroom, woke to find him unconscious and bloodied on the floor of his room, under some sort of trance. Margaret reveals that her father had left a letter of strange instructions in the event of his incapacitation, stating that his body should not be removed from his room and must be watched at all times until he wakes up. The room is filled with Egyptian relics, and Malcolm notices that the "mummy smell" has an effect on those in the room. A large mummy cat in the room disturbs Margaret's cat, Silvio, and the doctor suspects Silvio is guilty of the scratch marks on Trelawny's arm. On the first night of watch, Malcolm awakens to find Trelawny again on the floor, bloody and senseless. Margaret asks Dr. Winchester to summon another expert, and he calls for Dr. James Frere, a brain specialist. However, when Frere demands that Trelawny be moved from his room, Margaret refuses and sends him away. After a normal night with no attacks, a stranger arrives, begging to see Trelawny. He reveals himself to be Eugene Corbeck, an Egyptologist who was working with Trelawny. He has returned from Egypt with lamps that Trelawny requested, but finds upon his arrival at the house that the lamps have disappeared. The next day, Malcolm and Margaret admire Trelawny's Egyptian treasures, noting in particular a large sarcophagus, a coffer covered with hieroglyphics, and an oddly well-preserved mummy hand with seven fingers. Malcolm then finds the missing lamps in Margaret's bedroom. Concerned for Margaret, Malcolm tells Corbeck everything that has happened up until his arrival, and Corbeck gives Malcolm a mysterious book to read. The book tells the story of Nicholas van Huyn, a Dutch explorer who travelled to the Valley of the Sorcerer to explore the tomb of a mysterious Egyptian queen, Tera. In the tomb, he finds a sarcophagus and a mummy hand with seven fingers, adorned with a ruby ring with seven points that look like stars. Corbeck tells Malcolm that, years ago, he and Trelawny travelled to Egypt to search for the tomb where the sarcophagus lies. They find the tomb and discover that the mummy's wrist was coated with fresh dried blood. The hieroglyphics on the wall led Corbeck and Trelawny to believe that the mummy was possessed with some sort of black magic and that Queen Tera had immense power over the Upper and Lower Worlds. The hieroglyphics seemed to indicate that Tera planned to return from the dead. They took the sarcophagus from the tomb and left, only to be robbed of the mummy during a storm by their Arab guides. Trelawny suggested that they return to the tomb, where they found the mummy and the three Arabs, murdered. During their time in the tomb, they were put under some trance and recovered three days later to find that Trelawny's wife had died in childbirth, but Margaret survived. Sixteen years passed before Trelawny contacted Corbeck, frantic because he believed that the lamps they saw in the tomb, when arranged in a specific shape, would make the coffer open and would possibly be the key to Tera's resurrection. Corbeck's story is interrupted by Trelawny's revival. He embraces his daughter and joyfully approves Malcolm's courtship. Dolan and the police depart, glad to escape from the mystery, and Trelawny gathers the remaining inhabitants of the house to explain his Great Experiment. He describes how powerful Queen Tera was and explains that her spirit has been residing in the mummy cat in Trelawny's room, waiting to be reunited with its human form. Trelawny believes that the coffer, when opened by the proper formation of the lamps, will release some sort of magic that will revive the mummy and bring Tera's spirit to life. Trelawny's attack was the attempt of Tera's astral body—the mummy cat—to remove the Jewel of Seven Stars from a locked safe in his bedroom. He reveals that he has prepared an isolated house at Kyllion, in Cornwall, where the experiment is to take place. After this overwhelming wealth of information is revealed, Malcolm questions the implications of ancient forces interacting with new civilization. He worries about the impact on religion and monotheism if the power of the ancient Egyptian gods is proven. Trelawny also posits that the ancient Egyptians possessed contemporary scientific knowledge, such as the discovery of radium and invention of electricity. Once everyone arrives at the new house, Margaret's behavior becomes increasingly erratic, and she seems to have an uncanny knowledge of Tera's thoughts and feelings. Malcolm begins to suspect that Margaret is the astral body of Tera and fears that she will be too weak to fight off a possession, but when he relays these concerns to Trelawny and Margaret, they seem unafraid of this possibility. On the night of the experiment, a wild storm rages outside as they set up in a cave underneath the house. Margaret tells her father that Tera will not possess the mummy cat and will remain powerless until the experiment is complete, seeming to confirm that Margaret has been possessed. Somehow comforted by the confirmation of Tera's existence, they proceed with the experiment and unwrap the mummy. They discover that Tera is wearing a marriage robe, which greatly distresses Margaret. Malcolm is put in charge of turning on the electric lights after the experiment ends, and Margaret blows out the candles. As the lamps are lit, the coffer begins to glow, emitting a green vapour that passes into the sarcophagus. Suddenly, the wind from the storm shatters a window, blowing the vapour around the room, and black smoke pours out of the coffer. The room is engulfed in smoke, and Malcolm waits for the command to turn on the lights, but it never comes. The lamps slowly burn out and Malcolm fumbles in the dark, coming across the limp body of a woman whom he believes is Margaret. He carries her upstairs and leaves her in the hall while he runs for matches, but when he returns, he finds only Tera's bridal robe lying on the floor, the Jewel of Seven Stars lying where the heart would be. He returns to the cave and turns on the lights to find all of his companions on the floor, dead. In a revised version released in 1912, this ending was removed. In the second version, the experiment fails entirely, no one is harmed, and Margaret and Malcolm marry a few years later. Characters Malcolm Ross: The protagonist and narrator, Malcolm is drawn into the mystery of Queen Tera by his love for Margaret Trelawny, and his desire to protect her guides most of his actions. Margaret Trelawney: The daughter of Abel, born while Abel was entranced in Tera's tomb, Margaret begins as a demure and sweet woman but grows more independent throughout the text. She strongly resembles Queen Tera and eventually takes on similar characteristics, possibly being possessed by Tera's spirit. Abel Trelawny: A famous Egyptologist who becomes obsessed with the idea of resurrecting Tera. A hopeful, ambitious, and fearless man, he is extremely interested in scientific progress and believes that the ancient Egyptians were more progressive than the contemporary British. Eugene Corbeck: An Egyptologist who aids Trelawny in his endeavors to recover Egyptian artifacts. A little bit feisty, he seems more interested in the artifacts than the idea of resurrecting Tera. His enthusiasm wanes and his anxiety grows as the Great Experiment goes from theory to reality. Doctor Winchester: A young doctor who initially comes to treat Trelawny for his wounds but becomes entangled in the mystery. Though he is hesitant at first to give up on factual evidence, he shows a willingness to believe in the supernatural and eagerly assists in the revival. Historical background Egyptomania In 1882, the British occupied Egypt and began to exert a strong influence on the country. However, the Victorian-era fascination with Egypt had risen at the start of the nineteenth century, when European exploration of Egypt began. Archaeological discoveries of ancient Egyptian tombs and monuments such as Cleopatra's Needle and the Rosetta Stone sparked the interest of European scholars and travelers. The occupation of Egypt made it easier to bring these monuments back to Britain, and "there soon arose a demand for antiquities from Egypt to be shipped to private manors in Europe as well as to public museums. It became popular for mummies to take up residence in the libraries and studies of rich Europeans and for houses to be decorated with Egyptian motifs and artifacts". Egyptology and the fascination with ancient artifacts were echoed in nineteenth-century literature. Between 1860 and 1914, hundreds of stories about Egyptian mummies, curses, and exploration were published. Roger Luckhurst situates this within a cultural trend of what he calls Egyptian Gothic, "a set of beliefs or knowledges in a loosely occult framework" developed in response to British anxieties about the rule of Egypt. One common plot in these narratives was the "Mummy’s Curse", which "follows the basic plot structure of misappropriation of tomb artifacts with fatal consequences following the protagonist home and features the explicit warning 'beware of the Mummy’s Curse'”; often these artifacts were possessed by some supernatural element. Mummies were often the focal point of these stories, usually of noble rank, because most of the mummies being discovered in the nineteenth century were pharaohs. There was an emphasis on the idea of perfect preservation and beauty; mummies were unraveled at museum exhibitions in British museums, and audiences were amazed by their "almost perfect condition". Because of their preserved beauty, female mummies in Victorian fiction were often eroticized objects of desire. Queen Hatshepsut Though Queen Tera is an entirely fictional character, she bears many resemblances to Queen Hatshepsut, a pharaoh in Ancient Egypt. Hatshepsut ruled Egypt from 1479 BC to 1458 BC, one of the first and few female rulers. She married her half-brother, Tuthmose II, who ruled from 1492 BC until his death in 1479 BC. At this point, Hatshepsut became regent to Tuthmose's son, by a concubine, her half-nephew. Rather than being regent to the toddler king, however, Hatshepsut took the throne and declared herself ruler. However, because Egyptian kingship was intrinsically masculine, Hatshepsut publicly transformed her feminine self; all statues and "images of her after her coronation show her as a man—wide shoulders, trim hips, and no hint of breasts". About twenty years after her death in 1458 BC, her name and image was removed from temple walls, and many of her statues were destroyed. Dorman argues that this was not personal animosity, but rather an attempt to eradicate any hints of an unconventional, female ruler, "best erased to prevent the possibility of another powerful female ever inserting herself into the long line of Egyptian male kings". The tomb of Queen Hatshepsut was discovered by Howard Carter early in 1903, the same year as the publication of The Jewel of Seven Stars, in the Valley of the Kings—similar to the Valley of the Sorcerer, where Tera is found in the novel. The similarities between the two, Hebblethwaite states, are "almost too overt to be mere coincidence"; both are extremely powerful female rulers who take on the role of men. Just as Hatshepsut commanded and transfigured her masculine image, it is found in Tera's tomb that "[p]rominence was given to the fact that she, though a Queen, claimed all the privileges of kingship and masculinity. In one place she was pictured in man’s dress, and wearing the White and Red Crowns. In the following picture she was in female dress, but still wearing the Crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, while the discarded male raiment lay at her feet". Both Tera and Hatshepsut also seemed to possess some awareness that their legacy would be destroyed. In the novel, Tera leaves an inscription stating her plans for resurrection, as well as that "the hatred of the priests was, she knew, stored up for her, and that they would after her death try to suppress her name". A similar inscription was found on an obelisk at Hatshepsut's memorial: "Now my heart turns this way and that, as I think what the people will say—those who shall see my monuments in years to come, and who shall speak of what I have done". Literary background Bram Stoker Stoker's own knowledge of Egyptology can be seen in his painstaking attention to historical accuracy in The Jewel of Seven Stars. The Egyptian artifacts are described in laborious detail, contemporary Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie and Wallis Budge are referenced, and "the many mentions of ancient Egyptian gods, funerary practices and traditional customs that pepper the novel testify to the author’s profound knowledge of his subject". Stoker studied at Trinity College Dublin, which boasted a notable program in Orientalism, where many early Orientalists and Egyptologists studied. According to several biographies of Stoker, he was close with Sir William Wilde—the father of Oscar—who was an Egyptology enthusiast, and often shared the stories of his adventures with Stoker. On one voyage in 1837, Wilde discovered a mummy outside of a tomb near Saqqara and brought it back to Dublin; Belford argues that this would later inspire Stoker to write a mummy story. Stoker references his friendship with another Orientalist explorer, Sir Richard Francis Burton, in his Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving. Burton, an explorer of the Middle East and Africa, wrote and published many accounts of his travels, and Stoker admired his adventures and discoveries: "Burton had the most vivid way of putting things—especially of the East. He had both a fine imaginative power and a memory richly stored not only from study but from personal experience….Burton knew the East. Its brilliant dawns and sunsets…the mysteries of its veiled women; its romances; its beauty; its horrors". Inspired by the stories of Egypt he heard, Stoker dedicated himself to the study of Egyptology; Stoker was known to own a number of texts on Egyptology, including William Wilde's Narratives of a Voyage to Madeira, Wallis Budge's Easy Lessons in Egyptian Hieroglyphics, Egyptian Religion: Egyptian Ideas on the Future Life, and Flinders Petrie's Egyptian Tales Translated from the Papyri. Genre Imperial Gothic The Jewel of Seven Stars, from its placement during the fin-de-siecle, is an example of Imperial Gothic. Influenced by anxiety over the decline of the British Empire, Imperial Gothic texts employ elements of Gothic literature, such as darkness, death, sexuality, and the occult, and combine them with concerns about imperialism, colonialism, and nineteenth-century politics. Brantlinger notes three key themes of Imperial Gothic: "individual regression or going native; an invasion of civilization by the forces of barbarism or demonism; and the diminution of opportunities for adventure and heroism in the modern world". Imperial Gothic is marked by a fear of the future, expressing these anxieties as supernatural events that are equally uncontrollable. The Jewel of Seven Stars represents a specific fear, which Brantlinger labels the "invasion scare story": in a reversal of the "outward thrust of imperialist adventure", a foreign body gains power and threatens the existing structure of civilization. In The Jewel of Seven Stars, Queen Tera's resurrection is the embodiment of this threat: "It was all so stupendous, so mysterious, so unnecessary! The issues were so vast; the danger so strange, so unknown. Even if it should be successful, what new difficulties would it not raise…there would be some strange and awful development—something unexpected and unpredictable—before the end should be allowed to come…!”. The confirmation of Tera's existence and her potential ability to return and invade Western civilization, shattering pre-existing beliefs about religion and science, reflects the anxieties brought on by the end of imperialism. This echoes the uncertainty of the future as the era of imperialism came to an end, and the idea of reverse colonialism became more prominent and terrifying. Gothic horror The Jewel of Seven Stars is part of a subgenre of Gothic fiction known as Gothic horror. First featured in Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto, Gothic horror combines elements of the Gothic and Romantic genres to create a pleasurably terrifying experience. Frankenstein, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and Stoker's Dracula are all considered landmarks of Gothic horror fiction. Though it increased in popularity in the nineteenth century, elements of Gothic horror have appeared in more contemporary works, influencing authors from Edgar Allan Poe to Stephen King. The genre is marked by supernatural occurrences, gloomy settings, violent emotions, terror, and threatening villains, all of which appear in The Jewel of Seven Stars. The villains are themselves supernatural in some way; the abundance of mummy fiction in late Victorian literature is closely linked to this genre. Style Stoker's writing style is often overlooked, as he is seen as more of a genre writer due to his mastery of the horror novel than a literary author. Most of his writings are still unknown; in an interview with Stoker's grandnephew, this is attributed to the fact that "Stoker never had time to perfect his style in the numerous novels and stories he wrote…most of the rest of his product remains unreadable and inept. Some of it, in fact, is so bad that it has been mistaken for burlesque". However, scholars of Stoker's forgotten works contest this, arguing that Stoker was much more than a genre author writing for "chills and thrills". In a review of a collection of Stoker's lesser-known writing, critic Colin Fleming explains, "there’s no easy category to dump [Stoker] in, and the one he’s in—Scary Writer Guy—is limiting". Fleming classifies Stoker's style as Gothic as well as Modernist, pointing out Modernistic elements such as non-linear narrative and referring to his works as "collage art": a combination of voices from a variety of sources that make up a single text. This idea of collage is represented in the journalistic interludes and alternating voices in The Jewel of Seven Stars; at two points, the story breaks away from Malcolm's narration and takes on the voice of first Nicholas Van Huyn, through a retelling of his novel, and then Corbeck's extensive story about finding Tera's tomb. Stoker's style was arguably a product of his background in the theatre, working as business manager to theatre legend Henry Irving and running the Lyceum Theatre for twenty-seven years. Wynne posits that Stoker's melodramatic tendencies were directly influenced by his knowledge of Victorian theatre, "with all its theatrics and high emotions". The mysticism of the occult and the supernatural that Stoker expounds upon in The Jewel of Seven Stars, Wynne argues, was inspired by the stage "magic" and innovations in staging that allowed for illusions to be performed in the theatre: "Stoker in his fiction…[uses] illusion in the service of the supernatural". In addition to being influenced by his relationship with Irving and the theatre, Stoker's style was also influenced by his friendship with poet Walt Whitman. According to Perry, Stoker admired the poet and often emulated his style in personal letters to Whitman, an emulation that would later appear in Stoker's novels. Stoker's lengthy, eloquent descriptions possess a poetic quality, and Perry argues that his characters "[speak] with a sense of rhythm, parallelism, and balance that is characteristic of Whitman". Themes Old versus New A major concern in The Jewel of Seven Stars is the tension between the Old World and the New in terms of progress. The late nineteenth century was a time of invention and modernization, and the novel constantly questions the power of the past in comparison to these modern technological and scientific innovations. Senf argues that "Stoker was aware of the scientific and cultural developments that were taking place around the turn of the century, that he was fascinated with technological developments…Stoker sometimes saw the future as full of infinite possibilities for improvement, [and] sometimes as totally at the mercy of primitive forces". This is demonstrated in the appropriately titled chapter, "Powers—Old and New", in which Malcolm considers the consequences of Tera's resurrection on existing British beliefs. The direction of his thoughts in this chapter, which was notably deleted from the 1912 edition, seems to indicate that ancient Egyptian society was more progressive than nineteenth-century England, both spiritually and scientifically: "The whole possibility of the Great Experiment to which we were now pledged was based on the reality of the existence of the Old Forces which seemed to be coming in contact with the New Civilisation…If there were truth at all in the belief of Ancient Egypt then their Gods had real existence, real power, real force…If then the Old Gods held their forces, wherein was the supremacy of the new?” Malcolm realizes in this passage that the success of Tera's resurrection will shake the fundamental Christian belief of monotheism by proving that the religious principles of the Egyptians held merit and truth. Cowed by this perjurious thought, Malcolm reflexively cuts himself off, thinking, "I dared not follow it!”. However, the question of progression is immediately brought up again in Trelawny's equally unnerving theories on science. In particular, Trelawny posits that the Egyptians had discovered electricity and radioactivity long before nineteenth-century scientists. As Hebblethwaite explains, radioactivity had been recently discovered by Pierre and Marie Curie at the time of The Jewel of Seven Stars’ publication, and "electric light was just beginning to be widely used in domestic households…throughout Stoker’s novel, there runs an underlying sense of wonder at modern man’s ability to harness the power of electricity". In light of the fact that these scientific advancements were so recent, the idea that ancient Egyptians had been using this science centuries before is even more staggering. Especially given that The Jewel of Seven Stars was published right at the turn of the twentieth century, Stoker's implications of the power of the past call for a respect for "primitive" nineteenth-century discoveries. Hebblethwaite articulately states: "As a new century began, and Victorian became Edwardian, [the novel] counsels its readers not to utterly reject the past as archaic and non-essential—there were things of value to be learned and remembered". The New Woman At the time of The Jewel of Seven Stars writing, the empowerment and assertiveness of women was on the rise. The fin de siècle was marked by the emergence of the "New Woman", middle-class feminists who espoused the domestic sphere and sought social and sexual freedom, challenging the gender roles that dominated British society. Jusova explains that by "[contesting] and defamiliarizing the hegemonic Victorian definitions of gender and sexual identities, the New Woman further fueled the anxieties and fears that already circulated among the middle-class British population at the time". Stoker's other works, most notably Dracula, are heavily critical of the New Woman, rebuking the characters' progressive sexuality, as in the case of the female vampires in Dracula: "the female vampires in Dracula are [Stoker's] way of responding to the growing equality of men and women, in particular their sexual equality. Not only does he emphasize their voluptuousness and sexual aggression and contrast their behavior to that of his chaste and sexually timid heroine but he has his male characters destroy these threatening women and reestablish a more traditional order". As the New Woman became more prevalent in society, however, Stoker continued to feature independent female characters in his works, balancing an exploration of the possibility of feminine power with a patriarchal discourse: "[Stoker’s heroines] frequently display both a degree of personal assertion and a sexual precocity which at first sight distances them from the patriarchal ideal of female passivity and subservience…even though by the end of each work the suggestion is implicitly made that biological difference, the destiny invested in gender, is the most powerful force of all". This contradiction can be seen in The Jewel of Seven Stars through Margaret's transformation; though she gains strength throughout the novel, in the end she does not survive to see a society where New Women reign. Margaret begins as a timid, submissive daughter and non-threatening love interest, but she gradually takes on the qualities of Queen Tera, becoming strong and self-sufficient. As Margaret's feminine qualities strengthen, her male counterparts are increasingly threatened. Malcolm is continually disturbed and "quite unmanned" by Margaret's empowerment and, as Hebblethwaite points out, "finds her newfound womanly emotionalism—'gloom and anxiety, hope, high spirits, deep depression, and apathetic aloofness'—not conducive to his own peace of mind". The more Margaret embraces her freedom, the more distant she is to Malcolm, even occasionally showing outright disdain; this exemplifies what males fear will happen if women gain autonomy. When the men in the narrative attempt to regain masculine control, they are subverted by Margaret. As Deane argues, the wrapped and veiled Victorian mummy is extremely sexualized, "a woman…who, perfectly preserved in her youthful beauty, strongly attracts the libidinous attention of modern British men". In the final scene, the group of men publicly and voyeuristically unravel Tera's corpse, which, Hebblethwaite states, is a way to humiliate the female and revert her to submission. Tera's naked, youthful body is described in great detail as the men, even Malcolm, become "more and more excited". However, this attempt at reassertion is interrupted by Margaret, who demands Tera be covered and removes the body from the men's invasive gazes. Ultimately, the men are returned to the role of observer and must await Margaret's consent to continue, implying the uncontrollable nature of the New Woman. The ending of the novel presents an ambiguous answer to the issue of the New Woman, one that is noticeably altered in the 1912 edition. In the 1903 version, Margaret dies, putting an end to her independence. However, it is implied by the presence of Tera's burial robe in her place that Tera lives and escapes from her male captors, suggesting a more positive outcome for the New Woman. In stark contrast, the 1912 edition drastically revises the ending: Tera dies instead and Margaret and Malcolm are married. According to Andrew Smith, "The first ending suggests Stoker’s inability properly to control the rebellious aspects of the Female Gothic, whereas the second, as in Dracula, implies the possibility of exerting social control through marriage". Critical reception Much like Dracula, which received very little critical attention until the late 1960s, The Jewel of Seven Stars had a very underwhelming response from nineteenth-century critics. When the novel was released in 1903, critics and readers were generally left confused by the story; one review stated that readers would "curdle their blood" and "addle their brains" trying to understand "this most extraordinary story". A London newspaper, The Saturday Review, was even less positive: "This book is not one to be read in a cemetery at midnight…but it does not quite thrill the reader as does the best work in this genre…It is due to Mr. Stoker to say that his wild romance is not ridiculous even if it fails to impress". In Stoker's body of work, the endings are all relatively satisfying, clear-cut, and optimistic. The ambiguous, tragic ending of The Jewel of Seven Stars left readers baffled. In the 1960s and 1970s, when critical studies of Dracula increased, more of Stoker's lesser-known work came to light, including The Jewel of Seven Stars. The novel has been examined by critics, but is seen more as a collective part of Stoker's work than an exemplary novel that stands on its own, as Dracula does. 1912 edition When the novel was re-released in 1912, the speculative chapter 16, "Powers Old & New", had been removed. The ending was rewritten as an upbeat, straightforward conclusion wherein Tera is defeated, everyone lives, and Margaret and Malcolm get married. Though Harry Ludlam's biography of Stoker states that the publishers asked for a happier and less gruesome ending, Stoker never confirmed this reason. In addition, Ludlam's explanation does not account for the removal of Chapter 16. Stoker's own perspective on censorship in a 1908 essay indicates that he would not have consented to censorship by a publisher: "[T]he strongest controlling force of imagination is in the individual with whom it originates. No one has power to stop the workings of imagination…individual discretion is the first line of defence against such evils as may come from imagination". From this statement promoting self-censorship, William Hughes constructed an argument that Stoker himself chose to revise the ending and remove Chapter 16 because it incited religious doubt and speculation that would threaten dominant religious beliefs. Adaptations Television "The Curse of the Mummy" (1970), an episode of the British anthology series Mystery and Imagination Film Blood from the Mummy's Tomb (1971) The Awakening (1980) The Tomb (1986) Bram Stoker's Legend of the Mummy (1998) Video Legend of the Mummy (1997) Radio The Mummy (1999) Short stories Kim Newman's set of linked short stories, Seven Stars, incorporate the titular jewel into his Diogenes Club series. References External links (1912 revised ed.) Full text and PDF versions of the 1903 and 1912 eds. at Bram Stoker Online 1903 British novels 1903 fantasy novels British Gothic novels Irish Gothic novels British novels adapted into films Irish novels adapted into films 20th-century Irish novels Irish novels adapted into television shows Novels by Bram Stoker Mummies in fiction Novels adapted into radio programs

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is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa. It was originally serialized in Big Comic Spirits from 1999 to 2006, with the 249 chapters published into 22 tankōbon volumes by Shogakukan. In January 2007, a sixteen chapter continuation titled ran until July, and was gathered into two tankōbon. It tells the story of Kenji Endō and his friends, who notice a cult-leader known only as "Friend" is out to destroy the world, and it has something to do with their childhood memories. The series makes many references to a number of manga and anime from the 1960s–1970s, as well as to classic rock music, its title being taken from T. Rex's song "20th Century Boy". A trilogy of live-action film adaptations, directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi, were released in 2008 and 2009. The manga was licensed and released in English by Viz Media from 2009 to 2012, and distributed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment. The films were also licensed by Viz in North America and by 4Digital Media in the United Kingdom. 20th Century Boys has received critical acclaim and has 36 million copies in circulation. Plot summary In 1969, young boys Kenji, Otcho, Yoshitsune and Maruo build, in an empty field, a hideout they call their secret base, in which they and their friends can get together to share manga and stolen pornographic magazines and listen to a radio. To celebrate the event, Otcho draws a symbol for the base that would represent their friendship. After their friends Yukiji and Donkey join the gang, they imagine a future scenario where villains would try to destroy the world, and in which the boys would stand up and fight; this scenario is transcribed and labelled . In the late 1990s, Kenji is a convenience store owner, finding solace in his childhood adventures as he takes care of his baby niece Kanna and his mother. After Donkey is reported to have committed suicide, Kenji stumbles upon a large cult led by a man known only as "Friend". With current events beginning to resemble actions from the Book of Prophecy, Kenji and his former classmates try to remember who knows about the book. They find more events unfolding such as bombings and virus attacks in San Francisco, London, and a major Japanese airport. Kenji and his former classmates eventually uncover a plan to destroy the world on New Year's Eve of 2000, referred to in the latter part of the story as the Bloody New Year's Eve, with the use of a "giant robot", which is later revealed to be a giant balloon with robotic appendages, which spreads the virus throughout the city as well as other cities. Kenji manages to get inside the robot to plant a bomb, but is presumed dead when it explodes. From this event, the members of the gain widespread political popularity and power by presenting a vaccine that counters the virus, and thus take all the credit for saving the world. Fourteen years after Bloody New Year's Eve, Kanna is a teenage girl who works at a Chinese restaurant. After she tries to defuse some interaction between various mafia groups, she discovers that a patron's friend had witnessed a Chinese mafia member get killed by a corrupted policeman. The mafia member mentions an assassination attempt on the Pope as he visits Japan. She then finds herself being hunted by members of the Friends while trying to unite the mafia groups to her cause. Meanwhile, Otcho manages to escape a maximum security prison. Kyoko Koizumi, who attends Kanna's school, impulsively takes on a school assignment of covering Bloody New Year's Eve, but soon becomes entangled in activities involving both the Friends and the people who oppose them. After surviving a brainwashing program, she joins with Kenji's friend Yoshitsune and his resistance force. Friend reveals a new plan, a continuation of the Book of Prophecy, in which he plans to kill every human being on Earth except for sixty million of his followers, but he is then assassinated by his chief scientist Yamane. Following this, Friend's funeral becomes a worldwide spectacle, held in a stadium with the Pope giving the address. Partway through the service, Friend appears to rise from the dead, and is shot in the shoulder by his own assassin. By saving the Pope, Friend is elevated to deity like status. Meanwhile, there is a worldwide viral outbreak that threatens to kill everyone except those who have been vaccinated. The final portion of the story takes place in a newly remodeled Japan, under the "Era of Friend", who has instituted numerous bizarre changes, including the establishment of an Earth Defense Force, reputedly to protect Earth from an imminent alien invasion, exiling those without vaccinations, and forbidding travel across regions, under penalty of death. During this time frame, Kanna, who is revealed to be Friend's daughter, leads an insurgency against Friend's government, enlisting the aid of numerous groups, including the survivors of rival gangs and mafia organizations. During this, Kenji, apparently also risen from the dead and carrying his trademark guitar, reappears. The series spans several decades from 1969 to 2017, the last of which in the chronology of the series, becomes 3FE (3rd Year of the Friend Era). The series makes three distinct timeline cuts during the story; one from 1971 to 1997, one from 2000 to 2014, and one from 2014 to 3FE. Several parts of the series are also told in flashbacks to previous events as the characters attempt to unravel the mystery of who Friend is and how to stop his plans of world destruction; most of the character's childhood backstories through the 1970s and 1980s are told in this fashion. Characters The central protagonist of the first half of the story, which revolves around his childhood in the 1970s to the present day. He is generally laid-back, with an almost recklessly careless nonchalance, and appears to be heavily interested in rock'n roll. works at his family's store which used to be a liquor store but has since been converted to a subsidiary convenience store. He, his relatives, and friends play crucial roles as the plot unfolds. His whereabouts are unknown after the events of the Bloody New Year's Eve and was presumed dead, but later reappears under the alias of (a reference to the main character of Ashita no Joe), revealing that after barely escaping the robot's explosion, he suffered amnesia and wandered throughout Japan, only to regain his memory in 3FE. His song becomes a popular underground anthem against Friend's oppression. He is named after the Japanese musician of the same name. Kenji's childhood friend who created the secret base with him. Ever the nervous, unconfident, and self-deprecating little guy of the group, he was nonetheless one of the few who answered the call to fight back with him on the Bloody New Year's Eve. In the year 2014, he has become the dependable, albeit reluctant leader of one of two underground organizations bent on taking down Friend, and is known as the . He is nicknamed after the famous samurai Minamoto no Yoshitsune due to the fact that his family name is . In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . Kenji's portly childhood friend. He later becomes the manager of pop singer Haru Namio who has become one of Friend's favorite entertainers under the pseudonym . In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . A member of Kenji's childhood group of friends who is killed at the beginning of the series. His real name was , and as a child, he grew up in a poor family with many siblings. Initially, Kenji and the others made fun of Donkey, but later befriended him. Obsessed with science and always thinking in a logical manner, he later went on to become a science teacher at a technical high school. After discovering that his student, Masao Tamura, had joined the "Friend" cult, he began to investigate into them, but was pushed off the roof of his school during a confrontation with Masao and another member of the group. Donkey's death, which was originally ruled a suicide, was the event that reunited the members of Kenji's group and what kicks off the beginning of the story. Kenji's childhood friend, whose nickname comes from the Japanese word for the sound a frog makes due to his frog-like features. Terrified by the events his friends have become embroiled in, he refuses the call to action and chooses to escape as far as possible from Japan. He has been guiltily hiding out in America when he discovers that Kanna's mother has gone there to try to manufacture the vaccine for the outbreak of 2015. In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . A childhood friend of Kenji's whose real name is . He later moves to Germany and becomes a rugby player, but retires to take care of his ailing mother. After her passing, he starts his own business with a partner. He returned to Japan to attend Donkey's funeral, and later answers Kenji's call to arms on "Bloody New Year's Eve". Mon-chan manages to survive the event, but prior to this, he was diagnosed with a terminal illness. He is later seen hospitalized due to his disease, but talks with Yukiji, showing her the information he has collected while investigating the Friends. Mon-chan eventually leaves the hospital with no warning and disappears, which is later revealed to be an attempt to contact Sadakiyo in an attempt to investigate further, not knowing about Sadakiyo's involvement in the group. Sadakiyo ends up killing him on behalf of the Friends, collecting the information he has gathered. A childhood friend of Kenji's whose real name is . After elementary school, his family moved to Hokkaido and he lost touch with Kenji. Like Keroyon, he chose to ignore Kenji's call to action on "Bloody New Year's Eve" and regrets doing so. He was later thought to have died in the virus attacks of 2015, but survived and took the role of a disc jockey at a radio station, continuously playing Kenji's song over the airwaves. Kenji's female childhood friend and former classmate. During Kenji's school years, Yukiji was a high-toned tomboy who was able to fight off the bullying twins, Mabo and Yanbo. She also joins Kenji's gang when they were kids. Kenji and Yukiji had a mutual crush as children but neither had the courage to confess, with Kenji's only attempt being misunderstood due to its vagueness. In the late 1990s, Yukiji is a single unmarried woman who works as a customs official (often comically mistaken by Kenji's friends and local townsfolk for a narcotics officer) She bumps into Kenji and the gang at an airport in Tokyo when her disobedient drug sniffing dog named Blue Three (a Japanese pun on the name Bruce Lee), attacks Kenji. Yukiji later assists Kenji during Bloody New Year's Eve. Following Kenji's disappearance, Yukiji becomes Kanna's guardian. The main antagonist of the series. An enigmatic cult leader who, in 1997, began using the symbol Kenji and his friends put together in the 1970s. His followers have filled venues such as the Budokan. One of his goals is to take over the world. His face is hidden in shadow throughout the series; he even confronts Kenji by wearing a mask. His true identity is one of the driving mysteries of the series. As of 2000, the Friendship Democratic Party (FDP) is established as a political group with government representatives such as Manjome Inshu. Over the course of the series, two people assume the identity of Friend: Fukubei, who is one of Kenji's schoolmates, initially appears to be one of Kenji's allies, and Katsumata, another of Kenji's schoolmates, the latter of whom possesses special powers. A junk-peddling wannabe con artist who allies with Friend and becomes one of the Friendship Democratic Party leaders. Likes to claim improbable foreign titles and falsely allude to respected American institutions. He originally met the boys in 1970–1971 when he was trying to sell knick-knacks such as space food and spoons, claiming these to be cutting edge modern innovations from "NASA". Upon discovering that Friend had a spoon bending talent, he attempted to recruit him for a show he was doing. His real name is , but was legally changed to "Manjome Inshu". Kenji's childhood friend. Around 1988, he was sent to Thailand by his Japanese trading company, but went missing for a week; upon his return he quit the company and divorced, and a year later was in India. Originally suspected to be Friend (perhaps due to the fact that he was the one who thought of the symbol which Friend's cult uses), it has been revealed that he went to receive enlightenment and training from a monk after experiencing the pain of the loss of his son, and was simply living in Asia's seedy underground. In 2000, he is in Thailand doing jobs such as "saving" kidnapped tourists, going under the alias . In prime physical shape, he has escaped certain death many times, but a local drug boss allies with the Friends and hunts him. When he gets a plea from Kenji for help, he returns to Japan. After the time skip, he is housed in a maximum security prison but escapes. His real name is . Kenji's niece, introduced to the series in 1997 as a toddler under Kenji's care. After Kenji's apparent death and the time-skip, she is the series' new protagonist. Following the events of Bloody New Year's Eve, she returns to Japan as a high school student. She seems to possess supernatural abilities such as ESP and weak telekinesis. Her father is revealed to be Friend, who claims her abilities to be the result of a secret medicine given to her mother before childbirth, though as with everything else he says, this may be a lie, so the truth is unclear. Coupled with her charisma, Kanna makes an able leader, as she unites several of the major mafia organizations to save the Pope, and later assembles a faction against Friend where she goes under the moniker of . Kamisama ("God") is the nickname of a homeless old man (real name: , and thus actually forming "God" when addressed ironically, using extremely respectful tone but abbreviating his name) who is bent on the return of ten-pin bowling as a major sport in Japan. Kamisama has the power of foresight and can see what will happen before it comes to pass. Kamisama and his friend lure Kenji out to the riverbank where he warns Kenji about saving the future. Later in the series, Kamisama becomes extremely rich by using his foresight to play the stock market, and becomes the first Japanese civilian to travel into space. He is later revealed to be the businessman who evicted Kenji and the gang from their secret base in order to build a bowling alley. Kyoko is an airheaded stereotypical teenage girl that attends the same high school as Kanna. For a history assignment, she impulsively picks Bloody New Year's Eve, but when she starts doing some research, she meets Kamisama and learns the truth of what happened that night. She is suddenly recruited to participate in Tomodachi Land where she must abide by the Friend's cult activities or risk being sent to Tomodachi World. She struggles with her survival until she meets Yoshitsune, who helps her get through the exam in exchange for uncovering more information on the identity of Friend. In 3 FE, Kyoko discovers that she has a talent for bowling and is heavily recruited by Kamisama. Fukubei is a schoolmate of Kenji. He initially helps Kenji by sacrificing himself to unmask a guy who seems to be controlling the giant robot. Fukubei later reveals himself as the true identity of Friend, Kanna's biological father and an extremely unbalanced man who nurtured a pathological envy of Kenji since their childhoods as well as delusions of grandiosity. A megalomaniac primarily motivated by a desire to live out childish fantasies of being recognized as a hero and to take revenge on the world for not recognizing the exceptionality he perceived in himself, Fukubei is an extremely charismatic leader who explores people's need to believe in something greater than themselves in order to fake a series of supernatural powers (in reality, only stage magic tricks) and pose as a superhuman prophet. He seduced Kanna's mother in order to enlist her help in developing a vaccine for the Ebola-like pathogens. Fukubei is shot dead by Yamane in the middle of the series. Fukubei's nickname comes from an incorrect reading of the kanji in his real name, . Due to this, he is frequently seen wearing a mask of the titular character of the manga Ninja Hattori-kun, both as a child and when acting as "Friend". In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . Kenji's classmate who wasn't part of the original gang. His real name is As a child, he often wears a mask, but was bullied a lot in school and eventually left after a semester, thus his face remains unknown to most of the gang. However, Fukubei meets with him and Sadakiyo asks if he can be his friend. He later joins the Friends and is the caretaker of Friend's replica childhood home. He becomes the English teacher of Kyoko Koizumi and takes her to the Friend's home, where he begins to realize that maybe he wasn't doing the right thing after all, and ends up burning the home, and taking Kyoko to meet his old teacher at the senior center. He supposedly dies in a fiery car crash while Kyoko and the gang escape, but appears in 3FE with his mask on as he tries to hold off Friend. In the live-action film, he stays in the home as it burns. A bacteriologist that worked with Kiriko. He is responsible for developing the deadly viruses that are unleashed by Friend, while Kiriko had to develop the vaccine that would save those loyal to Friend's cause. In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . Takasu is a Dream Navigator woman in the Friend organization. She rises towards the top of the Friends, originally as Manjome's mistress, but later as General Secretary after killing Manjome. She bears a child of Friend, hoping she can take over the "Holy Mother" position from Kiriko. Chono is a detective and the grandson of the legendary detective Cho-san. He investigates the Friend's cult and over the course of the story, undergoes a character arc in which he stops comparing himself to his grandfather, as he goes from wanting his fellow policemen to call him "Cho-san" to rejecting the nickname altogether. A priest of the Kabuki-Cho Church in the Tokyo Shinjuku district. He was a former gangster before he was set straight by a man who would later become the Pope. Kenji's older sister and Kanna's mother. After her boyfriend was mysteriously murdered, is seduced by Fukubei into marrying him and joining Friend's research group. She becomes a bacteriologist where she tries to find vaccines for the viral outbreaks, although her colleague, Yamane, is ultimately responsible for creating. She later realizes that her research resulted in the Bloody New Year's Eve where she considers herself "Godzilla" for the deaths of 150,000 people. Abandoning Kanna in Kenji's care, she disappears on a quest to mitigate the damage of her earlier unwitting involvement. When Yamane unleashes more viruses, Kiriko tries to stop that. The man who usurps Fukubei's place as Friend is revealed in the last chapter of 21st Century Boys to be Katsumata, who wears a double of Sadakiyo's mask. Katsumata harbors a deep hatred of Kenji for stealing a prize from a candy shop in their childhood and letting Katsumata take the blame for it. This incident leaves Katsumata "dead": a social pariah, his very existence unacknowledged by his schoolmates. Unlike Fukubei, who only pretends to have paranormal powers, the second Friend is a powerful precognitive who could dream the future since his childhood. Also unlike Fukubei, who dreamed of conquering the world so his need for attention could be fed by the praise of others, Katsumata wishes to destroy the entire planet after deeming the world unnecessary. He conducted experiments on Kanna's mother during her pregnancy in order to create another paranormal. Following the death of Friend, he assumes Fukubei's identity with plastic surgery but wraps his entire head with a bandage showing the Friend symbol. He is eventually killed during the final confrontation with Kenji at his old school where Sadakiyo suddenly holds him at knife point and one of the flying saucers crash lands on him. In the live-action film series, his full name is given as . Production On the day he gave his editor the manuscript for the final chapter of Happy!, Naoki Urasawa was relaxing in the bath when he heard a speech on television by someone from the United Nations say "Without them, we would not have been able to reach the 21st Century..." and wondered "Who's 'them'? Who are those people?" Envisioning "them" appearing to a cheering crowd in his head, he came up with the title 20th Century Boys and then the T. Rex song "20th Century Boy" began to play in his head. Having been planning to take a break from weekly serialization after consecutively creating Yawara! and Happy! with that schedule, Urasawa said he was not looking forward to drawing, but "had" to fax the new idea to the editorial department at Big Comic Spirits since it had come to him. He also felt the need to get started on the series right away since it was around 1998 and the end of the century was approaching. Although he creates a "movie trailer" in his head when starting a new series, Urasawa does not plan the story out in advance. For example, a young woman appears in the first chapter pulling a curtain open to reveal a giant robot (as envisioned in the trailer). While writing that scene Urasawa could hear a baby crying in the convenience store next door and included that in the manga, thus it cuts to 1997 with Kenji and a crying baby Kanna in a convenience store. The author did not initially know that Kanna would grow into that young woman. When asked if scenes in 20th Century Boys reflect his own childhood experiences, Urasawa said about 1/10 did. He also explained that the spoon bending seen in the series was based on Uri Geller. A few weeks before the September 11 attacks, Urasawa turned in a manuscript for 20th Century Boys where two giant robots fight and destroy buildings in Shinjuku. But after the attacks, the artist could not bring himself to illustrate that scene and created a chapter almost entirely devoted to Kenji singing a song, in order to express how he felt. When Urasawa began 20th Century Boys in 1999, he was already writing Monster semimonthly and continued to serialize both at the same time. Although he was briefly hospitalized for exhaustion at this point, Monster ended in 2001 and Urasawa began writing another semimonthly series simultaneous to 20th Century Boys in 2003 with Pluto. Media Manga Written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa, 20th Century Boys was originally serialized in Big Comic Spirits from 1999 to 2006. The 249 individual chapters were published into 22 tankōbon volumes by Shogakukan from January 29, 2000, to November 30, 2006. Takashi Nagasaki is credited as "co-producer" of the manga's story. A sequel, titled 21st Century Boys, started in Big Comic Spiritss January 19, 2007, issue and ran until July. The 16 chapters were released into two volumes on May 30, 2007, and September 28, 2007. 20th Century Boys received an eleven-volume kanzenban re-release between January 29 and November 30, 2016. The single kanzenban reprint of 21st Century Boys, released on December 28, 2016, includes a new ending. A one-shot manga titled Aozora Chu-Ihō ("Blue Sky Advisory – Kiss") was published in the February 2009 issue of Big Comic Spirits, it was credited to "Ujiko-Ujio", the pen-name of the fictional manga creator duo Kaneko and Ujiki in 20th Century Boys. Both 20th Century Boys and 21st Century Boys were licensed for English-language release in North America by Viz Media in 2005, however their release was delayed until after their translation of Monster had finished. The first English-language volume of 20th Century Boys was released on February 17, 2009, and the last of 21st Century Boys on March 19, 2013. It had been reported that the reason for the delay was at the request of Urasawa, who felt there was a change in his art style over time. However, when asked about it being due to his request in 2012, Urasawa was surprised saying that he did not know about that and simply suggested Viz did not know which order to publish the two series. In 2017, Viz licensed the kanzenban editions of both 20th Century Boys and 21st Century Boys. The first volume of 20th Century Boys: The Perfect Edition was published on September 18, 2018, and the single volume 21st Century Boys: The Perfect Edition was published on June 15, 2021. Viz's initial release was distributed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment. The series has also been licensed in Germany by Planet Manga, France by Génération Comics, Hong Kong by Jade Dynasty, the Netherlands by Glénat, Indonesia by Level Comics, Italy by Planet Manga, South Korea by Haksan Publishing, Spain by Planeta DeAgostini, Taiwan by Tong Li Comics, Thailand by Nation Edutainment, Brazil by Planet Manga, and Argentina by Editorial Ivrea. Films The trilogy of 20th Century Boys live-action films, directed by Yukihiko Tsutsumi, were first announced in 2006. In February 2008, the main cast was announced, as well as the trilogy's budget of 6 billion yen (approx. $60 million US) and that Urasawa will contribute to the script. Filming of the first two movies was planned from January 3 to the end of June, and of the third from mid-August to the end of October. English rock band T. Rex's "20th Century Boy", the song from which the series gets its name, was used as the theme song to the films. The first movie's premiere was held in Paris on August 19, 2008, at the Publicis Champs-Elysées cinema with a press conference at the Louvre Museum, which was attended by Toshiaki Karasawa (Kenji) and Takako Tokiwa (Yukiji). The first film was released on August 30, 2008, the second on January 31, 2009, and the third was released on August 29, 2009. The first movie covers volumes 1 to 5 of the manga, and the second covers volumes 6 to 15, but differs from the original story on some key points; important characters missing in the first movie were introduced in the second. The final film in the trilogy covers the remainder of the volumes, but with several changes to the main story. Cast Toshiaki Karasawa as Kenji Endō Etsushi Toyokawa as Otcho Takako Tokiwa as Yukiji Airi Taira as Kanna Teruyuki Kagawa as Yoshitsune Takashi Ukaji as Mon-chan Hiroyuki Miyasako as Keroyon Kuranosuke Sasaki as Fukubei Renji Ishibashi as Inshū Manjōme Katsuo Nakamura as God Hitomi Kuroki as Kiriko Endō Naohito Fujiki as detective Chono Arata Furuta as Namio Haru Yoriko Douguchi Kenichi Endō as bleeding man Fumiya Fujii as Masato Ikegami Takashi Fujii Chizuru Ikewaki Nana Katase Ken Mitsuishi Mirai Moriyama as Kakuda (manga artist) Katsuhisa Namase as Saburo Kido (Donkey) Naoto Takenaka Oshikazu Fukawa Masato Irie Tamotsu Ishibashi Hidehiko Ishizuka as Michihiro Maruo Fumiyo Kohinata as Akio Yamane Raita Ryu as detective Chosuke "Chô" Igarashi Shirô Sano as Yanbo / Mabo (twins) Miyako Takeuchi Ryushin Tei Yu Tokui Hanako Yamada Komoto Masahiro as the first teacher of Kyoko Koizumi Home video The first film in the trilogy is available on DVD and Blu-ray in Japan from VAP, and in Hong Kong from Kam & Ronson. A UK DVD release was announced by label 4Digital Asia, and released on May 4, 2009. On the same day, Part 2 received its UK theatrical premiere at the 8th Sci-Fi-London annual fantastic film festival. Part 3 received its UK theatrical premiere on May 7, 2010, at the Prince Charles Cinema in London as part of the 2nd Terracotta Film Festival. Following this, 4Digital Asia released a 4-disc boxset containing the complete trilogy on May 31, 2010. Viz Media licensed the trilogy for North American release. The first film had its US theatrical premiere at the New People opening in San Francisco on August 15, 2009. The second film premiere followed at the same cinema on August 21, 2009, and the third film premiere followed on the same day as the Japanese premiere on August 28, 2009. Part 1 received its US DVD release on December 11, 2009. A launch event was held at the New People cinema in San Francisco with a theatrical screening. Part 2's DVD release had a similar launch event on February 9, 2010, with a one-night-only theatrical screening. Likewise, Part 3 had a launch event and theatrical screening at New People on May 20, 2010. The entire trilogy was broadcast by NHK on its TV Japan channel airing on consecutive Saturdays beginning November 13, 2010. Reception Manga 20th Century Boys has 36 million tankōbon copies in circulation, was the third top-selling manga series of 2008, and the ninth top-selling of 2009. The series has also won numerous awards, including the 2001 Kodansha Manga Award in the General category, an Excellence Prize at the 2002 Japan Media Arts Festival, the 2003 Shogakukan Manga Award in the General category, and the first ever Angoulême International Comics Festival Prize for a Series in 2004. It also won the Grand Prize at the 37th Japan Cartoonists Association Awards, and the Seiun Award in the Comic category at the 46th Japan Science Fiction Convention, both in 2008. The series won the 2011 Eisner Award for Best U.S. Edition of International Material in the Asia category for Viz Media's English releases, and won the same award again in 2013. Fans in the United Kingdom voted it Favourite New Manga at the 2012 Eagle Awards. 20th Century Boys was nominated twice, 2010 and 2013, for the Harvey Award in the Best American Edition of Foreign Material category, and three years in a row, 2010–2012, for the Eisner Award for Best Continuing Series. Manga critic Jason Thompson called 20th Century Boys "an epic saga of nostalgia, middle age, rock n' roll, and a struggle against an evil conspiracy." He compared the story to several novels by Stephen King, such as It, where "a group of childhood friends who reunite as adults to deal with leftover issues from their childhood manifested in monstrous form." Thompson wrote that despite being a seinen manga aimed at an older audience, the series gained fans of all ages for its great premise, storytelling and the mystery behind Friend. Carlo Santos of Anime News Network felt the pacing of the series should have been quicker, but praised the intricate and interconnecting plot and its twists, as well as the well-developed characters. He also noted Urasawa's art and dialogue, saying "it takes real skill to build a story as multi-layered as this one and still have it make sense as the characters explain things". Including it on a list of "10 Essential Manga That Should Belong in Every Comic Collection", Matthew Meylikhov of Paste praised the cast as one of "the most expansive and diverse" in any manga and how Urasawa makes each character independently recognizable as they age through the decades. "20th Century Boys becomes an experience featuring horror, science fiction, post-apocalyptic futures, wild humor, epic landscapes, and more as an apex accomplishment in manga." Films 20th Century Boys was adapted into three films. The first live-action film debuted at number two at the box office, grossing 625.61 million yen (approx. $5.78 million US), and rose to number one the second week. The second film debuted at number one, grossing approximately $6,955,472 US. The third film followed also debuting at number one, and earned approximately $22,893,123 US by its second week. Writing for Empire, Justin Bowyer gave the first film a three out of five rating. He praised the action and faithfulness to the original manga, but stated that those unfamiliar with the source material may find the large cast of characters and complex story confusing. Bowyer also suggested waiting for all three films to be released. A fan of the manga, Jamie S. Rich of DVD Talk felt too much had to be cut to fit three films, with the development of characters suffering as a result. He did comment on how close the actors looked to their comic book counterparts and ultimately recommended the film. In the complete opposite view, both The Guardians Cath Clarke and Time Out Londons Trevor Johnston gave the first film two out of five stars and both cited the faithfulness to the original media as a negative, feeling that some of the material could have been cut. Charles Webb of Twitch Film voiced similar criticism in a review of the second film. However, he praised the character Friend and Etsushi Toyokawa's performance as Occho, as well as the ending that makes the viewer anticipate the final installment in the trilogy. Jamie S. Rich also felt that the second movie "more than fulfills its prime directive of enticing me to stick around" for the final film. On the third film, Burl Burlingame of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin wrote "The steam seems to have run out of the franchise during this third part, and it's simply an OK capper to the series," but did praise the special effects. Varietys Russell Edwards also cited the special effects in the final installment as the best in the trilogy. References External links Films' official site 4Digital Media's films site 1999 manga 2007 manga Apocalyptic anime and manga Coming-of-age anime and manga Eisner Award winners Films with screenplays by Yasushi Fukuda Live-action films based on manga Manga adapted into films Mystery anime and manga Naoki Urasawa New People films Science fiction anime and manga Seinen manga Shogakukan franchises Shogakukan manga Thriller anime and manga Viz Media manga Winner of Kodansha Manga Award (General) Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for general manga Works by Yasushi Fukuda

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Winning Streak is an Irish television game show. The show was broadcast weekly in Ireland between 1990 and 2020 on RTÉ One, where five contestants would take part in a number of games to win cars, holidays, and cash prizes up to €500,000. As the COVID-19 pandemic hit Ireland, the show was taken off the air on 21 March 2020, with RTÉ issuing a statement the following year saying that Winning Streak would remain off-air for 'the foreseeable future'. In February 2022, reports emerged that the broadcaster were considering plans to reboot the show, however this was unconfirmed. Broadcast as RTÉ's flagship Saturday night show between early September and late May, the show brought consistently high ratings for the channel, often ranking among the top five in the ratings and at one point held the feat of being Europe's second longest-running game show [after the UK's Countdown]. However, there was a significant drop in viewership during the 2008/2009 series. The show first aired on 21 September 1990 with host Mike Murphy (1990–2001) and Derek Mooney (2001–2008). Prize money for the show is funded by the National Lottery, with entry to the game based on National Lottery scratchcards. Mooney stepped down as the show's host at the end of the 2007–08 season. The 2008–09 season was rebranded Winning Streak: Dream Ticket and was co-hosted by Kathryn Thomas and Aidan Power. They were the first duo to host the programme and Thomas was the show's first permanent female presenter. Aidan Power stood down, after the 2008/09 season ended on 6 June 2009, because of his commitments to the RTÉ's youth-orientated programme, The Cafe, as well as presenting on The All Ireland Talent Show in early 2010. Marty Whelan stepped into Aidan's shoes, co-hosting the 2009/10 series with Kathryn, which aired from 12 September 2009 (reverting to its original name Winning Streak) until 29 May 2010. Kathryn was later replaced with Geri Maye, who presented alongside Whelan until 2013, when Sinéad Kennedy assumed the role of co-host. Production of the show was based at the RTE Television Centre in Dublin. History 1990–2001 These were the Mike Murphy years. The structure of the show was very similar over the series throughout this time. Murphy would meet each contestant individually, chatting to them for a few minutes, then they would play the first game. These games included, among others: "The Scratch Card Game", which celebrated the fact that entry was reliant on scratch cards. Each contestant got three 'scratches' on their card, which won them cars, holidays or cash. "Treasure Ireland", in which a map of Ireland was shown on the big screen, and contestants chose a number of counties from a random list of about 6. This again won them the same prizes. One county chosen randomly by the computer contained the "Gold" symbol. The contestant that chose this went through to the "Goldmine" game later on in the show. After a quick recap of each contestant's score, a number of other games were played, which won them more money. If one of them had revealed the Gold symbol, they would then play: "The Goldmine". They were taken to a smaller studio, and sat before a table with 7 buttons on it. Six of them were worth increasing amounts of money, eventually building up to a final jackpot for getting all six. One of them was "The Eliminator", which ended the game immediately. There were some rare occasions when the contestant actually picked The Eliminator straight away and won nothing. Each contestant's current scores up to this point were shown, then came the commercial break. After the break, a celebrity guest would come in and Murphy would interview them briefly. They then assisted him in picking out the five players for next's week's programme. In one series, the celebrity would pick out one card and hang on to it, whilst Murphy drew the five players. The remaining player would then win an amount of money which was determined by a spin of a smaller wheel spun by the celebrity. Finally, came the end game, "Win and Spin". Here, the contestants played against each other for the first and only time all night. Each of them had six numbered spaces. Two of them were blanks, and four revealed the letters 'S', 'P', 'I', 'N'. Each player went one at a time, and the first to reveal all four letters won the game went up to the spin the wheel. After one series, this was changed to make it a bit fairer, and there were instead three blanks, and three letters: 'W', 'I', 'N'. The contestants got two attempts at revealing the letters, and then "the bubble" was started. This machine is still in use today. Each contestant had two coloured balls each in the bubble, numbered 1 to 5, and one was picked out at random after about five seconds when they were all blown around inside the bubble. The contestant whose ball was picked got to choose a space. It was all down to luck from here. First one to find the three letters spun the wheel. The jackpot on the big wheel was IR£250,000 (€317,434); the lowest cash prize was IR£10,000 (€12,697). There were many different coloured segments, each with its own prize value. When the wheel was spun, a ball bounced around, and when it finally came to a stop, the contestant won the amount the ball landed on, which was added to their final total. A spin was only valid if the wheel made three full revolutions, indicated by two red lights and then a green light on the third revolution. This was merely academic, as was the host's insistence on his and the audience's shouting "5, 4, 3, 2, 1" when the wheel stopped to officially confirm the final prize. It was generally ignored, particularly if a big amount had been won. In fact, after a few series, they even stopped showing a countdown graphic on screen at this moment. Some added excitement came courtesy of the fact that for each time the jackpot wasn't won, another black IR£250,000 segment was added to the wheel the next week. For the 2000–01 series (Murphy's last), a new jackpot was added of IR£500,000 (€634,869), and a new segment added to the wheel. There were no additions made for this amount, but the IR£250,000 rule was still applied. 2001–2008 Winning Streak returned in September 2001, with an almost complete revamp: a new theme tune, a new studio, and a new host. The new host was Derek Mooney. The show also got a new (computer generated) mascot, a one-eyed robot named Streak. A new introduction was added which involved the presenter, heard but off-screen, introducing the contestants who stood behind the applauding audience. The rounds used in each series varied slightly, but the structure of the show remains the same. Mooney would meet each contestant, and then start the first game, "Treasure Ireland", which had become a 3D tour of Ireland. Each contestant was given a "bonus wheel", for use later, and then they saw on their screen a list of 5 randomly chosen landmarks in Ireland and chose one. Streak would then fly to that location. Once he reached there, the computer chose a point in that place, and Streak would disappear into the distance and return with a cash prize. The contestant then got a choice of 3 more locations. Streak would then head to the next location. In between journeys, a storm might appear. Sometimes it would disappear before Streak got to it, but more often than not, he went inside. Here the contestant wins a random cash prize or a holiday and moves on. At the next location, Streak gets out his map. The contestant then sees that map and is given a set of numbers between 1 and 8. There were usually between 5 and 8 numbers that appeared on each map. The contestant was then given a "Lo" and a "No" option and asked if they wanted to use the "Lo" option here, before moving on to the third and final stage. Since this option removed the lowest cash amount, no-one ever used it at this point, unsurprisingly. They chose one number and won that prize, either cash or a holiday. If they chose a bonus wheel, they were allowed to choose again. They were then asked if they wanted to use the "No" option, which would cancel that prize win, and allowed them to choose again. Sometimes it would be used here. Before they moved on, Streak reached inside his head, and if he pulled out a bonus wheel, then that was added to their wheel count, and they moved on. If not, they moved on anyway. At the last location, the "Lo" option was automatically used, and the contestant could win a car as well as cash or a holiday. After a recap of the scores, there came a commercial break. After the break, the 5 players for next week were drawn, then came Round 2, called "Cash 'Em or Keep 'Em?". Each player was told how many bonus wheels they had, between 1 and 4, and asked if they wanted to keep them for "Win & Spin" later on, or cash some of them to play one of three games. "Diamond Dilemma". Worth 1 bonus wheel. The contestant chose one of 12 'diamonds' on a table, worth between €3,000 and €12,000. Mooney would then offer them a cheque worth €10,000. They had to decide whether or not to go for the guaranteed prize of the cheque's value, or take a chance on winning the €12,000, with a chance that they could win less than the cheque. "The Ball Drum". Worth 2 wheels. The most popular of the three. The player placed 7 balls (taken from a pool table) into a slot in any order, and then pulled a lever out of shot to release them into the drum. They swirled around and around, and whenever they came to a rest in the middle, there would be one ball in the middle surrounded by the other six. Whatever number that ball had, the player won that amount x 1000; e.g., no. 7 won €7,000. The prize here was between €6,000 and €15,000. "The Compass". The big one, worth 3 wheels. Sometimes no-one had enough wheels to even play this game. The contestant pressed a button which started the large compass 'pointer' moving for a few seconds around eight 'points'. Four of them were worth €10,000, three worth €15,000, and one worth the top prize of €25,000. This one is purely down to luck. Whichever point the pointer stopped on, the contestant won that amount. Any wheels left over were carried over into "Win & Spin". The format has not changed, even now, for this one. Each contestant had three blanks and three wheels. Any bonus wheels a contestant had were added to their row in place of a blank, making it slightly easier for them to get the three wheels required to spin the wheel. Now, however, no-one gets a free go. It's all decided by the bubble. Every wheel revealed on the board earns that player an extra €2,500. Whoever gets three wheels first spins the wheel, for a jackpot of €500,000. There is now a fixed number of 250,000 slots. The extra wheel rule in "Win & Spin" was seen as giving a player who kept any wheels an unfair advantage, so in the second half of the series the bonus wheels were changed to "Golden Euros". The player started with one in "Treasure Ireland" and could only have a maximum of three. There was still a chance to win extra money in "Win & Spin" itself, however. Now any "Golden Euros" kept by a player were added to the board, replacing blanks and any that were revealed earned that player €10,000, but it did not count towards their 3 wheels. Also in this series, the "Phoneplay" game was introduced. An extra panel was added to the scratchcard. Players would ring a phone number and would give their details plus the number they revealed by scratching the extra panel. Those that wanted to enter had to do so by a set time on the Wednesday night after the show to be in the draw with a chance of being one of three players picked at random by the producers to play on the night. They would be rung back and would be on standby when the show would start. After the 5 players for next week would be drawn, Mooney would go to the "Phoneplay" booth and would introduce the three players. They would play over the phone. All they have to do is choose one of three slots, 'A', 'B' or 'C'. Two contain cash prizes between €1,000 and €2,500, and the other contains the star prize of a new car. A new rule was introduced to the big wheel in "Win & Spin". If whoever spun the wheel landed on the lowest segment, worth €10,000, they got that added to their total and they could spin the wheel again. This has unsurprisingly proved to be very popular and can only add to the tension of spinning the wheel in the first place. After the second spin, they kept what they got, and their final total was added up. This means that the theoretical maximum a player could win on the big wheel was €510,000. This was only achieved once. In the 2003–2004 series, the "Ball Drum" was ditched, and players would now require 2 "Golden Euros" to play "Diamond Dilemma". The "Compass" remained the same. One "Golden Euro" allowed the player to play a new game, called "Roulette". A player would get a free ball but could cash in any number of "Golden Euros" to gain additional balls, which would then be fired into a large roulette wheel, with slots labelled with cash prizes ranging from €3,000 to €10,000. When the wheel stopped all the amounts won would be added together to make a total prize. In the second half of the series, from January to June, all "Golden Euros" had to be used in "Cash 'Em or Keep 'Em?". That meant that players with just the one they started with played Roulette, two, Diamond Dilemma, and so on. The player got just two balls to play with in Roulette. Also in this series, all the other 95 people who weren't chosen for next week's show were entered into a second draw. From September to December, three players were drawn every week to go through to the big New Year's Eve special edition, Winning Streak: Millionaire, which in the end had 45 players. A series of games were played in this in which everyone won money but were gradually whittled down to just three people who competed to win the top prize of €1,000,000, the largest cash prize ever given away on Winning Streak. From January to June, three players were drawn each week to go through to Winning Streak: Fun in the Sun. 30 players in all were drawn. They were divided into 6 groups of 5 people who played in a game that was pre-recorded in the studio before broadcast. They each got a sandpit and a hoover each. They had to hoover up all the sand to reveal a number of 'houses' painted on the bottom. Whoever had the most went through to the final. In the final, whoever had the most houses won a holiday home in Spain. In the second half of the series, a new game was squeezed in at the start, before Treasure Ireland, "The Sliding Door Game". After the contestant had been interviewed, they picked one of five 'sliding doors' on the board, each of which contained a different amount of money. Treasure Ireland itself was given an update in this series. There were new graphics in between locations, so instead of the screen showing an aerial shot of Ireland, and Streak coming up from the last location visited to fly down to the next, he is shown travelling at speed across long stretches of land. Instead of 8 numbers, players now have 7 'objects' to choose from. They choose a letter denoting that object and Streak selects it. The prize is then revealed. The objects and letters are: A for Ace (a hand of playing cards with the Winning Streak logo on one side) B for Bell C for Chalice D for Dice E for Egg F for Fez G for Gold (that is, a pot of gold) The storms were also updated. Now they not only had the power to give, but to take away as well. As well as gaining extra cash or holidays, players who entered storms could also lose either of their "Lo" or "No" options. But since most people always chose to save their "Lo" option for the last destination, it was invariably that one that they lost. In Win & Spin, a star was randomly placed amongst someone's row on the board, replacing a blank. If they revealed it, they won €5,000. For the 2004–2005 series, there came the biggest revamp for some time. There was a new theme tune, new studio, new opening titles, and new rules. Following on from the success of the touchscreen element of the 2004 series of summer show Fame and Fortune, Winning Streak now also uses the touchscreen. In The Sliding Door Game, now only 2 of the doors contain money. One has €5,000, the other has €6,000. Two of them allow the players that choose them to play Diamond Dilemma. They are numbered 1 and 2 to determine who plays that game first. The final door lets that player play the Goldmine, which returned after several years away. Treasure Ireland has slightly changed again. The 7 'objects' remain from before, but there are now bonuses hidden in some screens, which give the player an instant prize and allows them to choose a second prize. At the first destination, the player chooses from three objects, and take what they win. At the second destination, all 7 objects are present, and the top cash prize is revealed, usually no more than €10,000. When the player picks a prize here, they are given a choice. They can either "Bank" it or "Bin" it. If they bin it, they can choose again, and bin again, and choose again, so long as the next prize won is higher than the one before, until they get to the top prize. If the next prize chosen is lower than the one before, they take that lower amount and move on. At the third destination, a car is also up for grabs, which is shown to the audience. If they bin the first prize, they can only pick once more this time, and that's it. After the 5 players are drawn for next week, and Phoneplay is played, Round 2 begins, which now doesn't have a name. In Diamond Dilemma, three cars are now also hidden amongst the cash prizes, and the cheque value has now been reduced to €6,000. For each week a car isn't won, another is added to the game the next week. In the new-look Goldmine, played on the touchscreen instead of in a separate studio, there are 7 "scuttles" on the screen, and the player gets two free attempts. From the third guess onwards, the Eliminator comes into play. If the player gets to the end without hitting it, they win a car. After Phoneplay, an extra draw was made, just like last series. One player was drawn each week to go through to a special week-long series over the Christmas period, Winning Streak: Winner Takes All. However, it was listed in most TV guides as just Winner Takes All, which caused some confusion, as some people thought RTÉ were actually showing an old UK game show of the same name. In the main show, there were two games, Pick A Present and The Snow Bank. Pick A Present did exactly what it said on the tin. Each contestant got to pick a present from the big Christmas tree which replaced the big wheel in the corner of the studio. Each had a picture representing a line from the song "Twelve Days of Christmas". Each was 'scanned' on a conveyor belt, and the prize value added to the total cash pot for the New Year's Eve final. In The Snow Bank, the player's 'prizes' were placed in descending order, and the highest and lowest played off in a spin of a small wheel, with slots marked "Hi" or "Lo". Whichever slot the ball in the wheel landed on, that player chose one of five 'ice-cubes' which lit up either green or red, if they lit up green, they went through to the next episode. After 3 games, the last of which had 6 players to make up the numbers, the final was played, which had five finalists. The remaining players in the final picked all the presents in any order from the tree, and the final cash pot was revealed, which in the end totalled over €630,000. They then went to the bubble to decide the order for the final run on The Snow Bank for the jackpot. This time, whoever got the green cube won the jackpot. Every other person got a 'present' from 'Santa', who turned out to be Marty Whelan. That 'present' was a car each. A whole new dimension was added to Winning Streak for 2005. A new element was introduced called the "Doubler", and the new wave of updated scratchcards, changes to the rules on the show, and TV ad that accompanied it effectively saw the show being renamed Winning Streak: Doubler. A traditional rule of scratchcards, is that by matching three of the same amount of money, you win that amount. The Doubler allows you to win double an amount by revealing two of that amount plus the Doubler 'D' symbol; e.g., two €5 amounts plus the Doubler 'D' symbol = €10 won. Needless to say, 'players' are not allowed to cheat and send in their scratchcards for the draw for next week's players with just two stars and the Doubler. On the show, the Doubler has virtually taken over the whole game. The Sliding Door Game and Phoneplay are the only things that have escaped. In Treasure Ireland, a player can reveal the doubler at the first destination and win double the amount won on the next choice, and again at the second destination, but not on the third. In Diamond Dilemma, the Doubler does not replace any cars, it merely joins them amongst the cash prizes, so potentially a player could win two cars here, although this has never happened. Double cash has been won though. In the Goldmine, after the contestant gets their two free attempts, the computer randomly places the Eliminator and the Doubler amongst the 5 remaining 'scuttles', thus reducing the risk of picking the Eliminator by one scuttle. When the Doubler is selected, all money won up to that point is doubled, and anything won after that is added to that player's total as normal. Someone has whittled the choice down before to just the Doubler and the Eliminator, and even better than that, they chose correctly. Finally, in Win & Spin, the player with the least amount of money at the end gets their total doubled if the person who actually gets to spin the wheel lands on one of 25 slots on the wheel with the Doubler 'D' symbol. Add that to the €10,000 = extra spin rule, and it makes for much tension on the big wheel. Winning Streak celebrated 15 years on air with the 2005–2006 series. The format was largely unchanged from the last series, and scratchcards still carried the Doubler for the first half of the series. In Treasure Ireland, a number of new destinations have been added to the map, and the letters have been removed from the items. There are also 3 new items. The Ace, Fez, and Gold have been replaced with a cat, a diamond, and a key. On 24 December 2005, Derek Mooney announced that he would be taking a brief hiatus from the show until March. This was because he was the new host for the coming series of You're A Star. For 11 weeks, starting from 31 December, and ending 11 March 2006, Laura Woods, presenter on The Café on RTÉ Two, took his place. Yet more format changes came with the change of host. Phoneplay also changed. There were three 'phones', called "Happy", "Lucky" and "Grumpy". One gets a cash prize, one a car, and the other cash and a car. They are then jumbled up and the phone players then choose one as normal. When the double prize phone is picked, the computer chooses which of the two prizes is won, so now, two cars can potentially be won on Phoneplay. 2006 saw new rules for a new year. The biggest change was the removal of the Doubler, which of course affected the Goldmine, as there's now one more chance to choose the Eliminator. Scratchcards read Winning Streak: Extra. There is now a car available in the Sliding Door Game, but it is no longer available in the Goldmine. Instead avoiding the Eliminator until the end wins the player an extra €25,000. Only one player now plays Diamond Dilemma. There are now 12 silver diamonds and 3 gold diamonds. The silver diamonds contain cash prizes between €3,000 and €10,000, plus one 'Extra'. If the player chooses the 'Extra', then they get to choose one of the three gold diamonds, which contain prizes between €25,000 and €50,000. The cheque to walk away from the game with is now worth €7,500. In Treasure Ireland, there are now four objects at the first destination. If the player chooses a cash prize, they may choose again. If a higher amount is then revealed, then they take that amount. If the same amount is revealed, the two are added together, and that is then added to the player's total. Phoneplay also changed again. This time, there is one phone, with ten digit buttons (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0). Each phone player gets €1,000 to begin the game with. If they choose a cash amount higher than that, they keep that, and the next player chooses. However, the word 'Extra' is hidden in three different places on the 'board'. If one is chosen, then that player chooses again. When the third 'Extra' is chosen, the game ends and the player who revealed it wins €20,000. Finally, in Win & Spin, the old 250,000 rule was reintroduced. Every week it wasn't won, another €250,000 slot was added to the wheel. A new logo came for Winning Streak this series, the first time this has happened since the beginning. Scratchcards now read Winning Streak: Win A Million, and a second draw for another Christmas mini-series takes place in which one person is selected to go through from a drum which contains special envelopes containing the stubs from the cards with the letters 'G' 'O' 'L' 'D' on them. The Sliding Door Game has been relaunched as Goldrush. Diamond Dilemma is now no more, but the Goldmine still remains. Cash prizes and cars can also be won. The top prize in Phoneplay is now a car. A new home game called Home Spun also arrives in this series. One caller selected from a number who have texted or called with a special code will win whatever is spun on a mini-wheel, with a maximum prize of €10,000. Finally, the minimum prize on the big wheel is €20,000. The spin again rule has been abandoned in favour of "Spin Pal". If the player lands on a Spin Pal slot, then as well as taking the amount on it, everyone else has €20,000 added to their totals. A brand-new series of Winning Streak returned in September 2007 and continued until mid-June 2008. The series went on its usual summer break with a new lottery show called The Big Money Game as its summer replacement hosted by Laura Woods. After this season, Derek Mooney stepped down as host. 2008–2020 In 2008, the show was revamped and rebranded Winning Streak: Dream Ticket, with which updates it went through the most changes in its history. There were new presenters (Kathryn Thomas and Aidan Power), a new set, new games and an updated format. The set was bright and modern. Viewer text competitions and audience prizes featured, with five players being guaranteed at least €20,000 for their participation and one of those had a chance of winning €250,000. The programme was available to watch worldwide online for the first time. The new series began on 12 September 2009, with Kathryn Thomas co-presenting with Marty Whelan (now taking over from Aidan Power, who then landed a job on The All Ireland Talent Show). The series, in its 20th year, reverted to its original name. Near the end of the season, the jackpot of €500,000 was won. Síle Seoige replaced Kathryn Thomas as co-presenter with Marty Whelan for the 16 January 2010 episode while Thomas was filming in Trinidad and Tobago, and John Creedon stood in for Marty Whelan for the final edition of this season (29 May) while Marty himself was in Oslo to do his annual Eurovision Song Contest commentary that same evening. When Marty Whelan went off to do his Eurovision commentary each year, a guest presenter took the position. In 2010 this was the aforementioned John Creedon, in 2011 it was Brian Ormond, while Dáithí Ó Sé took the job in 2012, 2013 and 2014. On 21 December 2011, Geri Maye was announced as the new co-presenter, alongside Marty Whelan. She had previously presented the Dream Maker Wheel segment. She replaced Kathryn Thomas. She presented until the 2013–2014 season when Sinead Kennedy replaced her. On 1 September 2012, the video introductions were axed. On 4 January 2014, for the first time ever, a new €1,000,000 slot was introduced on the wheel. On 18 October 2014, Nuala Carey stood in for Sinead Kennedy, who was celebrating her wedding. It was announced in December 2014 that the show would be moved to a "summer slot" instead of the usual autumn to spring slot from 2015 onwards. Instead Nicky Byrne would host The Million Euro Challenge. It was confirmed by Marty Whelan that Winning Streak would be back on RTÉ One on Saturday 20 June 2015 and would run each Saturday night throughout the summer. However "The Million Euro Challenge" was axed after one series bringing Winning Streak back to its autumn-spring slot. Winning Streak was taken off the air in early 2020 as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. In January 2021, RTÉ issued a statement saying that the series would remain off-air for 'the foreseeable future'. Host Sinead Kennedy confirmed the news, saying: "Of course I’ll miss meeting new contestants each week and giving away a ton of money but mostly I’ll miss the craic with Marty," she told the Irish Daily Mirror. A vast selection of episodes from the show were made available on RTE Player during Christmas 2021, to celebrate 60 years of RTE television. Hopes grew in February 2022 over the possibility that RTÉ could revive the series with Marty Whelan back at the helm. Whelan commented, "I would like to think that in time [the show] will come back", however he refused to confirm whether or not this would happen. References External links on RTÉ Television 1990 Irish television series debuts 1990s Irish television series 2000s Irish television series 2010s Irish television series Irish lottery game shows RTÉ original programming

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The 15th Tank Corps (, 15-y tankoviy korpus) was a tank corps of the Soviet Union's Red Army. It formed in 1938 from a mechanized corps and fought in the Soviet invasion of Poland, during which it participated in the capture of the Grodno and Augustów Forest from Poland. The corps was disbanded in January 1940 at Wilno and Soleczniki. In 1942, the corps was reformed under the command of Major General Vasily Koptsov and became part of the 3rd Tank Army. It first saw combat in the unsuccessful Kozelsk Offensive of late August and early September, a relatively small operation to encircle a German salient, which resulted in the corps taking heavy losses in proportion to the territory gained. After spending the rest of the year in reserve, receiving new supplies and equipment, the corps was transferred to the southern front in southwestern Russia to fight in the Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive during January 1943, in which it played a major role by forming part of the forces that encircled thousands of Axis troops on the middle reaches of the Don River. In February 1943, the unit fought in Operation Star, achieving its objective of recapturing the key city of Kharkov in eastern Ukraine. As the Soviet advance outran its supply lines, the corps was slowly worn down and was virtually destroyed after being surrounded by a German counteroffensive in the Third Battle of Kharkov during late February and early March. Koptsov was among those killed in the fighting. The corps was rebuilt in the following months and became part of the newly created 3rd Guards Tank Army, fighting in Operation Kutuzov, the Soviet counteroffensive during the Battle of Kursk, in late July. For its actions in the offensive, the corps was converted into the 7th Guards Tank Corps. First formation The 15th Tank Corps formed in 1938 from the 5th Mechanized Corps at Naro-Fominsk in the Moscow Military District, inheriting the honorific "named for (Konstantin) Kalinovsky", a Soviet military theorist. Commanded by Komdiv (equivalent to Lieutenant General) Mikhail Petrovich Petrov, the corps included the 2nd Light Tank Brigade (previously the 5th Mechanized Brigade), the 27th Light Tank Brigade (formerly 10th Mechanized Brigade), the 20th Motor Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade (formerly 50th Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade), and the 401st Separate Communications Battalion, a support unit. Soon after its formation, the corps was transferred to the Belorussian Special Military District, its headquarters located in Borisov. The 2nd and 27th Light Tank Brigades were based in Borisov, and the 20th Motor Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade was based in Mogilev. The 89th Separate Air Liaison Flight formed as part of the corps at Borisov on 4 August, operating Polikarpov R-5 and U-2 biplanes. Soviet invasion of Poland Initial advance The corps fought in the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, as part of Ivan Boldin's Dzerzhinsky Cavalry-Mechanized Group (KMG). The invasion was conducted under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which divided Poland between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany and guaranteed that neither country would attack the other. At the beginning of the campaign, the 2nd Brigade had 234 BT-7 light tanks and 30 BA armored cars, the 27th Brigade had 223 BT-7s and 31 BAs, and the 20th Brigade had 61 BAs; the corps thus fielded 461 tanks and 122 armored cars. On 17 September, at 05:00, the corps, advancing on the KMG's southern flank, crossed the state border, overran the Polish border guards, and began a rapid advance without resistance; most of the Polish troops in the east had been transferred west to fight against the German invasion of Poland earlier in the month. By 12:00, the 27th Brigade had reached Mir and Ajucavičy, overrunning the practically undefended NowosiółkiKajszówki sector of the Baranovichi Fortified Region. By the end of the day, the 27th Brigade had crossed the Servach River in the Lubanichi area, the 2nd Brigade had crossed the Usza River, and the 20th Brigade had advanced to the border at Losha. During the day, the corps suffered casualties of one killed and two wounded.On 18 September, the 27th Brigade advanced from the line of Rudašy and Zaberdowo, but was bogged down for several hours while moving through the area near Golewicze. As a result, it did not reach the Jarniewo area, west of Slonim, until the morning of 19 September. After the retreating Polish garrison burned one of the two bridges over the Shchara River, the 2nd Brigade entered Slonim and disarmed 80 policemen. On 19 September, the brigade reached Vawkavysk, and the corps was ordered to take Grodno and Sokółka by the end of the day, in conjunction with the motorcycle units of the 4th and 13th Rifle Divisions. At the same time the 27th Brigade captured Dvorets, disarming 400 people and capturing 300 rifles, but fuel shortages kept the corps stretched out along the SlonimVawkavysk road awaiting refueling. The 20th Brigade approached Slonim from the east, further clogging the roads and delaying the arrival of supply units. Battle of Grodno After receiving fuel from 07:00 on 20 September, the units of the corps began to advance on Grodno in multiple waves. At 13:00, 50 tanks from the 27th Brigade reached the southern outskirts of the city, beginning the Battle of Grodno. By 14:00, the 2nd Brigade had taken Sokółka, and its advance units had reached Dąbrowa. At the end of the day, motorcycle units of the 4th Rifle Division and battalions of the 20th Motor Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade, which had all been delayed by fuel shortages, had reached the city. Grodno was defended by an understrength force of up to 3,000 Polish officers, gendarmes, and volunteers who had burned the bridges across the Neman. The 27th Brigade's reconnaissance battalion launched the first attack with 12 tanks and an armored car, and was later joined by two tank battalions with a total of 36 tanks. By 19:00, two battalions of the 13th Rifle Division's 119th Rifle Regiment had arrived at Grodno, and on the morning of 21 September they were reinforced by two battalions of the 4th Rifle Division's 101st Rifle Regiment and the motorized detachment of the 16th Rifle Corps, the latter of which was subordinated to the corps for the duration of the battle. By the end of 20 September, the combined forces had captured the southern part of Grodno. At 07:00 on 21 September, the artillery batteries of the two rifle regiments and the 20th Brigade commenced firing from the southern bank of the Niemen, demolishing the main Polish strongpoints—barracks, churches, and trenches—on the northern bank of the Niemen. The 119th Regiment then crossed to the north bank and rebuilt a bridge for the tanks to use. After defeating a group of Polish officers in the Poniemuń district, the regiment captured the eastern part of the city. Meanwhile, the 101st Regiment and a tank company from the 27th Brigade, which crossed the river behind the 119th, destroyed a group of about 250 officers defending the wooded hills east of the city, then advanced northeast and captured the railway station by the end of the day. The 20th Brigade captured the southwestern part of the city, but was unable to advance northward because of strong Polish resistance in the houses and trenches near the bridge and the tobacco factory. The Soviet advances on 21 September resulted in the suppression of large pockets of resistance, and during the night, remnants of the Polish defenders retreated in the direction of Sapotskin and Suwałki. Grodno was cleared of Polish troops on 22 September. The 27th Brigade lost two burned and 12 damaged BT-7 light tanks in the battle, some to Molotov cocktails thrown by the defenders from attics and trenches, and its casualties totaled 19 killed and 26 wounded. The 20th Brigade lost a BA-10 to Molotov cocktails, suffering casualties of 3 killed and 20 wounded. The 16th Rifle Corps' motorized detachment lost 25 killed, 110 wounded, and a burned tank. During the battle, the corps killed 320 officers, 20 non-commissioned officers, and 194 soldiers, many of whom were crushed by tanks in the eastern part of the city. Between 20 and 21 September, they had captured 38 Polish officers, 20 non-commissioned officers, and 1,477 enlisted men, as well as 514 rifles, 146 machine guns, a mortar, and an anti-aircraft gun. Mopping up operations and disbandment One detachment from the 2nd Brigade, under the command of Major F.P. Chuvakin, was composed of a machine gun and rifle battalion and 45 tanks, 37 of which were from the brigade and the rest from the KMG. It was attached to the KMG to mop up remaining resistance in the Augustów Forest and to prevent the Poles fleeing to Lithuania. On 22 September, in the area of Sapotskin, the detachment engaged units of the Polish 101st and 102nd Uhlan Regiments, as well as the 110th Reserve Uhlan Regiment, and other units retreating from Grodno. Most of the Polish troops escaped into the forest because of the slow advance of the detachment. Around three companies of Polish troops were dispersed and several officers were killed, among them the Grodno defense commander, Józef Olszyna-Wilczyński. The retreating Polish forces left mines, which blew up four BT-7 tanks. Chuvakin's troops also lost 11 killed and 14 wounded. The detachment advanced to Sejny and on 23 September reached the Augustów Canal at Vulka, where it was stopped by Polish troops on the left bank, who had burned the bridge over the canal. A tank company forded the canal and forced the defenders to retreat, leaving nine dead. In the fighting of 22 and 23 September, the detachment killed about 40 officers and many soldiers, and captured more than 500 troops, 300 rifles, and 12 machine guns. On 23 September, the 20th Brigade moved to Dąbrowa, where it eliminated remnants of Polish units in the Augustów Forest. Two days later, 15 armored cars were detached from the brigade to relieve German troops garrisoning the Osowiec Fortress, which fell in the Soviet sphere of influence under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Between 23 and 26 September, a detachment of 20 tanks and armored cars from the 27th Brigade and a rifle battalion moved along the road from Grodno to Augustów, and back again, capturing 300 prisoners along the way. During the campaign, the corps killed 78 officers, 133 non-commissioned officers, and 2,337 soldiers. It captured 322 officers, 30 non-commissioned officers, and 352 soldiers, as well as 814 rifles, 153 machine guns, a mortar, two cannons, and 15 cars. By 2 October, the KMG was disbanded and the corps was subordinated to the 3rd Army. On 10 October, the corps headquarters and the tank brigades were stationed at Wilno, and the 20th Brigade was at Soleczniki. The 15th was disbanded along with the other tank corps in January 1940; the Main Military Council considered the tank corps' performance in Poland unsatisfactory, believing them to be unwieldy and difficult to control. Second formation The corps was re-formed in May 1942 at the Moscow Armored Training Center, nearly a year after Germany had abandoned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Major General Vasily Koptsov took command of the formation, which included the 96th and 113th Tank Brigades, the 105th Heavy Tank Brigade, the 17th Motor Rifle Brigade, and the 5th Reconnaissance Battalion. The corps was assigned to the 3rd Tank Army on 25 May, and as of 2 June included 150 tanks, comprising 30 KV tanks, 60 T-34 tanks, and 60 T-60 light tanks. The corps concentrated in the Tula area with the rest of the army, conducting intensive training exercises. After Axis forces launched the Case Blue summer offensive in southern Russia in late June, Stavka believed that an attack by Army Group Centre on the Oryol axis was possible, and ordered the army to concentrate in the Yefremov area. On 6 July, the army was ordered to concentrate to the west in the Chern area, moving closer to the front. The relocation was completed by 9 July, and the 15th Tank Corps was positioned in the area of the Agnichnoye State Farm, Dupny, Bolshoy Kon, Gremyachevo, Yasnyy Lug, and Korotky, where it engaged in combat training and created a defensive line in readiness to repulse a German attack. Late that month, the 96th Brigade was transferred to the Bryansk Front, and it was replaced by the 195th Tank Brigade between 10 and 12 August. Kozelsk Offensive In early August, the 2nd Panzer Army launched a limited offensive towards Sukhinichi in an attempt to eliminate a Soviet salient. The attack was initially successful, but soon bogged down in the face of determined Soviet resistance. To eliminate the penetration and encircle the lead forces of the 2nd Panzer Army, the Kozelsk Offensive was launched by the 3rd Tank Army on the eastern flank of the salient. On 14 August, the order was given to relocate to the Kozelsk area in preparation for the attack; the army began moving the following night, the tanks being transported by rail. The offensive was scheduled to begin on 19 August, but was postponed to 22 August after rains turned the roads to mud, delaying the arrival of the motorized infantry and vehicles from the morning of 16 August to late on 17 August. Railway logistical difficulties resulted in the transfer of personnel and equipment being completed only on 21 August, and cargo only by the end of 24 August. Soviet preparations for the attack were detected by German intelligence, and the German troops in the salient were reinforced and began preparing strong defensive lines. At the beginning of the offensive, the corps was at full strength, with 24 KV tanks, 87 T-34s, and 48 T-60 and 21 T-70 light tanks, a total of 180 tanks. For the attack, Koptsov was placed in command of a group consisting of the 15th Tank Corps and the 154th Rifle Division, reinforced by support units. The group's immediate objective was to advance towards Meshalkino, Myzin, Marino, and Belyi Verkh, then cross the Vytebet River and establish a bridgehead on its west bank. It was afterwards to surround and destroy German troops in the area of Trostyapka, Perestryazh, and Belyi Verkh, operating in conjunction with the 16th and the 61st Armies. On the first day of the attack, the 154th and 264th Rifle Divisions were sent into the attack first, but could not break through. The 12th Tank Corps was committed to the fight, but came under heavy German air attack and was stopped. At 12:00, a report was received that the 3rd Tank Corps had seized Smetskiye Vyselkami and advanced westwards. Considering that the main advance was halted by German resistance, Western Front commander Georgy Zhukov ordered the relocation of the 15th Tank Corps to that sector. The corps was to advance towards Slobodka and Belyi Verkh, but the report of Smetskiye Vyselkami's capture proved to be false, and the 15th's vanguard suffered heavy losses approaching the village. The 105th Heavy Tank Brigade and 17th Motor Rifle Brigade captured Smetskiye Vyselkami from the 56th Infantry Division's 192nd Infantry Regiment in fierce fighting by 17:00, but the corps was unable to make a breakthrough, becoming delayed by difficulties in traversing swampy terrain, getting lost while moving through forest trails, and running into minefields. The delays in the advance caused the armor to lag behind the infantry, and the tank columns came under heavy German air attack before reaching the fight on 23 August. For the next two days, the corps advanced slowly alongside other units, overcoming stubborn German resistance, before finally clearing the forests east of the Vytebet River of German troops on 25 August. The corps was unable to cross the river due to the firm German defenses on the other side. The next day, to end German resistance on the left flank, where the attacks of the 12th Tank Corps and 154th Rifle Division were unsuccessful, the corps was ordered to withdraw from the front in the Zhukovo area and reconcentrate in the forest west of Myzin. It was then to capture Sorokino in conjunction with the 12th Tank Corps and 154th Rifle Division. After moving to its new starting positions, the corps attacked at dawn on 26 August, but was again stymied by the forest terrain. The same day, the 12th Tank Corps and 264th Rifle Division came under heavy pressure from German tank counterattacks. On 27 August, army commander Prokofy Romanenko, fearing a breakthrough from the south, ordered the 15th Corps to concentrate in the forests north of Novogryn, in readiness to counterattack if a German breakthrough took place. In the event, by the end of the day, the Soviet lines had held and the 15th was not needed in that sector. That night, it was relocated from the Myzin area to the Pakom area, where, together with the 61st Army's 12th Guards Rifle Division, it was to break German resistance near Leonovo, then develop the breakthrough towards Ukolitsa into the rear of the German troops defending against the 154th and 264th Rifle Divisions and the 12th Corps at Bogdanovsky and Goskovo. On the afternoon of 28 August, the corps attacked after a 30-minute artillery bombardment and airstrikes, but was immediately stalled by an anti-tank ditch protected by minefields and artillery. During the night, sappers and motorized infantry managed to create passages through the ditch, but when the offensive was resumed the next morning, the 15th had advanced only before it was stopped by a second anti-tank ditch. It tried to break through during the day, but could not cross the ditch. On the night of 29/30 August, the corps was pulled out of the line and concentrated in the forest a kilometer south of Meshalkino to carry out an attack on Sorokino in conjunction with the 154th Rifle Division and 12th Tank Corps. The attack was cancelled due to the heavy losses suffered by both the 12th Tank Corps and 154th Rifle Division in the previous fighting, and the 15th also required time to reorganize. During the day the corps' 195th Tank Brigade conducted the only combat action, a successful operation to relieve two encircled battalions of the 61st Army's 156th Rifle Division. While the main forces of the 3rd Tank Army had been fighting at Sorokino, the 3rd Tank Corps had achieved a measure of success, crossed the Vytebet River, and begun fighting to capture Volosovo. As a result, the 15th Corps and the 154th were relocated to the Kumovo area on the right flank, and the 15th was tasked with exploiting the breakthrough to capture Perestryazh. The renewed attack began on 2 September but was delayed by German air attacks. Meanwhile, a regiment from the 264th Rifle Division proved unable to cross the Vytebet River and capture the village of Ozhigovo, which was necessary for the 15th Corps to exploit the breakthrough. This forced Koptsov to commit the 17th Motor Rifle Brigade and the 113th and 195th Brigades' motor rifle battalions to the battle. The motor rifle units crossed the Vytebet River after a short artillery barrage and captured Ozhigovo by the end of the day. The 195th Brigade's tank battalions moved across the Vytebet River and attacked Perestryazh the next day, but were unable to capture the village because they were first halted by a ravine covered by German artillery, and were then counterattacked on their left flank by 40 German tanks. Although they repulsed the counterattack and destroyed 13 tanks, the 195th's advance was stopped. On 4 September, after the 3rd Tank Corps was pulled out of the line due to losses and the main forces of the 264th arrived to hold Ozhigovo, the 15th's 17th and 113th Brigades were moved to the Volosovo area, having received orders to advance on Trostyanka alongside the 342nd Rifle Division. From 5 to 9 September, the corps attempted to advance, but was repeatedly repulsed, sustaining casualties and suffering fuel and ammunition shortages. The Kozelsk Offensive ended on 9 September with the combined Soviet tank units from all three armies left with only 200 tanks out of the 700 they originally fielded. Interlude The corps was relocated to the forests west of Kaluga beginning on 20 September 1942 after the 3rd Tank Army became part of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command. Around this time, the 17th Motor Rifle Brigade was transferred to another unit, and the 105th Brigade became part of the 5th Tank Army. A few days after arriving in the Kaluga area, Major General Pavel Rybalko replaced Romanenko, who became commander of the 5th Tank Army. The 15th rested and conducted training while refitting with supplies and equipment for the next several months, and was relocated to the Plavsk region on 22 October, remaining there until 26 December. The 88th Tank Brigade joined the corps at the end of November and the 52nd Motor Rifle Brigade joined in mid-December, bringing the corps back up to strength. On 22 December, the corps and the army began relocation to the Kalach and then the Kantemirovka areas, part of the Voronezh Front, to participate in the upcoming Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive, which was aimed to defeat Axis forces on the Upper Don. From 29 December to 13 January 1943, the corps was unloaded at the Kalach railway station. The relocation of the entire army was completed only on 15 January, due to a shortage of trains and railway congestion. Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive For the offensive, the corps was reinforced by the 368th Fighter Anti-Tank Artillery Regiment, the 71st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment, and the 47th Engineer Battalion. They were to make a breakthrough on the first day in the area between the advance of the 48th Guards and 184th Rifle Divisions, seizing Yekaterinovka and advancing on Varvarovka and Alexeyevka by the end of the day. The attack was scheduled to begin on 12 January 1943, but was moved back two days owing to railroad delays. By 13 January, 122 tanks from the army—most belonging to the corps' 113th and 195th Brigades—were still delayed by maintenance issues. This was because the Voronezh Front's initial offensive planning mandating that only the 12th Tank Corps would fight in the first attack, which resulted in the new tanks of the 15th being transferred to the 12th and the 12th's worn-out tanks to the 15th, although it was later decided that the entire army would fight in the operation. The 15th therefore had much less time to reorganize in preparation for the assault, and as a result of the 113th and 195th Brigades arriving in the concentration areas on 13 January with only 10 to 12 tanks due to the delays, all of the serviceable tanks were transferred to the 88th Tank Brigade, which was brought up to a strength of 74 tanks. This single brigade constituted the entirety of the corps' armored troops involved in the first day's attack, as the 113th and 195th were placed in army reserve until their tanks arrived. The corps fought in the offensive from 14 January, tasked with advancing into the Axis rear and linking up with the 40th Army attacking from the north. On the first day, the corps attacked the XXIV Panzer Corps, overrunning its command post and killing its commander during a advance. After taking Alexandrovka, the corps cut the RossoshAlexandrovkaRovenki highway on 15 January by capturing Yeremovka. According to the 15th Tank Corps' reports, it had killed up to 600 Axis troops, captured 98 prisoners, 17 guns, 10 mortars, and 279 motor vehicles, and disabled five guns and 14 machine guns. This came at a cost of eight killed, 38 wounded, and one tank and three motor vehicles destroyed. The 15th then fought in the area of Olkhovatka and Sheliakino, during which it reported killing up to 950 German troops, capturing 2,100 prisoners, 1,200 motor vehicles, 1,856 rifles, 75 machine guns, 20 guns, and eight tanks. The 15th suffered losses during this period of 11 killed, 41 wounded, and one tank and one armored vehicle disabled. Operating in conjunction with the 12th Tank Corps, the 15th broke through German defenses and on 17 January closed the encirclement ring, linking up with troops from the 40th Army's 305th Rifle Division at Alexeyevka. This cut off the retreat for the Italian Alpini Corps and thousands of Hungarian and German troops. During the action, it reported killing 6,506 Axis troops, capturing 11,168, and capturing or destroying large amounts of artillery, weapons, equipment and transport, while losing 132 killed, 212 wounded, 39 missing, 14 tanks, six guns, two mortars, three armored vehicles, 10 motor vehicles, and six machine guns. Until the end of 25 January, the corps fought in the reduction of the Axis pocket north of Alexeyevka and began reconcentrating on the morning of 29 January. After marching in two days, it concentrated in the Valuyki area. Operation Star The corps continued its advance towards Kharkov after the end of the Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive, against increasingly stiffening resistance from the SS-Panzer Corps. On 2 February, Operation Star began, the corps in the second echelon of the army as it needed refitting. The 15th went into action on 3 February, a day earlier than planned, without its refitting completed, as army commander Lieutenant General Pavel Rybalko quickened the pace of the offensive to prevent German reinforcements establishing a defensive line on the Donets. The 15th Tank Corps advanced with the 160th Rifle Division towards Veliky Burluk and the Donets crossings at Pechengi. The corps crossed the Burlik River on 3 February and the next day captured Veliky Burluk from the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich. At the same time the lead force of the 195th Tank Brigade, advancing ahead of the remainder of the corps, reached German positions held by the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH) opposite Pechengi. The brigade attempted to capture a crossing over the Pechengi with support from the 160th during the evening, but was repulsed with heavy losses. The rest of the 15th Corps and 160th Division arrived there during 5 February, and at first light on 6 February, they attacked after a short artillery bombardment, but were again repulsed. On the night of 9/10 February, the corps and the 160th Division secured the crossing sites and captured Pechengi. The corps reported 650 German soldiers killed during the fighting, at a cost of 350 killed and wounded. The 15th then pursued the retreating units of the LSSAH but the advance was stopped by German defenses at Rogan only east of Kharkov. On 12 February, Rybalko began a new attack with the 15th Corps, 48th Guards Rifle Division, and the 160th attacking the eastern part of Kharkov. They pushed the LSSAH back to the inner defensive line of the city and reached the factory district in the city's eastern suburbs. Two days later, front commander Colonel General Filipp Golikov ordered a final assault, and the corps together with the 160th renewed the attack from the east. They entered eastern Kharkov itself late on 15 February, participating in heavy street fighting with the forces of the Das Reich Division. The city was recaptured the next day, the 88th Tank Brigade taking Dzerzhinsky Square and linking up with the 40th Army's 183rd Rifle Division. The 15th then pursued retreating German forces in the direction of Poltava. Late on 16 February, it captured Zalyutino and engaged German troops at Pesochnya on the road to Liubotyn. After capturing Pesochnya two days later, the 15th began the battle for Liubotyn against troops of the Grossdeutschland Division, but became bogged down in heavy fighting for the city. The corps' 195th Tank Brigade and the 160th Division were ordered to bypass the city and attempt to capture Staryi Merchik. On 21 February, they advanced on Liubotyn from the west, and the Grossdeutschland Division began its retreat from the city on the next day. In the battle for Liubotyn between 21 and 22 February, the corps reported killing 400 German soldiers and destroying 12 tanks, while suffering losses of 360 killed and wounded and six tanks. Third Battle of Kharkov On 23 February 1943, German troops from the 4th Panzer Army counterattacked the Southwestern Front troops exploiting the breakthrough to the south of Kharkov, encircling many and forcing the remainder to retreat towards the Donets, beginning the Third Battle of Kharkov. The 3rd Tank Army was ordered to relieve the encircled troops, and the 15th Tank Corps changed direction, advancing towards Krasnograd. During the last days of February, the corps fought in a fierce meeting engagement with the LSSAH and 320th Infantry Division. Operating alongside the 111th Rifle Division, the 15th captured Novaya Vodolaga and on 26 February resumed its advance south, leaving the 195th Brigade to hold Novaya Vodolaga. By the end of 28 February, in conjunction with the 219th Rifle Division, the corps had captured Kegichevka, at the cost of heavy losses for the 88th Tank Brigade. The 88th was left with three T-34 tanks and two T-70s, and the other brigades were down to similar strength, leaving the entire corps with 19 tanks. Koptsov was severely wounded during the fighting on 28 February, and corps chief of staff Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Lozovsky became acting commander. By 2 March, the corps had been surrounded by the SS Panzer Corps east of Krasnograd and German tanks were in its rear at Lozovaya. Koptsov ordered the corps to defend the area around Kegichevka, the location of its headquarters. The 3rd Tank Army was completely surrounded and could not be relieved as it comprised most of the front's troops. Koptsov ordered a breakout, and a small number of troops with light weapons escaped the encirclement, all of the corps' 25 remaining tanks being lost. Koptsov himself was briefly captured on 2 March before dying of the wound he had received four days earlier. Meanwhile, the 195th Tank Brigade's commander took command of 32 repaired and recovered tanks from the 12th and 15th Corps at Novaya Vodolaga, defending the town alongside the 253rd Rifle Brigade. There, they withstood three days of attacks from LSSAH until 6 March, when their positions began to be encircled by LSSAH and the SS-Totenkopf Division. During the next few days the brigade retreated north of the Mzha River to Rakitnoye, which was given up on 9 March. The 195th then took up defensive positions in the Ozeryanka area. Operation Kutuzov According to a report by the 3rd Tank Army's headquarters, the 15th Tanks Corps' strength on 14 March 1943 was only 1,000 men. By the following day, the remnants of the 15th had been concentrated in the Belyi Kholodets area, and on 21 March were moved to the Nikitovka, Samarino, and Chepukhino region for rest and refitting. On 31 March the corps was ordered to become part of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command in the Tambov area by 4 April. Instead, by the beginning of May it had been transferred to the Moscow Military District. The corps became part of the new 3rd Guards Tank Army within the month, and Major General Filipp Rudkin took command on 11 June. By 1 July, the corps had been rebuilt to a strength of 209 tanks and 16 self-propelled guns. On 13 July, the corps became part of the Bryansk Front along with its army, and was ordered to concentrate in the Novosil area by the end of 15 July, in preparation for Operation Kutuzov, the Soviet counteroffensive after the Battle of Kursk. After completing a march to its jumping-off point, the corps attacked on the morning of 19 July. The 12th and 15th Tank Corps crossed the Oleshen River in the first echelon of the assault and advanced by the end of the day, aided by artillery and air support. In the evening, the 15th's advance was stopped by the 8th Panzer Division. During the fighting on 19 July, the commander of the 113th Tank Brigade, Leonid Chigin, was killed in action. The strong German resistance during the day reduced the corps to 32 T-34 and 42 T-70 tanks from a strength of 129 T-34s and 68 T-70s at the start of the day. The following day, the corps shifted northwest to capture Otrada, cutting the MtsenskOryol highway in the Vysokoye area. In the evening, the 52nd Motor Rifle Brigade crossed the Oka River, capturing a bridgehead near Novaya Slobodka. By the end of 21 July, the corps arrived to assist the 12th Tank Corps and the 91st Separate Tank Brigade in the crossing of the Optushka River, delayed by intense German air attacks and tank counterattacks. The next morning, all three units began crossing the river. The 195th Tank Brigade's commander, Vasily Lomakin, was killed in action leading his unit on 22 July. Both Chigin and Lomakin were posthumously awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. On 23 July, the German defenses on the Optushka were broken, and the pursuit began. By the end of the day, the corps had reached the line of Semendyaevsky, Karpovsky, Aleksandrovka, Safonovo, and Neplyuevo. The actions of the offensive had still failed to produce a decisive breakthrough for the army, and on 23 July the attack was shifted south, the 15th being ordered to march to concentration points at Zarya and in the Petrovo area. The march took place on the night of 23/24 July, the troops arriving on the morning of 24 July. The advance was renewed the next day, the 15th in the second echelon behind the 12th Corps. On 26 July 1943, the corps was converted into the 7th Guards Tank Corps simultaneously with the 12th Tank Corps, becoming part of the elite Soviet Guards, in recognition of the "courage and bravery" of its actions in the offensive. Commanders The corps' first formation was commanded by the following officer: Komdiv Mikhail Petrovich Petrov (1938 January 1940) The corps' second formation was commanded by the following officers: Major General Vasily Koptsov (21 May 1942 c. 28 February 1943) Colonel Alexander Lozovsky (c. 28 February 10 June 1943) Major General Filipp Rudkin (11 June 26 July 1943) Bibliography Citations References – mechcorps.rkka.ru was the website of Russian historian Yevgeny Drig () Tank corps of the Soviet Union Military units and formations established in 1938 Military units and formations disestablished in 1940 Military units and formations established in 1942 Military units and formations disestablished in 1943 Soviet invasion of Poland

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Grasshoppers are a group of insects belonging to the suborder Caelifera. They are among what is probably the most ancient living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which allow them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. As hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis; they hatch from an egg into a nymph or "hopper" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage.The grasshopper hears through the tympanal organ which can be found in the first segment of the abdomen attached to the thorax; while its sense of vision is in the compound eyes, the change in light intensity is perceived in the simple eyes (ocelli). At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change color and behavior and form swarms. Under these circumstances, they are known as locusts. Grasshoppers are plant-eaters, with a few species at times becoming serious pests of cereals, vegetables and pasture, especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas. They protect themselves from predators by camouflage; when detected, many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly-coloured wing-flash while jumping and (if adult) launching themselves into the air, usually flying for only a short distance. Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults. The eggs are subject to attack by parasitoids and predators. Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, having done so since Biblical times. Even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature. The study of grasshopper species is called acridology. Phylogeny Grasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although "grasshopper" is sometimes used as a common name for the suborder in general, some sources restrict it to the more "advanced" groups. They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea and have been referred-to as "short-horned grasshoppers" in older texts to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term "long-horned grasshoppers" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera (crickets, etc.), Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic. In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings. The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects. The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless. Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males. Characteristics Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws. The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs. The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ and hearing system. Segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven have the reproductive organs. Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors. The name of the suborder "Caelifera" comes from the Latin and means chisel-bearing, referring to the shape of the ovipositor. Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind legs against the edges of the forewings (stridulation). These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females, though in some species the females also stridulate. Grasshoppers may be confused with crickets, but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced. Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae. Biology Diet and digestion Most grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources, but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes. Sensory organs Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors. At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen. There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion. There are internal "chordotonal" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself. Circulation and respiration Like other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system. Jumping A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g. Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. A fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles. The jump is a three-stage process. First, the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg (tibia) against the upper part (femur) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle (the back legs of the grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position). Second, there is a period of co-contraction in which force builds up in the large, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle. The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle, but the latter is aided by specialisations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed. Co-contraction can last for up to half a second, and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg. The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow (almost isometric), which allows it to develop high force (up to 14 N in the desert locust), but because it is slow only low power is needed. The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle, which releases the tibia from the flexed position. The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures, rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle. In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult, or the bow of a bow-and-arrow. Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction, and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures. Stridulation Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat. The generalised song can vary in phraseology and intensity, and is modified in the presence of a rival male, and changes again to a courtship song when a female is nearby. In male grasshoppers of the family Pneumoridae, the enlarged abdomen amplifies stridulation. Life cycle In most grasshopper species, conflicts between males over females rarely escalate beyond ritualistic displays. Some exceptions include the chameleon grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), where males may fight on top of ovipositing females; engaging in leg grappling, biting, kicking and mounting. The newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter. Some, like the semi-aquatic Cornops aquaticum, deposit the pod directly into plant tissue. The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators. Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult, each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult. Swarming Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period. Following this transformation, under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs known as "hoppers" can occur, producing pheromones which attract the insects to each other. With several generations in a year, the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues, devouring all the vegetation they encounter. The largest recorded locust swarm was one formed by the now-extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875; the swarm was long and wide, and one estimate puts the number of locusts involved at 3.5 trillion. An adult desert locust can eat about of plant material each day, so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive, stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and consuming stems, flowers, fruits, seeds and bark. Predators, parasites, and pathogens Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their lives; eggs are eaten by bee-flies, ground beetles and blister beetles; hoppers and adults are taken by other insects such as ants, robber flies and sphecid wasps, by spiders, and by many birds and small mammals including dogs and cats. The eggs and nymphs are under attack by parasitoids including blow flies, flesh flies, and tachinid flies. External parasites of adults and nymphs include mites. Female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring than unaffected individuals. The grasshopper nematode (Mermis nigrescens) is a long slender worm that infects grasshoppers, living in the insect's hemocoel. Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host becomes infected when the foliage is eaten. Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts. When the worms are sufficiently developed, the grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns, thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle, which takes place in water. Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers, as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world, but although it infects grasshoppers, the infection is not usually lethal because basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus. The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host, causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies. This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse. The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa, Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers. It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control. The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae, once considered to be a protozoan, can be lethal to grasshoppers. It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait-based commercial microbial pesticide. Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut. Anti-predator defences Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings. Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai (Eumastacoidea) are detailed mimics of leaves. Stick grasshoppers (Proscopiidae) mimic wooden sticks in form and coloration. Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings, giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight. Some species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. Dictyophorus productus (Pyrgomorphidae) is a "heavy, bloated, sluggish insect" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species. Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, Dactylotum bicolor (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic. Relationship with humans In art and media Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks, such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast's still life oil painting, Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects, c. 1630, now in the National Gallery, London, though the insect may be a bush-cricket. Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch's still life Flowers in a Vase, c. 1685. The seemingly static scene is animated by a "grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring", according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman, with other invertebrates including a spider, an ant, and two caterpillars. Grasshoppers are also featured in cinema. The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago. In the 1998 Disney/Pixar animated film A Bug's Life, the antagonists are a gang of grasshoppers, with their leader Hopper serving as the main villain. Symbolism Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols. During the Greek Archaic Era, the grasshopper was the symbol of the polis of Athens, possibly because they were among the most common insects on the dry plains of Attica. Native Athenians for a while wore golden grasshopper brooches to symbolise that they were of pure Athenian lineage with no foreign ancestors. Another symbolic use of the grasshopper is Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust. When grasshoppers appear in dreams, these have been interpreted as symbols of "Freedom, independence, spiritual enlightenment, inability to settle down or commit to decision". Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers; figuratively as "wicked men and women" for non-farmers; and "Extravagance, misfortune, & ephemeral happiness" by "gypsies". As food In some countries, grasshoppers are used as food. In southern Mexico, grasshoppers, known as chapulines, are eaten in a variety of dishes, such as in tortillas with chilli sauce. Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets, like the Donghuamen Night Market. Fried grasshoppers (walang goreng) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Java in Indonesia. Grasshoppers are a beloved delicacy in Uganda; they are usually eaten fried (most commonly in November and May after the rains). In America, the Ohlone burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food. It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness. However, because of a tradition of depicting him as an ascetic, attempts have been made to explain that the locusts were in fact a suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, notwithstanding the fact that the word ἀκρίδες means plainly grasshoppers. In recent years, with the search for alternative healthy and sustainable protein sources, grasshoppers are being cultivated by commercial companies operating grasshopper farms and are being used as food and protein supplements. As pests Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a major population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development. Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging thick growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens rapidly enough to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite Nosema locustae can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects. On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested. Some grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place. Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations, causing famines and population upheavals. They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have also been held responsible for cholera epidemics, resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches. The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world. Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers from forming before dense swarms of adults can build up. Besides conventional control using contact insecticides, biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum, which specifically infects grasshoppers, has been used with some success. Detection of explosives In February 2020, researchers from Washington University in St. Louis announced they had engineered "cyborg grasshoppers" capable of accurately detecting explosives. In the project, funded by the US Office of Naval Research, researchers fitted grasshoppers with lightweight sensor backpacks that recorded and transmitted the electrical activity of their antennal lobes to a computer. According to the researchers, the grasshoppers were able to detect the location of the highest concentration of explosives. The researchers also tested the effect of combining sensorial information from several grasshoppers on detection accuracy. The neural activity from seven grasshoppers yielded an average detection accuracy rate of 80%, whereas a single grasshopper yielded a 60% rate. In literature The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system. The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts: "They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude." One of Aesop's Fables, later retold by La Fontaine, is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper. The ant works hard all summer, while the grasshopper plays. In winter, the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves. Somerset Maugham's short story "The Ant and the Grasshopper" explores the fable's symbolism via complex framing. Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper's behaviour. So an unfaithful woman (hopping from man to man) is "a grasshopper" in "Poprygunya", an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov, and in Jerry Paris's 1969 film The Grasshopper. In mechanical engineering The name "Grasshopper" was given to the Aeronca L-3 and Piper L-4 light aircraft, both used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II. The name is said to have originated when Major General Innis P. Swift saw a Piper making a rough landing and remarked that it looked like a grasshopper for its bouncing progress. Grasshopper beam engines were beam engines pivoted at one end, the long horizontal arm resembling the hind leg of a grasshopper. The type was patented by William Freemantle in 1803. Notes References Sources External links Extant Triassic first appearances Herbivorous insects Insects in culture Insect common names

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A Muse cell (Multi-lineage differentiating stress enduring cell) is an endogenous non-cancerous pluripotent stem cell. They reside in the connective tissue of nearly every organ including the umbilical cord, bone marrow and peripheral blood. They are collectable from commercially obtainable mesenchymal cells such as human fibroblasts, bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells and adipose-derived stem cells. Muse cells are able to generate cells representative of all three germ layers from a single cell both spontaneously and under cytokine induction. Expression of pluripotency genes and triploblastic differentiation are self-renewable over generations. Muse cells do not undergo teratoma formation when transplanted into a host environment in vivo. This can be explained in part by their intrinsically low telomerase activity, eradicating the risk of tumorigenesis through unbridled cell proliferation. They were discovered in 2010 by Mari Dezawa and her research group. Clinical trials for acute myocardial infarction, stroke, epidermolysis bullosa, spinal cord injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) related to novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection, are conducted by Life Science Institute, Inc., a group company of Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings company. Physician-led clinical trial for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy was also started. The summary results of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial in patients with stroke was announced. Characteristics Stress-tolerant. Do not show tumorigenicity. Resistant to genotoxic stresses due to efficient sensing of DNA damage and activation of DNA repair systems. Can be isolated as cells positive for SSEA-3, a well known human embryonic stem cell marker. Needless to inform that the positive SSEA-3 cells or Muse cells are fresh for maximum one day after sorting and if you sort the same cells after 5 days for instance, you only collect about the same percentage of Muse or positive signal you got before first sorting . Pluripotent stem cells, which can generate various kinds of the cells representative of all three germ layers have the ability to self-renew. Non-tumorigenic. Low telomerase activity. Selectively accumulate into damaged tissue by intravenous or local injections by sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-S1P receptor 2 axis. Replenish new functional cells through spontaneous differentiation into tissue-compatible cells after homing to damaged tissue. Repair tissue by systemic administration. Comprise ~0.03% of bone marrow transplantation and several % of mesenchymal stem cell transplantation. Have immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory effect. Pluripotent stem cells can be directly obtained from normal human tissues without using artificial manipulations such as gene introduction. Donor-Muse cells can be directly used for treatment without HLA-matching test or immunosuppressant treatment due to the specific immune privilege. Markers Muse cells are identified as cells positive for SSEA-3+, a well-known marker for undifferentiated human ES cells. They are also positive for general mesenchymal stem cell markers such as CD105, CD90 and CD29. Therefore, Muse cells are double positive for pluripotent and mesenchymal stem cell markers. Cell isolation by SSEA-3 cell sorting can be done using SSEA-3 antibody. Their size is 13~15 μm in diameter. Muse cells do not express CD34 (markers for hematopoietic stem cells, adipose stem cells, VSELs) and CD117 (hematopoietic stem cells markers), Snai1 and Slug (skin-derived precursors markers), CD271 and Sox10 (neural crest-derived stem cells markers), NG2 and CD146 (perivascular cells) or CD31 and von Willebrand factor (endothelial progenitor markers). This indicates that Muse cells do not belong to previously investigated stem cell types. Differentiation capacity In vitro Muse cells can differentiate into: Ectodermal- (cells positive for nestin, NeuroD, Musashi, neurofilament, MAP-2, melanocyte markers (tyrosinase, MITF, gf100, TRP-1, DCT)), Mesodermal- (brachyury, Nkx2-5, smooth muscle actin, osteocalcin, oil red-(+) lipid droplets, desmin) Endodermal- (GATA-6, α-fetoprotein, cytokeratin-7, albumin) lineages both spontaneously and under cytokine induction. In vivo Muse cells are shown to home into the damage site by S1P-S1P recptor 2 axis and spontaneously differentiate into tissue-compatible cells according to the microenvironment to contribute to tissue regeneration when infused into the blood stream. This was shown in human Muse cells infused into animal models with fulminant hepatitis, partial hepatectomy, muscle degeneration, epidermolysis bullosa, skin injury, stroke and spinal cord injury. Non-tumorigenicity Low telomerase activity Muse cells are characterized by low telomerase activity, not a strong indicator of tumorigenicity. Hela cells and human fibroblast-derived iPS cells showed high telomerase activity while Muse was at nearly the same level as that in somatic cells such as fibroblasts (these data are shown without running control for the telomerase activity, the comparison is not scientific thought). This indicates the non-tumorigenic nature of Muse cells. Expression of genes related to pluripotency and cell cycle The expression 'pattern' of genes related to pluripotency in Muse cells was almost the same as that in ES and iPS cells, while the expression 'level' was much higher in ES and iPS cells and that in Muse cells. In contrast, genes related to cell cycle progression and tumorigenicity in Muse cells were at the same level as those in somatic cells, while the same genes were very high in ES and iPS cells. These gene expression pattern and level may explain why Muse cells are pluripotent but without tumorigenic activity. Transplantation into mouse testes Unlike ES and iPS cells, transplanted Muse cells in testes of immunodeficient mice -a commonly used experiment to test the tumorigenicity of stem cells- have not been reported to form teratomas, even after six months. Thus, Muse cells are pluripotent but are non-tumorigenic. Similarly, epiblast stem cells cultured under certain conditions also do not form teratomas in testes, even though they show pluripotency in vitro. Thus, pluripotent stem cells do not always show teratoma formation when transplanted in vivo. Tissue repair Muse cells act as tissue repairing cells in vivo. When systemically administrated, naive Muse cells (without cytokine treatment or gene introduction) migrate to damaged site, home into the site and spontaneously differentiate into tissue-compatible cells to replenish new functional cells. This phenomenon was observed by the infusion of green fluorescent protein-labeled naive human Muse cells into animal models with fulminant hepatitis, partial hepatectomy, muscle degeneration, skin injury, stroke and spinal cord injury. Infused Muse cells integrated into each damaged tissue and differentiated into human albumin- and human anti-trypsin-expressing hepatocytes in the liver, human dystrophin-expressing cells in the muscle, neurofilament and MAP-2-expressing neuronal cells in the spinal cord and brain, desmoglein-3-, cytokerain14- and cytokeratin 15-expressing epidermal cells in the skin, glomerular cells in the kidney, corneal epithelial cells in the cornea and physiologically functional cardiac cells in the heart, respectively. Muse cells have great advantages for regenerative medicine. Without need of cytokine induction or artificial gene manipulation, Muse cells are capable of repairing tissues when directly infused into the blood stream. Hence, the clinical applications of Muse cells appear promising. Precise conditions such as the number and source of Muse cells for each organ regeneration requires further investigation. Currently, Life Science Institute, Inc. and its parent company, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings, have established a cell-processing procedure that is compliant with the Japanese Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Good Gene, Cellular, and Tissue-based Products Manufacturing Practice (GCTP) regulation. The Muse cell preparation is currently being tested in nonclinical toxicity studies. Basic characteristics Pluripotency, namely pluripotent marker expression, triploblastic differentiation and self-renewability, are recognized in Muse cells directly collected from BM aspirates, indicating that their characteristics are not newly acquired by in vitro manipulation nor are they modified under culture conditions. Location in vivo Muse cells are not generated by stress, cytokine induction or exogenous gene transfection. They are preexisting pluripotent stem cells that normally reside in the bone marrow, peripheral blood and connective tissue of every organ including the umbilical cord. [3][1][4][5][6] ] In the bone marrow, they represent one out of 3000 mono-nucleated cells. Other than mesenchymal tissues, Muse cells locate in connective tissue of every organ and in the peripheral blood. Duality Muse cells behave as mesenchymal cells in adherent environments such as in connective tissue and adherent culture, and switch to pluripotent behavior when they are transferred to a suspension environment such as in the blood stream and suspension culture Formation of clusters similar to embryoid body of ES cells in suspension In cell suspension, Muse cells begin to proliferate and to form clusters that are very similar to embryoid bodies formed from ES cells in suspension. Muse cell clusters are positive for pluripotency indicators such as alkaline phosphatase reactivities, Nanog, Oct3/4, Sox2 and PAR4. One of remarkable properties of Muse cells is that they are capable of forming clusters from a single cell in suspension. A single Muse cell-derived cluster is shown to spontaneously generate cells representative of all three germ layers on a gelatin-coated dish, proving the pluripotency of Muse cells. It is important to mention that non-Muse population also generates cluster in same condition, but in lower percentage (50 Muse vs 10 non-Muse) Proliferation speed Muse cells proliferate at a speed of ~1.3 day/cell division in adherent culture. This is slightly slower than that of human fibroblasts (~1 day/cell division). Self-renewal Muse cells are able to self-renew, maintaining their proliferative activity, pluripotency marker expression and a normal karyotype. Sources Muse cells can be collected from bone marrow aspirate, whose collection is a well known procedure done daily in clinics. They can also be isolated from skin fibroblasts obtained via skin biopsy, adipose tissue obtained by liposuction and from the umbilical cord; a safe and non-invasive procedure often used for cosmetic surgery interventions Easy accessibility of Muse cells allows them to be auto- or allo-transplanted in regenerative clinical applications. Muse cells are also isolated from commercially available mesenchymal cell cultures, which ensure their availability and accessibility. General Sources. Muse cells can be obtained from: Bone marrow aspirate Adipose tissue and liposuction Dermis Umbilical cord Commercially available culture cells such as: Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells Fibroblasts Adipose-derived stem cells Bone marrow: Bone marrow mononucleated cells contain ~0.03% of SSEA-3/CD105 double positive Muse cells. This ratio corresponds to one out of 3000 mono-nucleated cells. Dermis: Muse cells, detected as SSEA-3-positive cells, are located sparsely in the connective tissues of organs. In the human dermis, Muse cells are located in the connective tissues distributed in the dermis and hypodermis. Their location is not related to particular structures such as blood vessels or dermal papilla. Adipose tissue: Recently, Muse cells have been successfully isolated from adipose tissue and liposuction material. The characteristics of adipose tissue-derived Muse cells were consistent with those of Muse cells isolated from bone marrow aspirate and commercially available fibroblasts. Chazenbalk et al. showed that Muse cells spontaneously differentiated into cells representative of all three germ layers. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells contain about 1% SSEA-3 positive Muse cells. Human dermal fibroblasts contain around 1 to 5% SSEA-3 positive Muse cells. Adipose-derived stem cells (Lonza Co.) has around 1 to 7% SSEA-3 positive Muse cells. The overall percentage of Muse cells depends on the source of mesenchymal tissue as well as manipulation and number of mesenchymal cells utilized for isolation by cell culture technique. Muse cells in different species: Most of Muse cell research has been done in human samples. Recently, they have been isolated from goat skin fibroblasts. Goat SSEA3+ M-clusters showed stem cell-like morphological characters and normal karyotypes. Also, they were consistently positive for pluripotency markers and alkaline phosphatase staining. Goat Muse cells showed triploblastic differentiation capability both in vivo and in vitro and remained undifferentiated over eight passages in suspension culture. Collection methods Muse cells can be collected by several techniques: Cell sorting: By using SSEA-3 single- or SSEA-3/CD105 double-positivity, Muse cells can be isolated from tissues and commercially obtained cultured cells. When Muse cells are to be collected directly from tissue, cells are labeled with both SSEA-3 and CD105. However, in the case of cultured mesenchymal cells, almost all cells in MSCs are positive for mesenchymal markers such as CD105 and CD90. Single labeling with SSEA-3 is sufficient to collect Muse cells. The procedure includes the following steps: Preparation of mesenchymal cells from either dermal fibroblasts or fresh bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells. Isolation of Muse cells by FACS as cells positive for SSEA-3. M-cluster formation in suspension culture using single-cell suspension culture. The surface of the bottom of each culture dish or well must be coated with poly-HEMA to avoid adhesion of the cells. Long-term trypsin (LTT) treatment: For large-scale usage of Muse cells -for transplantation experiments for example- they could be enriched in naive cells by severe cellular stress conditions. The resulting population is called a Muse-Enriched Cell (MEC) population. The best conditions for Muse enrichment have been described as long trypsin incubation for 16 hours in skin fibroblasts and long trypsin incubation for 8 hours in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. However, the practical procedure for transplantation or differentiation purposes is the isolation of Muse cells from a bulk culture of skin fibroblasts or bone marrow MSCs as cells positive for SSEA-3. Severe cellular stress treatment (SCST): Muse cells can be isolated from lipoaspired fat by subjection to severe stress conditions that eliminate all other cell types except for Muse cells, which survive as a feature of their capacity for stress endurance. The resulting cell population contains a high number of Muse cells and therefore there is no need for cell sorting. The stress conditions included; long incubation with collagenase, low temperature, serum deprivation, and severe hypoxia for 16 hours. Finally, the digested material is centrifuged and the pellet is re-suspended in PBS and incubated with a red blood cell lysis buffer. Muse cells isolated by this method have been found to be distinct population from adipose stem cells. Basic difference from other mesenchymal stem cells There are major differences between Muse cells and non-Muse cells in present within mesenchymal cell population. When mesenchymal cells (sometimes called mesenchymal stem cells) are separated into Muse and non-Muse cells by SSEA-3 cell sorting, the following differences are observed: Muse cells, SSEA-3(+) form clusters (which are similar to embryoid bodies of ES cells) from a single cell in suspension, while non-Muse cells, SSEA-3(-) do not proliferate successfully in suspension and thus do not form these distinctive clusters. Basic expression level of pluripotency genes in non-Muse cells is very low or undetectable level compared to Muse cells. Non-Muse cells do not exhibit tissue reparation when infused into the blood stream. While they do not integrate into the damaged tissue, they may indirectly contribute to tissue regeneration by their production of cytokines, trophic factors and anti-inflammatory factors. Muse cells as a primary source of iPS cells In 2009, a study showed that only SSEA-3+ cells generate induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells in human fibroblasts. In 2011, it was suggested that iPS cells are generated only from Muse cells. When the technique for generation of iPS cells was applied to both Muse and non-Muse cells, iPS cells were successfully generated only from Muse cells. In contrast, non-Muse cells did not show elevation in Sox2 and Nanog, master genes of pluripotent stem cells, even after receiving the four Yamanaka factors. These results support the elite model of iPS cell generation rather than the stochastic model. Divergent from their Muse cell origin, iPS cells showed tumorigenecity. Since Muse cells are originally pluripotent without tumorigenic activity, what the Yamanaka factors newly conferred to Muse cells was not 'pluripotency' but tumorigenic activity. These results collectively suggest that only preexisting cells with promising pluripotency can be programmed into iPS cells. Differentiation ability of Muse cells in vitro Muse cells from different sources are capable of in vitro differentiation into various cell types. Melanocytes: Human dermal fibroblast-derived Muse cells are a practical source for melanocyte induction. Application of a cytokine induction system comprising Wnt3a, SCF, ET-3, basic fibroblast growth factor, linoleic acid, cholera toxin, L-ascorbic acid, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate, insulin, transferrin, selenium, and dexamethasone to both human dermal fibroblast-derived Muse and non-Muse cells induces only the Muse cells into L-DOPA–reactive functional melanocytes capable of melanin production in a 3D cultured skin model. The application of a set of cytokines also differentiates dermal-Muse cells into melanocytes. Keratinocytes Human adipose tissue-derived Muse cells differentiate into keratinocytes by spontaneous differentiation on a gelatin culture dish or by cytokine induction containing bone morphogenetic protein-4 and all trans retinoic acid. Neuronal Cells: Human bone marrow- and fibroblast-derived Muse cells spontaneously differentiate into neural lineage cells with a lower proportion on a gelatin culture. Cells expanded from single Muse cell-derived clusters on gelatin-coated culture dishes express the neural markers nestin (1.9%), MAP-2 (3.8%), GFAP (3.4%), and O4 (2.9%), suggesting the ability of Muse cells to differentiate into neural-lineage cells. The cells positive for MAP-2 or GFAP were increased following induction with basic fibroblast growth factor, forskolin, and ciliary neurotrophic factor. Liver Cells: Muse cells can spontaneously differentiate in vitro into hepatocyte lineage cells positive for DLK, alpha-fetoprotein, cytokeratin 19, and cytokeratin 18 on gelatin-coated culture dishes. In the presence of insulin-transferrin-selenium, dexamethasone, hepatocyte growth factor, and fibroblast growth factor-4, Muse cells differentiate into alpha-fetoprotein(+), albumin(+) cells. Glomerular cells: Muse cells differentiate in vitro into renal lineage-cells with increased expression of developmental renal markers WT1 and EYA1 compared with non-Muse cells after 3 weeks following the application of a cytokine induction cocktail containing all trans retinoic acid, activin A, and bone morphologic protein-7. Cardiac cells: Treatment of Muse cells with 5’ -azacytidine in suspension culture; then transferring the cells onto adherent culture and treatment with early cardiac differentiation factors wingless-int (Wnt)-3a, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP)-2/4, and transforming growth factor (TGF) b 1; further treatment with late cardiac differentiation cytokines including cardiotrophin-1 converted Muse cells into cardiomyocyte-like cells that expressed a -actinin and troponin-I with a striation-like pattern. Adipocytes & Osteocytes: Expanded cells from Muse clusters differentiate into adipocytes by the application of 1-methyl-3-isobutylxanthine, dexamethasone, insulin, and indomethacin. These induced adipocytes contain lipid droplets and stain positive for oil red O. In addition, Muse cluster expanded cells differentiate into osteoblasts positive for osteocalcin using dexamethasone, ascorbic acid, and β-glycerophosphate. In vivo reparative effect of Muse cells Muse cells from different sources demonstrate reparative effects in animal disease models. Acute myocardial infarction model Rabbit autograft, allograft, and xenograft (human) bone marrow-Muse cells were intravenously administrated in a rabbit acute myocardial infarction model. In vivo dynamics of Muse cells showed preferential homing of the cells to the postinfarct heart at 3 days and 2 weeks, with ≈14.5% of injected Muse cells estimated to be engrafted into the heart at 3 days. The migration and homing of the Muse cells were shown to be mediated through the S1P (sphingosine monophosphate)-S1PR2 axis. After homing, Muse cells spontaneously differentiated into cells positive for cardiac markers, such as cardiac troponin-I, sarcomeric α-actinin, and connexin-43, and vascular markers, and GCaMP3-labeled Muse cells that engrafted into the ischemic region exhibited increased GCaMP3 fluorescence during systole and decreased fluorescence during diastole, suggesting their functionality as working cardiomyocytes. Infarct size was reduced by ≈52%, and the ejection fraction was increased by ≈38% compared with vehicle injection at 2 months, ≈2.5 and ≈2.1 times higher, respectively, than that induced by mesenchymal stem cells. Muse cell allografts and xenografts efficiently engrafted and recovered functions, and allografts remained in the tissue and sustained functional recovery for up to 6 months without immunosuppression. Stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage models: The neural regeneration capability of Muse cells has been demonstrated in several models. In a rat stroke model induced by ischemic-reperfusion of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), 3 x 104 human dermal-Muse cells topically injected into three sites in the infarct area (each site received 1 x 104 Muse cells) delivered statistically significant functional recovery compared to vehicle and non-Muse fibroblast cell-injected groups after ~2.5 months. The functional recovery was supported by the incorporation of human Muse cells into rat pyramidal and sensory tracts with normalized hind limb somatosensory evoked potentials. Similarly, topically injected human bone marrow-Muse cells integrate into infarct region and replenish new neuronal cells and oligodendrocytes in mouse permanent MCAO and mouse lacunar stroke models. In the mouse lacunar stroke model, human Muse cells-derived neuronal cells integrated into the pyramidal tract, leading to statistically meaningful functional recovery. In a mouse intracerebral hemorrhage model, topically injected human bone marrow-Muse cells spontaneously differentiate into neuronal cells. Mice recovered motor function and spatial learning and memory ability. Liver cirrhosis and partial hepatectomy models: Intravenously injected human bone marrow-derived Muse cells are able to repair an immunodeficient mouse (SCID) model of CCL4-induced liver cirrhosis. Human Muse cells spontaneously differentiate in vivo into hepatocytes without fusing with host hepatocytes, and express mature functional markers such as human CYP1A2 (detoxification enzyme) and human Glc-6-Pase (enzyme for glucose metabolism) at 8 weeks after homing. Human bone marrow-derived Muse cells injected intravenously into a partial hepatectomy model in SCID mice differentiate spontaneously into major liver components, namely hepatocytes (74.3% of green fluorescent protein-positive integrated Muse cells), cholangiocytes (17.7%), sinusoidal endothelial cells (2.0%), and Kupffer cells (6.0%) after migrating and homing into the injured liver. Non-Muse bone marrow MSCs are not detected in the liver from the early stage (~ 1 week) to the end-point in either model. Chronic kidney disease model: Human bone marrow-derived Muse cells injected intravenously repair SCID and BALB/c mouse models of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis without added immunosuppression. Injected human Muse cells preferentially integrate into the damaged glomeruli and spontaneously differentiate into cells expressing markers of podocytes (podocin; ~31%), mesangial cells (megsin; ~13%), and endothelial cells (CD31; ~41%) without fusing with host glomerular cells; attenuate glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis; and induce the recovery of renal function, including creatinine clearance. Skin ulcers in diabetes mellitus: Human adipose tissue-derived Muse-rich cells significantly accelerate wound healing in skin ulcers of a mouse type 1 diabetes model. Subcutaneously injected human Muse cells integrate into the epidermis and dermis and differentiate into keratinocytes, vascular endothelial cells, and other cell types in the dermis. Ulcers treated with human Muse cells heal faster with a thick epidermal layer than those treated with non-Muse cells, with a wound closure duration even shorter than that in wild-type mice. Aortic aneurism model: Therapeutic efficacy of intravenous injection of human bone marrow-Muse cells into a SCID mouse aortic aneurysm model was evaluated. At 8 weeks, infusion of human Muse cells attenuated aneurysm dilation, and the aneurysmal size in the Muse group corresponded to approximately 45.6% in the vehicle group. Infused Muse cells were shown to migrate into aneurysmal tissue from the adventitial side and penetrated toward the luminal side. Histologic analysis demonstrated robust preservation of elastic fibers and spontaneous differentiation of Muse cells into endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells. Epidermolysis bullosa model Type XVII collagen (Col17)-knockout (KO) mice that simulate junctional EB and recurrent skin injuries received 5.0 × 10^4 human Muse cells or human non-Muse-mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) by intravenous injection into the tail vein. Ex vivo imaging of dissected injured skin confirmed the homing of injected Muse cells but not of non-Muse-MSCs. Human Muse cells homed to the mouse epidermis expressed keratin 14 and human desmoglein-3. Notably, all the mice in the Muse group showed the linear deposition of human type VII COL (hCOL7) at the injury site of the mouse skin whereMuse-derived cells were intensively integrated. Similarly, four of the five mice in the Muse group showed the deposition of human COL17 in association with Muse cell-derived basal cells. neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy model Seven-day-old rats underwent ligation of the left carotid artery then were exposed to 8% oxygen for 60 min, and 72 hours later intravenously transplanted with 1 × 10^4 of human-Muse and -non-Muse cells, collected from bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells as stage-specific embryonic antigen-3 (SSEA-3)+ and -, respectively, or saline (vehicle) without immunosuppression. Muse cells distributed mainly to the injured brain at 2 and 4 weeks, and expressed neuronal and glial markers until 6 months. In contrast, non-Muse cells lodged in the lung at 2 weeks, but undetectable by 4 weeks. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and positron emission tomography demonstrated that Muse cells dampened excitotoxic brain glutamatergic metabolites and suppressed microglial activation. Muse cell-treated group exhibited significant improvements in motor and cognitive functions at 4 weeks and 5 months. Intravenously transplanted Muse cells afforded functional benefits in experimental HIE possibly via regulation of glutamate metabolism and reduction of microglial activation. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model In G93A-transgenic ALS mice, intravenous injection of 5.0 × 10^4 Muse cells revealed successful homing to the lumbar spinal cords, mainly at the pia-mater and underneath white matter, and exhibited glia-like morphology and GFAP expression. In contrast, such homing or differentiation were not recognized in human mesenchymal stem cells but were instead distributed mainly in the lung. Relative to the vehicle groups, the Muse group significantly improved scores in the rotarod, hanging-wire and muscle strength of lower limbs, recovered the number of motor neurons, and alleviated denervation and myofiber atrophy in lower limb muscles. These results suggest that Muse cells homed in a lesion site-dependent manner and protected the spinal cord against motor neuron death. Stx2-Producing E. coli-Associated Encephalopathy model Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) causes hemorrhagic colitis, hemolytic uremic syndrome, and acute encephalopathies that may lead to sudden death or severe neurologic sequelae. Severely immunocompromised non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD-SCID) mice orally inoculated with 9 × 10^9 colony-forming units of STEC O111 and treated 48 h later with intravenous injection of 5 × 10^4 Muse cells exhibited 100% survival and no severe after-effects of infection. Suppression of granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) by RNAi abolished the beneficial effects of Muse cells, leading to a 40% death and significant body weight loss, suggesting the involvement of G-CSF in the beneficial effects of Muse cells in STEC-infected mice. Thus, intravenous administration of Muse cells could be a candidate therapeutic approach for preventing fatal encephalopathy after STEC infection. Corneal scarring Human Muse cells, collected from lipoaspirate, were activated by forming spheroid in the dynamic rotary cell culture system. These activated Muse spheroids enabled ready differentiation into corneal stromal cells (CSCs) expressing characteristic marker genes and proteins in vitro. Implantation of Muse cells–differentiated CSCs (Muse-CSCs) laden assembled with two orthogonally stacked stretched compressed collagen (cell-SCC) in mouse and tree shrew wounded corneas prevented the formation of corneal scarring, increased corneal re-epithelialization and nerve regrowth, and reduced the severity of corneal inflammation and neovascularization. cell-SCC retained the capacity to suppress corneal scarring after long-distance cryopreserved transport. Muse cells in clinical data Muse cells are present in the human bone marrow of healthy donors. The number of peripheral blood-Muse cells is drastically elevated in stroke patients 24 h after onset. In acute myocardial infarction patients, peripheral blood-Muse cells significantly increase 24 h after onset, concomitant with an increase in serum sphingosine-1-phosphate, and return to baseline levels with 2~3 weeks. Importantly, patients with an increased peripheral blood-Muse cell number in the acute phase show cardiac function recovery and avoidance of heart failure at 6 months after onset, suggesting the reparative function of endogenous Muse cells. Regenerative medicine Bone marrow transplantation: Muse cells are a subpopulation of bone marrow cells. They represent a small population of mono-nucleated bone marrow cells (~0.03%). This means that they have already been supplied to patients many times all over the world in bone marrow transplantations; a well-known procedure that has been performed in clinics since 1958. Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation: Muse cells exist within cultured MSCs such as bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and adipose-derived stem cells. MSC transplantation has been employed for repairing liver, heart, neural tissue, airway, skin, skeletal muscle, and intestine. Therefore, if Muse cells were purified or enriched, the effectiveness of currently performed MSC transplantation is expected to see vast improvements. Because Muse cells do not form teratomas in vivo, they could provide an ideal source of pluripotent stem cells for regenerative medicine and cell-based therapy. Clinical Trial Currently, Life Science Institute, Inc. and its parent company, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings, have established a cell-processing procedure that is compliant with the Japanese Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Good Gene, Cellular, and Tissue-based Products Manufacturing Practice (GCTP) regulation. Clinical trials for human Muse cell-based product CL2020 have been started in 2018, targeting acute myocardial infarction, stroke, epidermolysis bullosa, spinal cord injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) related to novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Rapid communications for acute myocardial infarction and epidermolysis bullosa have been published. The summary results of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial in patients with stroke was announced. The primary endpoint of the clinical trial was patient safety for up to 52 weeks after administration of CL2020 and no adverse events that would prevent advancement of the clinical study were observed throughout the clinical study period. Prior to administration of placebo or CL2020, most patients had a modified Rankin Scale (mRS1)) score of 4 (moderately severe disability: unable to walk and attend to bodily functions without assistance) or 5 (severe disability:bedridden, incontinent, and requires continuous care and attention). At 52 weeks after administration, the proportion of responders in the CL2020 group was 68.2% (15/22 cases), and the difference between the CL2020 group and the placebo group (37.5%, 3/8 cases) was maintained at more than 30%.Evaluation of the efficacy at 52 weeks after administration revealed that 7 of 22 (31.8%) subjects in the CL2020 group achieved an mRS score of 1 (no significant disability despite symptoms: able to carry out all pre-stroke activities without assistance, such as return to work). No one in the placebo group achieved an mRS score of 1 within 52 weeks. See also Stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency cell Induced stem cells References Regenerative biomedicine Stem cells

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Klezmer () is an instrumental musical tradition of the Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. The essential elements of the tradition include dance tunes, ritual melodies, and virtuosic improvisations played for listening; these would have been played at weddings and other social functions. The musical genre incorporated elements of many other musical genres including Ottoman (especially Greek and Romanian) music, Baroque music, German and Slavic folk dances, and religious Jewish music. As the music arrived in the United States, it lost some of its traditional ritual elements and adopted elements of American big band and popular music. Among the European-born klezmers who popularized the genre in the United States in the 1910s and 1920s were Dave Tarras and Naftule Brandwein; they were followed by American-born musicians such as Max Epstein, Sid Beckerman and Ray Musiker. After the destruction of Jewish life in Eastern Europe during the Holocaust, and a general fall in the popularity of klezmer music in the United States, the music began to be popularized again in the late 1970s in the so-called Klezmer Revival. During the 1980s and onwards, musicians experimented with traditional and experimental forms of the genre, releasing fusion albums combining the genre with jazz, punk, and other styles. Etymology The term , as used in the Yiddish language, has a Hebrew etymology: klei, meaning "tools, utensils or instruments of" and zemer, "melody"; leading to k'lei zemer , meaning "musical instruments". This expression would have been familiar to literate Jews across the diaspora, not only Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe. Over time the usage of "" in a Yiddish context evolved to describe musicians instead of their instruments, first in Bohemia in the second half of the sixteenth century and then in Poland, possibly as a response to the new status of the musicians who were at that time forming professional guilds. Previously the musician may have been referred to as a () or other terms. After the term became the preferred term for these professional musicians in Yiddish-speaking Eastern Europe, other types of musicians were more commonly known as or . It was not until the late 20th century that the word "Klezmer" became a commonly known English language term. During that time, through metonymy it came to refer not only to the musician but to the musical genre they played, a meaning which it had not had in Yiddish. Early 20th century recording industry materials and other writings had referred to it as Hebrew, Jewish, or Yiddish dance music, or sometimes using the Yiddish term Freilech music ("Cheerful music"). Twentieth century Russian scholars sometimes used the term Klezmer; Ivan Lipaev did not use it, but Moisei Beregovsky did when publishing in Yiddish or Ukrainian. The first postwar recordings to use the term "klezmer" to refer to the music were The Klezmorim's East Side Wedding and Streets of Gold in 1977/78, followed by Andy Statman and Zev Feldman's Jewish Klezmer Music in 1979. Musical elements Style The traditional style of playing Klezmer music, including tone, typical cadences, and ornamentation sets it apart from other genres. Although Klezmer music emerged out of a larger Eastern European Jewish musical culture that included Jewish cantorial music, Hasidic Nigns, and Yiddish theatre music, it also borrowed from the surrounding folk musics of Central and Eastern Europe and from cosmopolitan European musical forms. Therefore it evolved into an overall style which has recognizable elements from all of those other genres. Few klezmer musicians before the late nineteenth century had formal musical training, but they inherited a rich tradition with its own advanced musical techniques, each musician had their understanding of how the style should be "correctly" performed. The usage of these ornaments was not random; the matters of "taste", self-expression, variation and restraint were and remain important elements of how to interpret the music. Klezmer musicians apply the overall style to available specific techniques on each melodic instrument. They incorporate and elaborate the vocal melodies of Jewish religious practice, including khazones, davenen, and paraliturgical song, extending the range of human voice into the musical expression possible on instruments. Among those stylistic elements that are considered typically "Jewish" in Klezmer music are those which are shared with cantorial or Hasidic vocal ornaments, including dreydlekh ("tear in the voice") and imitations of sighing or laughing ("laughter through tears"). Various Yiddish terms were used for these vocal-like ornaments such as (Krekhts, "groan" or "moan"), (, "wrinkle" or "fold"), and (, "pressure" or "stress"). Other ornaments such as trills, grace notes, appoggiaturas, pedal notes, mordents, slides and typical Klezmer cadences are also important to the style. In particular, the cadences which draw on religious Jewish music identify a piece more strongly as a Klezmer tune, even if its broader structure was borrowed from a non-Jewish source. Unlike in Classical music, vibrato is used more sparingly, and is treated as another type of ornament. The accompaniment style of the accompanist or orchestra could be fairly impromptu, called (, holding onto). Historical repertoire The repertoire of Klezmer musicians was very diverse and tied to specific social functions and dances, especially of the traditional wedding. These melodies might have a non-Jewish origin, or have been composed by a Klezmer, but only rarely are they attributed to a specific composer. Generally Klezmer music can be divided into two broad categories: music for specific dances, and music for listening (at the table, in processions, ceremonial, etc.) Dances Freylekhs. The simplest and most widespread type of Klezmer dance tune are those played in and intended for group circle dances. Depending on the location this basic dance may also have been called a (circle), , (round dance, literally the Belarussian translation of the Russian khorovod), , , etc. Bulgar Sher is a Contra dance in . Beregovsky, writing in the 1930s, noted that despite the dance being very commonly played across a wide area, and that he suspected it had its roots in an older German dance. This dance continued to be known in the United States even after other complex European Klezmer dances had been forgotten. Khosidl, or khusidl, named after the Hasidic Jews who danced it, is a more dignified embellished dance in or . The dance steps can be performed in a circle or in a line. Hora or zhok is a Romanian-style dance in a hobbling time with beats on 1 and 3, and is even more embellished. The Israeli hora derives its roots from the Romanian hora. The Yiddish name zhok comes from the Romanian Joc, literally "dance". Kolomeike is a fast and catchy dance in time, which originated in Ukraine, and is prominent in the folk music of that country. Skotshne is generally thought to be a more elaborate which could be played either for dancing or listening. Nigun, a very broad term which can refer to melodies for listening, singing or dancing. Usually a mid-paced song in . Waltzes were very popular, whether classical, Russian, or Polish. A padespan was a sort of Russian/Spanish waltz known to klezmers. Mazurka and polka, Polish and Czech dances, respectively, were often played for both Jews and Gentiles. Sirba – a Romanian dance in or (Romanian sârbă). It features hopping steps and short bursts of running, accompanied by triplets in the melody. Non-dance repertoire The is a freeform instrumental form borrowed from the Romanian shepherd's Doina. Although there are many regional types of Doina in Romania and Moldova, the Jewish form is typically simpler, with a minor key theme which is then repeated in a major key, followed by a . A is a related genre. (table tune) , a type of Nigun, called Devekut in Hebrew, which inspires spiritual arousal or a pious mood. A (Waltz), pieces in especially in the Hasidic context, may be slower than non-Jewish waltzes and intended for listening while the wedding parties are seated at their tables. Forms centering on bridal rituals, including (seating of the bride) A (March) can be non-Jewish march melodies adapted into joyful singing or playing contexts. Processional melodies, including (street tunes), (to the table). According to Beregovski the was always in time. The , whose name is borrowed from the Ottoman/Arab Taqsim is a freeform fantasy on a particular motif, ornemented with trills, roulades and so on; it usually ends with a . By the twentieth century it has mostly become obsolete and was replaced by the Doina. Fantazi or fantasy is a freeform song, traditionally played at Jewish weddings to the guests as they dined. It resembles the fantasia of "light" classical music. A is a type of virtuosic solo piece in performed by leading klezmorim such as Dave Tarras and Naftule Brandwein. There is no dance for this type of melody, rather it references an Ottoman or "oriental" style, and melodies may incorporate references to Greek Hasapiko into a Ashkenazic musical aesthetic. Parting melodies played at the beginning or end of a wedding day, such as the (be healthy), , (good day), or (good night) etc. These types of pieces were sometimes in which may have given an air of dignity and seriousness. Orchestration Klezmer music is an instrumental tradition, without much of a history of songs or singing. In Eastern Europe, Klezmers did traditionally accompany the vocal stylings of the Badchen (wedding entertainer), although their performances were typically improvised couplets and the calling of ceremonies rather than songs. (The importance of the Badchen gradually decreased by the twentieth century, although they still continued in some traditions.) As for the klezmer orchestra, its size and composition varied by time and place. The Klezmer bands of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century were small, with roughly three to five musicians playing Woodwind or String instruments. Another common configuration in that era was similar to Hungarian bands today, typically a lead violinist, second violin, cello, and Cimbalom. In the mid-nineteenth century, the Clarinet started to appear in those small Klezmer ensembles as well. By the last decades of the century, in Ukraine, the orchestras had grown larger, averaging seven to twelve members, and incorporating Brass instruments and up to twenty for a prestigious occasion. (However, for poor weddings a large Klezmer ensemble might only send three or four of its junior members.) In these larger orchestras, on top of the core instrumentation of strings and woodwinds, cornets, C clarinets, trombones, a contrabass, a large Turkish drum, and several extra violins. The inclusion of Jews in tsarist army bands during the 19th century may also have led to the introduction of typical military band instruments into klezmer. With such large orchestras, the music was arranged so that the bandleader soloist could still be heard at key moments. In Galicia, and Belarus, the smaller string ensemble with cimbalom remained the norm into the twentieth century. American Klezmer as it developed in dancehalls and wedding banquets of the early twentieth century had a more complete orchestration not unlike those used in popular orchestras of the time. They use a clarinet, saxophone, or trumpet for the melody, and make great use of the trombone for slides and other flourishes. The melody in Klezmer music is generally assigned to the lead violin, although occasionally the flute and eventually clarinet. The other instrumentalists provide harmony, rhythm, and some counterpoint (the latter usually coming from the second violin or viola). The clarinet now often played the melody. Brass instruments—such as the French valved cornet and keyed German trumpet—eventually inherited a counter-voice role. Modern klezmer instrumentation is more commonly influenced by the instruments of the 19th century military bands than the earlier orchestras. Percussion in early 20th-century klezmer recordings was generally minimal—no more than a wood block or snare drum. In Eastern Europe, percussion was often provided by a drummer who played a frame drum, or poyk, sometimes called baraban. A poyk is similar to a bass drum and often has a cymbal or piece of metal mounted on top, which is struck by a beater or a small cymbal strapped to the hand. Melodic modes Western, Cantorial, and Ottoman music terminology Klezmer music is a genre that developed partly in the Western musical tradition but also in the Ottoman Empire, and is primarily an oral tradition which does not have a well-established literature to explain its modes and modal progression. But, as with other types of Ashkenazic Jewish music, it has a complex system of modes which were used in its compositions. Many of its melodies do not fit well in the major and minor terminology used in Western music, nor is the music systematically microtonal in the way that Middle Eastern music is. Nusach terminology, as developed for Cantorial music in the nineteenth century, is often used instead, and indeed many Klezmer compositions draw heavily on religious music. But it also incorporates elements of Baroque and Eastern European folk musics, making description based only on religious terminology incomplete. Still, since the Klezmer revival of the 1970s, the terms for Jewish prayer modes are the most common to describe the those used in klezmer. The terms used in Yiddish for these modes include Nusach (); (), "manner, mode of life" which describes the typical melodic character, important notes and scale; and (), a word meaning "taste" which was commonly used by Moisei Beregovsky. Beregovsky, who was writing in the Stalinist era and was constrained by having to downplay Klezmer's religious aspects, did not use the terminology of Synagogue modes, except in some early work in 1929. Instead, he relied on German-inspired musical terminology of major, minor, and "other" modes, which he described in technical terms. In his 1940s works he noted that the majority of the klezmer repertoire seemed to be in a minor key, whether Natural minor or others, that around a quarter of the material was in Freygish, and that around a fifth of the repertoire was in a Major key. Another set of terminology sometimes used to describe klezmer music is that of the Makams used in Ottoman and other Middle Eastern musics. This approach dates back to Idelsohn in the early twentieth century, who was very familiar with Middle Eastern music, and has been developed in the past decade by Joshua Horowitz. Finally, some Klezmer music, and especially those composed in the United States from the mid-twentieth century onwards, may not be composed with these traditional modes, but rather built around chords. Description Because there is no agreed-upon, complete system for describing modes in Klezmer music, this list is imperfect and may conflate concepts which some scholars view as separate. Another problem in listing these terms as simple eight-note (octatonic) scales is that it makes it harder to see how Klezmer melodic structures can work as five-note pentachords, how parts of different modes typically interact, and what the cultural significance of a given mode might be in a traditional Klezmer context. , , or Phrygian dominant scale resembles the Phrygian mode, having a flat second but also a permanent raised third. It is among the most common modes in Klezmer and is closely identified with Jewish identity; Beregovsky estimated that roughly a quarter of the Klezmer music he had collected was in Freygish. Among the most well-known pieces composed in this mode are Hava Nagila and . It is comparable to the Maqam Hijaz found in Arabic music. , Av HaRachamim, "altered Dorian" or Ukrainian Dorian scale is a minor mode which has a raised fourth. It is sometimes compared to . It is closely related to since they share the same pitch intervals. This mode is often encountered in and other Klezmer forms with connections to Romanian or Ukrainian music. or a synagogue mode with a flatted seventh. It is sometimes called the "Jewish major". It has some similarities to the Mixolydian mode. is a synagogue mode which resembles the Western Natural minor. In klezmer music, it is often found in greeting and parting pieces, as well as dance tunes. It has some similarities to the Bayati maqam used in Arabic and Turkish music. is related to and . History Europe Development of the genre The Bible has several descriptions of orchestras and Levites making music, but after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, many Rabbis discouraged musical instruments. Therefore, while there may have been Jewish musicians in different times and places since then, the "Klezmer" arose much more recently. The earliest written record of the use of the word was identified by Isaac Rivkind as being in a Jewish council meeting from Krakow in 1595. They may have existed even earlier in Prague, as references to them have been found as early as 1511 and 1533. It was in the 1600s that the situation of Jewish musicians in Poland improved, as they gained the right to form Guilds (Khevre), and therefore to set their own fees, hire Christians, and so on. Therefore over time this new form of professional musician developed new forms of music and elaborated this tradition across a wide area of Eastern European Jewish life. The rise of Hasidic Judaism in the sixteenth century and onwards also contributed to the development of klezmer, due to their emphasis on dancing and wordless melodies as a component of Jewish practice. The Eastern European klezmer profession (1700–1930s) The nineteenth century also saw the rise of a number of klezmer violin virtuosos who combined the techniques of classical violinists such as Ivan Khandoshkin and of Bessarabian folk violinists, and who composed dance and display pieces that became widespread even after the composers were gone. Among these figures were Aron-Moyshe Kholodenko "Pedotser", Yosef Drucker "Stempenyu", Alter Goyzman "Alter Tshudovner" and Josef Gusikov. Unlike in the United States, where there was a robust Klezmer recording industry, there was relatively less recorded in Europe in the early twentieth century. The majority of European recordings of Jewish music consisted of Cantorial and Yiddish Theatre music, with only a few dozen known to exist of Klezmer music. These include violin pieces by artists such as Oscar Zehngut, H. Steiner, Leon Ahl, and Josef Solinski; flute pieces by S. Kosch, and ensemble recordings by Belf's Rumanian Orchestra, the Russian-Jewish Orchestra, Jewish Wedding Orchestra, and Titunshnayder's Orchestra. Klezmer in the late Russian empire and Soviet era The loosening of restrictions on Jews in the Russian Empire, and their newfound access to academic and conservatory training, created a class of scholars who began to reexamine and evaluate klezmer using modern techniques. Abraham Zevi Idelsohn was one such figure, who sought to find an ancient Middle Eastern origin for Jewish music in the diaspora. There was also new interest in collecting and studying Jewish music and folklore, including Yiddish songs, folk tales, and instrumental music. An early expedition was by Joel Engel, who collected folk melodies in his birthplace of Berdyansk in 1900. The first figure to collect large amounts of klezmer music was Susman Kiselgof, who made several expeditions to the Pale of Settlement from 1907 to 1915. He was soon followed by other scholars such as Moisei Beregovsky and Sofia Magid, Soviet scholars of Yiddish and klezmer music. Most of the materials collected in those expeditions are now held by the Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine. Beregovsky, writing in the late 1930s, lamented how little scholars knew about the range of playing technique and social context of Klezmers from past eras, except for the late nineteenth century which could be investigated through elderly musicians who still remembered it. Jewish music in the Soviet Union, and the continued use of Klezmer music, went through several phases of official support or censorship. The officially-supported Soviet Jewish musical culture of 1920s involved works based on or satirizing traditional melodies and themes, whereas those of the 1930s were often "Russian" cultural works translated into a Yiddish context. After 1948, Soviet Jewish culture entered a phase of repression, meaning that Jewish music concerts, whether tied to Hebrew, Yiddish, or instrumental Klezmer were no longer allowed to be performed. Moisei Beregovsky's academic work was shut down in 1949 and he was arrested and deported to Siberia in 1951. The repression was eased in the mid-1950s as some Jewish and Yiddish performances were allowed to return to the stage once again. However, the main venue for Klezmer has always been traditional community events, weddings, and not the concert stage or academic institute; those traditional venues were repressed along with Jewish culture in general, according to anti-religious Soviet policy. United States Early American klezmer (1880s–1910s) The first klezmers to arrive in the United States followed the first large waves of Eastern European Jewish immigration which began after 1880, establishing themselves mainly in large cities like New York, Philadelphia and Boston. Klezmers—often younger members of klezmer families, or less established musicians—started to arrive from the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Romania and Austria-Hungary. Some of them found work in restaurants, dance halls, union rallies, wine cellars, and other modern venues in places like New York's Lower East Side. But the major source of income for klezmer musicians seems to have remained weddings and Simchas, as in Europe. Those early generations of klezmers are much more poorly documented than those working in the 1910s and 1920s; many never recorded or published music, although some are remembered through family or community history, such as the Lemish klezmer family of Iași, Romania who arrived in Philadelphia in the 1880s and established a klezmer dynasty there. Big band klezmer orchestras (1910s–1920s) The vitality of the Jewish music industry in major American cities attracted ever more klezmers from Europe in the 1910s. This coincided with the development of the recording industry, which recorded a number of these klezmer orchestras. By the time of the First World War, the industry turned its attention to ethnic dance music and a number of bandleaders were hired by record companies such as Edison Records, Emerson Records, Okeh Records, and the Victor Recording Company to record 78 rpm discs. The first of these was Abe Elenkrig, a barber and cornet player from a klezmer family in Ukraine whose 1913 recording (From the Wedding) has been recognized by the Library of Congress. Among the European-born klezmers recording during that decade were some from the Ukrainian territory of the Russian Empire (Abe Elenkrig, Dave Tarras, Shloimke Beckerman, Joseph Frankel, and Israel J. Hochman), some from Austro-Hungarian Galicia (Naftule Brandwein, Harry Kandel and Berish Katz), and some from Romania (Abe Schwartz, Max Leibowitz, Joseph Moskowitz). The mid 1920s also saw a number of popular novelty "Klezmer" groups which performed on the radio or Vaudeville stages. These included Joseph Cherniavsky's Yiddish-American Jazz Band, whose members would dress as parodies of Cossacks or Hasidim. Another such group was the Boibriker Kapelle, which performed on the radio and in concerts trying to recreate a nostalgic, old-fashioned Galician Klezmer sound. With the passing of the Immigration Act of 1924 which greatly restricted Jewish immigration from Europe, and then the onset of the Great Depression by 1930, the market for Yiddish and klezmer recordings in the United States saw a steep decline, which essentially ended the recording career of many of the popular bandleaders of the 1910s and 1920s, and made the Large klezmer orchestra less viable. Celebrity clarinetists Along with the rise of klezmer "big bands" in the 1910s and 1920s, a handful of Jewish clarinet players who had led those bands became celebrities in their own right, with a legacy that lasted into subsequent decades. The most popular among these were Naftule Brandwein, Dave Tarras, and Shloimke Beckerman. Klezmer revival In the mid-to-late 1970s there was a klezmer revival in the United States and Europe, led by Giora Feidman, The Klezmorim, Zev Feldman, Andy Statman, and the Klezmer Conservatory Band. They drew their repertoire from recordings and surviving musicians of U.S. klezmer. In particular, clarinetists such as Dave Tarras and Max Epstein became mentors to this new generation of klezmer musicians. In 1985, Henry Sapoznik and Adrienne Cooper founded KlezKamp to teach klezmer and other Yiddish music. The 1980s saw a second wave of revival, as interest grew in more traditionally inspired performances with string instruments, largely with non-Jews of the United States and Germany. Musicians began to track down older European klezmer, by listening to recordings, finding transcriptions, and making field recordings of the few klezmorim left in Eastern Europe. Key performers in this style are Joel Rubin, Budowitz, Khevrisa, Di Naye Kapelye, Yale Strom, The Chicago Klezmer Ensemble, The Maxwell Street Klezmer Band, the violinists Alicia Svigals, Steven Greenman, Cookie Segelstein and Elie Rosenblatt, flutist Adrianne Greenbaum, and tsimbl player Pete Rushefsky. Bands like Brave Old World, Hot Pstromi and The Klezmatics also emerged during this period. In the 1990s, musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area helped further interest in klezmer music by taking it into new territory. Groups such as the New Klezmer Trio inspired a new wave of bands merging klezmer with other forms of music, such as John Zorn's Masada and Bar Kokhba, Naftule's Dream, Don Byron's Mickey Katz project and violinist Daniel Hoffman's klezmer/jazz/Middle-Eastern fusion band Davka. The New Orleans Klezmer All-Stars also formed in 1991 with a mixture of New Orleans funk, jazz, and klezmer styles. Interest in klezmer has been sustained and supported by such well-known avant-garde jazz musicians as John Zorn and Don Byron, who sometimes blend klezmer with jazz. Starting in 2008, "The Other Europeans" project, funded by several EU cultural institutions, spent a year doing intensive field research in Moldavia under the leadership of Alan Bern and scholar Zev Feldman. They wanted to explore klezmer and lautari roots, and fuse the music of the two "other European" groups. The resulting band now performs internationally. A separate klezmer tradition had developed in Israel in the 20th century. Clarinetists Moshe Berlin and Avrum Leib Burstein are known exponents of the klezmer style in Israel. In order to preserve and promote klezmer music in Israel, Burstein founded the Jerusalem Klezmer Association, which has become a center for learning and performance of Klezmer music in the country. Popular culture In music While traditional performances may have been on the decline, many Jewish composers who had mainstream success, such as Leonard Bernstein and Aaron Copland, continued to be influenced by the klezmeric idioms heard during their youth (as Gustav Mahler had been). George Gershwin was familiar with klezmer music, and the opening clarinet glissando of Rhapsody in Blue suggests this influence, although the composer did not compose klezmer directly. Some clarinet stylings of swing jazz bandleaders Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw can be interpreted as having been derived from klezmer, as can the "freilach swing" playing of other Jewish artists of the period such as trumpeter Ziggy Elman. At the same time, non-Jewish composers were also turning to klezmer for a prolific source of fascinating thematic material. Dmitri Shostakovich in particular admired klezmer music for embracing both the ecstasy and the despair of human life, and quoted several melodies in his chamber masterpieces, the Piano Quintet in G minor, op. 57 (1940), the Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, op. 67 (1944), and the String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110 (1960). The compositions of Israeli-born composer Ofer Ben-Amots incorporate aspects of klezmer music, most notably his 2006 composition Klezmer Concerto. The piece is for klezmer clarinet (written for Jewish clarinetist David Krakauer), string orchestra, harp and percussion. In visual art The figure of the klezmer, as a romantic symbol of nineteenth century Jewish life, appeared in the art of a number of twentieth century Jewish artists such as Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Issachar Ber Ryback, Marc Chagall, and Chaim Goldberg. Kaplan, making his art in the Soviet Union, was quite taken by the romantic images of the Klezmer in literature, and in particular in Sholem Aleichem's Stempenyu, and depicted them in rich detail. In film Yidl Mitn Fidl (1936), directed by Joseph Green Oliver! (1968), Fagin's songs "You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two" and "I'm Reviewing the Situation" are in the Klezmer style, to present him as a Jewish character without creating offence Fiddler on the Roof (1971), directed by Norman Jewison Les Aventures de Rabbi Jacob (1973), directed by Gérard Oury Jewish Soul Music: The Art of Giora Feidman (1980), directed by Uri Barbash Yentl (1983), directed by Barbra Streisand A Jumpin' Night in the Garden of Eden (1988), directed by Michal Goldman Fiddlers on the Hoof (1989), directed by Simon Broughton The Last Klezmer: Leopold Kozlowski: His Life and Music (1994), directed by Yale Strom Beyond Silence (1996), about a Klezmer-playing clarinettist, directed by Charlotte Link A Tickle in the Heart (1996), directed by Stefan Schwietert Itzhak Perlman: In the Fiddler's House (1996), aired 29 June 1996 on Great Performances (PBS/WNET television series) L'homme est une femme comme les autres (1998, directed by Jean-Jacques Zilbermann) Snatch (2000), directed by Guy Ritchie Dummy (2002), directed by Greg Pritikin Klezmer on Fish Street (2003), directed by Yale Strom Le Tango des Rashevski (2003) directed by Sam Garbarski Klezmer in Germany (2007), directed by Kryzstof Zanussi and C. Goldie A Great Day on Eldridge Street (2008), directed by Yale Strom The Reluctant Infidel (2010), directed by Josh Appignanesi Mel Brooks and Woody Allen often used klezmer to humorous effect in their respective films. In literature In Jewish literature, the klezmer was often represented as a romantic and somewhat unsavory figure. However, in nineteenth century works by writers such as Mendele Mocher Sforim and Sholem Aleichem they were also portrayed as great artists and virtuosos who delighted the masses. Klezmers also appeared in non-Jewish Eastern European literature, such as in the epic poem Pan Tadeusz, which depicted a character named Jankiel Cymbalist, or in the short stories of Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. In George Eliot's Daniel Deronda (1876), the German Jewish music teacher is named Herr Julius Klesmer. The novel was later adapted into a Yiddish musical by Avram Goldfaden titled (1908). See also Klezmer fiddle List of klezmer bands List of klezmer musicians Secular Jewish music References External links YIVO Encyclopedia article on Traditional and Instrumental Music of Eastern European Jews KlezKanada, Yiddish Summer Weimar, Yiddish New York, festivals where klezmer music is taught Klezmer Institute, an academic group aiming to study and discuss klezmer Yiddish American Popular Sheet Music, a collection of public domain and unpublished scores in the Library of Congress, including the handwritten scores of a number of early American klezmer artists Mayrent Collection of Yiddish recordings, an open archive of digitized Yiddish and klezmer recordings KlezmerGuide.com. Comprehensive cross-reference to klezmer recordings and sheet music sources Klezmer Podcast and Radiant Others, two podcasts (currently inactive) which interviewed klezmer performers and scholars Dance in Israel Hasidic music Jewish music genres Jewish music Yiddish culture

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Mormon cinema usually refers to films with themes relevant to members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The term has also been used to refer to films that do not necessarily reflect Mormon themes but have been made by Mormon filmmakers. Films within the realm of Mormon cinema may be distinguished from institutional films produced by the LDS Church, such as Legacy and Testaments, which are made for instructional or proselyting purposes and are non-commercial. Mormon cinema is produced mainly for the purposes of entertainment and potential financial success. Though Latter-day Saints have been involved in the film industry in various ways since the early 20th century, independent Mormon cinema is a relatively new phenomenon. Many scholars and filmmakers accredit Richard Dutcher's 2000 film God's Army with ushering in the modern Mormon cinema movement. Following the commercial success of Dutcher's film, Mormon producers and directors began to market distinctly Mormon movies to LDS audiences, especially those living in the Mormon Corridor. This began with a wave of Mormon comedy movies, such as The Singles Ward (2002) and The R.M. (2003), that focused on the more comedic aspects of the culture surrounding the religion. Films within the Mormon cinema subgenre typically rely heavily on LDS themes and are marketed mostly toward Latter-day Saints, though there has been an effort to "cross over" into more general topics and appeal to a wider audience. Generally, Latter-day Saints produce and direct the films. Over the years, Mormon cinema has explored a variety of production methods: widespread commercial release, single-theatre release, and direct-to-DVD release. Production of Mormon films has slowed since the early 2000s, but those in the niche industry continue to release movies covering distinctly LDS topics, such as Mormon missionaries and LDS Church history. Theological elements, such as man's ability to be close to God, remain present in Mormon films. Defining "Mormon cinema" There is debate surrounding what should and should not be classified as "Mormon cinema." For example, Don Bluth's animated films, such as The Land Before Time (1988) and Anastasia (1997), carry some themes and undertones that coincide with the director's religion but lack overtly LDS characteristics. Preston Hunter, one of the creators of ldsfilm.com, limits the definition of Mormon cinema to films released commercially. They must be made, according to Hunter, by members of the church, and feature "overtly Latter-day Saint characters or themes." This definition would exclude Brigham Young (1940) because its director, Henry Hathaway, was not a member of the church. That film, however, harbored obvious Mormon aspects; church leaders at the time even had a hand in its production. In the absence of definite criteria, the definition of Mormon cinema often shifts to reflect whatever is included in the annual LDS Film Festival. History Early 20th-century Mormon films Prior to the advent of filmmaking, a major shift occurred in the LDS Church from isolationism to a period of growth. In the 1890s, the practice of plural marriage ended, and Utah became a U.S. state. This context provided Mormons with a reason to begin making films once the technology presented itself; they wanted to portray contemporary Mormonism to a wide audience. The church produced institutional films shortly after the industry was born. Independently, however, Latter-day Saints were somewhat hesitant to adopt filmmaking as a method of storytelling. The early 20th-century leaders of the LDS Church warned members against the potentially detrimental effects of cinema on society. However, the abundance of sensationalist pictures with anti-Mormon themes during the silent film era resulted in the desire on the part of Mormons to combat these portrayals with their own. By 1913, an article in The Young Woman's Journal, a Latter-day Saint publication, declared that the new medium of film would "help the world at large to an understanding of our [Mormon] history." Subsequently, the 1920s saw a boom in theater construction in Utah and the number of Mormon moviegoers. By the 1930s and 40s, movies had become key component of Latter-day Saint life. Lester Card's Corianton: A Story of Unholy Love (1931) was the first film within the Mormon niche to be commercially released, though it disappointed both audiences and investors. Twentieth Century Fox's Brigham Young (1940) was much more successful; a celebration was held in Salt Lake City on the film's release date, and Brigham Young became the film with "the largest premiere in American history to that point." Silent film era Between the years 1905 and 1915, nineteen known movies portraying Mormonism were produced. These were not, however, made by Latter-day Saints; many were lurid tales of hypnotic missionaries and Western pioneer stories with storylines revolving around massacres or kidnappings. The LDS church worked with LDS and non-LDS directors alike to create films that painted the history of Utah and Mormonism in a more positive light, but "harsh depictions" of Mormons—such as those in A Victim of the Mormons (1911), A Mormon Maid (1917), and Trapped by the Mormons (1922)—overshadowed those church-produced films—such as One Hundred Years of Mormonism (1913) and The Life of Nephi (1915)—in the market. In 1930, however, the adoption of the Motion Picture Production Code (MPPC) required gentler treatment of religious subject matters; it prohibited films that featured "the ridicule of religious denominations, their leaders, or adherents." Thus, the production of anti-Mormon silent films slowed to a halt. One Hundred Years was considered a large-scale production for its time; it was 90 minutes long and involved "a cast of over a thousand, an elaborate reconstruction of sections of [the city of] Nauvoo, and four concurrently running cameras". It told in detail the story of the LDS Church, beginning with the birth of its founder, Joseph Smith, and constituted one hundred scenes. In the realm of Mormon cinema, One Hundred Years of Mormonism "remains the single most important commercial film release of the silent cinema," mainly because of its being directly influenced by people who themselves had been Mormon pioneers. It was shown in theaters worldwide; cinemas in Buenos Aires, Sydney, Peking, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Paris, and London requested reels. Only a few minutes of the film survive today. From 1916 to 1929, brothers Shirley and Chester Clawson made the first documentary-style films for the church. They recorded segments of the church's semiannual General Conference, shots of LDS landmarks (such as Temple Square), and scenes from the everyday lives of general authorities of the church. Most of their work was destroyed in a fire in 1929. Growth and development, 1958-2000 In the 1950s, the Brigham Young University (BYU) Motion Picture Department was created, and in 1958 it grew into the BYU Motion Picture Studio (BYU MPS). This was a major step towards greater autonomy for the Mormon cinema industry; though most of the work produced at the BYU MPS was non-commercial and church-produced, it paved the way for the creation of independent Mormon cinema. Overall, the LDS film industry became much more established from the 1950s-70s under the influence of David O. McKay and Wetzel Whitaker. In 1978, Spencer W. Kimball called for Mormon filmmakers to create "masterpiece[s] which would live forever." The range of years from 1973 to 2000 has been called the "Mass Media Era" in Mormon cinema. Particularly in the years before the internet, the church encouraged its members to look to its "correlated"—that is, church-produced—films and filmstrips for information and faith-building entertainment. The films produced during this time mostly fit into that category; they were products of the church itself, not of its members independently. However, a growing number of Latter-day Saints began to work in the entertainment industry. The birth of modern Mormon cinema: 2000-2006 In more recent decades, Mormon-made and -themed films produced neither by the church nor by big Hollywood film studios have garnered recognition among LDS audiences. The Mormon cinema movement began in 2000, when director Richard Dutcher realized the potential for a Mormon niche within the film industry and commercially released God's Army, a movie depicting LDS missionaries in Los Angeles. He wanted to improve the way Mormon characters were portrayed on screen. The film, which was produced on a budget of $300,000, grossed upwards of $2.5 million at the box office. God's Army was unique for the time in that it combined a number of unfamiliar factors: an LDS director, an LDS subject matter, a theatrical distribution, and a marketing campaign that targeted Mormon moviegoers. It earned Dutcher the title of "the father of modern Latter-day Saint cinema." God's Army's release marked a major shift in the subgenre; it was not the first widely shown Mormon film, but it demonstrated the viability of such a film achieving relative commercial success. Mormon comedies Observing the financial success of God's Army, Kurt Hale and Dave Hunter founded Halestorm Entertainment in 2001 and focused the new company's efforts on making and distributing Mormon movies. Halestorm began releasing slapstick comedies with Mormon-centric humor in the early 2000s, including titles such as The R.M. (2003), The Home Teachers (2004), Baptists at Our Barbecue (2004), Sons of Provo (2004), and Mobsters and Mormons (2005). The company kept production costs low by filming in its home state of Utah or in nearby Arizona or Idaho. Alongside Halestorm, Excel Entertainment (founded by former Disney executive Jeff Simpson) and Zion Films have spearheaded the production and distribution of Mormon cinema. Films that rely heavily on the viewers' understanding of self-deprecating LDS cultural humor and vocabulary do not often find success among general audiences. This was true of satirical comedies The Singles Ward (2002), The R.M., and The Home Teachers. Singles Ward, branded "the first major LDS comedy," focuses on a subgroup of Mormon culture: young adults in Utah Valley searching for future spouses. In a discussion of these comedies, screenwriter and director Randy Astle writes that "many of the jokes and references [are] incomprehensible for Church members as close as Idaho, let alone India." The films also tended to lack depth, "[poking] fun at the faith without offering much insight." Director Richard Dutcher and reviewers Sean P. Means and Thomas Baggaley responded to the early 2000s' wave of Mormon films by expressing concern over the way the subgenre was headed. They worried about directors and production companies relying too heavily on Mormon-centric humor and the newness of Mormon cinema instead of producing quality films with worthwhile plotlines. These movies did, however, prove to be popular among Latter-day Saint audiences. Terryl Givens, associate professor of English, attributes this success to the desire of Mormon audiences to see their own "distinctive eccentricities" represented on the screen. He writes: "The popularity of these comedic films seems in part to derive from a people hungry for entertainment that validates their own cultural specificity. Like insiders to a private joke, Mormons can comfortably laugh at a genre that … promotes Mormon cohesion and reifies and confirms Mormon self-definition." In an interview, Will Swenson, director of Sons of Provo, stated that "representation matters. People want to see themselves on-screen. And there are a ton of Mormons out there." However, by 2006, Halestorm discovered that the enthusiasm for Mormon-centric movies had died down. The niche was too new to support the many films that were being produced for it. So, Halestorm pivoted by rebranding a part of itself as "Stone Five Studios" and releasing its next comedy, Church Ball (2006), with less references to religion and Mormon culture. Richard Dutcher released a follow-up to God's Army, States of Grace, in 2005, but some Mormon moviegoers disapproved of the film for its "not altogether positive depiction of Mormons." In 2006, author Dean C. Hale proposed that most Mormons simply do not take an interest in Mormon cinema. This, he said, may be related to the LDS Church encouraging its members to prioritize other aspects of life—such as family—before entertainment. Efforts at mass appeal and growth LDS film directors have been attempting to appeal to a national audience since the early 2000s. The 2003 crossover film Pride & Prejudice: A Latter-day Comedy, for example, avoided direct references to Mormonism. Its director, Andrew Black, sought to focus on other elements of the story, with Mormon culture as "just a backdrop." Professor Travis T. Anderson argues that LDS films revolving around universal human themes—such as "challenges, struggles, desire, and day-to-day experiences"—with just a splash of religious undertones achieve success in the movie market despite the Mormon cultural aspects they carry, which can seem strange to general audiences. He cites The Other Side of Heaven (2001), Saints and Soldiers (2003), Napoleon Dynamite (2004), and New York Doll (2005) as examples of such "critical and financial success stories in Mormon cinema." Saints and Soldiers gained recognition at multiple small film festivals; and the 2001 murder mystery Brigham City, while not praised by audiences, received critical acclaim. The documentary New York Doll tells the story of a member of a rock band—who also happens to be Mormon—and the reconciliation of his two worlds. It demonstrates the commonly-held goal of Mormon filmmakers to bridge the gap between how Mormons are perceived and the concept of the typical American. Larry Miller, owner of the Utah jazz, invested millions of dollars into producing The Work and the Glory (2004) in an effort to tell the story of the history of the LDS Church. Mormon filmmakers have often made the argument that films with distinctly Mormon characteristics have the potential to appeal to general audiences. Additionally, LDS films have been featured in theaters around the United States. Mormon cinema has also been the subject of aesthetic discussion. Doc Films, a student film society at the University of Chicago, hosted a Mormon film series in 2007. Some Mormon films were marketed differently to the larger market than they were to their niche audience. The national release DVD cover of Brigham City, for example, featured "much more implied violence" than the cover released to the Mormon Corridor. When new films were released, their launch was often accompanied by the creation of a website dedicated to promoting the film. Most of the family-oriented films marketed to Mormon audiences never made it to theaters, but went right to DVD distribution through large and small e-commerce websites, such as Amazon and LDSVideoStore.com. Deseret Book Company and Seagull Book were at the forefront of Mormon DVD distribution. In general, the most successful Mormon films were those made with high-quality equipment and distributed by an entertainment company, such as Halestorm or Excel Entertainment. As the Mormon film industry blossomed, so did commentary and criticism. In 2000, the Association for Mormon Letters created a film category for its AML Awards. That same year, Preston Hunter and Thomas Baggaley created ldsfilm.com, which became the central hub for discussions and announcements concerning Mormon cinema. The site provided a place for "a Mormon film community" to form, helping visitors stay apprised of upcoming LDS movies. Then in 2001, the first LDS Film Festival was held in Provo, Utah. Attendance more than doubled at the event's fifth year. The modern Mormon cinema movement was large enough to spawn celebrities, such as Kirby Heyborne, within the Mormon community. As of 2009, there were 4,591 entries of film or television shows in the Mormon Literature and Creative Arts Database. The term "Mollywood"—a portmanteau of "Mormon" and "Hollywood"—was used to describe the films of this era. Present day Eric Samuelsen, associate professor of theatre and media arts, has noted that "many [LDS] films from 2005 onward have performed so poorly at the box office that the movement seems to have lost at least some of its momentum." In 2014, LDS actor Jim Bennett wrote in a Deseret News article that "the hunger [for LDS films] is still there but the novelty has worn off." Some scholars have argued that the quality of LDS cinema has plateaued due to both directors and audiences "ascertain[ing] what is morally wrong in films they see, and remain[ing] uninterested in seeking out, discriminating, or creating what is right (morally or aesthetically) in film." Publications such as BYU Studies Quarterly, Irreantum, Sunstone, and Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought have featured criticism of LDS cinema. The Mormon blogosphere (sometimes referred to as the "bloggernacle") has also contributed film reviews over the years. Mormon filmmakers have continued to produce movies centered around LDS missionaries, but often from new perspectives; The Saratov Approach (2013) was a thriller set in Russia, The Errand of Angels (2008) focused on female missionaries, and Freetown (2015) told the story of African missionaries escaping the First Liberian Civil War. On the subject of film, author Heather Bigley writes: "As American members [of the LDS Church] begin to think of themselves as part of a world-wide organization, efforts at self-definition abound." There have also been recent releases in the vein of LDS Church history, such as The Fighting Preacher (2019) and Out of Liberty (2019). The Mormon films released since 2005 have mainly been small, independent features. They are, however, arguably of a higher artistic quality than their predecessors, and tend to have a "moral of the story." There has arguably been more variety in Mormon cinema in more recent years. In March 2021, LDS filmmaker Barrett Burgin argued that films made by and about Latter-day Saints still have the potential to be marketable to a larger audience, but stressed the need to prioritize storytelling over a missionary message. He also identified some elements of LDS doctrine, culture, history, and lore—such as polygamy, violence, buried treasure, folk magic, and miracles—as marketable film elements. These, he said, range from "radically weird" to "clean-cut and conservative," and the intrigue surrounding that dichotomy could attract the interest of viewers. The LDS Film Festival is still held annually in Orem, Utah, usually around the same time as the Sundance Film Festival. The 2020 festival commemorated 20 years of Mormon cinema: 20 years, that is, since the release of Richard Dutcher's God's Army, the film credited with starting the movement. The subgenre has become an important part of cultural expression for Latter-day Saints. Director and screenwriter Randy Astle has argued that, "along with music and temple architecture, [film] is the most prominent Mormon art form". LDS films are commonly made in the Rocky Mountains, New England, New York City, and Los Angeles. MPAA ratings One aspect of the culture of LDS cinema is heightened concern over MPAA film ratings. The leaders of the LDS Church have advised members not to watch R-rated films, but Mormons provide a substantial market for G- and PG-rated films. For example, a movie theater in Sandy, Utah was home to the highest attendance for viewings of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets; and, as of 2011, Latter-day Saints constituted 69% of Utah's population. R-ratings are rare among Mormon-made films; they have been described as having "a 1950s sensibility about them." Selected notable companies Excel Entertainment Group Halestorm Entertainment Selected filmography Short Money or Mission (2006) – Will a young man choose to serve?. Drama Brigham Young (1940) – Follows the story of Brigham Young after Joseph Smith's death. Bad Bascomb (1946) – Two outlaws hide out in a Mormon wagon and one of them befriends a little girl. Wagon Master (1950) – Forced out of Crystal City, a group of Mormons head west in search of the promised land. Paint Your Wagon (1969) – Two unlikely prospectors share the same wife in a Californian mining town. Messenger of Death (1988) – A film about an attempt by a water company to start a family feud among fundamentalist Mormons to take the family's land for the company. God's Army (2000) – The first general release, modern Mormon cinema film, about LDS missionaries; directed by Richard Dutcher. God's Army 2: States of Grace (2005) – A sequel to God's Army, by Richard Dutcher Brigham City (2001) – A murder mystery, also by Dutcher. The Other Side of Heaven (2001) – Not by an LDS studio. Although special pains were taken to remove overt LDS references, it is often counted as LDS cinema because it was brought to fruition by an LDS producer, and is based on John H. Groberg's experiences in Tonga as a LDS missionary, as documented in his memoir In the Eye of the Storm. The Other Side of Heaven 2: The Fire of Faith (2019) – Sequel to The Other Side of Heaven. Handcart (2002) – tale of the Martin handcart company The Book of Mormon Movie, Vol. 1: The Journey (2003) – An ambitious film about the Book of Mormon, which was the fourth highest-grossing movie in LDS cinema. The Best Two Years (2003) – An LDS missionary's experience in the Netherlands, based on the play The Best Two Years of My Life. Saints and Soldiers (2004) – A World War II movie that has muted LDS overtones and significant mainstream appeal. Saints and Soldiers: Airborne Creed (2012) – sequel Saints and Soldiers: The Void (2014) – sequel The Work and The Glory (2005) – Based on Gerald Lund's LDS and historical fiction series The Work and the Glory. The Work and The Glory II: American Zion (2005) – sequel The Work and The Glory III: A House Divided (2006) – sequel Return with Honor: A Missionary Homecoming (2006) – A missionary's near death experience and aftermath. The Errand of Angels (2008) – The experiences of a female LDS missionary from Idaho serving in Austria. Emma Smith: My Story (2008) – The story of Joseph Smith's wife, Emma. Based upon the true story of her life. Forever Strong (2008) – Will rugby reunite a broken family? The Book of Jer3miah (2009) – Mystery theme movie with some Latter-day Saint twists. One Good Man (2009) – Man must choose between material success and family values. Christmas Oranges (2012) – A Christmas friendship tale. The Saratov Approach (2013) – Based on the true story of two missionaries kidnapped and held for ransom while serving LDS missions in Russia in 1998. Wayward: The Prodigal Son (2014) – After asking his father for his inheritance, a careless wanderer loses everything in life and tries to forgive what he's done. Freetown (2015) – based on the true story of a group of native Liberian missionaries traveling from Monrovia, Liberia to Freetown, Sierra Leone during a time of civil war in 1990. The Cokeville Miracle (2015) – based on the true story of the Cokeville Elementary School hostage crisis and the miraculous spiritual experiences that happened there. Just Let Go (2015) – based on the story of Chris Williams who forgives a young man after they each faced a devastating incident. Miracle Maker (2015) – Can the Miracle Maker save Christmas? Spirit of the Game (2016) – based on the true story of the Mormon Yankees, an American basketball team which played in exhibition games before the 1956 Summer Olympics. Singing with Angels (2016) – A woman turns for support to her time with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Love, Kennedy (2017) – Story of a young woman with a degenerative disease. Instrument of War (2017) – BYU TV production of a man who creates instruments in a POW camp. In Emma's Footsteps (2018) – Emma's struggles after the death of Joseph. Jane and Emma (2018) – the friendship of Jane Manning James and Emma Smith, wife of the prophet Joseph Smith. The Fighting Preacher (2019) – Willard and Rebecca Bean trying to buy the Hill Cumorah. Out of Liberty (2019) – the individuals surrounding Joseph Smith's captivity in Liberty Jail in 1839. Heart of Africa (2020) – Congolese-made film about a man runs from his past. Romance Saturday's Warrior (1989) – popular release among Latter-day Saints of the De Azevedo and Stewart musical, directed by Bob Williams. De Azevedo released a remake of the movie in 2016. Out of Step (2002) – a young dance student leaves Utah for schooling in New York City. She falls in love with two different men and must choose between them. Charly (2002) – a movie, based on a book by the same name written by, Jack Weyland; about a man who has all of his life planned. His belief, and life. It all changes when a girl walks into his life and changes it. Pride and Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy (2003) – a modern adaptation of the Jane Austen novel Pride and Prejudice, set in Provo, Utah. Beauty and the Beast: A Latter-Day Tale (2007) – retelling of the tale set in modern America with Latter-day Saints. Melted Hearts (2009) – A returned missionary returns to look for his love. Promise of the Heart (2016) – A group of friends from Benemerito, the famous Mormon boarding school in Mexico City, come together for their ten-year high school reunion and talk about the only thing on everyone's minds: how is it possible that David has not ended up with Monique? Comedy Several comedies, mostly produced by Dave Hunter, have also been released. Because the humor of these films often relies on specifically Utah-centric Latter Day Saint culture, they tend to have a smaller audience than the other LDS subgenres, even among Mormon viewers. The Singles Ward (2002) – The title refers to an LDS congregation (ward) composed only of single adults. A comedy with romantic aspects. The R.M. (2003) – About the experiences of a returned missionary. The Best Two Years (2003) – LDS missionaries' experiences in the Netherlands, based on the play The Best Two Years of My Life. The Work and the Story (2003) – A mockumentary about LDS cinema when Richard Dutcher (fictionally) disappears. Written, produced and directed by Nathan Smith Jones; co-produced by Miriam Smith. The Home Teachers (2004) – Slapstick comedy about polar opposite home teachers that "fulfill" their responsibility on the last day of the month. "Home teaching" is the LDS practice of a home teaching companionship – a holder of the Melchizedek Priesthood and a 14-year-old teacher or older – visiting and teaching families in their ward each month. Baptists at Our Barbecue (2004) – Longfellow – consistently called "Longwinded" by the inhabitants – is a small town that is religiously divided equally between Baptists and Mormons. A newcomer becomes the tie-breaker. Rather than tilt the scales he decides to bridge the religious divide by organizing an all-faiths barbecue. Based on a novel by Robert Farrell Smith. Sons of Provo (2004) – Mockumentary about an LDS boy band named Everclean. Mobsters and Mormons (2005) – After testifying against his mob boss, Carmine "The Beans" Zindelli Pasquale and his family are put in the Witness Protection Program in "Happy Valley", Utah, resulting in significant culture clash. Church Ball (2006) – In the last year of a basketball league, a church team does not want to place last again. The storyline juxtaposes the desire to win at all costs with the expectation of sportsmanlike conduct in church sports. Believe (2007) – A mockumentary about multi-level marketing. Inspired Guns (2014) – Two Mormon missionaries begin teaching two members in the mafia in a case of mistaken identity. Once I Was a Beehive (2015) – A non-LDS girl attends Young Woman's camp. Trek: The Movie (2018) — a group of LDS teens participate in a reenactment of the handcart pioneers. Fantasy/adventure The Legend of Johnny Lingo (2003) – follow on to the classic short film. Passage to Zarahemla (2007) – A time-travel adventure set in the rural area of Leeds, Utah wherein characters from modern times interact with Nephites and Gadianton robbers (tribes and groups mentioned in the Book of Mormon). 17 Miracles (2011) – Based on accounts of the pioneers of the Willie and Martin handcart companies struggling to survive to head to the Great Salt Lake Valley while a multitude of miracles occur. Ephraim's Rescue (2013) – Prequel/parallel to 17 Miracles. The story of Ephraim Hanks, who joins the LDS church and miraculously saves the Martin handcart company. 16 Stones (2014) – A young man and friends set out on a dangerous quest to retrieve the 16 stones of the Jaredites to prevent others from future mob persecution. 94 Feet (2016) – Rescue workers try to rescue some people trapped in a cave. Documentary American Mormon (2005) – A small film crew drove across the United States interviewing people about their perceptions of Mormons. New York Doll (2005) – A recovering alcoholic and recently converted Mormon, Arthur "Killer" Kane, of the rock band The New York Dolls, is given a chance at reuniting with his band after 30 years. American Mormon in Europe (2006) – Interviews with people in Europe about their perceptions of Mormons, and interviews with European church members. Happy Valley (2008) – Documentary about prescription and street drug abuse in Utah County, Utah. Silent Night (2012) – BYU TV film regarding the creation of the carol "Silent Night". Us and Them: Religious Rivalry in America (2013) – A documentary about a Mormon finding answers between his religion and Christianity feuding for the belief in God. Meet the Mormons (2014) – A documentary examining the very diverse lives of six devout members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (actually an official church production, but included here because it was shown in theaters). Believer (2018) – Documentary of Imagine Dragons' lead singer, the loveloud music festival, and Latter-day Saint LGBT's. Television Bonanza (1959-1973) – Season 8, Episode 4: "The Pursued" (1966). The Joseph Smith Papers (2008–2009) – Documentary television series which documented the creation of, and work involved in, Joseph Smith Papers Project. History of the Saints (2010) – Documentary television series which focuses on the history of the Latter-day Saints after the death of Joseph Smith, including their exodus to Utah. Hell on Wheels (2011–2016) – Western television series which focuses on the building of the Transcontinental Railroad. Box office See also Christian film industry The Book of Mormon (musical) Notes Further reading External links LDS cinema at LDSFilm.com LDS Film Festival at LDSFilmFestival.org Film genres particular to the United States Harold B. Lee Library-related film articles

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Long Branch is a beachside city in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 30,719, reflecting a decline of 621 (-2.0%) from the 31,340 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 2,682 (+9.4%) from the 28,658 counted in the 1990 Census. As of the 2010 census, it was the 6th-most-populous municipality in Monmouth County and had the 71st-highest population of any municipality in New Jersey. Long Branch was formed on April 11, 1867, as the Long Branch Commission, from portions of Ocean Township. Long Branch was incorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 8, 1903, based on the results of a referendum, replacing the Long Branch Commission. History Long Branch was a beach resort town in the late 18th century, named for its location along a branch of the South Shrewsbury River. In the 19th century, theatrical performers of the day often gathered and performed there. It was visited by presidents Chester A. Arthur, James A. Garfield, Ulysses S. Grant, Benjamin Harrison, Rutherford B. Hayes, William McKinley and Woodrow Wilson. Seven Presidents Park, a park near the beach, is named in honor of their visits. The Church of the Presidents, where all seven worshiped, is the only structure left in Long Branch associated with them. President Grant and his family summered at their beachfront cottage in Long Branch the first year of his presidency in 1869 and for most of the rest of Grant's life. During this time, Long Branch came to be called the "summer capital". President James A. Garfield was brought to Long Branch in the hope that the fresh air and quiet might aid his recovery after being shot on July 2, 1881, an incident that left the assassin's bullet lodged in his spine. He died here on September 19, 1881, exactly two months before his 50th birthday. The Garfield Tea House, constructed from railroad ties that had been laid to carry Garfield's train, is in Elberon. The famous Long Branch Saloon of the American Old West, located in Dodge City, Kansas, was given its name by its first owner, William Harris, who had moved west from Long Branch, New Jersey, his hometown. Originally a resort town with a few hotels and large estates and many farms in the early 20th century, Long Branch grew in population. Italian, Irish and Jewish immigrants settled in during this period. During the 1930s, the city used government policies to enforce racial segregation against Blacks at local beaches, assigning all black applicants for beach passes to a single, segregated beach. By the 1950s, Long Branch like many other towns had developed new residential spots and housing to make room for the growing population. Many of the former farms of Long Branch were transformed into residential suburbs. Many of the estates and a few old historic resorts (with the addition of many new ones) still remain. In the early 20th century, Long Branch lost much of its activity as a theater spot. In addition, the opening of the Garden State Parkway in the mid-1950s allowed shore visitors to access points further south, which added to Long Branch's decline. The civil unrest of the 1960s caused riots in neighboring Asbury Park, and many fled the shore cities for the suburban towns west of the beach. Decades later, the older, more dilapidated parts of the resort town were condemned and redeveloped, in part by using eminent domain legislation. Long Branch still continues to be a popular resort area. Many people from New York City travel or settle into the area to escape the crowded city and enjoy Long Branch's beaches. The area also attracts some tourists from the Philadelphia area as well. Hurricane Sandy On October 29, 2012, Long Branch was one of many shore communities that were devastated by Hurricane Sandy. Although Sandy's winds were powerful, Long Branch's position between Long Beach Island and Sea Bright gave Long Branch a much larger wall of security because it could not be engulfed by surrounding waters. Despite this mainland advantage, there were still several instances of flooding in Long Branch during the storm. Many residents went without electricity for as long as two weeks. The boardwalk was destroyed; the city began rebuilding it in 2015, and it reopened in April 2016, making it the last boardwalk damaged by Sandy to be rebuilt. Geography Long Branch takes its name from the "long branch" or south branch of the Shrewsbury River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 6.29 square miles (16.28 km2), including 5.12 square miles (13.27 km2) of land and 1.16 square miles (3.01 km2) of water (18.49%). The city borders the Monmouth County communities of Deal, Monmouth Beach, Ocean Township, Oceanport and West Long Branch. Neighborhoods There are several distinct neighborhoods and areas in the City of Long Branch, each with its own character. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Branchport, East Long Branch, Elberon (served as ZIP Code 07740), Hollywood, Kensington Park, North Long Branch, Pleasure Bay and West End. Other areas include North End (once known as "Atlanticville"), Beachfront North and South (including Pier Village, adjacent to the site of the former Long Branch Pier at the foot of Laird Street), Downtown and Uptown. As the city's redevelopment initiatives continue to expand, the lower Broadway area (a portion of the city's Downtown) will become an Arts District. In years past, Long Branch was a major destination for beachgoers, along with Asbury Park, and enjoyed an upscale connotation with tourists. Long Branch is home to Seven Presidents Oceanfront Park, named for the United States presidents who visited the fashionable resort town, including Ulysses S. Grant, Chester A. Arthur, Rutherford Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson and James Garfield. Long Branch's fame as the Nation's First Seaside Resort waned in the years following World War II. The defining moment marking the end of this era occurred on June 8, 1987, when the largest fire in the history of the city destroyed the landmark amusement pier and adjoining Haunted Mansion, "Kid's World" Amusement Park and other businesses. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification system, Long Branch has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). Cfa climates are characterized by all months having an average temperature > , at least four months with an average temperature ≥ , at least one month with an average temperature ≥ and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are slightly humid with a cooling afternoon sea breeze in Long Branch, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . Since 1981, the highest air temperature was on August 9, 2001, and the highest daily average mean dew point was on August 13, 2016, and July 19, 2019. July is the peak in thunderstorm activity and the average wettest month is August. Since 1981, the wettest calendar day was on August 27, 2011. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1981, the coldest air temperature was on January 22, 1984. Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < . The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total is and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. Ecology According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Long Branch would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (104) with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (25). The plant hardiness zone is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The average date of first spring leaf-out is March 23 and fall color typically peaks in early-November. Economy Portions of the city are part of a joint Urban Enterprise Zone (UEZ) with Asbury Park, one of 32 zones covering 37 municipalities statewide. The city was selected in 1994 as one of a group of 10 zones added to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment and investment within the UEZ, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in November 1994, the city's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in November 2025. Development Broadway Center is a planned entertainment and commercial hub of Long Branch, as envisioned by the City Government and Thompson Design Group, who created the Master Plan for the city. This complex is planned to offer retail shops, cafes, bars, restaurants and two performing arts theaters as well as 500 new residences sitting atop a 1,500 car parking garage. It will be designed by the architectural firms of Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum (HOK). In June 2013, the city approved designation of the area around its train station as a transit village, which can bring incentives for revitalization and denser development. There are several mid-rise buildings lining the oceanfront. In December 2013 another 12-story residential project was approved. Demographics Census 2010 The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $52,792 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,549) and the median family income was $56,778 (+/- $4,202). Males had a median income of $36,404 (+/- $3,363) versus $33,397 (+/- $4,036) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $30,381 (+/- $2,212). About 11.5% of families and 14.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.7% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over. Census 2000 As of the 2000 United States Census there were 31,340 people, 12,594 households, and 7,248 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,008.6 people per square mile (2,318.1/km2). There were 13,983 housing units at an average density of 2,680.9 per square mile (1,034.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 68.03% White, 18.66% African American, 0.36% Native American, 1.64% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 7.08% from other races, and 4.19% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20.67% of the population. There were 12,594 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.9% were married couples living together, 15.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.19. In the city the population was spread out, with 23.8% under the age of 18, 10.2% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $38,651, and the median income for a family was $42,825. Males had a median income of $37,383 versus $27,026 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,532. About 13.9% of families and 16.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.3% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over. Government Local government The City of Long Branch is governed under the Mayor-Council (Plan A) form of municipal government under the Faulkner Act, enacted by direct petition as of July 1, 1966. The city is one of 71 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that use this form of government. The governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the five-member City Council, whose members are elected at-large on a non-partisan basis in the May municipal elections to serve concurrent four-year terms of office. , the Mayor of Long Branch is John Pallone. Members of the City Council are Dr. Mary Jane Celli, Bill Dangler, Mario Vieria, Dr. Anita Voogt and Rose Widdis. The mayor and city council members serve concurrent terms of office ending on June 30, 2022. Federal, state and county representation Long Branch is located in the 6th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 11th state legislative district. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 13,442 registered voters in Long Branch, of which 4,293 (31.9%) were registered as Democrats, 1,783 (13.3%) were registered as Republicans and 7,358 (54.7%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 8 voters registered to other parties. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 64.5% of the vote (5,421 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 34.5% (2,897 votes), and other candidates with 1.0% (81 votes), among the 8,470 ballots cast by the city's 14,289 registered voters (71 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 59.3%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 61.2% of the vote (6,171 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 35.7% (3,600 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (98 votes), among the 10,090 ballots cast by the city's 14,433 registered voters, for a turnout of 69.9%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 58.0% of the vote (5,724 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 40.5% (4,001 votes) and other candidates with 0.7% (99 votes), among the 9,870 ballots cast by the city's 14,563 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 67.8. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 57.4% of the vote (2,621 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 41.1% (1,876 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (71 votes), among the 4,677 ballots cast by the city's 14,129 registered voters (109 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 33.1%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 48.1% of the vote (2,714 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 44.7% (2,523 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 5.7% (320 votes) and other candidates with 0.9% (48 votes), among the 5,645 ballots cast by the city's 13,812 registered voters, yielding a 40.9% turnout. Police The Long Branch Police Department (LBPD) is the primary law enforcement agency responsible for the city. It currently has 92 sworn officers, making it one of the largest police departments in Monmouth County. The Long Branch Police Department is actually a division within the Department of Public Safety. The Long Branch Fire Department comprises the other division. The LBPD is headed by Chief Jason Roebuck, the former Director of Public Safety. Before 2018, Long Branch did not have a Chief of Police for almost 50 years. The Long Branch Police Department is made up of three divisions. The largest of these is the Patrol Division. The next is the Detective Bureaus and the final one is Support Services Division, which handles the record keeping function of the Police Department, as well as the dispatchers, budgeting and Traffic Bureau. The detectives are responsible for investigating crimes, targeting narcotics and interviewing suspects among other things. The Long Branch Police Department also utilizes Class I and Class II Special Law Enforcement Officers during the summer months to handle the increase in traffic and population in the areas along the oceanfront. The department hires 20-25 Class I Specials and 10-15 Class II Specials each summer. Officers are issued the SIG Sauer P229R DAK .40 S&W pistol and officers have the choice of attaching a tactical light if deemed necessary by the officer. Prior officers carried the 9mm Beretta 92 semi-automatic pistol. Since the establishment of the Long Branch Police Department, three officers died while on duty. On November 20, 1997, Patrick King was shot twice in the back of the head. Education Long Branch's public schools are operated by the Long Branch Public Schools, serving children in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide, which are now referred to as "SDA Districts" based on the requirement for the state to cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority. All Long Branch Public Schools are free, including the district's preschool programs which are full-day and accommodate children ages 3–5 years old. Long Branch schools offer free breakfast each morning for the students. In addition, Long Branch Public Schools provide free summer programs for most of the summer. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprising eight schools, had an enrollment of 5,786 students and 477.8 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.1:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Lenna W. Conrow School (with 380 students; in grades Pre-K–K), Joseph M. Ferraina Early Childhood Learning Center (314; Pre-K–K), Morris Avenue School (379; Pre-K–K), Amerigo A. Anastasia School (541; 1–5), George L. Catrambone Elementary School (876; K–5), Gregory School (552; 1–5), Long Branch Middle School (1,198; 6–8), Long Branch High School (1,499; 9–12) and Audrey W. Clark School / The Academy of Alternative Programs, an alternative education program. George L. Catrambone Elementary School was constructed at a total cost over $40 million for a facility that was designed to house 800 students in a facility covering for which construction began in 2012. With the start of the 2014–15 school year, a realignment of the district closed West End School, converted Morris Avenue School for early childhood use and repurposed Audrey W. Clark School for alternative education. Seashore School is a private K-8 school, with class size limited to 16 students. Declining attendance led the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton to close the K-8 Holy Trinity School in June 2006. Media WRLB "Radio Long Branch" signed-on June 1, 1960, at 107.1 FM. Since December 1996 the call letters have been WWZY. Transportation Roads and highways As of 2010, the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Monmouth County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. Route 36 and Route 71 are the most significant highways that pass through the city. Public transportation Long Branch is connected to New York City and Northern New Jersey via NJ Transit trains running on the North Jersey Coast Line. The Long Branch station, located three blocks away from the beach, marks the end of electrified trackage, where passengers continuing south must change to diesel-powered trains. A second station is located at Elberon district just north of the borough of Deal. In the past there were stops in the West End neighborhood and on Broadway, but they were closed to reduce travel time to New York City. Local bus transportation is provided by NJ Transit on the 831 and 837 routes. Transportation to New York City is provided by Academy Bus' Route 36 and Shore Points routes. Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Long Branch include: M. H. Abrams (1912–2015), literary critic, known for works on romanticism. Aida de Acosta (1884–1962), socialite and the first woman to fly a powered aircraft solo. Richard Anderson (1926–2017), best known for his role as Oscar Goldman, in both The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman TV series and subsequent TV movies. Paul Baerwald (1871–1961), banker and philanthropist. Arthur Hornbui Bell (1891–1973), attorney who was the Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey. Joe Benning (born 1956), member of the Vermont Senate who has represented the Caledonia District since 2011. Clint Black (born 1962), country music performer. Jeff Blumenkrantz (born 1965), actor, composer and lyricist. Clara Bloodgood (1870–1907), stage actress. Dorothy Borg (1902–1993), historian specializing in American-East Asian relations. Joe Bravo (born 1971), thoroughbred racing jockey. MarShon Brooks (born 1989), basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets. Frank Budd (born 1939), wide receiver in the NFL for the Philadelphia Eagles and the Washington Redskins who once held the world record in the 100-yard dash. John Cannon (born 1960), former defensive end who played nine seasons for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Rick Cerone (born 1954), former Yankee catcher who played for eight major league baseball teams, and was part of the New York Yankees for seven years. Jo Champa (born 1968), actress, producer and model., June Clark (born 1900), jazz trumpeter who later managed boxer Sugar Ray Robinson. Connor Clifton (born 1995), ice hockey defenceman for the Boston Bruins of the NHL. Paul Cohen (1934–2007), awarded the Fields Medal for developing forcing to show the independence of the continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice in axiomatic set theory. James M. Coleman (1924–2014), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly and as a judge in New Jersey Superior Court. Tom Constanten (born 1944), musician, former keyboardist for the Grateful Dead. John D'Amico Jr. (born 1941), who served on the Monmouth County Board of Chosen Freeholders and served in the New Jersey Senate in 1988 and 1989. Herbert Dardik (1935–2020), vascular surgeon who served as the chief of vascular surgery at Englewood Hospital and Medical Center. Bob Davis (born 1945), former NFL quarterback whose career included three seasons with the New York Jets Sean Davis (born 1993), professional soccer player for the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer. David Doubilet (born 1946), underwater photographer. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), lived in Long Branch for a short period of time until his home burnt down. Samuel Feltman (1899–1951), computer scientist and weaponry expert. Mel Ferrer (1917–2008), actor, director and producer. Joan Field (1915–1988), concert violinist. Tom Fleming (1951–2017), distance runner who won the 1973 and 1975 New York City Marathon. Waldo Frank (1889–1967), novelist, historian, political activist and literary critic James A. Garfield (1831–1881), 20th President of the United States, died in Long Branch. David Garrison (born 1952), actor most noted for playing Steve Rhoades on Married... with Children. Richard T. Gill (1927–2010), Harvard University economist who became an opera singer at midlife. Vin Gopal (born 1985), politician who represents the 11th Legislative District in the New Jersey Senate. Sonny Greer (1895–1982), jazz drummer, best known for his work with Duke Ellington. John Faucheraud Grimké (1752–1819), father of abolitionists Sarah Grimké and Angelina Grimké. Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873), abolitionist and women's rights activist, briefly lived in Long Branch while caring for her father. Harry Frank Guggenheim (1890–1971), businessman, diplomat, publisher, philanthropist, aviator and horseman. Garret Hobart (1844–1899), 24th Vice President of the United States, under William McKinley. Winslow Homer (1836–1910), stayed in Long Branch in 1869, while he produced paintings of Victorian women strolling the boardwalks. Deborah Lee James (born 1958), 23rd Secretary of the United States Air Force. Jim Jeffcoat (born 1961), professional football player for the Dallas Cowboys and the Buffalo Bills from 1983 to 1997. Mamie Johnson (1935–2017), professional baseball player who was one of three women, and the first female pitcher, to play in the Negro leagues. Ed Jones (born 1952), former defensive back for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League from 1976 to 1984, who won five Grey Cups for the Eskimos and was a CFL All-Star from 1979 to 1981. Julius Katchen (1926-1969), concert pianist, best known for his recordings of Johannes Brahms's solo piano works. Raja Feather Kelly, choreographer best known for his work on Off-Broadway shows which combine "pop and queer culture". Jim Kerwin (born 1941), retired basketball player and college coach. Tom Kerwin (born 1944), professional basketball forward who played in the American Basketball Association for the Pittsburgh Pipers. Thomas G. Labrecque (1938–2000), business executive who served as president, CEO, and COO of Chase Manhattan Bank. Connie Lawn (1944–2018), independent broadcast journalist who, at the time of her death, was the longest-serving White House correspondent. Norman Mailer (1923–2007), novelist. Ashley Marinaccio (born 1985), director, documentarian and actor. Jonathan Maslow (1948–2008), author who wrote extensively about nature, with a focus on obscure and little understood animals. Karen McCloskey (born 1951), rower who competed in the women's quadruple sculls event at the 1976 Summer Olympics. Walter Mebane (born 1958), University of Michigan professor of political science and statistics and an expert on detecting electoral fraud. Sam Mills (1959–2005), linebacker who played 12 seasons in the NFL for the New Orleans Saints and Carolina Panthers. Julian Mitchell (1854-1926), director of the Ziegfeld Follies. John Montefusco (born 1950), Major League Baseball pitcher 1974 to 1986 for the San Francisco Giants, Atlanta Braves, San Diego Padres and New York Yankees. Denise Morrison (born 1954), business executive who served as president and chief executive officer of Campbell Soup Company from 2011 through 2018. Frank Pallone (born 1951), member of the United States House of Representatives since 1988, who served on the Long Branch city council from 1982 to 1988. Dorothy Parker (1893–1967), writer and storied member of the Algonquin Round Table, whose birthplace at 792 Ocean Avenue has been designated as a National Literary Landmark. George R. Pettit (1929–2021), chemist and researcher in the field of natural anticancer compounds. Robert Pinsky (born 1940), Poet Laureate of the United States from 1997 to 2000. Anthony Portantino (born 1961), politician who serves in the California State Senate, where he represents the 25th Senate District. Brian Pulido (born 1961), founder of Chaos! Comics and writer of comics books such as Lady Death, Evil Ernie and Purgatori. Paris Qualles (born 1951), screenwriter and television producer. Jim Quirk (born c. 1940), NFL on-field official from 1988 to 2008. Harry Ray (born 1946), R&B vocalist who was a member of the groups "The Moments" and "Ray, Goodman, & Brown". Charles Rembar (1915–2000), attorney best known as a First Amendment rights lawyer. Richie Rosenberg, trombonist who performed with Southside Johnny & The Asbury Jukes. Jason Ryan (born 1976), pitcher who played two seasons for Minnesota Twins. Melanie Safka (born 1947), singer-songwriter. Adam Sarafian (born 1986), geologist who has advanced theories about the origin of water on Earth and pole vaulter who won the national championship in 2004. Fred Schneider (born 1951), singer, songwriter, arranger and musician, best known as the frontman of the rock band the B-52's, of which he is a founding member. Scott Schoeneweis (born 1973), a relief pitcher who played for the New York Mets, among other teams. Rubby Sherr (1913–2013), nuclear physicist who co-invented a key component of the first nuclear weapon while participating in the Manhattan Project. John W. Slocum (1867–1938), lawyer, county judge, President of the New Jersey Senate Bruce Springsteen (born 1949), born in Long Branch and raised in Freehold Borough, New Jersey, wrote "Born to Run", "Thunder Road" and "Backstreets" in a cottage at 7 1/2 West End Court. John Strollo (born 1954), college football coach. Danny Stubbs (born 1965), who won multiple National Championships with University of Miami and two Super Bowls with the San Francisco 49ers as a defensive tackle. Norman Tanzman (1918–2004), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1962 to 1968 and in the New Jersey Senate from 1968 to 1974. Yvonne Thornton (born 1947), obstetrician-gynecologist, musician and author, best known for her memoir, The Ditchdigger's Daughters. Meghan Tierney (born 1997), snowboarder who represented the United States at the 2018 Olympics. Army Tomaini (1918–2005), American football tackle who played for the New York Giants in 1945. Johnny Tomaini (1902–1985), professional football player who played in the NFL for the Orange Tornadoes, Newark Tornadoes and Brooklyn Dodgers Ivy Troutman (1884-1979), Broadway actress. John Henry Turpin (1876-1962), one of the first African-American Chief Petty Officers in the United States Navy; also notable for surviving the catastrophic explosions of two U.S. Navy ships: USS Maine in 1898, and USS Bennington in 1905. Chase Untermeyer (born 1946), United States Ambassador to Qatar. Anthony M. Villane (born 1929), dentist and politician who was elected to serve seven terms in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1976 to 1988. John Villapiano (born 1951), former professional football player who played in the World Football League and politician who served on the Monmouth County, New Jersey Board of chosen freeholders and the New Jersey General Assembly from 1988 to 1992. Phil Villapiano (born 1949), former NFL linebacker who played in four Pro Bowls and was a part of the Oakland Raiders Super Bowl XI winning team. Constance H. Williams (born 1944), politician who served from 2001 to 2009 in the Pennsylvania State Senate. Earl Wilson (born 1958), NFL and CFL player Morris Wood (1882–1967), champion speed skater during the early 1900s. Bernie Worrell (1944–2016), keyboardist and founding member of Parliament-Funkadelic. Mike Zapcic, podcaster and cast member of the AMC reality TV show Comic Book Men with Kevin Smith. In popular culture The AXS TV reality series, Bikini Barbershop, is set in Long Branch, at Bikini Barbers located on Ocean Boulevard. In the HBO series, The Sopranos, Long Branch is the setting for Adriana La Cerva's nightclub, the Crazy Horse (see "The Telltale Moozadell"). In the episode "The Blue Comet", the house in which Tony Soprano hides out towards the end of the series is near the beach in North Long Branch. See also Long Branch Police Department Long Branch Public Schools Long Branch, Toronto References External links City of Long Branch website Long Branch Public Library and Children's Library Long Branch Chamber of Commerce 1903 establishments in New Jersey Cities in Monmouth County, New Jersey Faulkner Act (mayor–council) Jersey Shore communities in Monmouth County New Jersey Urban Enterprise Zones Populated places established in 1903

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Itanium ( ) is a discontinued family of 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly called IA-64). Launched in June 2001, Intel marketed the processors for enterprise servers and high-performance computing systems. The Itanium architecture originated at Hewlett-Packard (HP), and was later jointly developed by HP and Intel. Itanium-based systems were produced by HP/Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) (the HPE Integrity Servers line) and several other manufacturers. In 2008, Itanium was the fourth-most deployed microprocessor architecture for enterprise-class systems, behind x86-64, Power ISA, and SPARC. In February 2017, Intel released the final generation, Kittson, to test customers, and in May began shipping in volume. It was used exclusively in mission-critical servers from Hewlett Packard Enterprise. In 2019, Intel announced that Itanium CPU family production would terminate on January 30, 2020, and shipments would cease as of July 29, 2021. This took place on schedule. History Development: 1989–2000 In 1989, HP determined that the Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures were approaching the processing limit at one instruction per cycle. HP researchers investigated a new architecture, later named Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC), that allows the processor to execute multiple instructions in each clock cycle. EPIC implements a form of very long instruction word (VLIW) architecture, in which a single instruction word contains multiple instructions. With EPIC, the compiler determines in advance which instructions can be executed at the same time, so the microprocessor simply executes the instructions and does not need elaborate mechanisms to determine which instructions to execute in parallel. The goal of this approach is twofold: to enable deeper inspection of the code at compile time to identify additional opportunities for parallel execution, and to simplify the processor design and reduce energy consumption by eliminating the need for runtime scheduling circuitry. HP believed that it was no longer cost-effective for individual enterprise systems companies such as itself to develop proprietary microprocessors, so it partnered with Intel in 1994 to develop the IA-64 architecture, derived from EPIC. Intel was willing to undertake the very large development effort on IA-64 in the expectation that the resulting microprocessor would be used by the majority of enterprise systems manufacturers. HP and Intel initiated a large joint development effort with a goal of delivering the first product, Merced, in 1998. During development, Intel, HP, and industry analysts predicted that IA-64 would dominate in servers, workstations, and high-end desktops, and eventually supplant RISC and complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures for all general-purpose applications. Compaq and Silicon Graphics decided to abandon further development of the Alpha and MIPS architectures respectively in favor of migrating to IA-64. Several groups ported operating systems for the architecture, including Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, Linux, HP-UX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX, and Monterey/64. The latter three were canceled before reaching the market. By 1997, it was apparent that the IA-64 architecture and the compiler were much more difficult to implement than originally thought, and the delivery timeframe of Merced began slipping. Intel announced the official name of the processor, Itanium, on October 4, 1999. Within hours, the name Itanic had been coined on a Usenet newsgroup, a reference to the RMS Titanic, the "unsinkable" ocean liner that sank on her maiden voyage in 1912. "Itanic" was then used often by The Register, and others, to imply that the multibillion-dollar investment in Itanium—and the early hype associated with it—would be followed by its relatively quick demise. Itanium (Merced): 2001 By the time Itanium was released in June 2001, its performance was not superior to competing RISC and CISC processors. Itanium competed at the low-end (primarily four-CPU and smaller systems) with servers based on x86 processors, and at the high-end with IBM POWER and Sun Microsystems SPARC processors. Intel repositioned Itanium to focus on the high-end business and HPC computing markets, attempting to duplicate the x86's successful "horizontal" market (i.e., single architecture, multiple systems vendors). The success of this initial processor version was limited to replacing the PA-RISC in HP systems, Alpha in Compaq systems and MIPS in SGI systems, though IBM also delivered a supercomputer based on this processor. POWER and SPARC remained strong, while the 32-bit x86 architecture continued to grow into the enterprise space, building on the economies of scale fueled by its enormous installed base. Only a few thousand systems using the original Merced Itanium processor were sold, due to relatively poor performance, high cost and limited software availability. Recognizing that the lack of software could be a serious problem for the future, Intel made thousands of these early systems available to independent software vendors (ISVs) to stimulate development. HP and Intel brought the next-generation Itanium 2 processor to the market a year later. Itanium 2: 2002–2010 The Itanium 2 processor was released in 2002, and was marketed for enterprise servers rather than for the whole gamut of high-end computing. The first Itanium 2, code-named McKinley, was jointly developed by HP and Intel. It relieved many of the performance problems of the original Itanium processor, which were mostly caused by an inefficient memory subsystem. McKinley contains 221 million transistors (of which 25 million are for logic), measured 19.5 mm by 21.6 mm (421 mm2) and was fabricated in a 180 nm, bulk CMOS process with six layers of aluminium metallization. In 2003, AMD released the Opteron CPU, which implements its own 64-bit architecture called AMD64. The Opteron gained rapid acceptance in the enterprise server space because it provided an easy upgrade from x86. Under the influence of Microsoft, Intel responded by implementing AMD's x86-64 instruction set architecture instead of IA-64 in its Xeon microprocessors in 2004, resulting in a new industry-wide de facto standard. Intel released a new Itanium 2 family member, codenamed Madison, in 2003. Madison used a 130 nm process and was the basis of all new Itanium processors until Montecito was released in June 2006. In March 2005, Intel announced that it was working on a new Itanium processor, codenamed Tukwila, to be released in 2007. The Tukwila would have four processor cores and would replace the Itanium bus with a new Common System Interface, which would also be used by a new Xeon processor. Later that year, Intel revised Tukwila's delivery date to late 2008. In November 2005, the major Itanium server manufacturers joined with Intel and a number of software vendors to form the Itanium Solutions Alliance to promote the architecture and accelerate the software porting effort. The Alliance announced that its members would invest $10 billion in the Itanium Solutions Alliance by the end of the decade. In 2006, Intel delivered Montecito (marketed as the Itanium 2 9000 series), a dual-core processor that roughly doubled the performance and decreased the energy consumption by about 20 percent. Intel released the Itanium 2 9100 series, codenamed Montvale, in November 2007. In May 2009, the schedule for Tukwila, its follow-on, was revised again, with the release to OEMs planned for the first quarter of 2010. Itanium 9300 (Tukwila): 2010 The Itanium 9300 series processor, codenamed Tukwila, was released on February 8, 2010, with greater performance and memory capacity. The device uses a 65 nm process, includes two to four cores, up to 24 MB on-die caches, Hyper-Threading technology and integrated memory controllers. It implements double-device data correction, which helps to fix memory errors. Tukwila also implements Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) to replace the Itanium bus-based architecture. It has a peak interprocessor bandwidth of 96 GB/s and a peak memory bandwidth of 34 GB/s. With QuickPath, the processor has integrated memory controllers and interfaces the memory directly, using QPI interfaces to directly connect to other processors and I/O hubs. QuickPath is also used on Intel x86-64 processors using the Nehalem microarchitecture, which possibly enabled Tukwila and Nehalem to use the same chipsets. Tukwila incorporates four memory controllers, each of which supports multiple DDR3 DIMMs via a separate memory controller, much like the Nehalem-based Xeon processor code-named Beckton. Itanium 9500 (Poulson): 2012 The Itanium 9500 series processor, codenamed Poulson, the follow-on processor to Tukwila was released on November 8, 2012. According to Intel, it skips the 45 nm process technology and uses a 32 nm process technology. It features eight cores and has a 12-wide issue architecture, multithreading enhancements, and new instructions to take advantage of parallelism, especially in virtualization. The Poulson L3 cache size is 32 MB. L2 cache size is 6 MB, 512 I KB, 256 D KB per core. Die size is 544 mm², less than its predecessor Tukwila (698.75 mm²). At ISSCC 2011, Intel presented a paper called "A 32nm 3.1 Billion Transistor 12-Wide-Issue Itanium Processor for Mission Critical Servers." Given Intel's history of disclosing details about Itanium microprocessors at ISSCC, this paper most likely referred to Poulson. Analyst David Kanter speculated that Poulson would use a new microarchitecture, with a more advanced form of multithreading that uses up to two threads, to improve performance for single threaded and multithreaded workloads. Some information was also released at the Hot Chips conference. Information presented improvements in multithreading, resiliency improvements (Intel Instruction Replay RAS) and few new instructions (thread priority, integer instruction, cache prefetching, and data access hints). Intel's Product Change Notification (PCN) 111456-01 lists four models of Itanium 9500 series CPU, which was later removed in a revised document. The parts were later listed in Intel's Material Declaration Data Sheets (MDDS) database. Intel later posted Itanium 9500 reference manual. The models are the following: {| class="wikitable" |- !Processor number||Frequency||Cache |- |9520||1.73 GHz||20MB |- |9540||2.13 GHz||24MB |- |9550||2.40 GHz||32MB |- |9560||2.53 GHz||32MB |} HP vs. Oracle During the 2012 Hewlett-Packard Co. v. Oracle Corp. support lawsuit, court documents unsealed by a Santa Clara County Court judge revealed that in 2008, Hewlett-Packard had paid Intel around $440 million to keep producing and updating Itanium microprocessors from 2009 to 2014. In 2010, the two companies signed another $250 million deal, which obliged Intel to continue making Itanium CPUs for HP's machines until 2017. Under the terms of the agreements, HP had to pay for chips it gets from Intel, while Intel launches Tukwila, Poulson, Kittson, and Kittson+ chips in a bid to gradually boost performance of the platform. Itanium 9700 (Kittson): 2017 Rumors of a successor to Poulson (code named Kittson) began to circulate in 2012–2013. This was at first associated with a forthcoming 22 nm process shrink, and later revised in the face of declining Itanium sales to a less-ambitious 32 nm node. In April 2015, Intel, although it had not yet confirmed formal specifications, did confirm that it continued to work on the project. Meanwhile, the aggressively multicore Xeon E7 platform displaced Itanium-based solutions in the Intel roadmap. Intel officially launched the Itanium 9700 series processor family on May 11, 2017. Notably, Kittson has no microarchitecture improvements over Poulson, only higher clock speeds. Intel announced that the 9700 series will be the last Itanium chips produced. The models are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Processor number||Cores||Threads||Frequency||Cache |- |9720||4||8||1.73 GHz||20 MB |- |9740||8||16||2.13 GHz||24 MB |- |9750||4||8||2.53 GHz||32 MB |- |9760||8||16||2.66 GHz||32 MB |} Market share In comparison with its Xeon family of server processors, Itanium was never a high-volume product for Intel. Intel does not release production numbers. One industry analyst estimated that the production rate was 200,000 processors per year in 2007. According to Gartner Inc., the total number of Itanium servers (not processors) sold by all vendors in 2007, was about 55,000. (It is unclear whether clustered servers counted as a single server or not.) This compares with 417,000 RISC servers (spread across all RISC vendors) and 8.4 million x86 servers. IDC reports that a total of 184,000 Itanium-based systems were sold from 2001 through 2007. For the combined POWER/SPARC/Itanium systems market, IDC reports that POWER captured 42% of revenue and SPARC captured 32%, while Itanium-based system revenue reached 26% in the second quarter of 2008. According to an IDC analyst, in 2007, HP accounted for perhaps 80% of Itanium systems revenue. According to Gartner, in 2008, HP accounted for 95% of Itanium sales. HP's Itanium system sales were at an annual rate of $4.4Bn at the end of 2008, and declined to $3.5Bn by the end of 2009, compared to a 35% decline in UNIX system revenue for Sun and an 11% drop for IBM, with an x86-64 server revenue increase of 14% during this period. In December 2012, IDC released a research report stating that Itanium server shipments would remain flat through 2016, with annual shipment of 26,000 systems (a decline of over 50% compared to shipments in 2008). Hardware support Systems By 2006, HP manufactured at least 80% of all Itanium systems, and sold 7,200 in the first quarter of 2006. The bulk of systems sold were enterprise servers and machines for large-scale technical computing, with an average selling price per system in excess of US$200,000. A typical system uses eight or more Itanium processors. By 2012, only a few manufacturers offered Itanium systems, including HP, Bull, NEC, Inspur and Huawei. In addition, Intel offered a chassis that could be used by system integrators to build Itanium systems. By 2015, only HP supplied Itanium-based systems. With HP split in late 2015, Itanium systems (branded as Integrity) are handled by Hewlett-Packard Enterprise (HPE), with a major update in 2017 (Integrity i6, and HP-UX 11i v3 Update 16). HPE also supports a few other operating systems, including Windows up to Server 2008 R2, Linux, OpenVMS and NonStop. Itanium is not affected by Spectre and Meltdown. Chipsets The Itanium bus interfaces to the rest of the system via a chipset. Enterprise server manufacturers differentiate their systems by designing and developing chipsets that interface the processor to memory, interconnections, and peripheral controllers. The chipset is the heart of the system-level architecture for each system design. Development of a chipset costs tens of millions of dollars and represents a major commitment to the use of the Itanium. IBM created a chipset in 2003, and Intel in 2002, but neither of them developed chipsets to support newer technologies such as DDR2 or PCI Express. Before "Tukwila" moved away from the FSB, chipsets supporting such technologies were manufactured by all Itanium server vendors, such as HP, Fujitsu, SGI, NEC, and Hitachi. The "Tukwila" Itanium processor model had been designed to share a common chipset with the Intel Xeon processor EX (Intel's Xeon processor designed for four processor and larger servers). The goal was to streamline system development and reduce costs for server OEMs, many of which develop both Itanium- and Xeon-based servers. However, in 2013, this goal was pushed back to be "evaluated for future implementation opportunities". Software support Unix HP-UX 11 (supported until 2025) BSD NetBSD (a tier II port that "is a work-in-progress effort to port NetBSD to the Itanium family of processors. Currently no formal release is available.") FreeBSD (unsupported since 31 October 2018) Linux The Trillian Project was an effort by an industry consortium to port the Linux kernel to the Itanium processor. The project started in May 1999 with the goal of releasing the distribution in time for the initial release of Itanium, then scheduled for early 2000. By the end of 1999, the project included Caldera Systems, CERN, Cygnus Solutions, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel, Red Hat, SGI, SuSE, TurboLinux and VA Linux Systems. The project released the resulting code in February 2000. The code then became part of the mainline Linux kernel more than a year before the release of the first Itanium processor. The Trillian project was able to do this for two reasons: the free and open source GCC compiler had already been enhanced to support the Itanium architecture. a free and open source simulator had been developed to simulate an Itanium processor on an existing computer. After the successful completion of Project Trillian, the resulting Linux kernel was used by all of the manufacturers of Itanium systems (HP, IBM, DELL, SGI, Fujitsu, Unisys, Hitachi, and Groupe Bull.) With the notable exception of HP, Linux is either the primary OS or the only OS the manufacturer supports for Itanium. Ongoing free and open source software support for Linux on Itanium subsequently coalesced at Gelato. Distribution support In 2005, Fedora Linux started adding support for Itanium and Novell added support for SUSE Linux. In 2007, CentOS added support for Itanium in a new release. Gentoo Linux Debian (unsupported since Debian 8; reportedly Debian 10 was ported to Itanium) Red Hat Enterprise Linux (unsupported since RHEL 6, had support in RHEL 5 until 2017, which supported other platforms up to November 30, 2020) SUSE Linux 11 (supported until 2019, for other platforms SUSE 11 is supported to 2022). Deprecation In 2009, Red Hat dropped Itanium support in Enterprise Linux 6. Ubuntu 10.10 dropped support for Itanium. In 2021, Linus Torvalds marked the Itanium code as orphaned. Torvalds said:"HPE no longer accepts orders for new Itanium hardware, and Intel stopped accepting orders a year ago. While intel is still officially shipping chips until July 29, 2021, it's unlikely that any such orders actually exist. It's dead, Jim." Microsoft Windows Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (unsupported since June 30, 2005) Windows Server 2003 (unsupported since July 14, 2015) Windows Server 2008 (unsupported since January 14, 2020) Windows Server 2008 R2 (unsupported since January 14, 2020, last Windows version to support Itanium processors) OpenVMS In 2001, Compaq announced that OpenVMS would be ported to the Itanium architecture. This led to the creation of the V8.x releases of OpenVMS, which support both Itanium-based HPE Integrity Servers and DEC Alpha hardware. Since the Itanium porting effort began, ownership of OpenVMS transferred from Compaq to HP in 2001, and then to VMS Software Inc. (VSI) in 2014. Noteworthy releases include: V8.0 (2003) - First pre-production release of OpenVMS on Itanium available outside HP. V8.2 (2005) - First production-grade release of OpenVMS on Itanium. V8.4 (2010) - Final release of OpenVMS supported by HP. Support ended on December 31st 2020. V8.4-2L3 (2021) - Final release of OpenVMS on Itanium supported by VSI. Support ends on December 31st 2028. Support for Itanium has been dropped in the V9.x releases of OpenVMS, which run on x86-64 only. NonStop OS NonStop OS was ported from MIPS-based hardware to Itanium in 2005. NonStop OS was later ported to x86-64 in 2015. Sales of Itanium-based NonStop hardware ended in 2020, with support ending in 2025. Compiler In 2005, Itanium support in GCC which is used for compiling Linux was improved. GNU Compiler Collection deprecated support for IA-64 in GCC 10, after Intel announced the planned phase-out of this ISA. LLVM (Clang) dropped Itanium support in version 2.6. Virtualization and emulation HP sells a virtualization technology for Itanium called Integrity Virtual Machines. Emulation is a technique that allows a computer to execute binary code that was compiled for a different type of computer. Before IBM's acquisition of QuickTransit in 2009, application binary software for IRIX/MIPS and Solaris/SPARC could run via type of emulation called "dynamic binary translation" on Linux/Itanium. Similarly, HP implemented a method to execute PA-RISC/HP-UX on the Itanium/HP-UX via emulation, to simplify migration of its PA-RISC customers to the radically different Itanium instruction set. Itanium processors can also run the mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators. Competition Itanium was aimed at the enterprise server and high-performance computing (HPC) markets. Other enterprise- and HPC-focused processor lines include Oracle's and Fujitsu's SPARC processors and IBM's Power microprocessors. Measured by quantity sold, Itanium's most serious competition came from x86-64 processors including Intel's own Xeon line and AMD's Opteron line. Since 2009, most servers were being shipped with x86-64 processors. In 2005, Itanium systems accounted for about 14% of HPC systems revenue, but the percentage declined as the industry shifted to x86-64 clusters for this application. An October 2008 Gartner report on the Tukwila processor, stated that "...the future roadmap for Itanium looks as strong as that of any RISC peer like Power or SPARC." Supercomputers and high-performance computing An Itanium-based computer first appeared on the list of the TOP500 supercomputers in November 2001. The best position ever achieved by an Itanium 2 based system in the list was #2, achieved in June 2004, when Thunder (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) entered the list with an Rmax of 19.94 Teraflops. In November 2004, Columbia entered the list at #2 with 51.8 Teraflops, and there was at least one Itanium-based computer in the top 10 from then until June 2007. The peak number of Itanium-based machines on the list occurred in the November 2004 list, at 84 systems (16.8%); by June 2012, this had dropped to one system (0.2%), and no Itanium system remained on the list in November 2012. Processors Released processors The Itanium processors show a progression in capability. Merced was a proof of concept. McKinley dramatically improved the memory hierarchy and allowed Itanium to become reasonably competitive. Madison, with the shift to a 130 nm process, allowed for enough cache space to overcome the major performance bottlenecks. Montecito, with a 90 nm process, allowed for a dual-core implementation and a major improvement in performance per watt. Montvale added three new features: core-level lockstep, demand-based switching and front-side bus frequency of up to 667 MHz. Market reception High-end server market When first released in 2001, Itanium's performance was disappointing compared to better-established RISC and CISC processors. Emulation to run existing x86 applications and operating systems was particularly poor, with one benchmark in 2001 reporting that it was equivalent at best to a 100 MHz Pentium in this mode (1.1 GHz Pentiums were on the market at that time). Itanium failed to make significant inroads against IA-32 or RISC, and suffered further following the arrival of x86-64 systems which offered greater compatibility with older x86 applications. In a 2009 article on the history of the processor — "How the Itanium Killed the Computer Industry" — journalist John C. Dvorak reported "This continues to be one of the great fiascos of the last 50 years". Tech columnist Ashlee Vance commented that the delays and underperformance "turned the product into a joke in the chip industry". In an interview, Donald Knuth said "The Itanium approach...was supposed to be so terrific—until it turned out that the wished-for compilers were basically impossible to write." Both Red Hat and Microsoft announced plans to drop Itanium support in their operating systems due to lack of market interest; however, other Linux distributions such as Gentoo and Debian remain available for Itanium. On March 22, 2011, Oracle Corporation announced that it would no longer develop new products for HP-UX on Itanium, although it would continue to provide support for existing products. Following this announcement, HP sued Oracle for breach of contract, arguing that Oracle had violated conditions imposed during settlement over Oracle's hiring of former HP CEO Mark Hurd as its co-CEO, requiring the vendor to support Itanium on its software "until such time as HP discontinues the sales of its Itanium-based servers", and that the breach had harmed its business. In 2012, a court ruled in favor of HP, and ordered Oracle to resume its support for Itanium. In June 2016, Hewlett-Packard Enterprise (the corporate successor to HP's server business) was awarded $3 billion in damages from the lawsuit. Oracle unsuccessfully appealed the decision to the California Court of Appeal in 2021. A former Intel official reported that the Itanium business had become profitable for Intel in late 2009. By 2009, the chip was almost entirely deployed on servers made by HP, which had over 95% of the Itanium server market share, making the main operating system for Itanium HP-UX. On March 22, 2011, Intel reaffirmed its commitment to Itanium with multiple generations of chips in development and on schedule. Other markets Although Itanium did attain limited success in the niche market of high-end computing, Intel had originally hoped it would find broader acceptance as a replacement for the original x86 architecture. AMD chose a different direction, designing the less radical x86-64, a 64-bit extension to the existing x86 architecture, which Microsoft then supported, forcing Intel to introduce the same extensions in its own x86-based processors. These designs can run existing 32-bit applications at native hardware speed, while offering support for 64-bit memory addressing and other enhancements to new applications. This architecture has now become the predominant 64-bit architecture in the desktop and portable market. Although some Itanium-based workstations were initially introduced by companies such as SGI, they are no longer available. Timeline 1989 HP begins investigating EPIC. 1994 June: HP and Intel announce partnership. 1995 September: HP, Novell, and SCO announce plans for a "high volume UNIX operating system" to deliver "64-bit networked computing on the HP/Intel architecture". 1996 October: Compaq announces it will use IA-64. 1997 June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $38bn/yr by 2001. October: Dell announces it will use IA-64. December: Intel and Sun announce joint effort to port Solaris to IA-64. 1998 March: SCO admits HP/SCO Unix alliance is now dead. June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $30bn/yr by 2001. June: Intel announces Merced will be delayed, from second half of 1999 to first half of 2000. September: IBM announces it will build Merced-based machines. October: Project Monterey is formed to create a common UNIX for IA-64. 1999 February: Project Trillian is formed to port Linux to IA-64. August: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2002. October: Intel announces the Itanium name. October: the term Itanic is first used in The Register. 2000 February: Project Trillian delivers source code. June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2003. July: Sun and Intel drop Solaris-on-Itanium plans. August: AMD releases specification for x86-64, a set of 64-bit extensions to Intel's own x86 architecture intended to compete with IA-64. It will eventually market this under the name "AMD64". 2001 June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $15bn/yr by 2004. June: Project Monterey dies. July: Itanium is released. October: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $12bn/yr by the end of 2004. November: IBM's 320-processor Titan NOW Cluster at National Center for Supercomputing Applications is listed on the TOP500 list at position #34. November: Compaq delays Itanium Product release due to problems with processor. December: Gelato is formed. 2002 March: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $5bn/yr by end 2004. June: Itanium 2 is released. 2003 April: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $9bn/yr by end 2007. April: AMD releases Opteron, the first processor with x86-64 extensions. June: Intel releases the "Madison" Itanium 2. 2004 February: Intel announces it has been working on its own x86-64 implementation (which it will eventually market under the name "Intel 64"). June: Intel releases its first processor with x86-64 extensions, a Xeon processor codenamed "Nocona". June: Thunder, a system at LLNL with 4096 Itanium 2 processors, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2. November: Columbia, an SGI Altix 3700 with 10160 Itanium 2 processors at NASA Ames Research Center, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2. December: Itanium system sales for 2004 reach $1.4bn. 2005 January: HP ports OpenVMS to Itanium February: IBM server design drops Itanium support. June: An Itanium 2 sets a record SPECfp2000 result of 2,801 in a Hitachi, Ltd. Computing blade. September: Itanium Solutions Alliance is formed. September: Dell exits the Itanium business. October: Itanium server sales reach $619M/quarter in the third quarter. October: Intel announces one-year delays for Montecito, Montvale, and Tukwila. 2006 January: Itanium Solutions Alliance announces a $10bn collective investment in Itanium by 2010. February: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $6.6bn/yr by 2009. June: Intel releases the dual-core "Montecito" Itanium 2 9000 series. 2007 April: CentOS (RHEL-clone) places Itanium support on hold for the 5.0 release. October: Intel releases the "Montvale" Itanium 2 9100 series. November: Intel renames the family from Itanium 2 back to Itanium. 2009 December: Red Hat announces that it is dropping support for Itanium in the next release of its enterprise OS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6. 2010 February: Intel announces the "Tukwila" Itanium 9300 series. April: Microsoft announces phase-out of support for Itanium. October: Intel announces new releases of Intel C++ Compiler and Intel Fortran Compiler for x86/x64, while Itanium support is only available in older versions. 2011 March: Oracle Corporation announces that it will stop developing application software, middleware, and Oracle Linux for the Itanium. March: Intel and HP reiterate their support of Itanium. April: Huawei and Inspur announce that they will develop Itanium servers. 2012 February: Court papers were released from a case between HP and Oracle Corporation that gave insight to the fact that HP was paying Intel $690 million to keep Itanium on life support. SAP discontinues support for Business Objects on Itanium. September: In response to a court ruling, Oracle reinstitutes support for Oracle software on Itanium hardware. 2013 January: Intel cancels Kittson as a 22 nm shrink of Poulson, moving it instead to its 32 nm process. November: HP announces that its NonStop servers will start using Intel 64 (x86-64) chips. 2014 July: VMS Software Inc (VSI) announces that OpenVMS will be ported to x86-64. December: HP announces that their next generation of Superdome X and Nonstop X servers would be equipped with Intel Xeon processors, and not Itanium. While HP continues to sell and offer support for the Itanium-based Integrity portfolio, the introduction of a model based entirely on Xeon chips marks the end of an era. 2017 February: Intel ships test versions of Kittson, the first new Itanium chip since 2012. May: Kittson formally ships in volume as the Itanium 9700 series. Intel states that Kittson is the final Itanium generation. 2019 January: Intel announces Itanium's end of life with additional orders accepted until January 2020 and last shipments no later than July 2021. 2020 Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) is accepting the last orders for the latest Itanium i6 servers on December 31, 2020. 2021 February: Linus Torvalds marks the Itanium port of Linux as orphaned. "HPE no longer accepts orders for new Itanium hardware, and Intel stopped accepting orders a year ago. While Intel is still officially shipping chips until July 29, 2021, it's unlikely that any such orders actually exist. It's dead, Jim." July 29: official end of life. See also List of Intel Itanium microprocessors Advanced load address table References External links Intel Itanium Intel Itanium Processor Product Specifications HPE Integrity Servers official web page Some undocumented Itanium 2 microarchitectural information Itanium Docs at HP Historical background for EPIC instruction set architectures Computer-related introductions in 2001 Instruction set architectures Intel microprocessors Very long instruction word computing 64-bit microprocessors VLIW microprocessors

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The Open University (OU) is a British public research university and the largest university in the UK by number of students. The majority of the OU's undergraduate students are based in the United Kingdom and principally study off-campus; many of its courses (both undergraduate and postgraduate) can also be studied anywhere in the world. There are also a number of full-time postgraduate research students based on the 48-hectare university campus in Milton Keynes, where they use the OU facilities for research, as well as more than 1,000 members of academic and research staff and over 2,500 administrative, operational and support staff. The OU was established in 1969 and was initially based at Alexandra Palace, north London, using the television studios and editing facilities which had been vacated by the BBC. The first students enrolled in January 1971. The university administration is now based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, in Buckinghamshire, but has administration centres in other parts of the United Kingdom. It also has a presence in other European countries. The university awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as non-degree qualifications such as diplomas and certificates or continuing education units. With more than 175,000 students enrolled, including around 34% of new undergraduates aged under 25 and more than 7,700 overseas students, it is the largest academic institution in the United Kingdom (and one of the largest in Europe) by student number, and qualifies as one of the world's largest universities. Since it was founded, more than 2 million students have studied its courses. The Open University is one of only two United Kingdom higher education institutions to gain accreditation in the United States of America by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, an institutional accrediting agency, recognised by the United States Secretary of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation. The BSc (Honours) Computing and IT course is accredited by BCS, the Chartered Institute for IT and quality assured by the European Quality Assurance Network for Informatics Education (EQANIE). The OU won the Teaching Excellence and Digital Innovation categories in The Guardian University Awards 2018. In 2018–19 the OU had a £2.77 billion impact on the UK economy. It also produces more CEOs than any other UK university, including universities such as Oxford, Cambridge, University College London and the London School of Economics. Former UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown, astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell, broadcaster Anna Ford and actress Glenda Jackson are among a host of well-known names who have tutored for the OU. History The Open University was founded by the Labour government under Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Wilson was a strong advocate, using the vision of Michael Young. Planning commenced in 1965 under Minister of State for Education Jennie Lee, who established a model for the OU as one of widening access to the highest standards of scholarship in higher education, and set up a planning committee consisting of university vice-chancellors, educationalists and television broadcasters, chaired by Sir Peter Venables. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Assistant Director of Engineering at the time James Redmond, had obtained most of his qualifications at night school, and his natural enthusiasm for the project did much to overcome the technical difficulties of using television to broadcast teaching programmes. Wilson envisaged The Open University as a major marker in the Labour Party's commitment to modernising British society. He believed that it would help build a more competitive economy while also promoting greater equality of opportunity and social mobility. The planned utilisation of television and radio to broadcast its courses was also supposed to link The Open University to the technological revolution underway, which Wilson saw as a major ally of his modernisation schemes. However, from the start Lee encountered widespread scepticism and even opposition from within and without the Labour Party, including senior officials in the Department of Education and Science (DES), her departmental head Anthony Crosland, the Treasury, ministerial colleagues, such as Richard Crossman and commercial broadcasters. The Open University was realised due to Lee's unflagging determination and tenacity in 1965–67, the steadfast support from Wilson, and the fact that the anticipated costs, as reported to Lee and Wilson by Arnold Goodman, seemed very modest. By the time the actual, much higher costs became apparent, it was too late to scrap the fledgling university. The university was granted a royal charter by the Privy Council on 23 April 1969. Organisation and administration Staff The majority of staff are part-time associate lecturers and, as of the 2009–10 academic year, almost 8,000 work for the OU. There are also 1,286 (mostly full-time) salaried academic employees (central academics based at Walton Hall and staff tutors based in a variety of regional locations) who are research active and responsible for the production and presentation of teaching materials, 1,931 who are academic-related and 1,902 support staff (including secretaries and technicians). Salaries are the OU's main cost—over £275 million for the 2009–2010 academic year. In 2010 the OU became one of the Sunday Times Best Places to Work in the Public Sector. Credit union Open University Employees Credit Union is a savings and loans co-operative established by the university for staff in 1994. A member of the Association of British Credit Unions, it is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the PRA. Ultimately, like the banks and building societies, members’ savings are protected against business failure by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme. Academic divisions Faculties In 2016, the university reorganised its departments and now operates with the Faculties of Arts & Social Sciences (FASS); the Faculty of Business and Law (FBL); the faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM); and the faculty of Wellbeing, Education, Languages and Sport (WELS). It also runs Open and Access programmes via PVC-Students, and programmes from Institute of Educational Technology (IET) via WELS. Business school In 1982, Open University offered a course titled, "The Effective Manager", developed by a team that was led by Charles Handy. After the reported success of the course, Derek S. Pugh proposed the establishment of a business school. In 1988, the Open University Business School (OUBS) was founded by the Faculty of Management department, for which professor Andrew Thomson was appointed to head. Thomson's main goal was the offering of an MBA programme, which was eventually funded through a grant from the DES. In 1989, the first class of MBA students were enrolled. The Open University Business School is accredited by the international accrediting bodies AACSB, AMBA, and EQUIS. It was placed in the top 1% of UK business schools after having received Triple Crown accreditation. Some selected rankings: The OU Business School's MBA programme was ranked 13th in the Financial Times’ global rankings of online and distance learning MBA providers which featured five European schools, four of which were in the UK. Ranked fifth in the Global Online MBA Rankings by CEO Magazine and 1st for UK institutions (2019) Ranked sixth in the world for the QS Distance Online MBA Rankings (2016) Singapore Institute of Management Open University Centre From 1992 to 2005, the Singapore Institute of Management (SIM) ran the Open University Degree Programme (OUDP), in collaboration with The Open University, United Kingdom (OUUK), which was re-named the Singapore Institute of Management's Open University Centre (SIM-OUC) as one of SIM's autonomous entity. In 2005, after SIM formed SIM University (UniSIM), it took over SIM-OUC students and granted those who graduated in 2006 a choice between a UniSIM or OUUK degree. Academic profile Teaching methods The OU uses a variety of methods for teaching, including written and audio materials, the Internet, disc-based software and television programmes on DVD. Course-based television broadcasts by the BBC, which started on 3 January 1971, ceased on 15 December 2006. Materials comprise originally authored work by in-house and external academic contributors, and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU students. For most modules, students are supported by tutors ("associate lecturers") who provide feedback on their work and are generally available to them at face-to-face tutorials, by telephone, and/or on the Internet. A number of short courses worth ten credits are now available that do not have an assigned tutor but offer an online conferencing service (Internet forum) where help and advice is offered through conferencing "moderators". Some modules have mandatory day schools. Nevertheless, it is possible to be excused on the basis of ill-health (or other extenuating circumstances) and many courses have no mandatory face-to-face component. Similarly, some modules have traditionally offered week-long summer schools offering an opportunity for students to remove themselves from the general distractions of their life and focus on their study for a short time. Over the past ten years the university has adopted a policy of separating residential modules from distance-full-time taught modules. Exemption from attendance at residential schools, always as an Alternative Learning Experience (ALE), is sometimes available for disabled students and others who find it impossible to attend in person (See "Qualifications-Undergraduate" section.) For many years the OU produced television and radio programmes aimed at bringing learning to a wider audience. In its early years most of these were in the form of documentaries or filmed lectures. Latterly, most OU-associated programming was mainstream and broadcast in peak hours, including series such as Rough Science and "Battle of the Geeks", while older-style programming was carried in the BBC Learning Zone. In 2004 the OU announced it was to stop its late-night programmes on BBC Two, and the last programme was broadcast at 5.30am on 16 December 2006. The OU now plans to focus on semi-academic television programmes, such as many now broadcast on BBC Four. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education review published in December 2015 found five areas of good practice and made three recommendations for improvement. The English national survey of student satisfaction has twice put the Open University in first place. In October 2006, the OU joined the open educational resources movement with the launch of OpenLearn. A growing selection of current and past distance learning course materials will be released for free access, including downloadable versions for educators to modify (under the Creative Commons BY-NC-SA licence), plus free collaborative learning-support tools. In the early 2000s, the OU researched the use of virtual worlds in teaching and learning, and had two main islands in Second Life. In May 2009 these regions formed the basis of a case study by Linden Lab, the company which owns Second Life. In mid-2010, the university led the list of contributing universities in the number of downloads of its material from the educational resources site iTunes U, with downloads of over 20 million. Open University continues to adopt Moodle as the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) with their own team deploying custom plugins. In 2013, the OU began a massive open online course (MOOC) platform called FutureLearn, which is the UK's largest provider of free online courses. Assessment methods Open University modules are often assessed using an equal weighting of examinations and coursework. The coursework component normally takes the form of between two and seven tutor marked assignments (TMAs) and, occasionally, may also include up to six multiple-choice or "missing word" 10-question interactive computer marked assignments (iCMAs). The examinable component is usually an invigilated three-hour paper regardless of the size of the module (although on some modules it can be up to three three-hour papers), but an increasing number of modules instead have an EMA (End of Module Assessment) which is similar to a TMA, in that it is completed at home, but is regarded as an exam for grading purposes. Modules results are sometimes issued on a graded basis, consisting of pass grades 1 (threshold 85%, a distinction), 2 (70–84%), 3 (55–69%) & 4 (40–54%), and fail (below 40%). This grade is calculated as the lower of the overall continuous assessment score (OCAS) and overall examination score (OES). These grades can be weighted according to their level, and combined to calculate the classification of a degree. An undergraduate degree will weight level 3 modules twice as much as level 2, and in postgraduate programmes all M level modules are equally weighted. Qualifications Undergraduate Open University modules have associated with them a number of Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme (CATS) credits – usually 30 or 60 – depending on the quantity of the material in the module and a level (1, 2, 3, or 4) corresponding to the complexity, with 120 credits roughly equating to the year of study for a full-time student. The OU offers a large number of undergraduate qualifications, including certificates, diplomas, and bachelor's degrees, based on both level and quantity of study. An OU undergraduate degree requires 300 (or 360 for honours) CATS credits. Students are generally advised not to undertake more than 60 credits per year, meaning that an undergraduate degree will take typically six years to complete. With the exception of some degrees in fast moving areas (such as computing) there is generally no limit on the time which a student may take. Students need special permission to take more than 120 credits (equivalent to full-time study) at any time; such permission is not usually granted. Originally the BA was the only undergraduate degree, and it was unnamed. The modern OU grants degrees of Bachelor of Arts (BA), Science (BSc), Laws (LLB) and Engineering (BEng); the BA and BSc may be named (following a specified syllabus) or unnamed (constructed of courses chosen by the student) degrees. Many OU faculties have now introduced short modules worth ten credits. Most of these modules are taught online, and start at regular intervals throughout the year. They typically provide an introduction to a broader subject over a period of ten weeks, these are generally timed during vacations at conventional universities in order to take advantage of their facilities. Some science modules, which require only home study, are complemented by residential courses, in order to allow the student to gain practical laboratory experience in that field; typically, an award of degree or diploma will require completion of both. Different modules are run at different times of the year, but, typically, a 30 or 60 credit module will run either from October to June or from February to October. Assessment is by both continual assessment (with, normally, between four and eight assignments during the year) and, for most, a final examination or, on some modules, a major assignment. Open degree As well as degrees in named subjects, the Open University also grants multidisciplinary "Open" degrees. Open degrees provide students with access to a wide variety of subjects to develop a personalised curriculum to meet their vocational needs and personal interests. The Open degree may be awarded as a Bachelor of Arts Open, a Bachelor of Science Open (either with or without honours), a Master of Arts Open or a Master of Science Open. The Open degree is the most popular qualification at the university. Around 20,000 students are enrolled in this programme, which makes the Open University the UK's largest multidisciplinary education provider. As of 2018, over 236,000 alumni have graduated with an Open degree. Other qualifications The Open University grants undergraduate Certificates (abbreviated Cert) typically awarded after 60 completed credits at Level 1 or Level 3 (where each credit corresponds to roughly 10 hours of study, therefore 60 credits represent about 600 hours of effort), Diplomas (abbreviated Dip) after 120 credits – typically 60 credits at Level 2 and 60 credits at Level 3. Open University also awards Foundation degrees (abbreviated FD). OU also offers a limited number of CertHE (120 CATS) and DipHE (240 CATS). Postgraduate The Open University provides the opportunity to study for a PhD on a part-time distance, or a full-time basis (on-site for science subjects and most social sciences, off-site with some supervisions on-site for arts) in a wide range of disciplines as well as an EdD for professionals in education. Since 2019 the Open University has also offered a professional doctorate for healthcare workers. The university offers a range of Master's levels modules such as the MBA and MPA, MSc, MA and MEd, and MRes, and a number of postgraduate diplomas and certificates including innovative practice-based modules and postgraduate computing qualifications for professionals. Postgraduate certificates are awarded for 60 credits of study on specified modules; postgraduate diplomas are awarded for 120 credits of study on specified modules. The university offers "Advanced Diplomas" that involve 60 credits at undergraduate level and 60 credits at postgraduate level – these are designed as "bridges" between undergraduate and postgraduate study. Degree ceremonies Unlike most United Kingdom universities, degree ceremonies at the Open University are not graduation ceremonies as such (the occasion on which degrees are formally conferred on those who have achieved substantive degrees)—although honours degrees are also normally conferred on these occasions. The Open University degree ceremony is officially known as a "Presentation of Graduates" at which those who have already had a degree bestowed on them are presented to the University Chancellor or his/her representative. Open University graduates normally graduate in absentia at a joint meeting of the university's council and senate ("congregation") which takes place at a meeting entirely separate from the degree ceremony. The university's degree ceremonies occur throughout the year at various prestigious auditorium venues located throughout the United Kingdom, plus one each in Ireland and Continental Western Europe. In the year 2010 the OU held 26 degree ceremonies including Dublin, Manchester, Glasgow, Ely and Versailles. These ceremonies are presided over by a senior academic at Pro-Vice-Chancellor level or higher, and have the normal formal rituals associated with a graduation ceremony, including academic dress, procession and university mace. Academic dress Academic dress for the Open University is based around the colours of blue and gold (yellow). No headwear is worn at degree ceremonies. In year 2000, the Open University was the first to host an online "virtual" graduation ceremony in the United Kingdom together with an audience at the OU's campus in Milton Keynes. Twenty-six students in eight countries, from the United States of America to Hong Kong, were presented for their master's degrees in the online graduation, including, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – Tim Berners-Lee, one of the founders of the World Wide Web, whom was conferred an honorary doctorate. Rankings The university is included in major world university rankings such as Times Higher Education World University Rankings, U.S. News & World Report and Academic Ranking of World Universities. The OU ranked in the top third of UK universities in the Research Excellence Framework (REF) 2014 using the Times Higher Education Power Score. The Open University ranked third in National Student Survey 2021 achieving 88.24% for overall student satisfaction. Research Like other UK universities, the OU actively engages in research. The OU's Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute has become particularly well known to the public through its involvement in space missions. In October 2006, the Cassini-Huygens mission including 15 people from the OU received the 2006 "Laurels for Team Achievement Award" from the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). Cassini-Huygens' successful completion of its seven-year, two billion-mile journey in January 2005 to Saturn ended with Huygens landing farther away from Earth than any previous probe or craft in the history of space exploration. The first instrument to touch Saturn's moon Titan was the Surface Science Package containing nine sensors to investigate the physical properties of Titan's surface. It was built by a team at the OU led by Professor John Zarnecki. The OU employs over 500 people engaged in research in over 25 areas, and there are over 1,200 research students. It spends approximately £20 million each year on research, around £6 million from the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the remainder from external funders. The Open University also runs the Open Research Online (ORO) website. ORO is a collection of over 40,000 open access research outputs across a broad range of research areas. The Open University produced in collaboration with Springer Nature the Computer Science Ontology, which is a large-scale automatically generated taxonomy of research topics in the field of Computer Science. OpenScience Observatories The OU operates a collection of telescopes and other instruments at the Observatorio del Teide, Tenerife. Its facilities compromise the COmpletely Autonomous Service Telescope (COAST), the Physics Innovations Robotic Telescope Explorer (PIRATE) and an associated weather station. At the Open University campus in Milton Keynes researches operate a radio telescope – ARROW (A Robotic Radio telescope Over the Web). Students In the 2019–20 academic year, there were 175,719 enrolled students. Demographics In 2019/20, 99,834 students were from England, 14,903 were from Scotland, 6,668 from Wales, 3,667 from Northern Ireland and 4,900 from the European Union, with others elsewhere. 60% of undergraduates were female, with 53% of those taking postgraduate modules being male. 22,664 of students in 2015–16 had declared disabilities. According to The Guardian, a cross-sector fall in the number of part-time students was accelerated in 2012 when tuition fees rose and there was limited financial support for part-time students. The Open University saw a 30% drop of part-time students between 2010–11 and 2015–16. Enrollment numbers show a tremendous difference from 2009–2010 to 2016–2017. While most of those studying are mature students, an increasingly large proportion of new undergraduates are aged between 17 and 25, to the extent that in 2010/11 the OU had more students in this age range than any other UK university. In the 2003–2004 academic year around 20% of new undergraduates were under 25, up from 12.5% in 1996–1997 (the year before top-up fees were announced). In 2010 approximately 55% of those under 25 were also in full-time employment. In 2010, 29,000 undergraduates were in this age range. By 2011, 32,000 undergraduates were under 25 years old, representing around 25% of new students. The majority of students in the 2015–16 academic year were aged between 25 and 34 years old, with the median age of new undergraduates being 28. As of 2014, the OU's youngest graduate was a fifteen-year-old boy from Wales who gained a BSc with First Class Honours in 2014. The OU works with some schools to introduce A-Level students to OU study and in 2009–10 3% of undergraduates were under 18 years old. Courses Unlike other universities, where students register for a programme, OU students register separately for individual modules (which may be 30 or 60 CATS credits (and formerly available in 10, 15, or 20 credits), equivalent to 15 or 30 ECTS credits). These modules may then be linked into degree programmes. During the 2009–10 academic year social studies was the most popular study area (with 16,381 full-time equivalent students), followed by biological and physical sciences (12,357) and historical and philosophical studies (8,686); student numbers even on smaller undergraduate programmes, such as creative arts and design are still significant (2,528) as are postgraduate registrations on programmes such as mass communications and documentation (123 full-time equivalent students). The most popular module during 2009–10 was DD101 An introduction to the social sciences (7,512 students), followed by AA100 The Arts Past and Present, B120 An Introduction to Business Studies, K101 An Introduction to Health and Social Care and Y163 Starting with Psychology. Fees and financial assistance 17,634 students received financial assistance towards their study in 2015–16. The typical cost for United Kingdom-based students of a Bachelor's honours degree at the OU was between £3,780 and £5,130 in 2009–10. From September 2012 the Government reduced its funding for all students residing in England and fees went up to compensate. English students pay higher fees than those living in the rest of the United Kingdom. The average cost of one full-time year or 120 credits rose to £6,336 in 2021, bringing the cost of an average Bachelor's honours degree for an English student to £19,008. (European Union and international students pay more as the university does not receive government funding for them). The most important revenue stream to the Open University is now academic fees paid by the students, which totalled about £157 million in 2009–10 and £248 million in 2015–16. Qualifications awarded The university enrolled fewer than 50,000 students in the 1970–71 academic year, but it quickly exceeded that number by 1974–75. By 1987–88 yearly enrolment had doubled to 100,000 students, passing 200,000 by 2001–02 and 250,000 in 2009–10. Numbers fell when the fee regime changed. Cumulatively, by the end of 2009–10 the OU had educated more than 1.5 million students and awarded 819,564 qualifications after successful assessment. In addition, the Open University provides certification for qualifications at Ruskin College in Oxford and Richmond, the American International University in London, a private liberal arts institution. (Until 2008, it provided the same service for the University of the Highlands and Islands in Scotland). Open University Students Association The Open University Students Association is the equivalent of a students' union for the Open University, and is a registered charity wholly funded by the Open University (OU). The association is governed by a Board of Trustees and a Central Executive Committee. Each student registered with the OU automatically becomes part of the Students Association unless they elect to formally opt out. It offers opportunities to meet up, volunteer, find information and access services to support learning. Notable current and former academics Jocelyn Bell Burnell – astronomer Tim Benton – art historian Andrew Blowers – geographer Neil Chalmers – zoologist Catherine Cooke – architectural historian Nigel Cross – design researcher Katharine Ellis – music historian Dimitra Fimi – Tolkien scholar Monica Grady – meteoricist Brian Goodwin – biologist Norman Gowar – mathematician Oswald Hanfling – philosopher Stuart Hall – social scientist Christopher Hill – historian Arthur Marwick – historian Doreen Massey – geographer Bob Moon – educationist John Naughton – technologist Oliver Penrose – mathematician Mike Pentz – physicist Colin Pillinger – planetary scientist Steven Rose – biologist Russell Stannard – physicist Hilary Wainwright – sociologist Nigel Warburton – philosopher Margaret Wetherell – social psychologist Glenn White – astronomer Robin Wilson – mathematician John Zarnecki – space scientist Notable alumni, graduates and honorees In fiction The Open University has been featured in many films and television programmes. The plot of Educating Rita surrounds the working-class titular character aiming to "improve" herself by studying English literature. She attends private tutorials run by alcoholic lecturer Frank. Television characters have also followed OU courses. These include Anne Bryce in the BBC sit-com Ever Decreasing Circles, Yvonne Sparrow in Goodnight Sweetheart and George Bulman in Bulman, in the ITV spin-off from the series Strangers. Sheila Grant (Sue Johnston) was accused of having an affair with her tutor in Brookside. Onslow, a character from Keeping up Appearances, watches Open University programming on television from time to time. In autumn 2006, Lenny Henry was a star in Slings and Arrows, a one-off BBC television drama which he also wrote, about someone who falls in love while on an OU English Literature course. (Henry has himself completed an OU degree in English.) In the 2006–07 TV series Life on Mars, Sam Tyler received messages from the real world via Open University programmes late at night. Dorian Green from Birds of a Feather announced she had been accepted by the Open University to do a degree in psychology and began studying with the university in series 3. In the 2016 novel Swing Time by Zadie Smith, the narrator's mother is a student of the Open University. In the TV series Bottom, Eddie, Spudgun, and Dave Hedgehog watch TV while playing hide-and-seek with Ritchie. They fall asleep, leaving Ritchie in a cupboard, until they finally awaken to an OU lecture on 'Medieval population distribution patterns in Lower Saxony'. Partnerships Armed Forces Through an agreement between the Ministry of Defence and the OU going back to the early 1970s, a wide range of courses are available to members of the British armed forces, with course materials supplied via the student's BFPO address. OU study centres have been established in Cyprus and Germany. Many have studied while on active service, even in conflict situations. Partner institutions The Open University has a diverse network of partners across the globe. Once approved, partner institutions offer Open University validated awards, granted under the University's Royal Charter. As of October 2021, the Open University has over 40 international partners, including for example Union School of Theology, Regent's University London, York College, Belfast Metropolitan College, American College of Greece, Leeds City College and Ruskin College Oxford. Doctoral training partnerships The Grand Union The Grand Union is an ESRC Doctoral Training Partnership uniting The Open University, the University of Oxford and Brunel University London. The partnership is committed to a student-centred approach to training researchers, increasing access to postgraduate study, and advancing disciplinary and interdisciplinary research. Open-Oxford-Cambridge AHRC Doctoral Training Open-Oxford-Cambridge AHRC Doctoral Training Partnership is a consortium of the Open University, University of Oxford and University of Cambridge providing funding and training for doctoral students in the arts and humanities. Imperial-Cambridge-Open Centre for Doctoral Training From 2014 to 2022, the Open University is working with Imperial College London and the University of Cambridge to establish a new EPSRC-funded Centre for Doctoral Training (CDT) to develop skills in civil nuclear energy for global markets. See also List of Open University Alumni Futurelearn OpenLearn Open College of the Arts Open University Press University of Hagen List of universities in the United Kingdom Notes References Further reading Dorey, Pete. "‘Well, Harold Insists on Having It!’—The Political Struggle to Establish The Open University, 1965–67." Contemporary British History 29#2 (2015): 241–272. Perry, Walter. "The Open University" Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. (1971), Vol. 44 Issue 203, pp 95–112. Purvis, June. "Some problems of teaching and learning within the Open University." Educational Research 21#3 (1979): 163–177. Tunstall, Jeremy. The Open University Opens (1974). Dalgleish, Tim. Lifting It Off The Page: An Oral Portrait of OU People 1995, The Open University. External links Parliament & the Sixties – Jennie Lee & The University of the Air – UK Parliament Living Heritage OpenLearn online learning from the Open University Video clip of BBC Open University programme circa 1982 Distance education institutions based in the United Kingdom Alternative education Personal development Charities based in Scotland Exempt charities Educational institutions established in 1969 Charities based in Buckinghamshire 1969 establishments in the United Kingdom Credit unions of the United Kingdom Open universities Organisations based in Milton Keynes Universities established in the 1960s Universities UK

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Meet the Parents is a 2000 American comedy film written by Jim Herzfeld and John Hamburg and directed by Jay Roach. It chronicles a series of unfortunate events that befall a good-hearted but hapless nurse (Ben Stiller as Greg Focker) while visiting his girlfriend's parents (Robert De Niro as Jack Byrnes and Blythe Danner as Dina Byrnes). Teri Polo and Owen Wilson also star. The film is a remake of a 1992 film of the same name directed by Greg Glienna and produced by Jim Vincent. Glienna- who also played the original one's main protagonist- and Mary Ruth Clarke cowrote the screenplay. Universal Pictures purchased the rights to Glienna's film with the intent of creating a new version. Jim Herzfeld expanded the original script but development was halted for some time. Jay Roach read the expanded script and expressed his desire to direct it but Universal declined him. At that time, Steven Spielberg was interested in doing so while Jim Carrey was interested in playing the lead role. The studio only offered the film to Roach once Spielberg and Carrey left the project. Released in the United States and Canada on October 6, 2000 and distributed by Universal Pictures, the film earned back its initial budget of $55 million in only 11 days. It went on to become one of the highest-grossing films of 2000, earning over $165 million in North America and over $330 million worldwide. It was well received by film critics and viewers alike, winning several awards and earning additional nominations. Ben Stiller won two comedy awards for his performance and the film was chosen as the Favorite Comedy Motion Picture at the 2001 People's Choice Awards. The success of the film inspired two sequels, namely Meet the Fockers and Little Fockers released in 2004 and 2010, respectively. It also inspired a reality television show titled Meet My Folks and a situation comedy titled In-Laws, both of which debuted on NBC in 2002. Plot Gaylord "Greg" Focker is a nurse living in Chicago. He intends to propose to his girlfriend, Pam Byrnes, but his plan is disrupted when they are invited to the wedding of Pam's sister, Debbie, at their parents' house on Long Island. Greg decides to impress Pam's parents first, and propose to her in front of her family, but this plan is put on hold when the airline company loses his luggage which contains the engagement ring. At the Byrnes's house, Greg meets Pam's father, Jack, mother, Dina, and their beloved cat, Jinx. Despite maintaining a friendly demeanor towards him, Jack is immediately suspicious of Greg and openly criticizes him for his choice of career as a male nurse and anything else he sees as a difference between Greg and the Byrnes family. Greg attempts to impress Jack, but his efforts fail. He becomes even more uncomfortable after he receives an impromptu lie detector test from Jack and later learns from Pam that Jack is a retired CIA operative. Meeting the rest of Pam's family and friends, Greg still feels like an outsider. Despite efforts to impress her family, his inadvertent actions make him an easy target for ridicule. Greg unintentionally gives Debbie a broken nose and a black eye during a pool volleyball game, uses a malfunctioning toilet which floods the Byrnes' backyard with sewage, and sets the wedding altar on fire. Several misunderstandings also cause Jack to believe Greg is a marijuana user after Pam's weed-using brother, Denny, unintentionally frames him. Later, Greg loses Jinx and replaces him with a stray whose tail he spray paints to make him look like Jinx which happens to also make a mess of the house (though the real Jinx is later found). By now, the entire Byrnes family, including Pam, agrees that it is best for Greg to leave Long Island until the wedding concludes. Desperate to save himself, Greg reveals he has seen Jack engaging in some secret activity with some shady characters, and that Jack is planning a secret mission after the wedding. Jack angrily reveals that the secret mission was a surprise honeymoon for Debbie and her fiancé Bob, and Greg realizes he has only dug himself deeper into a hole. Unwillingly, Greg goes to the airport where he is detained by airport security for insisting that his luggage stays with him rather than be checked. Back at the Byrnes's house, Jack learns from a disappointed Pam that Greg's real name is Gaylord, and is presented with proof that Greg passed the Medical College Admission Test. Despite this, Jack still states his belief that Greg is an unsuitable husband for Pam because of the mistakes and lies he made, but is told off by Dina over his consistent picking apart of any man Pam brings home (and that he didn't even like Pam's previous fiancé, Kevin, until after they broke up). After hearing Pam make a heartfelt phone call to Greg to apologize for not sticking up for him earlier, Jack realizes that Pam truly loves Greg. He rushes to the airport, convinces airport security to release Greg, and brings him back to the Byrnes's house. As Greg is proposing to Pam, Jack and Dina listen in on their conversation from another room, agreeing that they should now meet Greg's parents (though both are visibly worried about this). After Debbie's wedding, Jack views footage of Greg recorded by hidden cameras that he had placed strategically around the house in which Greg calls Jack a "psycho" and mocks him and exposes Denny as the true marijuana user. Cast Themes Greg Focker is a middle-class Jewish nurse whose social and cultural position is juxtaposed against the Byrnes family of upper-class White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. With respect to Greg as a Jew and a nurse when compared to the Byrnes and Banks families, a distinct cultural gap is created and subsequently widened. The cultural differences are often highlighted, and Greg repeatedly made aware of them. This serves to achieve comedic effect through character development and has also been commented upon as being indicative of thematic portrayal of Jewish characters' roles in modern film as well as being a prime example of how male nurses are portrayed in media. Speaking about character development in Meet the Parents, director Jay Roach stated that he wanted an opportunity to "do character-driven comedy" and "to create realistic characters, but heighten the comedic situations and predicaments." Vincent Brook observes mainstream Hollywood cinema's tendency since the 1990s of incorporating Jewish liminality and "popularizing the Jew." He explains the "manly Jewish triumph" of characters like Jeff Goldblum's David Levinson in Independence Day and labels it as a "certain answer to America's yearnings for a new Jewish hero." This stands in direct contrast to the schlemiel or "the Jewish fool" which was seen to have been revitalized in the mid-1990s after faltering since the 1960s. The schlemiel, Brook explains, is an anti-hero in whose humiliation the audience finds supreme pleasure. Within that context, Brook describes Greg Focker's character as "the quintessential example of the postmodern schlemiel." The repeated embarrassing encounters that Greg faces with his girlfriend's all-American family is compared to the example of Jason Biggs's character Jim Levenstein of the American Pie film series where Levenstein is often the comedic centerpiece due to his repeated sexual embarrassments. Anne Bower writes about Jewish characters at mealtime as part of the broader movement she believes started in the 1960s where filmmakers started producing work that explored the "Jewish self-definition." She postulates that the dinner table becomes an arena where Jewish characters are often and most pointedly put into "conflicts with their ethnic and sexual selves." She describes the example of Greg sitting down for dinner with the Byrnes family and being asked to bless the food. In this scene, Greg attempts to recite a prayer by improvising and, in doing so, launches into a recital of the song "Day by Day" from Act I of Godspell. Bower notes this scene as "particularly important for establishing the cultural distance" between the Jewish Greg and the Christian Byrnes. She noted that the social gap is further widened next morning when Greg is the last person to arrive at the breakfast table; he shows up wearing pajamas while everyone else is fully clothed. Here Greg is shown eating a bagel, which Bower argues as being a clear signifier of Jewishness. Based on common misconceptions and stereotypes about men in nursing, Greg's profession is repeatedly brought up by Jack in a negative context and the character of Greg Focker has come to be one of the best known film portrayals of a male nurse. Even though men dominated the profession in earlier times, there has been a feminization of the nursing profession over the course of the last century which has caused men in nursing to often be portrayed as misfits by the media. A common stereotype is that of a man who accepts a career in nursing as an unfortunate secondary career choice, either failing to become a physician or still trying to become one. Such stereotyping is due to a presumption that a man would prefer to be a physician but is unable to become one due to lack of intelligence or non-masculine attributes. Jack is often seen openly criticizing Greg's career choice per his perception of nursing being an effeminate profession. In their book Men in Nursing: History, Challenges, and Opportunities authors Chad O'Lynn and Russell Tranbarger present this as an example of a negative portrayal. Commenting on the same issue but disagreeing, Barbara Cherry in her book Contemporary Nursing: Issues, Trends, & Management called the portrayal of Greg as a nurse "one of the most positive film portrayals of men who are nurses" and commented that Greg "humorously addresses and rises above the worst of all stereotypes that are endured by men in this profession." Sandy and Harry Summers in the book Saving Lives: Why the Media's Portrayal of Nurses Puts Us All at Risk postulate that Greg's character, although intelligent and firm in his defense of his profession, "might have done more to rebut the stereotypes" while also reporting that "some men in nursing" expressed their opinions that it would have been better to not present the stereotypes at all. Production Background The film is a remake of a 1992 independent film of the same name. Greg Glienna and Mary Ruth Clarke wrote the original story and screenplay. Glienna also directed and starred in the 76-minute film which was filmed on 16 mm film in 1991 and released the following year. The 1992 film also marked one of only several film roles played by comedian Emo Philips which he also helped produce. Film producer Elliot Grove, founder of Raindance Film Festival and the British Independent Film Awards, listed the original Meet the Parents on his personal Top Ten list of favorite films where he called it "much funnier and tighter than the Hollywood version". The 1992 film was a featured entry in the 1995 Raindance Film Festival. Producer Nancy Tenenbaum acquired the rights to the 1992 film. After she sent a copy of the original film to several people of interest, filmmaker Steven Soderbergh replied that he was interested and that he wanted to direct a remake. He brought it to the attention of Universal Studios who initially declined but subsequently optioned the rights to the film in 1995. Soderbergh took on the project but then dropped it when he got involved with Out of Sight. Writing Universal approached screenwriter Jim Herzfeld to expand the screenplay. Herzfeld expanded the modest script, completing the first draft as early as 1996. He initially presented it to Roach who had, up to that point, directed the first two Austin Powers films. Roach admits to have liked the script from the beginning and was very much willing to make the film even though he thought "it needed more work." Universal initially declined to have relatively inexperienced Roach take on the project. The studio was skeptical of Roach's ability to direct a "less-cartoony, character-driven script" compared to a comedy like Austin Powers. Universal's reluctance to give the project to Roach was also due to new interest from Steven Spielberg who wanted to direct and produce the film with Jim Carrey playing the role of Greg Focker. However, Spielberg and Carrey never took the project past the planning stages. The script was then returned to Roach who had by now taken on his next project of Mystery, Alaska but was still interested in making Meet the Parents. The drafts of the script were written by Herzfeld and, once De Niro and Stiller were confirmed as stars, John Hamburg was brought on board "to help fit the script to their verbal styles." Due to changes in directorial and acting line-ups after the early drafts of the script were written, Hamburg kept adjusting and re-writing the script well after production had already begun. Casting Upon the suggestion of Universal Studios, Roach cast De Niro in the role of Jack Byrnes due to critical acclaim of his recent comedy work in films such as Analyze This and in the live-action/animated film The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle. His character is Pam's father and a retired CIA operative who is overly protective of his family and has a hard time warming up to his daughters' love interests. The script was not written with De Niro in mind as Jack Byrnes; the first draft of the script was completed in 1996, three years before De Niro appeared in Analyze This. However, shortly after De Niro finished filming The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle, Universal suggested to Roach that he should cast him for the role to which Roach agrees that he had "no reservations whatsoever." In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, De Niro stated that he was in active pursuit of comedic roles since Analyze This. Admitting that he had initial reservations about starring in the film, he said that he felt "pushed into it" due to insistence by Jane Rosenthal—De Niro's partner in TriBeCa Productions who also acted as one of the producers. Screenwriter Jim Herzfeld and director Jay Roach both confirmed that, after committing to the project and reviewing the script, De Niro was actually the person who came up with the idea for the famous polygraph test scene. Asked about working with him given the serious nature of his previous roles, Ben Stiller said that "it was a little bit intimidating working with De Niro" but that he "has a great sense of humor and I think that's the biggest surprise about him." Explaining how Ben Stiller came to be cast in the role of Greg, Roach states: "I saw Meet the Parents as an anxiety dream, and in my view nobody plays that kind of material better than Ben." Additionally, Roach was impressed with Stiller's creative and ad lib abilities stating that "he has lots of great ideas and he's very skilled at loose improvisation." His character is a nurse who loves his girlfriend and tries desperately to impress her parents by any means which includes telling harmless little lies which are then covered up with bigger lies and elaborate cover-up schemes. The film's script was initially written with Jim Carrey in the role of Greg and contained much more physical comedy, something that Stiller did not think would be successful with himself playing the role. This resulted in deletion of some scenes but also in introduction of at least one unscripted scene that was completely improvised by Stiller. Roach cast Stiller only after it became clear that Carrey would not be taking on the role. The consideration to play the character of Pam Byrnes, Greg's girlfriend who acts as a mediator between Greg and the Byrnes family, especially her father, Jack, was initially given to British actress Naomi Watts. She ultimately lost the role to Teri Polo because the filmmakers "didn't think [Watts] was sexy enough". Other characters in the film were played by Blythe Danner (as Dina Byrnes, Jack's wife and Pam's mother), Owen Wilson (as Kevin Rawley, Pam's ex-fiancée), Nicole DeHuff (as Debbie Byrnes, Pam's sister), Jon Abrahams (as Denny Byrnes, the youngest child of Jack and Dina Byrnes), Thomas McCarthy (as Bob Banks, Debbie's fiancé), and James Rebhorn (as Larry Banks, Bob Banks' father and a close friend of Jack's). Phyllis George, who is a former Miss Texas and Miss America pageant winner and has appeared on numerous television programs as a guest and a host, made her acting debut as Linda Banks, Larry's wife and Bob's mother. The role of Jinx the cat was played by two five-year-old Himalayan cats named Bailey and Misha (sometimes written as Meesha). The American Humane Association oversaw the filming of all scenes where the cats were used and ensured the animals' obedience and well-being by keeping two trainers and a veterinarian on set at all times. Rating Greg Glienna did not come up with the surname Focker; Greg's character in the original film did not have a last name. The name was written into the script after Jim Carrey came up with the idea for the Focker surname during a creative session held before he abandoned the project. Once Meet the Parents was submitted for rating evaluation, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) questioned the surname Focker as possibly an expletive and, due to the repetitiveness of the surname throughout the film, it was in danger of being rated R according to the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system. The filmmakers were asked if they had made up the name or if they can prove that such a name exists. The studio submitted to the MPAA a list of real people with the surname Focker which ensured that the film retained a PG-13 rating. Release Theatrical run The film had its theatrical release in United States and Canada on October 6, 2000. Distributed domestically by Universal Studios, it had an advertising budget of $33.9 million. It quickly proved to be a financial success taking in $28.6 million during its opening weekend and averaging $10,950 per theater in a total of 2,614 theaters. It finished as the top-earning film for the weekend of October 6–8 beating the second-placer Remember the Titans by a margin of over $9 million and bringing in more than four times the earnings of Get Carter, the next highest-earning film released that same weekend. Its opening-weekend earnings were the highest ever for any film released in the month of October as well as marking the highest opening weekend earnings for a film starring Robert De Niro. Its earnings for the second week of release dropped by 26% down to $21.1 million, which still kept it at No.1 at the box office beating Remember the Titans by a margin of over $8 million. By the end of the second week of release, it had already grossed over $58 million, surpassing its production budget of $55 million. It spent its first four weeks of theatrical release as the highest-grossing film at the U.S. box office. It was displaced from No.1 during the weekend of November 3–5 by the newly released Charlie's Angels while still managing to stay ahead of The Legend of Bagger Vance, another new release that debuted at number 3. It remained in the Top 10 grossing films until its 11th week. In the United Kingdom, it had its theatrical premiere on December 15, 2000 and was distributed by United International Pictures (UIP). There, it managed to earn over $21 million during its run. In Australia, also being distributed by UIP, it was released on December 26, 2000 where it earned over $11 million during the theatrical run. At the end of its theatrical run on March 29, 2001—twenty-five weeks after its opening day in North America, the film had grossed $166.2 million in the United States and a total of $330.4 million worldwide, making it the seventh-highest-grossing film of the year both domestically and worldwide. Home media The film was released on VHS and DVD on March 6, 2001. The DVD sales for it were successful, taking in over $200 million for 2001. Billboard magazine listed it as having the highest video sales for all weeks from March 31 up to and including April 21, being the top-selling DVD for the weeks of March 24 and March 31, and being the top-rented video for the weeks of April 7 and April 14. The DVD release provides only the letterbox format of the film and is also 108 minutes in length. The aspect ratio is 1.85:1 with an accommodation for an enhanced 16:9 playback. English-language audio tracks available with the film are a 5.1 Dolby Digital and DTS with the main noticeable difference being only a slightly louder bass on one of the tracks. A French-language audio track is also available only in 5.1 Dolby Digital Format. Additionally, English language subtitles are provided as well. The single-disc "Collector's Edition" contains two audio commentaries, one a light-hearted and humorous discussion between Roach, Stiller, De Niro, and producer Jane Rosenthal and the other a more formal technical commentary on the film-making aspects by the director and editor Jon Poll. The director discusses issues that include working with the cast, utilizing the best camera angles for comedic effect, discussing scenes that were improvised and scenes that were scripted, and commenting on issues surrounding shooting on location. The editor speaks about putting together the best functioning comedy from material that was filmed and discusses some deleted scenes that were excluded from the DVD release. In addition, the DVD features a twelve-minute outtake section, three minutes of deleted scenes, and Universal's Spotlight on Location featurette. Spotlight on Location is a standard 24-minute-long featurette about the making of the film which includes interviews with the cast members and contains behind-the-scenes footage. It also contains two games called Take The Lie Detector Test and The Forecaster Game as well as PC material such as wallpapers and screensavers. The region 2 edition of the DVD was released on October 22, 2001. A region 1 "Bonus Edition" was released on December 14, 2004 and contains three additional featurettes: Silly Cat Tricks, The Truth About Lying and a 12-minute-long Jay Roach: A Director's Profile. Soundtrack The original motion picture soundtrack for the film was released on September 26, 2000 on the DreamWorks Records record label. The soundtrack features 14 original compositions by Randy Newman as well as additional tracks by Bobby Womack, Lee Dorsey, and Dr. John and a hidden bonus track. Newman's original song "A Fool in Love" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song—Newman's 14th Oscar nomination—at the 73rd Academy Awards but it ultimately lost to Bob Dylan's "Things Have Changed" for Wonder Boys. For the same song, Newman also won the 16th Annual ASCAP Film & Television Music Award in the Top Box Office Films category and was nominated at the 5th Golden Satellite Awards in the Original Song category. Dan Goldwasser, in his review of the soundtrack for Soundtrack.Net, gave credit to Newman and the soundtrack for doing "an excellent job keeping the humor level high." Reception Critical reception Meet the Parents received a generally positive response from film critics, being commended on the subtlety of its humor as well as being named as "the funniest" or "one of the funniest" films of the year by several critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average rating of "A-" on an A+ to F scale. Kenneth Turan, film critic for Los Angeles Times, called it "the funniest film of the year so far, possibly the most amusing mainstream live-action comedy since There's Something About Mary." Critic Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal stated that the film "does almost everything right with a story about everything going wrong" and that it "works up a major comic delirium on the theme of Murphy's Law", concluding that "Meet the Parents is the funniest movie of the year." CNN's Paul Clinton proclaimed "Meet the Parents is one of the best comedies of this—or any other—year", calling it "wonderfully funny" and expressing his hope that "the Academy will also recognize this wonderful movie, something it rarely does when it comes to comedies." Time magazine's film critic Richard Schickel stated that it was "divinely invented and perfectly orchestrated". He complimented the screenplay by calling the screenwriters Jim Herzfeld and John Hamburg "a couple of skilled tool-and-die makers" as well as the acting cast because he believed that they "understand that palpable reality will always trump frenzied fantasy when it comes to getting laughs." Schickel concluded his review by proclaiming Meet the Parents a "superbly antic movie". Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine called the film "flat-out hilarious" and Neil Smith of BBC proclaimed that "there's not a weak scene in this super-funny picture" while awarding it a rating of five stars out of five. Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it three stars out of four comparing it to Roach's previous work on the Austin Powers film series and offering his opinion that "[Meet the Parents] is funnier because it never tries too hard." Critic Christopher Null of AMC's Filmcritic.com claimed that "Meet the Parents is one of the funniest comedies I've seen since Annie Hall". Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly called the script "unforced" and concluded that it "goes down like a flute of Champagne, leaving an aftertaste of giggles." However, Internet film critic James Berardinelli, in spite of awarding it two-and-a-half stars out of four, gave the film a somewhat scathing review. On his website, Berardinelli wrote that "Meet the Parents is put together like a TV sit-com," that Roach "strings together a series of hit-and-miss lowbrow gags with little care for whether any of the connecting material is coherent, interesting, or enjoyable (in most cases, it's none of those three)" and concluding that "even with Stiller and De Niro, Meet the Parents is an encounter that can be postponed until it's available on video." Jeff Vice of the Deseret News, another detractor of the film, proclaimed Meet the Parents "only erratically funny" and accused Roach of taking "the cheap way out with a series of unfunny jokes." Critic Peter Bradshaw's review of it in The Guardian concludes that "It is somehow less than the sum of its parts. It strains to come to life, but never quite makes it." After it was released on home media, DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone magazine contributor Douglas Pratt in his book Doug Pratt's DVD: Movies, Television, Music, Art, Adult, and More! stated that "perhaps in the crowded theater the film is hysterical, but in the quieter venue of home video, it just seems sadistic, and as the humor evaporates, the holes in the plot become clearer." Awards Wins People's Choice Awards (2001) Favorite Comedy Motion Picture 2001 MTV Movie Awards Best Comedic Performance – Ben Stiller 2001 MTV Movie Awards Best Line – "Are you a pothead, Focker?" – Robert De Niro American Comedy Awards (2001) Funniest Actor in a Motion Picture – Ben Stiller 16th Annual ASCAP Film & Television Music Awards Top Box Office Films – Randy Newman Nominations 58th Golden Globe Awards Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy – Robert De Niro (Lost to George Clooney for O Brother, Where Art Thou?) 73rd Academy Awards Best Original Song – Randy Newman for "A Fool in Love" (Lost to Bob Dylan's "Things Have Changed" for Wonder Boys) American Comedy Awards (2001) Funniest Motion Picture (Lost to Best in Show) 5th Golden Satellite Awards Original Song – Randy Newman for "A Fool in Love" (Lost to Björk's "I've Seen It All" for Dancer in the Dark) 2001 MTV Movie Awards Best On-Screen Duo - Robert De Niro and Ben Stiller (Lost to Drew Barrymore, Cameron Diaz, and Lucy Liu for Charlie's Angels) 2001 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie – Comedy (Lost to Miss Congeniality) Others The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists: 2005: AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes: Jack Byrnes: "I have nipples, Greg. Could you milk me?" – Nominated Influence The success of the film was initially responsible for a 2002 NBC reality television show entitled Meet My Folks in which a young woman's love interest, vying for her family's approval, is interrogated by the woman's overprotective father with the help of a lie detector machine. In September 2002, NBC also aired a situation comedy entitled In-Laws. During the development of it, NBC called it "a Meet the Parents project" which prompted an investigation by Universal into whether NBC was infringing on Universal's copyright. Universal did not pursue any action against NBC but neither show lasted more than one season. NBC and Universal would merge in 2004. In 2004, Meet the Fockers was released as a sequel to the film. Directed again by Jay Roach with a screenplay by Jim Herzfeld and John Hamburg, it chronicles the events that take place when the Byrnes family meets Bernie and Roz Focker, Greg's parents, played by Dustin Hoffman and Barbra Streisand. The producers intended for them to be the opposite of the Byrneses' conservative, upper class, WASPy demeanor; to that effect, producer Jane Rosenthal explains that "Dustin Hoffman and Barbra Streisand were our dream team." The sequel proved to be another financial success grossing $280 million domestically and $516 million worldwide, outperforming Meet the Parents by a large margin and finishing as the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2004. In February 2007, Universal Studios announced that they would be making a second sequel in the franchise, titled Little Fockers. It was to be directed by Roach with the screenplay written by Larry Stuckey, Roach's former assistant. The sequel brings back De Niro, Stiller, Polo, Danner, Hoffman, and Streisand. Roach was later replaced as director of the third film by Paul Weitz. Little Fockers was released in 2010 and grossed $148.4 million domestically and $310.7 million worldwide. On July 18, 2005, a regularly scheduled American Airlines flight from Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport to San Juan, Puerto Rico had to be diverted back to Fort Lauderdale shortly after take-off due to a bomb threat. The pilot turned the plane around approximately 40 minutes into the flight after a flight attendant found a crumpled napkin that read "Bomb, bomb, bomb...meet the parents," a clear reference to the scene in which Greg repeatedly shouts the word "bomb" while being detained by airport security. The plane was met by a bomb squad of the local sheriff's office as well as the FBI whose agents questioned its 176 passengers about the note. See also 2000 in film Cinema of the United States List of American films of 2000 References Further reading External links (Archived) 2000 films American films American comedy films English-language films 2000 comedy films Films about weddings Films set in New York (state) Films set in Chicago Films shot in New York (state) American interfaith romance films Midlife crisis films Remakes of American films Films scored by Randy Newman Films with screenplays by John Hamburg Films produced by Robert De Niro Films directed by Jay Roach Universal Pictures films DreamWorks Pictures films

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The Armero tragedy ( ) occurred following the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz stratovolcano in Tolima, Colombia, on November 13, 1985. After 69 years of dormancy, the volcano's eruption caught nearby towns unaware, even though the government had received warnings from volcanological organizations to evacuate the area after the detection of volcanic activity two months earlier. As pyroclastic flows erupted from the volcano's crater, they melted the mountain's glaciers, sending four enormous lahars (volcanically induced mudflows, landslides, and debris flows) down its slopes at . The lahars picked up speed in gullies and engulfed the town of Armero, killing more than 20,000 of its almost 29,000 inhabitants. Casualties in other towns, particularly Chinchiná, brought the overall death toll to 23,000. Footage and photographs of Omayra Sánchez, a young victim of the tragedy, were published around the world. Other photographs of the lahars and the impact of the disaster captured attention worldwide and led to controversy over the degree to which the Colombian government was responsible for the disaster. A banner at a mass funeral in Ibagué read, "The volcano didn't kill 22,000 people. The government killed them." The relief efforts were hindered by the composition of the mud, which made it nearly impossible to move through without becoming stuck. By the time relief workers reached Armero twelve hours after the eruption, many of the victims with serious injuries were dead. The relief workers were horrified by the landscape of fallen trees, disfigured human bodies, and piles of debris from entire houses. This was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century, surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée, and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic event recorded since 1500. The event was a foreseeable catastrophe exacerbated by the populace's unawareness of the volcano's destructive history; geologists and other experts had warned authorities and media outlets about the danger over the weeks and days leading up to the eruption. Hazard maps for the vicinity were prepared, but poorly distributed. On the day of the eruption, several evacuation attempts were made, but a severe storm restricted communications. Many victims stayed in their houses as they had been instructed, believing that the eruption had ended. The noise from the storm may have prevented many from hearing the sounds of the eruption until it was too late. Nevado del Ruiz has erupted several times since the disaster, and continues to threaten up to 500,000 people living along the Combeima, Chinchiná, Coello-Toche, and Guali river valleys. A lahar (or group of lahars) similar in size to the 1985 event might travel as far as from the volcano, and could be triggered by a small eruption. To counter this threat, the Colombian government established a specialized office which promotes awareness of natural threats. The United States Geological Survey also created the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program and the Volcano Crisis Assistance Team, which evacuated roughly 75,000 people from the area around Mount Pinatubo before its 1991 eruption. In 1988, three years after the eruption, Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University stated that, "With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington, no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately" as Nevado del Ruiz. Many of Colombia's cities have programs to raise awareness of natural disaster planning programs which have helped save lives in natural disasters. Near Nevado del Ruiz in particular, locals have become wary of volcanic activity: when the volcano erupted in 1989, more than 2,300 people living around it were evacuated. Background Armero, located from the Nevado del Ruiz volcano and from Colombia's capital of Bogotá, was the third largest town in Tolima Department, after the towns of Ibagué and Espinal. A prominent farming town before the eruption, it was responsible for roughly one-fifth of Colombia's rice production and for a large share of the cotton, sorghum, and coffee crops. Much of this success can be attributed to Nevado del Ruiz, as the fertile volcanic soil stimulates agricultural growth. Built on top of an alluvial fan that had been host to historic lahars, the town was previously destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1595 and by mudflows in 1845. In the 1595 eruption, three distinct Plinian eruptions produced lahars that claimed the lives of 636 people. During the 1845 event, 1,000 people were killed by earthquake-generated mudflows near the Magdalena River. Nevado del Ruiz has undergone three distinct eruptive periods, the first beginning 1.8 million years ago. During the present period (beginning 11,000 years ago), it has erupted at least twelve times, producing ashfalls, pyroclastic flows, and lahars. The historically recorded eruptions have primarily involved a central vent eruption (in the caldera) followed by an explosive eruption, then the formation of lahars. Ruiz's earliest identified Holocene eruption was in about 6660 BC, and further eruptions occurred around 1245, 850, 200 BC, and in about 350, 675, in 1350, 1541 (perhaps), 1570, 1595, 1623, 1805, 1826, 1828 (perhaps), 1829, 1831, 1833 (perhaps), 1845, 1916, December 1984 through March 1985, 1987 through July 1991, and possibly in April 1994. Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption, a flank vent eruption, and a phreatic (steam) explosion. Ruiz is the second-most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras. One week before the eruption, the Palace of Justice siege took place. The assailants (M-19 - a Marxist, terrorist insurgency group) planned to hold a trial involving Colombian president Belisario Betancur. He refused to participate and sent the national army into the building. The attackers were holding several hundred hostages, including the 24 Supreme Court justices and 20 other judges. In the ensuing battle between the two forces, more than 75 hostages died (including 11 judges). This disaster, coupled with the Armero tragedy, spurred the Colombian government to predict and prepare for a broad range of threats. 1985 activity Precursor In late 1984, geologists noticed that seismic activity in the area had begun to increase. Increased fumarole activity, deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano, and phreatic eruptions also alerted geologists to the possibility of an eruption. Phreatic events, when rising magma encounters water, continued well into September 1985 (one major event took place on September 11, 1985), shooting steam high into the air. Activity began to decline in October, probably because the new magma had finished ascending into Nevado del Ruiz's volcanic edifice. An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and found them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment. Publishing a report for officials on October 22, 1985, the scientists determined that the risk of lahars was unusually high. To prepare for the eruption, the report gave several simple preparedness techniques to local authorities. Another team gave the local officials seismographs, but no instructions on how to operate them. Volcanic activity increased again in November 1985 as magma neared the surface. Increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elemental sulfur began to appear in the volcano. The water content of the fumaroles' gases decreased, and water springs in the vicinity of Nevado del Ruiz became enriched with magnesium, calcium, and potassium, which leached from the magma. The thermodynamic equilibration temperatures, corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases, ranged from ; this is a measure of the temperature at which the gases equilibrated within the volcano. The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano in the space above the magma, which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption. Preparation and attempted evacuation In September 1985, as earthquakes and phreatic eruptions rocked the area, local officials began planning for an evacuation. In October, a hazard map was finalized for the area around Nevado del Ruiz. This map highlighted the danger from falling material—including ash and rock—near Murillo, Santa Isabel, and Libano, as well as the threat of lahars in Mariquita, Guayabal, Chinchiná and Armero. The map was poorly distributed to the people at high risk from Ruiz: many survivors had never heard of it, even though several of the country's major newspapers featured versions of the map. Henry Villegas of INGEOMINAS (Colombian Institute of Mining and Geology) stated that the hazard maps clearly demonstrated that Armero would be affected by the lahars, but that the map "met with strong opposition from economic interests". He added that because the map was not prepared long before the eruption, mass production and distribution of it in time was difficult. At least one of the hazard maps published in the prominent El Espectador newspaper in Bogotá included glaring errors. Without proper graphic scaling, it was unclear how big the map's hazard zones really were. The lahars on the map did not have a distinct ending point, and the main threat seemed to be from pyroclastic flows, not from mudflows. Though the map was colored blue, green, red, and yellow, there was no key to indicate what each color represented, and Armero was located in the green zone, wrongly interpreted to indicate the safest area. Another map published by the El Tiempo newspaper featured illustrations which "gave a perception of topography to the public unfamiliar with maps, allowing them to relate hazard zones to the landscape". In spite of this presentation that was keyed to the audience, the map ended up a more artistic representation of the risk than a purely scientific one. The day of the eruption, black ash columns erupted from the volcano at approximately 3:00 p.m. local time. The local civil defense director was promptly alerted to the situation. He contacted INGEOMINAS, which ruled that the area should be evacuated; he was then told to contact the civil defense directors in Bogotá and Tolima. Between 5:00–7:00 p.m., the ash stopped falling, and local officials, including the town priest Augusto Osorio, instructed people to "stay calm" and go inside. Around 5:00 p.m. an emergency committee meeting was called, and when it ended at 7:00 p.m., several members contacted the regional Red Cross over the intended evacuation efforts at Armero, Mariquita, and Honda. The Ibagué Red Cross contacted Armero's officials and ordered an evacuation, which was not carried out because of electrical problems caused by a storm. The storm's heavy rain and constant thunder may have overpowered the noise of the volcano, and with no systematic warning efforts, the residents of Armero were completely unaware of the continuing activity at Ruiz. At 9:45 p.m., after the volcano had erupted, civil defense officials from Ibagué and Murillo tried to warn Armero's officials, but could not make contact. Later they overheard conversations between individual officials of Armero and others; famously, a few heard the Mayor of Armero speaking on a ham radio, saying "that he did not think there was much danger", when he was overtaken by the lahar. Eruption At 9:09 p.m., on November 13, 1985, Nevado del Ruiz ejected dacitic tephra more than into the atmosphere. The total mass of the erupted material (including magma) was 35 million metric tons, only three percent of the amount that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980. The eruption reached 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The mass of the ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700,000 metric tons, or about two percent of the mass of the erupted solid material, making the eruption unusually sulfur rich. The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow, generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcano's flanks, destroying a small lake that was observed in Arenas' crater several months before the eruption. Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty, and may contain dissolved volcanic gases. The lake's hot, acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice, an effect confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow. The lahars, formed of water, ice, pumice, and other rocks, incorporated clay from eroding soil as they traveled down the volcano's flanks. They ran down the volcano's sides at an average speed of , dislodging rock and destroying vegetation. After descending thousands of meters down the side of the volcano, the lahars followed the six river valleys leading from the volcano, where they grew to almost four times their original volume. In the Gualí River, a lahar reached a maximum width of . Survivors in Armero described the night as "quiet". Volcanic ash had been falling throughout the day, but residents were informed it was nothing to worry about. Later in the afternoon, ash began falling again after a long period of quiet. Local radio stations reported that residents should remain calm and ignore the material. One survivor reported going to the fire department to be informed that the ash was "nothing". During the night, the electrical power suddenly turned off and the radios went silent. Just before 11:30 p.m., a huge stream of water swept through Armero; it was powerful enough to flip cars and pick up people. A loud roar could be heard from the mountain, but the residents were panicked over what they believed to be a flood. At 11:30 p.m., the first lahar hit, followed shortly by the others. One of the lahars virtually erased Armero; three-quarters of its 28,700 inhabitants were killed. Proceeding in three major waves, this lahar was deep, moved at , and lasted ten to twenty minutes. Traveling at about , the second lahar lasted thirty minutes and was followed by smaller pulses. A third major pulse brought the lahar's duration to roughly two hours. By that point, 85 percent of Armero was enveloped in mud. Survivors described people holding on to debris from their homes in attempts to stay above the mud. Buildings collapsed, crushing people and raining down debris. The front of the lahar contained boulders and cobbles that would have crushed anyone in their path, while the slower parts were dotted by fine, sharp stones which caused lacerations. Mud moved into open wounds and other open body parts — the eyes, ears, and mouth — and placed pressure capable of inducing traumatic asphyxia in one or two minutes upon people buried in it. Martí and Ernst state in their work Volcanoes and the Environment that they believe that many who survived the lahars succumbed to their injuries as they were trapped, or contracted hypothermia, though the latter is unlikely, given that survivors described the water as warm. Another lahar, which descended through the valley of the Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800 people and destroyed 400 homes in Chinchiná. In total, more than 23,000 people were killed, approximately 5,000 were injured, and 5,000 homes throughout thirteen villages were destroyed. Some 230,000 people were affected, were disrupted, and there were nearly 20,000 survivor-refugees. The Armero tragedy, as the event came to be known, was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century, surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée, and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic eruption recorded since 1500 AD. It is also the deadliest lahar, and Colombia's worst natural disaster. Impact The loss of life was exacerbated by the lack of an accurate timeframe for the eruption and the unwillingness of local authorities to take costly preventative measures without clear signs of imminent danger. Because its last substantial eruption had occurred 140 years earlier, in 1845, it was difficult for many to accept the danger presented by the volcano; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion". Hazard maps showing that Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. The eruption occurred at the height of guerrilla warfare in Bogotá, Colombia's capital, and so the government and army were preoccupied at the time of the eruption. The day after the eruption, relief workers were appalled at its impact. The lahars had left behind a gray mass which covered the entire town. Armero was dotted with broken trees and horribly disfigured human bodies. Debris from huts and homes protruded from beneath the gray mud. A few bags filled with crops were discovered in the mud. Workers described an acrid smell of "rotting bodies, ... wood smoke and decaying vegetables". To the horror of these workers, who were scrambling to begin relief efforts, survivors let out moans of pain and agony. The damages were assessed at six billion dollars, an amount approximately one-fifth of Colombia's 1985 gross national product. As news of the catastrophe spread around the world, the ongoing Colombian presidential election stopped, and the guerrilla fighters stopped their campaign "in view of the painful tragedy that has befallen our [the Colombian fighters] nation". Tickets for Colombian national championship soccer games added a surcharge of five cents to go to relief efforts. Scientists who later analyzed the seismograph data noticed that several long-period earthquakes (which begin strongly and then slowly die out) had occurred in the final hours before the eruption. Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that, "the volcano was screaming 'I'm about to explode'", but the scientists who were studying the volcano at the time of the eruption were not able to read the signal. Relief efforts The eruption occurred two months after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, limiting the amount of supplies that could be sent to each of the disasters. Efforts were organized in Ibagué and Bogotá for Armero and in Cali for Chinchina, where medical teams gathered. Makeshift triage stations were established in Lerida, Guayabal, and Mariquita, and soon were overwhelmed with the sheer number of victims. The remaining victims were directed to Ibagué's hospitals, as local institutions had already been destroyed or were at risk from further lahars. The US government spent over $1 million in aid (equivalent to $ million today), and US Ambassador to Colombia Charles S. Gillespie, Jr. donated an initial $25,000 to Colombian disaster assistance institutions ($ today). The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the US Agency for International Development (AID) sent one member of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), along with an AID disaster-relief expert and 12 helicopters with support and medical personnel from Panama. The US subsequently sent additional aircraft and supplies, including 500 tents, 2,250 blankets, and several tent repair kits. Twenty-four other nations contributed to the rescue and assistance of survivors. Ecuador supplied a mobile hospital, and Iceland's Red Cross sent $4,650 ($ today). The French government sent their own medical supplies with 1,300 tents. Japan sent $1.25 million ($ million today), along with eight doctors, nurses, and engineers, plus $50,000 ($ today) to the United Nations for relief efforts. Another $50,000 ($ today) was donated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation. Rescue efforts were hindered by the soft mud that was up to deep in some places, making it virtually impossible for anyone to traverse it without sinking in. To make the situation worse, the highway connected to Armero and several bridges to it had been demolished by the lahars. It took twelve hours for the first survivors to be rescued, so those with serious but treatable injuries probably died before the rescuers arrived. Because Armero's hospital was destroyed in the eruption, helicopters moved survivors to nearby hospitals. Six local towns set up makeshift emergency relief clinics, consisting of treatment areas and shelters for the homeless. To help with the treatment, physicians and rescue teams came from all over the country. Of the 1,244 patients spread over the clinics, 150 died from infection or associated complications. Had antibiotics been readily available and all of their lacerations been thoroughly cleaned, many of these people could have been saved. On November 20, 1985, one week later, rescue efforts began to cease. Nearly 4,000 relief workers and rescue team members were still searching for survivors, with little hope of finding any. By then, the official death toll was registered at 22,540 people; additional counts showed that 3,300 were missing, 20,000 homeless, and 4,000 injured. Looters raided the ruins and survivors faced concerns of typhus and yellow fever. For most of the relief workers, their job was over. The eruption was used as an example for psychiatric recuperation after natural disasters by Robert Desjarlais and Leon Eisenberg in their work World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries. The authors were concerned that only initial treatment for the survivors' psychological trauma was conducted. One study showed that the victims of the eruption suffered from anxiety and depression, which can lead to alcohol abuse, marital problems and other social issues. Rafael Ruiz, an army major who briefly served as Armero's provisional mayor after the disaster, stated that there were survivors who, due to the trauma of the event, were "jittery", experienced "nightmares", and suffered from "emotional problems". He added that the progress made by Christmas of 1985 was considerable, but that there was "still a long way to go". Aftermath A lack of preparation for the disaster contributed to the high death toll. Armero had been built on an alluvial fan that had been overrun by historic mudflows; authorities had ignored a hazard-zone map that showed the potential damage to the town from lahars. Residents stayed inside their dwellings to avoid the falling ash, as local officials had instructed them to do, not thinking that they might be buried by the mudflows. The disaster gained international notoriety due in part to a photograph taken by photographer Frank Fournier of a young girl named Omayra Sánchez, who was trapped beneath rubble for three days before she died. Following the eruption, relief workers gathered around the girl, speaking with her and listening to her responses. She attracted the attention of the reporters at the site because of her sense of dignity and courage, and caused controversy when people wondered why the media workers had not saved her (which was impossible without equipment). An appeal to the government for a pump to lower the water around her was left unanswered, and she succumbed to gangrene and hypothermia after 60 hours of being trapped. Her death epitomized the tragic nature of the Armero disaster – she could have been saved had the government responded promptly and addressed the concerns over the volcano's potency. The photograph earned the World Press Photo of the Year for "capturing the event of greatest journalistic importance". Two photographers from the Miami Herald won a Pulitzer Prize for photographing the effects of the lahar. Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University said that following the eruption, "With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington, no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately." In response to the eruption, the USGS Volcano Crisis Assistance Team was formed in 1986, and the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program. The volcano erupted several more times between 1985 and 1994. Anger over government negligence Concerns over the alleged negligence of local officials to alert locals of the volcano's threat led to controversy. The Mayor of Armero, Ramon Rodriguez and other local officials had tried to bring the volcano's potential eruption to the attention of the Colombian government, but to no avail. For months, Rodriguez appealed to various officials, including congressmen and the Governor of Tolima Department. Rodriguez once referred to the volcano as a "time bomb" and told reporters that he believed an eruption would disrupt the natural dam above Armero, resulting in floods. Despite his persistence, only one congressman managed to inquire about the reality of the situation. Reports from the Colombian Minister of Mines, Minister of Defence, and Minister of Public Works "all asserted that the government was aware of the risk from the volcano and was acting to protect the population". The lack of responsibility for the disaster prompted lawmakers to campaign for Tolima's governor (Eduardo Alzate Garcia) to resign. In the media, similar thoughts and questions were hotly debated. One of the most aggressive campaigns came from a mass funeral in Ibagué for the victims, claiming that "The volcano didn't kill 22,000 people. The government killed them." Legacy The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages. Of the threats, the one with the most potential for danger is that of small-volume eruptions, which can destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars. Although much of the volcano's glacier mass has retreated, a significant volume of ice still sits atop Nevado del Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif. Melting just 10 percent of the ice would produce lahars with a volume of up to similar to the lahar that destroyed Armero in 1985. In just hours, these lahars can travel up to along river valleys. Estimates show that up to 500,000 people living in the Combeima, Chinchina, Coello-Toche, and Guali valleys are at risk, with 100,000 individuals being considered to be at high risk. Lahars pose a threat to the nearby towns of Honda, Mariquita, Ambalema, Chinchina, Herveo, Villa Hermosa, Salgar and La Dorada. Although small eruptions are more likely, the two-million-year eruptive history of the Ruiz–Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions, indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored. A large eruption would have more widespread effects, including the potential closure of Bogotá's airport due to ashfall. As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings, unwise land use, and the unpreparedness of nearby communities, the government of Colombia created a special program, the Oficina Nacional para la Atención de Desastres (National Office for Disaster Preparedness), now known as the Dirección de Prevención y Atención de Desastres (Directorate for Disaster Prevention and Preparedness)to prevent such incidents in the future. All Colombian cities were directed to promote prevention planning to mitigate the consequences of natural disasters, and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out. About 2,300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989. When another Colombian volcano, Nevado del Huila, erupted in April 2008, thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another "Nevado del Ruiz". The lessons from the Armero tragedy have inspired a lahar warning system for Mt. Rainier, which has a similar potential for lahars. Armero was never rebuilt after the tragedy. Instead, the survivors were relocated to the towns of Guayabal and Lérida, rendering Armero a ghost town. Commemorations A little less than one year later, Pope John Paul II flew over Armero and then visited Lérida's refugee camps with Colombian President Belisario Betancur. He spoke about the disaster and declared the site of Armero "holy land". Although many victims of the disaster were commemorated, Omayra Sánchez in particular was immortalized by poems, novels, and music pieces. One work (Adios, Omayra) by Eduardo Santa illustrated the girl's last days of life and her symbolism of the catastrophe. Survivors were also recognized in Germán Santa María Barragán's dramatized television special titled "No Morirás" (You Will Not Die). Much of the cast was composed of victims of the tragedy who appeared at the cast calls to be extras. Media In 1994 was released the TV series El Oasis, starring Pedro Rendón and Shakira, which tells the story of a romance between two families survivors of the Armero tragedy. It was produced by Cenpro TV for Canal A. In 1999, was released the Colombian film Soplo de vida (Breath of life), directed by Luis Ospina, which tells the story in the context of the Armero tragedy and in which the protagonists are survivors. At the end of 2015, it was announced that Armero, a film about the tragedy, would be released sometime in 2016. Directed by Christian Mantilla, the movie tells the story of the events that took place in November 1985. The movie was released on September 21, 2017. See also Vargas tragedy – a similarly catastrophic debris flow event caused by torrential rains in Venezuela in 1999 Footnotes Notes Sources External links "Armero, 30 years of a tragedy". El País Fundación Armando Armero Commemorating and remembering Armero 30 years later Looking for adopted children from Armero's tragedy Video about emergency response to the tragedy (15 minutes), Pan American Health Organization (hosted on YouTube) "Colombia's Mortal Agony". George Russell (2005). Time. El Album de Carlos Crismatt Photographs from the tragedy (tripod.com) Text of the prayer made by Pope John Paul II in July 1986 at the memorial for the victims (Vatican website) Pope John Paul II praying at the memorial (Getty Images) Collection of photographs of the area and the memorials, from Luis Manuel Silva Lahars 1985 in Colombia 1985 natural disasters 20th-century volcanic events Natural disasters in Colombia Populated places in the Tolima Department Landslides in Colombia Landslides in 1985 November 1985 events in South America

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The Missouri Compromise (March 3, 1820) was a United States federal legislation that stopped northern attempts to forever prohibit slavery's expansion by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state in exchange for legislation which prohibited slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 36°30′ parallel. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820. Earlier, in February 1819, Representative James Tallmadge Jr., a Democratic-Republican (Jeffersonian Republican) from New York, had submitted two amendments to Missouri's request for statehood that included restrictions on slavery. Southerners objected to any bill that imposed federal restrictions on slavery and believed that it was a state issue, as settled by the Constitution. However, with the Senate evenly split at the opening of the debates, both sections possessing 11 states, the admission of Missouri as a slave state would give the South an advantage. Northern critics including Federalists and Democratic-Republicans objected to the expansion of slavery into the Louisiana Purchase territory on the Constitutional inequalities of the three-fifths rule, which conferred Southern representation in the federal government derived from a state's slave population. Jeffersonian Republicans in the North ardently maintained that a strict interpretation of the Constitution required that Congress act to limit the spread of slavery on egalitarian grounds. "[Northern] Republicans rooted their antislavery arguments, not on expediency, but in egalitarian morality." "The Constitution [said northern Jeffersonians], strictly interpreted, gave the sons of the founding generation the legal tools to hasten [the] removal [of slavery], including the refusal to admit additional slave states." When free-soil Maine offered its petition for statehood, the Senate quickly linked the Maine and Missouri bills, making Maine admission a condition for Missouri entering the Union as a slave state. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois added a compromise proviso that excluded slavery from all remaining lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36° 30' parallel. The combined measures passed the Senate, only to be voted down in the House by Northern representatives who held out for a free Missouri. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, in a desperate bid to break the deadlock, divided the Senate bills. Clay and his pro-compromise allies succeeded in pressuring half of the anti-restrictionist House Southerners to submit to the passage of the Thomas proviso and maneuvered a number of restrictionist House northerners to acquiesce in supporting Missouri as a slave state. The Missouri question in the 15th Congress ended in stalemate on March 4, 1819, the House sustaining its northern antislavery position and the Senate blocking a slavery restricted statehood. The Missouri Compromise was very controversial, and many worried that the country had become lawfully divided along sectional lines. The Kansas–Nebraska Act effectively repealed the bill in 1854, and the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), both of which increased tensions over slavery and contributed to the American Civil War. The compromise both delayed the Civil War and sowed its seeds; Thomas Jefferson writing contemporaneously predicted the line it had drawn would someday tear the Union apart. 40 years later, the North and South would split closely along the 36°30′ parallel and fight for four bloody years. Era of Good Feelings and party "amalgamation" The Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe (1817–1825), was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities. With the Federalists discredited by the Hartford Convention against the War of 1812, they were in decline nationally, and the "amalgamated" or hybridized Republicans adopted key Federalist economic programs and institutions, further erasing party identities and consolidating their victory. The economic nationalism of the Era of Good Feelings authorized the Tariff of 1816 and incorporated the Second Bank of the United States, which portended an abandonment of the Jeffersonian political formula for strict construction of the Constitution, a limited central government, and commitments to the primacy of Southern agrarian interests. The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline and the means to suppress internecine factional animosities. Rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Democratic-Republicans. It was amid that period's "good feelings" during which Democratic-Republican Party discipline was in abeyance that the Tallmadge Amendment surfaced. Louisiana Purchase and Missouri Territory The immense Louisiana Purchase territories had been acquired through federal executive action, followed by Republican legislative authorization in 1803 under President Thomas Jefferson. Prior to its purchase in 1803, the governments of Spain and France had sanctioned slavery in the region. Enslaved African Americans accounted for twenty to thirty percent of the non-Native American population in and around the main settlements of St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve. In 1804, Congress limited the further introduction of enslaved men and women to those introduced by actual settlers. In addition, in appointing the officials from the Indiana Territory to Upper Louisiana (as Missouri was known until 1812), Congress heightened concerns that it intended to extend some sort of prohibition on slavery's growth across the river. White Missourians objected to these restrictions, and in 1805, Congress withdrew them. The final version of the 1805 territorial ordinance omitted all references to slavery. Under the 1805 ordinance, slavery existed legally in Missouri (which included all of the Louisiana Purchase outside of Louisiana) by force of local law and territorial statute, rather than by territorial ordinance, as was the case in other territories where slavery was permitted. It is unknown if Congress purposely omitted any reference to slavery or Article VI in the 1805 territorial ordinance. Nonetheless, over the next fifteen years, some restrictionists – including Amos Stoddard - claimed that this omission was deliberate, intended to allow the United States government to prohibit slavery in Missouri if circumstances proved more favorable in the future. In 1812, Louisiana, a major cotton producer and the first to be carved from the Louisiana Purchase, had entered the Union as a slave state. Predictably, Missourians were adamant that slave labor should not be molested by the federal government. In the years after the War of 1812, the region, now known as Missouri Territory, experienced rapid settlement, led by slaveholding planters. Agriculturally, the land in the lower reaches of the Missouri River, from which that new state would be formed, had no prospects as a major cotton producer. Suited for diversified farming, the only crop regarded as promising for slave labor was hemp culture. On that basis, southern planters immigrated with their chattel to Missouri, and the slave population rose from 3,101 in 1810 to 10,000 in 1820. Out of the total population of 67,000, slaves represented about 15%. By 1819, the population of Missouri Territory was approaching the threshold that would qualify it for statehood. An enabling act was provided to Congress empowering territorial residents to select convention delegates and draft a state constitution. The admission of Missouri Territory as a slave state was expected to be more-or-less routine. Congress debates in 1819 When the Missouri statehood bill was opened for debate in the House of Representatives on February 13, 1819, early exchanges on the floor proceeded without serious incident. In the course of the proceedings, however, Representative James Tallmadge Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" with the following amendments: A political outsider, the 41-year-old Tallmadge conceived his amendment based on a personal aversion to slavery. He had played a leading role in accelerating the emancipation of the remaining slaves in New York in 1817 and had campaigned against Illinois's Black Codes. Though ostensibly free-soil, the new state had a constitution that permitted indentured servitude and a limited form of slavery. As a New York Republican, Tallmadge maintained an uneasy association with Governor DeWitt Clinton, a former Republican who depended on support from ex-Federalists. Clinton's faction was hostile to Tallmadge for his spirited defense of General Andrew Jackson's contentious invasion of Florida. After proposing the amendment, Tallmadge fell ill, and Representative John W. Taylor, a fellow New York Republican, stepped in to fill the void. Taylor also had antislavery credentials since in February 1819, he had proposed a similar slave restriction for Arkansas Territory in the House, which was defeated 89–87. In a speech before the House during the debate on the Tallmadge Amendment, Taylor was highly critical of southern lawmakers, who frequently voiced their dismay that slavery was entrenched and necessary to their existence, and he warned that Missouri's fate would "decide the destiny of millions" in future states in the American West. The controversy on the amendment and the future of slavery in the nation created much dissension among Jeffersonian Republicans and polarized the party. Northern Jeffersonian Republicans formed a coalition across factional lines with remnants of the Federalists. Southern Jeffersonians united in almost unanimous opposition. The ensuing debates pitted the northern "restrictionists", antislavery legislators who wished to bar slavery from the Louisiana Territory and all future states and territories, and southern "anti-restrictionists", proslavery legislators who rejected any interference by Congress that inhibited slavery expansion. The sectional "rupture" over slavery among Jeffersonian Republicans, first exposed in the Missouri Crisis, had its roots in the Revolutionary generation. Five Representatives in Maine were opposed to spreading slavery into new territories. Dr. Brian Purnell, a professor of Africana Studies and US history at Bowdoin College, writes in Portland Magazine, "Martin Kinsley, Joshua Cushman, Ezekiel Whitman, Enoch Lincoln, and James Parker—wanted to prohibit slavery's spread into new territories. In 1820, they voted against the Missouri Compromise and against Maine's independence. In their defense, they wrote that, if the North, and the nation, embarked upon this Compromise—and ignored what experiences proved, namely that southern slaveholders were determined to dominate the nation through ironclad unity and perpetual pressure to demand more land, and more slaves—then these five Mainers declared Americans "shall deserve to be considered a besotted and stupid race, fit, only, to be led blindfold; and worthy, only, to be treated with sovereign contempt". Jeffersonian Republicanism and slavery The Missouri crisis marked a rupture in the Republican Ascendency, the national association of Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans that had dominated federal politics since the War of 1812. The Founding Fathers had inserted both principled and expedient elements in the establishing documents. The Declaration of Independence in 1776 had been grounded on the claim that liberty established a moral ideal that made universal equality a common right. The Revolutionary generation had formed a government of limited powers in 1787 to embody the principles in the Declaration but "burdened with the one legacy that defied the principles of 1776", human bondage. In a pragmatic commitment to form the Union, the federal apparatus would forego any authority to interfere directly with the institution of slavery if it existed under local control by the states. The acknowledgment of state sovereignty provided for the participation of the states that were the most committed to slave labor. With that understanding, slaveholders had co-operated in authorizing the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 and outlawing the trans-Atlantic slave trade in 1808. The Founders sanctioned slavery but did so with the implicit understanding that the slave states would take steps to relinquish the institution as opportunities arose. Southern states, after the American Revolutionary War, had regarded slavery as an institution in decline except for Georgia and South Carolina. That was manifest in the shift towards diversified farming in the Upper South; the gradual emancipation of slaves in New England and more significantly in Mid-Atlantic States. In the 1790s, with the introduction of the cotton gin, to 1815, with the vast increase in demand for cotton internationally, slave-based agriculture underwent an immense revival that spread the institution westward to the Mississippi River. Antislavery elements in the South vacillated, as did their hopes for the imminent demise of human bondage. However rancorous the disputes were by southerners themselves over the virtues of a slave-based society, they united against external challenges to their institution. They believed that free states were not to meddle in the affairs of slave states. Southern leaders, virtually all of whom identified as Jeffersonian Republicans, denied that northerners had any business encroaching on matters related to slavery. Northern attacks on the institution were condemned as incitements to riot by slave populations, which was deemed to be a dire threat to white southerners' security. Northern Jeffersonian Republicans embraced the Jeffersonian antislavery legacy during the Missouri debates and explicitly cited the Declaration of Independence as an argument against expanding the institution. Southern leaders, seeking to defend slavery, renounced the document's universal egalitarian applications and its declaration that "all men are created equal." Struggle for political power "Federal ratio" in House Article 1, Section 2, of the US Constitution supplemented legislative representation in states whose residents owned slaves. Known as the Three-Fifths Clause, or the "federal ratio", three-fifths of the slave population was numerically added to the free population. That sum was used for each state to calculate congressional districts and the number of delegates to the Electoral College. The federal ratio produced a significant number of legislative victories for the South in the years before the Missouri Crisis and raised the South's influence in party caucuses, the appointment of judges, and the distribution of patronage. It is unlikely that the ratio before 1820 was decisive in affecting legislation on slavery. Indeed, with the rising northern representation in the House, the southern share of the membership had declined since the 1790s. Hostility to the federal ratio had historically been the object of the Federalists, which were now nationally ineffectual, who attributed their collective decline on the "Virginia Dynasty". They expressed their dissatisfaction in partisan terms, rather than in moral condemnation of slavery, and the pro-De Witt Clinton-Federalist faction carried on the tradition by posing as antirestrictionists to advance their fortunes in New York politics. Senator Rufus King of New York, a Clinton associate, was the last Federalist icon still active on the national stage, a fact that was irksome to southern Republicans. A signatory to the US Constitution, he had strongly opposed the federal ratio in 1787. In the 15th Congress debates in 1819, he revived his critique as a complaint that New England and the Mid-Atlantic States suffered unduly from the federal ratio and declared himself 'degraded' (politically inferior) to the slaveholders. Federalists both in the North and the South preferred to mute antislavery rhetoric, but during the 1820 debates in the 16th Congress, King and other Federalists would expand their old critique to include moral considerations of slavery. Republican James Tallmadge Jr. and the Missouri restrictionists deplored the federal ratio because it had translated into political supremacy for the South. They had no agenda to remove it from the Constitution but only to prevent its further application west of the Mississippi River. As determined as southern Republicans were to secure Missouri statehood with slavery, the federal clause ratio to provide the margin of victory in the 15th Congress. Blocked by northern Republicans, largely on egalitarian grounds, with sectional support from Federalists, the statehood bill died in the Senate, where the federal ratio had no relevance. The balance of power between the sections and the maintenance of Southern pre-eminence on matters related to slavery resided in the Senate. "Balance of power" in Senate Northern majorities in the House did not translate into political dominance. The fulcrum for proslavery forces resided in the Senate, where constitutional compromise in 1787 had provided for two senators per state, regardless of its population. The South, with its smaller free population than the North, benefited from that arrangement. Since 1815, sectional parity in the Senate had been achieved through paired admissions, which left the North and the South, during the application of Missouri Territory, at 11 states each. The South, voting as a bloc on measures that challenged slaveholding interests and augmented by defections from free states with southern sympathies, was able to tally majorities. The Senate stood as the bulwark and source of the Slave Power, which required admission of slave states to the Union to preserve its national primacy. Missouri statehood, with the Tallmadge Amendment approved, would have set a trajectory towards a free state west of the Mississippi and a decline in southern political authority. The question as to whether the Congress was allowed to restrain the growth of slavery in Missouri took on great importance in slave states. The moral dimensions of the expansion of human bondage would be raised by northern Republicans on constitutional grounds. Constitutional arguments The Tallmadge Amendment was "the first serious challenge to the extension of slavery" and raised questions concerning the interpretation of the republic's founding documents. Jeffersonian Republicans justified Tallmadge's restrictions on the grounds that Congress possessed the authority to impose territorial statutes that would remain in force after statehood was established. Representative John W. Taylor pointed to Indiana and Illinois, where their free state status conformed to antislavery provisions of the Northwest Ordinance. Further, antislavery legislators invoked Article IV, Section 4 of the Constitution, which requires states to provide a republican form of government. As the Louisiana Territory was not part of the United States in 1787, they argued that introducing slavery into Missouri would thwart the egalitarian intent of the Founders. Proslavery Republicans countered that the Constitution had long been interpreted as having relinquished any claim to restricting slavery in the states. The free inhabitants of Missouri in the territorial phase or during statehood had the right to establish or disestablish slavery without interference from the federal government. As to the Northwest Ordinance, southerners denied that it could serve as a lawful antecedent for the territories of the Louisiana Purchase, as the ordinance had been issued under the Articles of Confederation, rather than the US Constitution. As a legal precedent, they offered the treaty acquiring the Louisiana lands in 1803, a document that included a provision, Article 3, which extended the rights of US citizens to all inhabitants of the new territory, including the protection of property in slaves. When slaveholders embraced Jeffersonian constitutional strictures on a limited central government, they were reminded that Jefferson, as president in 1803, had deviated from those precepts by wielding federal executive power to double the size of the United States, including the lands under consideration for Missouri statehood. In doing so, he set a constitutional precedent that would serve to rationalize Tallmadge's federally-imposed slavery restrictions. The 15th Congress had debates that focused on constitutional questions but largely avoided the moral dimensions raised by the topic of slavery. That the unmentionable subject had been raised publicly was deeply offensive to southern representatives and violated the long-time sectional understanding between legislators from free states and slave states. Missouri statehood confronted southern Jeffersonians with the prospect of applying the egalitarian principles espoused by the Revolutionary generation. That would require halting the spread of slavery westward and confine the institution to where it already existed. Faced with a population of 1.5 million slaves and the lucrative production of cotton, the South would abandon hopes for containment. Slaveholders in the 16th Congress, in an effort to come to grips with that paradox, resorted to a theory that called for extending slavery geographically so as to encourage its decline, which they called "diffusion". Stalemate On February 16, 1819, the House Committee of the Whole voted to link Tallmadge's provisions with the Missouri statehood legislation by 79–67. After the committee vote, debates resumed over the merits of each of Tallmadge's provisions in the enabling act. The debates in the House's 2nd session in 1819 lasted only three days. They have been characterized as "rancorous", "fiery", "bitter", "blistering", "furious" and "bloodthirsty". Representatives from the North outnumbered those from the South in House membership 105 to 81. When each of the restrictionist provisions was put to the vote, they passed along sectional lines: 87 to 76 for prohibition on further slave migration into Missouri and 82 to 78 for emancipating the offspring of slaves at 25. The enabling bill was passed to the Senate, and both parts of it were rejected: 22–16 against the restriction of new slaves in Missouri (supported by five northerners, two of whom were the proslavery legislators from the free state of Illinois) and 31–7 against the gradual emancipation for slave children born after statehood. House antislavery restrictionists refused to concur with the Senate proslavery anti-restrictionists, and Missouri statehood would devolve upon the 16th Congress in December 1819. Federalist "plots" and "consolidation" The Missouri Compromise debates stirred suspicions by slavery interests that the underlying purpose of the Tallmadge Amendments had little to do with opposition to the expansion of slavery. The accusation was first leveled in the House by the Republican anti-restrictionist John Holmes from the District of Maine. He suggested that Senator Rufus King's "warm" support for the Tallmadge Amendment concealed a conspiracy to organize a new antislavery party in the North, which would be composed of old Federalists in combination with disaffected antislavery Republicans. The fact that King in the Senate and Tallmadge and Tyler in the House, all New Yorkers, were among the vanguard for restriction on slavery in Missouri lent credibility to those charges. When King was re-elected to the US Senate in January 1820, during the 16th Congress debates and with bipartisan support, suspicions deepened and persisted throughout the crisis. Southern Jeffersonian Republican leadership, including President Monroe and ex-President Thomas Jefferson, considered it as an article of faith that Federalists, given the chance, would destabilize the Union as to restore monarchical rule in North America and "consolidate" political control over the people by expanding the functions of the federal government. Jefferson, at first unperturbed by the Missouri question, soon became convinced that a northern conspiracy was afoot, with Federalists and crypto-Federalists posing as Republicans and using Missouri statehood as a pretext. The disarray of the Republican ascendancy brought about by amalgamation made fears abound in Southerners that a Free State Party might take shape if Congress failed to reach an understanding over Missouri and slavery and possibly threaten southern pre-eminence. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts surmised that the political configuration for just such a sectional party already existed. That the Federalists were anxious to regain a measure of political participation in national politics was indisputable. There was no basis, however, for the charge that Federalists had directed Tallmadge in his antislavery measures, and there was nothing to indicate that a New York-based King-Clinton alliance sought to erect an antislavery party on the ruins of the Republican Party. The allegations by Southern interests for slavery of a "plot" or that of "consolidation" as a threat to the Union misapprehended the forces at work in the Missouri crisis. The core of the opposition to slavery in the Louisiana Purchase was informed by Jeffersonian egalitarian principles, not a Federalist resurgence. Development in Congress Because it no longer wanted to be part of non-contiguous Massachusetts after the War of 1812, the northern region of Massachusetts, the District of Maine, sought and ultimately gained admission into the United States as a free state to become the separate state of Maine. That occurred only as a result of a compromise involving slavery in Missouri and in the federal territories of the American West. The admission of another slave state would increase southern power when northern politicians had already begun to regret the Constitution's Three-Fifths Compromise. Although more than 60 percent of white Americans lived in the North, northern representatives held only a slim majority of congressional seats by 1818. The additional political representation allotted to the South as a result of the Three-Fifths Compromise gave southerners more seats in the House of Representatives than they would have had if the number was based on the free population alone. Moreover, since each state had two Senate seats, Missouri's admission as a slave state would result in more southern than northern senators. A bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives in Committee of the Whole, on February 13, 1819. James Tallmadge of New York offered the Tallmadge Amendment, which forbade further introduction of slaves into Missouri and mandated that all children of slave parents born in the state after its admission to be free at the age of 25. The committee adopted the measure and incorporated it into the bill as finally passed on February 17, 1819, by the House. The Senate refused to concur with the amendment, and the whole measure was lost. During the following session (1819–1820), the House passed a similar bill with an amendment, introduced on January 26, 1820, by John W. Taylor of New York, allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state. The question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama, a slave state, which made the number of slave and free states equal. In addition, there was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state. The Senate decided to connect the two measures. It passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted, on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois, to exclude slavery from the Louisiana Territory north of 36°30 north, the southern boundary of Missouri, except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri. The vote in the Senate was 24-20 for the compromise. The amendment and the bill passed in the Senate on February 17 and February 18, 1820. The House then approved the Senate compromise amendment, 90–87, with all of the opposition coming from representatives from the free states. The House then approved the whole bill 134–42 with opposition from the southern states. Second Missouri Compromise The two houses were at odds on the issue of the legality of slavery but also on the parliamentary question of the inclusion of Maine and Missouri in the same bill. The committee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for the admission of Maine and the other an enabling act for Missouri. It also recommended having no restrictions on slavery but keeping the Thomas Amendment. Both houses agreed, and the measures were passed on March 5, 1820, and signed by President James Monroe on March 6. The question of the final admission of Missouri came up during the session of 1820–1821. The struggle was revived over a clause in Missouri's new constitution, written in 1820, which required the exclusion of "free negroes and mulattoes" from the state. The influence of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay, known as "The Great Compromiser", an act of admission was finally passed if the exclusionary clause of the Missouri constitution should "never be construed to authorize the passage of any law" impairing the privileges and immunities of any U.S. citizen. That deliberately ambiguous provision is sometimes known as the Second Missouri Compromise. Impact on political discourse For decades afterward, Americans hailed the 1820 agreement as an essential compromise, almost on the sacred level of the Constitution itself. Although the Civil War broke out in 1861, historians often say that the Compromise helped postpone the war. The disputes involved the competition between the southern and northern states for power in Congress and control over future territories. There were also the same factions emerging, as the Democratic-Republican Party began to lose its coherence. In an April 22 letter to John Holmes, Thomas Jefferson wrote that the division of the country created by the Compromise Line would eventually lead to the destruction of the Union: The debate over the admission of Missouri also raised the issue of sectional balance, as the country was equally divided between slave states and free states, with eleven each. To admit Missouri as a slave state would tip the balance in the Senate, which is made up of two senators per state, in favor of the slave states. That made northern states want Maine admitted as a free state. Maine was admitted in 1820, and Missouri in 1821, The trend of admitting a new free or slave state to balance the status of previous ones would continue up until 1850. The next state to be admitted would be Arkansas (slave state) in 1836, quickly followed by Michigan (free state) in 1837. In 1845, two slave states (Texas and Florida) were admitted, which was countered by the free states of Iowa and Wisconsin in 1846 and 1848. From the constitutional standpoint, the Missouri Compromise was important as the example of congressional exclusion of slavery from US territory acquired since the Northwest Ordinance. Nevertheless, the Compromise was deeply disappointing to blacks in both the North and the South, as it stopped the Southern progression of gradual emancipation at Missouri's southern border, and it legitimized slavery as a southern institution. Repeal The provisions of the Missouri Compromise forbidding slavery in the former Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north were effectively repealed by Stephen A. Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The repeal of the Compromise caused outrage in the North and sparked the return to politics of Abraham Lincoln, who criticized slavery and excoriated Douglas's act in his "Peoria Speech" (October 16, 1854). See also Compromise of 1790 Compromise of 1850 Kansas–Nebraska Act Origins of the American Civil War Royal Colonial Boundary of 1665 Tallmadge Amendment Slave Trade Acts Dred Scott v. Sandford Northwest Ordinance References Bibliography Further reading External links Library of Congress – Missouri Compromise and Related Resources EDSITEment's lesson plan Early Threat of Session Missouri Compromise 1820 Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory 16th United States Congress 1820 in American politics 1820 in law History of United States expansionism Legal history of Missouri Presidency of James Monroe United States slavery law United States federal territory and statehood legislation Missouri in the American Civil War Origins of the American Civil War Political compromises in the United States Expansion of slavery in the United States History of slavery in Missouri

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Sly Cooper is a series of platform stealth video games for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita. The first three games in the series were developed by Sucker Punch Productions. Sanzaru Games developed the fourth game while Sucker Punch worked on the Infamous series. The first three games were remastered into high-definition for the PlayStation 3 by Sanzaru Games, titled The Sly Collection. Sanzaru released the fourth game in the series, Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time, on February 5, 2013. A CGI animated feature film based on the Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus is in development with currently an unknown theatrical release date. A television show based on the series was scheduled to premiere in October 2019, but has not yet aired. The series follows the adventures of Sly Cooper, an anthropomorphic raccoon and master thief, along with his two partners in crime, Bentley the turtle and Murray the hippopotamus, all of whom are pursued by Sly's love interest, Inspector Carmelita Fox. The series has spawned two comic books and a variety of spin-off games, including Bentley's Hackpack by Sanzaru Games. Sly Cooper himself has become one of the most popular of the Sony video game characters, and has appeared in other Sony games such as cross-overs PlayStation Move Heroes and PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale. Setting The Sly Cooper series takes place in a version of the real world populated by anthropomorphic animals, with film noir and comic book motifs. The main protagonist, a young-adult raccoon named Sly Cooper, is the latest descendant in a line of master thieves. The Cooper Clan is notorious for only stealing from other thieves, and passes down their expert techniques from generation to generation in a book called the "Thievius Raccoonus." While the Coopers have accumulated a massive hoard of wealth, Sly places greater value on his friendship with his partners-in-crime: Bentley, a turtle who acts as brains of the gang; and Murray, a hippo, who acts as the brawn and the getaway driver of the team van. The trio, known as the Cooper Gang, perform elaborate heists across the world, often taking down large and dangerous organized crime groups. On their travels they are pursued by Sly's love interest, Inspector Carmelita Fox of Interpol. Main series Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus, known as Sly Raccoon in Europe, was released in 2002 for the PlayStation 2. Sly and the gang are looking for the missing pieces of Sly's family book, the Thievius Raccoonus, which contains all of the Cooper Clan's secret thief techniques. They trace it to the Fiendish Five, a rival gang led by a giant mechanical owl named Clockwerk. Sly and his gang must steal back the book while keeping ahead of Interpol's Inspector Carmelita Fox, who promises to put Sly in jail for his crimes. Sly 2: Band of Thieves Sly 2: Band of Thieves was released in 2004 for the PlayStation 2. After the events of Sly Cooper, the mechanical parts from the destroyed Clockwerk are stolen by the Klaww Gang. Together, the parts could be used to revive Clockwerk; separately, they each have special functions and are used for various crimes by the individual gang members. Sly and the Cooper gang are pursued by Carmelita and her new partner, Constable Neyla, while they track down the missing Clockwerk parts. Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves was released in 2005 for the PlayStation 2. On a remote island, Sly discovers the Cooper Vault, a gigantic cache of wealth accumulated by his family over the years. In order to gain access he must defeat a villain known as Dr. M, who has taken over the island and made many failed attempts to break into the vault. Sly must regroup his old partners and recruit new members, defeating a variety of new villains along the way, in order to succeed at reclaiming his family's history, all while still on the run from Carmelita. This game also has some levels that can be put into 3D mode and the PS3 version in The Sly Collection allows the full game to be played in 3D. Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time was officially announced during Sony's 2011 E3 Keynote, and was officially released on February 5, 2013. Sly Cooper and the whole gang return with an epic brand new adventure for the PlayStation 3 and the PlayStation Vita systems. The pages of the Thievius Raccoonus are disappearing and Bentley, now keeper of the ancient book, must round up the gang and save the Cooper Clan legacy from being destroyed forever. With Bentley's newly invented time machine, the gang and Carmelita travel back in time to stop the various henchmen of the main villain, Cyrille Le Paradox, who is determined to replace the Coopers as the new master thief of the world. Along the way, the gang teams up with several of Sly's ancestors, all while Sly must deal with the aftermath of Carmelita discovering that he had faked his amnesia at the end of the previous game. The game was developed by Sanzaru Games, the same development team behind The Sly Collection, instead of Sucker Punch Productions, who turned their focus to the Infamous series. If players unlock the game's secret ending, a clip is shown that hints at a potential future installment in the series, but on November 14, 2014, Sanzaru Games released a statement that they are not developing a future game. Reception The series as a whole has been well-received, with the games being praised for their art style and the stealth gameplay, and criticized for their length and stories. Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus was critically acclaimed upon release, despite poor sales. GameSpot rated it 7.8/10, stating that "The game has a fantastic sense of style to its design that is reflected in everything from the animation to the unique use of the peaking fad, cel-shaded polygons." However, they criticized the length of the game, saying "The main problem is that just as you're getting into a groove and really enjoying the variety seen throughout the different levels, the game ends. "Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine gave it a perfect score of 5/5, stating that "There's a pleasant old-school feel to Thievius Raccoonus; the enemies are merciless but a bit stupid, and the platforming challenges come on strong and ramp up steadily in difficulty as the levels go by." The game ultimately sold about 400,000 copies in its release year, and it was later re-released as one of Sony's "Greatest Hits". Sly 2: Band of Thieves received even more critical acclaim, being the highest-rated game of the series. It earned an 88% on both GameRankings and Metacritic, and GameSpy ranked it the #23 greatest PlayStation 2 game of all time. Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves was also well-received, with an 84% on GameRankings and an 83 on Metacritic. Despite the anticipation after an 8-year hiatus, Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time was, on average, the lowest-rated game of the series despite still ultimately receiving positive reviews. Its highest rating came from Game Informer, which gave it a 9/10 and thus called it the best game since the original. IGN, giving it an 8/10, summarized that despite the "ridiculous load times, occasionally frustrating gameplay and some bizarre, archaic motion controls, Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time is a worthy game to add to your library" as it "harkens back to a different time in gaming while modernizing the experience for a new generation." GamesRadar gave it a 4.5/5, similarly criticizing the "lengthy (but infrequent) load times" and "cliffhanger ending", but saying the good points were "stellar presentation" and "excellent level design." It is the lowest-rated game of the series on Metacritic and GameRankings (with a score of 75 on both sites), GameSpot (with a 7.5, just below the first game's 7.8), IGN (with an 8.0, just below the third game's 8.1), and Eurogamer, where it was the first game of the series to receive a score other than 8/10 (instead receiving a 6/10). Other titles The Sly Collection The Sly Collection (titled The Sly Trilogy in PAL regions and Sly Cooper Collection in Asia) is a remastered port of the first three games in the series, released for the PlayStation 3 on a single Blu-ray Disc as a Classics HD title. The games were ported by Sanzaru Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment America. On November 29, 2011, The Sly Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store, with each title in the collection available as separate purchase. The collection also includes a set of mini games. On May 27, 2014, the collection was released for the PlayStation Vita. Sly 1 and 2 are featured on the game card, while Sly 3 is accessed through an included download voucher. Features The core game and story for all games remains unchanged with the remastered versions. For the remastering, all three games have had a graphics overhaul to allow them to support modern 720p resolution. When in 3D mode the games run at 30fps, while in normal mode, the games run 60fps. All three of the games also have trophies, with one platinum each. PlayStation Move supported mini-games and 3D support are available in the Collection, as well as trophies. Upon completing every game in the Collection, a Sly 4 teaser trailer is unlocked. However, these features are not available in the downloadable version. Development Developer Sanzaru Games impressed Sony with a demo for the then-unannounced Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time, and were subsequently tasked with porting the series' PlayStation 2 titles to the PlayStation 3. At this time, the games' original developers, Sucker Punch Productions, were working on the inFamous series. The Sly Collection was announced in June 2010, and released on November 9, 2010. It was made available on the PlayStation Store on November 29, 2011. On April 20, 2013, the PlayStation Vita port of the collection was revealed after it was rated by the ESRB. It was officially announced on February 10, 2014, with a release date of May 27, 2014. Reception The Sly Collection received positive reviews from critics. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 87.43% based on 35 reviews and 85/100 based on 46 reviews and the PlayStation Vita version 80.69% based on 16 reviews and 80/100 based on 30 reviews. PlayStation Move Heroes PlayStation Move Heroes, announced at E3 2010, is a crossover between the Sly Cooper series, Jak and Daxter and Ratchet & Clank. It features Sly and Bentley as playable characters. The game uses PlayStation Move. It was released March 22, 2011 in North America. PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale Sly Cooper appears as a playable character in the crossover fighting game PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale. In the game's arcade mode, Sly finds that several pages from the Thievius Racconus have been stolen, and begins battling the other fighters in attempt to locate them, including a rival battle with Nathan Drake. The Sly Cooper version of Paris also appears as one of the game's stages. Additionally, Bentley assists Sly with his Level 3 Super attack, Murray appears as an unlockable minion and as part of Sly's Level 1 Super attack, and Carmelita appears as a downloadable minion and stage hazard in the "Alden's Tower" stage. Bentley's Hackpack Bentley's Hackpack is a collection of the various hacking mini-games found in the main campaign mode of Thieves in Time, with additional levels, challenges, and prizes. It was developed by Sanzaru Games and was released for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita alongside Thieves in Time. This game is a part of Sony's cross-buy initiative, allowing purchasers of the PlayStation 3 version of the game to receive a free copy for the PlayStation Vita via the PlayStation Network. The game was released for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, iOS, and Android devices. It received 7/10 from Destructoid and 73/100 from Official PlayStation Magazine Benelux. Characters Major characters Sly Cooper (voiced by Kevin Miller) is an antiheroic young adult gentleman thief raccoon. He is part of a long line of master thieves who specialize in robbing from other criminals rather than innocent people, making them vigilantes. As a child, he witnessed the savage murder of his father at the hands of a group known as the Fiendish Five. They stole Thievius Raccoonus, which holds the secrets of the Cooper clan's master thief moves. He was forced into an orphanage, where he met his best friends, Bentley and Murray. Sly is nimblest member of the gang, and performs the most missions. He uses a hooked cane, a family heirloom, as a multi-purpose tool. Sly is cunning and extremely athletic, and can perform feats such as walking on wires, landing on small points, sliding on vines, and falling from great heights. He is also able to disguise himself in order to access restricted areas. Bentley (voiced by Matt Olsen) is the brains of the gang. He is a turtle who is skilled with computers, gadgets, and explosives, and generally helps with reconnaissance and mission-planning while Sly is out in the field. In Sly 2, Bentley decides to help out in the field, but, later on, his legs are injured under the jaws of Clock-La, so he is forced into a wheelchair, which he handily equips with gadgets; he has since become more relaxed and confident in his abilities and himself. It is also stated that he co-constructed a time-machine along with his ex-girlfriend, Penelope, which serves as the key object in the fourth game. He is the current guardian of the Thievius Raccoonus, having been entrusted to him by Sly. Murray (voiced by Chris Murphy) is the muscle of the Gang and Sly's full-time wheelman and part-time burden, in charge of driving the Cooper Gang's van to various locations. As a large pink hippopotamus, he is amazingly strong. He often ventures to the field on missions requiring such strength. When Bentley is injured in Sly 2, he blames himself and leaves the Gang to the Australian Outback, looking for a more peaceful state of mind, but eventually returns when Bentley is attacked by Italian crime mob leader Don Octavio, one of the Cooper Gang enemies. It is stated that he has developed a more serious personality, though he remains a happy-go-lucky hippo. Inspector Carmelita Montoya Fox (voiced by Roxana Ortega in Sly 1, Alesia Glidewell in Sly 2, Ruth Livier in Sly 3, Grey DeLisle in Sly 4 and PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale) is a member of Interpol, as well as Sly's main complicated love interest. She is a vixen who has her mind set on capturing Sly and his crew, but also demonstrates romantic feelings for him, which Sly often uses to escape capture at the last minute. In the fourth game, Carmelita begins to help out the Cooper gang by aiding them in recovering the disappearing pages of the Thievius Raccoonus. This is when she, herself, begins to soften up and develop feelings for Sly. She uses a shock pistol as her weapon of choice, which contains powerful blasts and a target lock. Dimitri Lousteau (voiced by David Scully) is a French iguana who speaks in slang. He started out as a young painter whose unique art style was heavily criticized and rejected by the artistic community, forcing him to turn to forgery before opening a night club on the west side of Paris. His first role in the series was as a supporting villain in the second game, as the first member of the Klaww Gang to be defeated by the Cooper Gang. He later returned in the third game, beginning his role as a supporting protagonist after he joins the Cooper Gang to help them with the Cooper Vault job. He returns for a much smaller role in the fourth game, left with the duty of guarding their Paris hideout and the Thievius Raccoonus while they travel through time, and thus only appears in the cutscenes. Recurring characters Clockwerk (voiced by Kevin Blackton) is the main antagonist of Sly 1 and an integral part of the story to Sly 2. Clockwerk is a giant owl who is centuries old, initially fueled by his hatred and jealousy for the Cooper Clan and their thieving reputation as great thieves. Determined to outlive the Coopers and eventually wipe them all out, he replaced his body with machinery so that he could live much longer than any normal being. He was first defeated in the Krak-Karov Volcano in Russia by Sly at the end of the first game, but his body survived the lava and was placed in the Cairo Museum, where it was stolen by the Klaww Gang, setting up the events of Sly 2. Although Clockwerk himself does not actually appear in the second game, the parts of his body are the driving force behind the Cooper Gang's actions, taking down the Klaww Gang to retrieve all of them and ultimately destroy them. But the parts all ultimately end up in the hands of the Klaww Gang's leader, Arpeggio, and Clockwerk is rebuilt before Neyla joins herself with the Clockwerk frame to become "Clock-La." However, the new Clock-La was short-lived, and defeated shortly afterward by Sly and Carmelita. Muggshot (voiced by Kevin Blackton) is a massive bulldog one of the supporting antagonists of Sly 1, featured in the second level. He grew up as the runt of the litter, regularly picked on by the bigger dogs. Inspired by watching gangster movies, he eventually decided to work out in order to grow as strong as possible so that he could defeat all the bullies and never be picked on again. However, due to being entirely focused on brawn, he conversely did little to advance his knowledge and is thus notoriously unintelligent. He was defeated by Sly in the first game and arrested, briefly seen in issue #2 of the comics as an inmate at Heathrow Prison, before returning for the third game, where he was a supporting villain in the third episode. It is revealed that after escaping jail, Muggshot became a highly trained and lethal pilot in the annual ACES Competition, run by the Black Baron, where his team was the runner-up in the previous year and current year. Bentley deduced that, in order for the Cooper Gang to have a better chance at beating the Black Baron, Muggshot had to be removed from the competition. Thus, Bentley tricked Muggshot into running into Carmelita, who defeated and arrested him. He returned once more in the animated promotional short for the fourth game, "Timing is Everything," where he stole an antique golden watch, but was once again thwarted by the Cooper Gang and arrested by Carmelita. The Panda King (voiced by Kevin Blackton) is a large panda and one of the supporting antagonists of Sly 1, featured in the fourth level. He grew up fascinated with the art of fireworks, but when he attempted to present his own fireworks to the noblemen, they rejected him due to his poor social status. He gained revenge by using fireworks as tools for destruction, and ran an extortion ring of robbing small villages under the threat of burying them alive in avalanches caused by fireworks, before Sly defeated him. Later, when Bentley determined that they needed someone with knowledge of more powerful explosives for the Cooper Vault job in Sly 3, he recommended the Panda King. Sly at first vehemently refused - as the Panda King had been involved in the brutal murder of his parents - but Bentley convinced him that there was no other choice. The Panda King agreed to join them if they first helped rescue his daughter from General Tsao, who had kidnapped her and planned to marry her. They succeeded, and after the Cooper Vault job, the Panda King returned to China. Penelope (voiced by Annette Toutonghi) is a Dutch mouse, one of the supporting protagonists of Sly 3, and one of the supporting antagonists in Sly 4. Bentley eventually discovered her online while researching potential pilots and mechanics that the team might need for the Cooper Vault job in Sly 3. She challenged them to impress her by defeating her boss, the Black Baron, only to find that Penelope was the Black Baron. Defeated and exposed, she joined the gang and eventually formed a romantic bond with Bentley, after initially being attracted to Sly. However, she turned against them in the fourth game after she came to believe that Sly and his values of "honor" were a bad influence on Bentley, believing that she and Bentley together could rule the world through weapons design and trade. Thus, she joined forces with Cyrille Le Paradox, with the promise of eventually defeating Sly and getting Bentley all to herself. After her second disguise, the Black Knight, was exposed, Bentley was initially devastated by her betrayal, but eventually came to terms with it and defeated her in combat, using one of her own mechanical suits against her. Although she was initially arrested and placed in a maximum security prison like the rest of the villains, she was the only one who escaped, under mysterious circumstances. Bentley notes in the epilogue that she has been committing a wide variety of crimes all over Europe, leaving her calling card at the scene of each crime, and that he has also been receiving mysterious postcards from her, hinting at her possible return in a future installment. Common gameplay elements The games are primarily a third person platform game. The player controls Sly or one of his companions through many missions of several levels, relying mostly on stealth to avoid encounters and alarms while collecting treasures or other items. Sly is very agile, and is able to use many of the features of the architecture for stealth, indicated to the player by a blue glow, explained in-game as a visible manifestation of Sly's "thief senses." For example, Sly can perch on the top of sharp points, climb up pipes, sneak along a narrow ledge, walk across a tight rope, or use his cane to swing from hooks. Sly also uses his cane to defeat foes, although it makes noise that may attract other foes. He prefers to use sneak attacks when possible because of his little endurance. Due to his heritage, Sly has a number of special moves that he learns through the games that can also increase his stealth or speed, or allow him to eliminate foes silently. The player also may play as Bentley with his gadgets, or Murray with his strength, and many minor companions in the third game. There are also mini-games scattered throughout the gameplay. Each game is broken into a series of heists, and to accomplish the heist, Sly and his gang must complete several sub-missions. In the first game, each sub-mission was located on a level accessible from the main heist level, while the second, third and fourth games used a nonlinear, open world approach to have various missions located around the same large level. There is typically a boss fight at the end of each heist as the conclusion to the mission. Graphics and technology The first three games were built using Sucker Punch's proprietary engine SPACKLE (Sucker Punch Animation and Character Kinematics Life Engine) with aid from the engine first created for the 2001 racing video game Kinetica. SPACKLE was first used on the Nintendo 64 title Rocket: Robot on Wheels. Comics Sly Cooper and other characters from the games were also featured in two comic books published in 2004 and 2005 by GamePro Magazine and DC Comics to promote the release of Sly 2: Band of Thieves and Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves respectively. Both books are used to transition the story from one game to the next. Issue #1 acted as a story between the first and second game, apparently taking place sometime within the 2-year span between them. The plot consists of two flashback stories and one present story. One is a flashback to the Cooper gang's first taste of thief work as children at the Happy Camper Orphanage (successfully stealing cookies from a greedy sitter), and the other detailing the first time Carmelita and Sly met, when the then-new constable Carmelita was assigned to protect the diamond of an opera star during a performance. Although Carmelita catches Sly and ties him up in the janitor's closet, Sly escapes. However, he sees Carmelita being berated by her boss, Chief Inspector Barkley, for the failure, and Sly decides to help Carmelita. Thus, when the diamond is actually stolen by the singer's manager Pierre, Sly trips him and knocks him unconscious, leaving him for Carmelita to claim as her own capture, thus earning her Barkley's respect. In the present storyline, Sly and the gang devise a plan to crash the engagement party of Dimitri Lousteau and a wealthy art collector named Madame D'Oinkeau, and steal D'Oinkeau's prized sculpture, the Venus de Whalo (a parody of the Venus de Milo). They succeed, but Carmelita stops Sly on a bridge over a river. Despite her holding her gun on him, he remains relaxed and engages in conversation with her, during which the two relay to each other their pasts and their opposing points of view. Sly then escapes by jumping off the bridge, and although Carmelita at first thinks he has drowned, it is revealed that he landed on the deck of a boat passing underneath, with Bentley, Murray, their van, and the sculpture all on board. Issue #2 takes place after the events of Sly 2 and leads up to the events within Sly 3. The story is broken into four parts. The first part consists of Sly finding a member of his father's gang, McSweeny, in a maximum-security prison due to an invitation. McSweeny, an anthropomorphic, super strong walrus tells Sly of a massive vault on a remote island and its location which contains the accumulated treasure of all the Cooper family members stating it as Sly's inheritance. Part two details Sly and Murray breaking into a hospital to rescue the injured Bentley from the authorities, though at the end, Murray demands that Sly flee with Bentley while he stays behind to deal with the officers. Part three consists of Carmelita reviewing footage of Sly and Murray's attempt (with Bentley notably absent) to steal the map to the Cooper Vault's location from a Venetian museum. But Sly later breaks into her office while she is asleep and steals the vault map from under Carmelita's nose. The final part takes place at the Cooper gang's home in Paris, with Sly reviewing what is needed to get to the vault, while Bentley works on arming his wheelchair with a wide array of gadgets and weaponry to help Sly in the field. Murray returns after his escape and informs the others that he is leaving the gang and disappears to parts unknown. Film adaptation Production on a Sly Cooper film originally leaked in 2012 when a NeoGAF user discovered listings for a number of Sony Interactive Entertainment franchises in a film financing database. The project was officially announced by producer Brad Foxhoven, of Blockade Entertainment, on January 28, 2014. Sly Cooper is Blockade's third adaptation of a Sony video game series, after Heavenly Sword and Ratchet & Clank. Alongside a teaser trailer, the initial announcement revealed that Ratchet director Kevin Munroe and animation studio Rainmaker Entertainment would be helming the movie set for release in 2016. Also like Ratchet & Clank, the film is financed by Film Financial Services with lead investor Jiangsu Broadcasting Corporation from China along with Rainmaker, with international representation by Cinema Management Group. Commenting on the film's production, Asad Qizilbash, senior director of first party games marketing at Sony stated: "As one of our most storied and fan favorite PlayStation franchises, we are excited to see the story of Sly premier on the big screen for the first time. "We have a great partnership with Rainmaker and Blockade Entertainment and we're looking forward to seeing Sly reimagined in a full-feature movie to offer both fans and newcomers alike a chance to become reacquainted with one of our most beloved heroes." Series creator Sucker Punch Productions is involved with the film. David Wohl, vice president of development at Blockade Entertainment and producer on the movie, was quoted as saying the film won't be an origins story: "Sly and the gang are already together, though they are far from being so great at what they do." The story will focus on Sly, Bentley and Murray, but Carmelita and Clockwerk will also be included. Unlike prior incarnations of the franchise which used cel-shading, the film is going for a contemporary CG art direction. Foxhoven stated that "the global film market can lean towards pure CG animated films. As much as we love the cel-shaded look of the game, we felt that it would not be held up in the big screen collectively." He also said that working with the creators of Sly Cooper would help the movie's look "remain true to the artistic style of the characters and world." At Wondercon 2016, Munroe stated that the film had yet to enter production and that he doubted it would be released later that year, but was "standing by, waiting to jump on top of it. I'm just waiting for the phone call." On October 26, 2016, he revealed on Twitter that he hadn't personally worked on Sly Cooper in over a year and a half. Munroe later became attached to other projects. Following the poor box office performance of the Ratchet & Clank adaptation, Cartoon Brew editor Amid Amidi expressed doubt that Sly Cooper would ever be completed. In September 2016, Michael Hefferon, president and chief creative officer of Rainmaker, said that due to Ratchet'''s failure, the company would have to reevaluate the timing, release plans and budget for Sly Cooper. In 2017, Rainmaker left the project. Television series On June 14, 2017, Sony Interactive Entertainment announced that they would be developing a Sly Cooper television series alongside Technicolor Animation Productions, with PGS Entertainment handling brand management. The series will consist of 52 11-minute episodes, with half scheduled to premiere in October 2019, and the remaining in July 2020, though the broadcast network has yet to be determined. On May 20, 2019, Sony Interactive Entertainment announced that they had opened a film and TV production studio on the Sony Pictures Entertainment lot in Culver City, California called PlayStation Productions, which will develop and produce projects based on the company's catalog of more than 100 games. Sony Pictures will distribute these projects, but Sony Interactive Entertainment will handle production firsthand. This announcement had many fans speculate that the Sly Cooper television series would be moved to the studio, considering that projects such as Sony Pictures' Uncharted'' film also moved there. References External links Official Sly Cooper Website Sucker Punch Productions Sanzaru Games, Inc. Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus (PS2) Sly 2: Band of Thieves (PS2) Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves (PS2) The Sly Collection (PS3) Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time (PS3) Official "Sly Cooper" Movie Website Platform games Stealth video games by series Video games developed in the United States Video game franchises Video game franchises introduced in 2002 Sony Interactive Entertainment franchises

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Kenneth Anderson (born March 6, 1976) is an American professional wrestler, professional wrestling trainer, and ring announcer, who is currently signed to Top Rank Boxing as their announcer. Anderson is known for his tenure with WWE from 2005 to 2009 under the ring name Mr. Kennedy, and his work in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling as Mr. Anderson from 2010 to 2016. Anderson started his career on the independent circuit, until he was signed to a development contract with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), and was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling, WWE's farm territory. He was promoted to the main roster in 2005. One year after his debut, he won the WWE United States Championship, which he held for 42 days. At WrestleMania 23, he won the 2007 Money in the Bank briefcase with a title shot for the promotion's world title. However, he dropped the briefcase to Edge after suffering an injury. Kennedy would remain with the promotion until 2009. In 2010, Anderson signed with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA, now Impact Wrestling), where he competed under the ring names Mr. Anderson and Ken Anderson. In 2011, he would win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship twice during a feud (a scripted rivalry) with the villainous group Immortal. After losing the title, he would remain with the promotion as a mid-card wrestler, joining also the villainous faction Aces & Eights at one point, until he departed TNA in 2016. In 2019, Anderson came back to pro wrestling programming when he worked for National Wrestling Alliance (NWA). In 2016, Anderson opened a wrestling school called The Academy in Minneapolis, Minnesota, along with Shawn Daivari, Molly Holly, Ariya Daivari, and Arik Cannon. He has also worked occasionally as an actor and starred as Master Chief Petty Officer Carter Holt in the WWE Studios production Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia in 2009. Early life Kenneth Anderson was born on March 6, 1976, in Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin. His father died on April 13, 2006, from cancer. Anderson graduated from Washington High School in Two Rivers, Wisconsin. During his time there, he excelled at swimming and track and field. He also announced school basketball games and did a radio assignment in his Mass Media class. When doing this, a friend suggested to Anderson to repeat the surnames to make it funnier. That element was eventually used again in his wrestling character when encouraged by Paul Heyman. Before beginning his wrestling career, Anderson worked as a security officer at Point Beach Nuclear Power Plant and a personal trainer. He also served in the United States Army. Professional wrestling career Early career (1999–2005) Anderson, under the ring name "Two Rivers Jack," made his debut on September 11, 1999, at a North American Wrestling Federation event in Whitewater, Wisconsin, losing to Golga. He wrestled just twenty-one matches before appearing for the World Wrestling Federation on Jakked in 2001, where he lost to Essa Rios. He occasionally worked as enhancement talent for WWF when shows ran in Wisconsin. Anderson also made an appearance on NWA: Total Nonstop Action's secondary television program, Xplosion. The owner of the promotion, Jeff Jarrett, approached him for a contract but communications broke down. World Wrestling Entertainment (2005-2009) Ohio Valley Wrestling (2005) Upon signing with WWE in February 2005, Anderson was sent to the Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) developmental territory, where he would remain for six months. When he arrived, Jim Cornette was in charge of the organization and, according to Anderson, did not see potential in his abilities and declined to feature him as more than an occasional bit-player on OVW's programming. When Cornette departed, his replacement, Paul Heyman, showed immediate interest in Anderson, comparing his qualities to The Rock and Steve Austin. Five weeks later, Anderson was called up to WWE's main roster to work on Velocity. He credits Heyman with helping him develop the character with which he would achieve success. Before his first SmackDown! match, he showed himself to be a cocky and arrogant wrestle by taking a microphone and performing his own ring announcement. He referred to himself as "Mr. Anderson" for this match. A few weeks later, to avoid comparisons with the more famous Anderson family (as well as former Cincinnati Bengals quarterback Ken Anderson), he changed his name to "Ken Kennedy," or "Mr. Kennedy." The change was initially suggested by Heyman and was chosen because it is the middle name of WWE Chairman Vince McMahon. Undefeated streak (2005–2006) Kennedy, as a heel, defeated Funaki in his SmackDown! debut on August 25. Kennedy also created an ongoing mini-feud with SmackDown! ring announcer Tony Chimel based on Kennedy believing that Chimel's announcing was not done well enough or with sufficient respect, and therefore performing his own introductions or forcing Chimel to introduce him again. Kennedy's self-ring introductions before the match became one of his trademarks. While working on both Velocity and SmackDown!, he was also still working in OVW. Kennedy made his pay-per-view debut at No Mercy, defeating Hardcore Holly and injuring Holly's ribs during the match. On the November 11 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy faced Eddie Guerrero to compete for a spot on SmackDown!s Survivor Series team. He lost the match when Guerrero tossed him a steel chair and played possum, a move which Guerrero had made famous. The referee turned around and saw Guerrero on the ground with Kennedy holding the chair, and consequently disqualified Kennedy, awarding the place on Team SmackDown! to Guerrero. This was Kennedy's first loss. In retaliation, Kennedy struck Guerrero over the head with the chair after the match. This was Guerrero's final televised match, as he died two days later. In interviews about the incident, Kennedy has stated that he considers this an "unfortunate honor". In December, Kennedy participated in WWE's overseas tour. On the second day in Italy, Kennedy suffered a legitimate latissimus dorsi tear. Kennedy was sidelined for nearly six months while he rehabilitated the injury. He continued to make appearances on SmackDown! and Velocity throughout January and February and even made an appearance on the January 11, 2006, episode of WWE Byte This! with Todd Grisham to maintain visibility. At the OVW tapings on May 17, Kennedy returned to in-ring action, facing OVW Heavyweight Champion CM Punk in a title match that Kennedy lost. Kennedy made his return to SmackDown! on the June 9 episode with a victory over Scotty 2 Hotty after using the "Kenton Bomb." On the July 14 episode of SmackDown!, Matt Hardy used a roll-up to defeat Kennedy, ending Kennedy's streak of never being defeated by pin or submission. On the July 21 episode of SmackDown!, Batista put out an open challenge to find an opponent for The Great American Bash, as his original opponent, Mark Henry, had been injured. Kennedy accepted the challenge and won the match by disqualification, however, he suffered an injury during the match after being thrown headfirst into the steel steps, resulting in an exposed cranium laceration which required twenty stitches to close. Kennedy helped Vince and Shane McMahon in their feud with D-Generation X, appearing at both SummerSlam and the August 28 episode of Raw to attack them. United States Champion and Mr. Money in the Bank (2006–2007) On the September 1 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy defeated Finlay and Bobby Lashley in a triple threat match to win the WWE United States Championship, his first and only championship reign in WWE. On the September 8 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy announced that he wanted to move over to the Raw brand, as SmackDown! did not interest him anymore since he had already defeated every top performer on the roster. This led to SmackDown! General Manager Theodore Long making a match between Kennedy and The Undertaker, who Kennedy had never faced, to be held at No Mercy. Kennedy won the match by disqualification after The Undertaker hit him with the United States Championship belt. On the October 13 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy, now with a win over The Undertaker, again stated his desire to move to Raw. However, Long again put him against an opponent who he had never faced—this time Chris Benoit—with the United States Championship on the line. Long said that if Kennedy were to defeat Benoit, he would be given his release and be allowed to go to Raw. Ultimately, Kennedy lost the match and the United States Championship to Benoit after submitting to the "Crippler Crossface" following a distraction by The Undertaker. In November, Kennedy joined forces with Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) in matches against The Brothers of Destruction (The Undertaker and Kane). On the November 3 episode of SmackDown!, Kennedy and MVP lost to the Brothers of Destruction three times. After first getting counted out, Theodore Long restarted the match with no countouts. When Kennedy disqualified his team by performing a low blow, Long restarted the match again with no countouts and no disqualifications. Kennedy and MVP continued to feud with the two, with MVP feuding with Kane while Kennedy challenged the Undertaker to a match at Survivor Series, which was later announced as a First Blood match. Kennedy defeated the Undertaker at Survivor Series after MVP turned on Kennedy and aimed for his head with a steel chair, but missed and hit the Undertaker instead, leaving the Undertaker bleeding. After the match, the Undertaker attacked Kennedy, forcing him to bleed. At Armageddon, Kennedy and the Undertaker met in a final match; they were scheduled in a Last Ride match. In the match, the Undertaker defeated Kennedy. After a brief hiatus, Kennedy returned to SmackDown! on January 5, 2007, and defeated Chris Benoit in a "Beat the Clock" match, with the overall prize being a shot at Batista's World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble. After he prevented The Undertaker from beating his time, Kennedy's time of 5:07 ended up being the fastest. At the Royal Rumble, he lost to Batista, as well as a subsequent rematch on the February 9 episode of SmackDown!. From there, Kennedy began a short feud with ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley, leading to a match at No Way Out for the ECW World Championship, which Kennedy won by disqualification after Lashley hit him with a chair. Kennedy challenged Lashley unsuccessfully for the ECW World Championship on the February 20 episode of ECW and the March 2 episode of SmackDown! as well. Kennedy earned a spot in the 2007 Money in the Bank ladder match by defeating Sabu in an Extreme Rules match on the February 27 episode of ECW. At WrestleMania 23, Kennedy won the Money in the Bank ladder match, giving him the right to challenge any world champion in WWE at any date up until WrestleMania XXIV. Kennedy announced on the April 30 episode of Raw that he would be cashing in his Money in the Bank championship opportunity in eleven months at WrestleMania XXIV. On the May 7 episode of Raw, Kennedy, however, lost his Money in the Bank briefcase to Edge, losing moments after being struck with a monitor before the match began. Because of the injury Kennedy sustained during his match with Edge, it was revealed that his right triceps muscle tore off the bone and he would be out for a minimum of five to seven months. The injury, however, was not as serious as initially reported, as the triceps tendon did not tear off the bone but was, in fact, a massive hematoma. On the June 11 episode of Raw, Kennedy was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the WWE Draft. On the August 20 episode of Raw, Carlito hosted the interview segment Carlito's Cabana. During the segment, Carlito challenged his guest, Umaga for his Intercontinental Championship at SummerSlam, and Kennedy also demanded a shot at the title. Raw General Manager William Regal, scheduled a match between Kennedy and Carlito, in which the winner would receive an opportunity to face off against Umaga at SummerSlam. After the match ended in a draw, Regal booked a triple threat match at SummerSlam between the three men for the Intercontinental Championship; at SummerSlam, Umaga retained the title. On the September 10 episode of Raw, Mr. McMahon revealed that Kennedy had, in storyline, been suspended for "impersonating a McMahon." This angle was written because Kennedy being named one of the eleven wrestlers implicated in a steroid scandal and therefore suspended for thirty days in accordance with WWE's Wellness Policy. Final feuds (2007–2009) After his suspension, Kennedy returned to television on the October 1 episode of Raw, facing John Cena in the main event and losing. At No Mercy, Kennedy took part in a six-man tag team match alongside World Tag Team Champions Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch, defeating Paul London, Brian Kendrick and Intercontinental Champion Jeff Hardy. For several weeks, Kennedy began a feud with Hardy, which consisted of the two facing off in a singles match and numerous tag team matches, most of which Hardy won. At Cyber Sunday, Kennedy and Hardy were two of the eligible wrestlers that could earn a WWE Championship match that evening, pending a fan votes. Neither man won the opportunity, as Shawn Michaels won the vote and earned a shot at the title. Kennedy defeated Hardy at Cyber Sunday. Kennedy next entered a feud with Michaels on the night after Survivor Series. Kennedy claimed that it was time for Michaels to move on and let the younger wrestlers achieve success. At Armageddon, Michaels defeated Kennedy by executing "Sweet Chin Music." On the December 31 episode of Raw, Kennedy pinned Michaels in a rematch by executing his new finishing move, the "Mic Check." In subsequent rematches, the two traded wins over each other. After several months of minor feuds and short storylines, Kennedy was not seen for weeks after WrestleMania XXIV because he was filming Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia. Kennedy returned to Raw on April 28, 2008, confronting and brawling with Raw General Manager and newly crowned King of the Ring William Regal, turning face in the process. On the May 19 episode of Raw, Kennedy defeated Regal in a "Loser Gets Fired match", thereby opening up the General Manager spot on the Raw brand. During the WWE Draft on June 23 on Raw, Kennedy was drafted back to the SmackDown brand. On August 4, he dislocated his shoulder in a match against Shelton Benjamin at a house show, keeping him off television for three months. Kennedy made his return to WWE television, in a non-wrestling capacity, on the November 24 episode of Raw, promoting Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia. On April 15, 2009, Mr. Kennedy was drafted back to Raw as the brand's first pick of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. On the May 11 episode of Raw, WWE aired a video package to promote Kennedy's return. He made his official Raw return two weeks later, competing in a 10-man tag team match, which his team won. Kennedy was released from his WWE contract on May 29, just four days after his return. In a March 2010 interview with WrestleZone, Anderson explained that his release was due to fellow wrestler Randy Orton complaining to WWE management that Kennedy was reckless in the ring, citing a botched backdrop that caused Orton to land on his head and neck instead of on his back. Orton argued that this could have potentially ended his career. According to Kennedy, Orton also persuaded John Cena to complain to Vince McMahon about Kennedy's in-ring performance, which prompted McMahon to release Kennedy from his contract. Independent circuit (2009–2010) In his first interview since his release, Kennedy expressed to 540 ESPN Radio in Milwaukee his interest in joining Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. Kennedy appeared at World Wrestling Council's 2009 Anniversary show, where he lost to Eddie Fatu. After a number of matches in independent promotions, he competed on the Hulkamania: Let The Battle Begin tour in Australia. Under the ring name Mr. Anderson, he again worked matches with Fatu, the latter's final matches before his unexpected death on December 4. Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2010-2016) TNA World Heavyweight Champion (2010–2011) In January 2010, Anderson signed a one-year deal with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). He made his debut for the company at the Genesis pay-per-view on January 17, 2010, working under the ring name Mr. Anderson. As a mystery opponent, he wrestled Abyss, whom he pinned after using brass knuckles, establishing himself as a heel in the process. Anderson made his Impact! debut on January 21, delivering a promo on and being attacked by Abyss. At Against All Odds, Anderson defeated Kurt Angle and Abyss to advance to the finals of the 8 Card Stud Tournament, where he lost to D'Angelo Dinero. On the following edition of Impact!, Angle, whom Anderson had defeated by hitting him with dog tags, accused him of disrespecting U.S. soldiers, which led to Anderson hitting him with a mic, effectively starting a feud between the two. At Destination X, Angle defeated Anderson by submission. Afterwards, Anderson and Angle were booked in a steel cage match at Lockdown. On the April 5 episode of Impact!, Anderson defeated Angle in a ladder match to win possession of the key to the cage door to be used at Lockdown. Angle defeated Anderson in the cage match. At Sacrifice, Anderson was defeated by Jeff Hardy. After the match, Anderson offered to shake Hardy's hand, but Hardy declined. On the following episode of Impact!, Anderson helped Hardy defeat Sting in the main event of the show. After the match, both Anderson and Hardy were attacked by Sting. This turned Anderson face. At Slammiversary VIII, Anderson and Hardy, now known collectively as the Enigmatic Assholes, defeated Beer Money, Inc. (Robert Roode and James Storm) in a tag team match. At Victory Road, Anderson and Hardy attempted to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Rob Van Dam in a four-way match, also involving Abyss, but both were unsuccessful. On the August 19 edition of Impact!, the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated and Anderson was entered into an eight-man tournament for the title, defeating Jay Lethal in the first round and D'Angelo Dinero in the semifinals. On September 21, TNA President Dixie Carter announced that Anderson had signed a new long-term contract with the company. At Bound for Glory, Anderson failed in his attempt to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship when Jeff Hardy, with the assistance of both Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff, pinned him in a three-way match (which also included Kurt Angle) to win the title, ending their partnership. Two weeks later, Anderson competed in a number one contender Ultimate X match against Kazarian, who won following interference from his Fortune stablemates. Anderson was blindsided by Hardy after the match, which consequently earned Anderson a title shot. During the attack, Anderson suffered a legitimate concussion, which kept him from taking part in the title match. Anderson returned on December 2, chasing Hardy and Fortune out of the ring, before being announced as the special guest referee for the title match between Hardy and Matt Morgan at Final Resolution. Anderson was bloodied and taken out of that match by Eric Bischoff, who helped Hardy retain the title after another referee replaced Anderson. On January 9, 2011, at Genesis, Anderson defeated Morgan in a number one contender's match. Immediately afterwards, Bischoff announced that Anderson would get his title match against Jeff Hardy immediately. After interference from Morgan, Mick Foley, Matt Hardy, Rob Van Dam, and Bischoff, Anderson defeated Hardy to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time. On the February 3 episode of Impact!, Anderson defeated Hardy in a rematch for the title after Fortune turned on Immortal, who were interfering. On February 13 at Against All Odds, Anderson lost the TNA World Heavyweight Championship back to Hardy in a ladder match. Eleven days later, Anderson defeated Kurt Angle and Rob Van Dam in a three-way match to earn a rematch for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. Anderson was looking to get his title match on the following edition of Impact!, but it was instead given to the returning Sting, who defeated Hardy to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. On the March 10 edition of Impact!, Anderson attacked Sting backstage, claiming that he had been screwed out of his title match. In the main event of that show, Anderson teamed with Jeff Hardy against Rob Van Dam and Sting. During the match, Anderson took on the role of a tweener by turning on Hardy before being pinned by Van Dam. On April 17 at Lockdown, Anderson failed in his attempt to regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Sting in a three-way steel cage match which also included Van Dam. On May 12, Anderson defeated 24 other men in a battle royal to earn a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Slammiversary IX. In the weeks leading up to Slammiversary, Anderson tried to get under Sting's skin by dressing up like he did in the early 1990s during his "surfer" gimmick, attacking Disco Inferno during his own "Scorpion Sitdown" interview segment, and wrestling Eric Young, who was dressed as The Great Muta. Immortal (2011–2012) On June 12 at Slammiversary IX, Anderson defeated Sting after a low blow from Eric Bischoff and a "Mic Check" to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the second time, turning heel once again. On June 18, Anderson represented TNA at Mexican promotion AAA's Triplemanía XIX pay-per-view, where he and Abyss unsuccessfully challenged Extreme Tiger and Jack Evans for the AAA World Tag Team Championship in a steel cage match. On the July 7 edition of Impact Wrestling, Anderson joined Immortal. The following week, Anderson lost the TNA World Heavyweight Championship back to Sting. On July 28, Anderson faced Angle in a steel cage match, but was defeated following a distraction from fellow Immortal member Bully Ray. The tension between the two stablemates eventually led to a match on August 7 at Hardcore Justice, where Ray defeated Anderson with a low blow. On the following edition of Impact Wrestling, the rest of Immortal turned on Anderson and kicked him out of the group. This turned him face. Anderson returned on August 25, attacking his former stablemates. On the September 8 episode of Impact Wrestling, Anderson challenged Kurt Angle, who won the world title at Hardcore Justice, but the match ended in a disqualification due to interference from Immortal. Three days later, at No Surrender, Anderson again failed to capture the title in a three-way match, which also included Sting. Anderson and Bully Ray settled their grudge on October 16 at Bound for Glory, where Anderson won a Falls Count Anywhere match. On November 13 at Turning Point, Anderson and Abyss defeated Ray and Scott Steiner in a tag team match, ending his year-long storyline with Immortal. After a four-month absence, Anderson returned to TNA on March 8, 2012, aligning himself with A.J. Styles in his feud with Christopher Daniels and Kazarian. The following week, Anderson defeated Daniels in his return match. The rivalry continued on April 15 at Lockdown, where the two duos were on opposing teams in the annual Lethal Lockdown match. Anderson and Styles, on the team led by Garett Bischoff, defeated Daniels and Kazarian, on the team led by Eric Bischoff. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Anderson and Jeff Hardy were defeated by Rob Van Dam in a three-way number one contender's match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. During the first "Open Fight Night" the following week, Anderson teamed up with Hardy to unsuccessfully challenge Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On June 10 at Slammiversary, Anderson defeated Hardy and Rob Van Dam in a three-way match to become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. On the following edition of Impact Wrestling, Anderson unsuccessfully challenged Bobby Roode for the world championship. As a result, he was entered into the 2012 Bound for Glory Series to try to earn another shot at the title. Anderson was mathematically eliminated on August 23. On September 27, Anderson received a shot at the vacant TNA Television Championship, but was defeated by Samoa Joe via submission with the "Coquina Clutch." Aces & Eights (2012–2013) After several weeks of absence, Anderson returned to Impact Wrestling on December 27, where he was offered a position in Aces & Eights, a heel stable, which Anderson accepted the following week. On January 10, Anderson explained his joining by noting how nobody helped him when he was attacked by the Aces & Eights back in October. Anderson wrestled his return match on three days later at Genesis, defeating Samoa Joe after interference from Aces & Eights member Mike Knox. On March 10 at Lockdown, Aces & Eights, represented by Anderson, Devon, DOC, Garett Bischoff, and Mike Knox, were defeated by Team TNA, consisting of Eric Young, James Storm, Magnus, Samoa Joe, and Sting, in a Lethal Lockdown match. On June 2 at Slammiversary XI, Anderson, Bischoff, and Wes Brisco were defeated by Jeff Hardy, Magnus, and Samoa Joe in a six-man tag team match. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Anderson began campaigning to be the new Vice President of the Aces & Eights. The following week, Anderson defeated his fellow Aces & Eights stablemates in a battle royal to qualify for the 2013 Bound for Glory Series. Anderson defeated Joseph Park in his first BFG series match via pinfall on the June 20 episode of Impact Wrestling to earn seven points in the tournament. On the July 11 episode of Impact Wrestling, Anderson was voted to become Vice President of Aces & Eights. In August, he started a feud with Bully Ray, as Anderson frequently disagreed with Ray's decisions. Anderson's participation in the Bound for Glory series ended on the September 5 episode of Impact Wrestling, when he was eliminated from a twenty-point battle royal by Samoa Joe. Later that night, Anderson turned face by costing Bully Ray his no-disqualification match with Sting and announcing himself as his TNA World Heavyweight Championship opponent at No Surrender. The following week, Anderson unsuccessfully challenged Ray for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in a Last Man Standing match. Afterwards, as Anderson was being stretchered away, Ray attacked him and executed a piledriver to him onto the stage. On September 23, Anderson profile was quietly removed from TNA's website, seemingly indicating his departure from the company. However, he would make his return on October 24, continuing his storyline with Ray. At Impact Wrestling: Turning Point, he defeated Ray and forced Aces & Eights to disband. Final feuds and departure (2014–2016) On February 20, 2014, Anderson started a feud with Samuel Shaw when he attacked him and Christy Hemme during an interview. At that time, Shaw played a character of a man with an obsession with Hemme. At Lockdown, Shaw defeated Anderson in a steel cage match by escaping the cage by using Hemme as a distraction by pulling her through the camera cut-out of the steel cage. Anderson rescued Hemme but was caught in Shaw's kata gatame submission hold. The referee, who had been knocked out earlier in the match, only saw Shaw escape the cage and declared him the winner. They faced each other two more times at Impact Wrestling, but their final match happened at Sacrifice, where Anderson defeated Shaw in a "Committed match", a match where you have to put the rival into a van, in order to win. Anderson won the match and, in storyline, Shaw was sent to a psychiatric facility for intervention. On May 1, Anderson attacked James Storm after the latter lost to Willow. On May 22, Anderson challenged Storm to a drinking contest, then went on to attack him outside the bar. Anderson won a match between the two at Slammiversary XII. Following Slammiversary, Anderson formed a tag team with Gunner despite his relationship with Samuel Shaw, whom Gunner had been helping through the kayfabe psychiatric counseling. Anderson and Gunner continued to team together with Shaw at their side. Shaw would frequently try to help them in their matches, but Anderson refused, citing his lack of trust. On August 14, Anderson and Shaw brawled during a match between the former and Gunner. At Hardcore Justice, Anderson was defeated by Shaw in an I Quit match. Anderson returned to TNA on the February 20, 2015, episode of Impact Wrestling, confronting Ethan Carter III and Tyrus for what they were doing to Rockstar Spud and Mandrews by attacking Tyrus and giving him a haircut. On May 8, Anderson was defeated by Carter in a Falls Count Anywhere match. The following week, Anderson defeated Tyrus. At Slammiversary, Anderson and Lashley lost to Carter and Tyrus. Several months later, Anderson engaged in a short feud against Bram, defeating him at both No Surrender and Turning Point. At Bound for Glory, Anderson was eliminated in the Bound for Gold by Tyrus. Throughout October and November, Anderson participated in the TNA World Title Series for the vacant TNA World Heavyweight Championship. However, he ended last in Group Champions. Anderson's final match in TNA was a dark match on January 7, 2016, where he defeated TNA King of the Mountain Champion Eric Young by disqualification in a title match. In March, it was reported that Anderson was fired from TNA for failing an on-the-spot drug test at an Impact Wrestling taping. Return to the independent circuit (2016–2019) In his first independent appearance since his firing from TNA, Anderson competed in Preston City Wrestling's Road to Glory tournament, defeating Luther Ward in the first round and losing to Drew Galloway the next day in the quarter-finals. On March 6, Anderson made his first appearance for Insane Championship Wrestling, losing to Joe Hendry on Friday Night Fight Club. On December 3, at House of Hardcore XXI: Blizzard Brawl, Anderson defeated The Sadist. On April 29, 2017, at Ring of Honor Masters of the Craft, Anderson made a one-time appearance for the company, unsuccessfully challenging for Marty Scurll's ROH World Television Championship. National Wrestling Alliance (2019) Anderson debuted for the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) at their television tapings on September 30 for NWA Power, defeating enhancement talent in a tag team match alongside Colt Cabana. At the December 16 tapings, Anderson won an eight-man gauntlet match to replaced the injured Zane Dawson in the NWA World Television Championship tournament. Anderson, however, was not medically cleared to compete in the tournament, therefore losing his match against Tim Storm by forfeit. Announcing career In 2017, Anderson signed with Top Rank Boxing as a ring announcer. Other media Anderson appeared in a feature film Fighting The Still Life, directed by Matt Burns, who wrestled under the name Sick Nick Mondo. He also starred in the action film Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia (2009), a sequel to Behind Enemy Lines (2001). Anderson booked the role through WWE. On July 24, 2007, Anderson appeared on Tom Green Live! in character. Anderson, along with Mickie James and Josh Mathews, represented WWE at the 2008 Republican National Convention in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 US presidential election. During the Pittsburgh Penguins' 2009 Stanley Cup championship run, when National Hockey League winger Tyler Kennedy scored a goal, the Mellon Arena public address announcer would announce his family name twice, and the local crowd would chant it similar to Mr. Kennedy. Anderson twice appeared on Family Feud: once in 2007 on a WWE-themed episode and again in 2010 on a TNA-themed episode. In June 2014, Anderson and comedian David Vox Mullen started the Push The Button podcast to cover topics such as religion, sex, and politics. Anderson has appeared in a number of video games as a playable character, including WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 and WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010. Filmography Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia (2009) – as Master Chief Petty Officer Carter Holt Dogs Lie (2011) – as Yuri Personal life Anderson married girlfriend Shawn Trebnick on January 9, 2008. Anderson has a red and black tattoo on his upper back, which took nearly eight hours to complete. In 2016, Anderson and fellow WWE alum Shawn Daivari founded The Academy professional wrestling school. In an interview on August 18, 2007, Anderson admitted to using steroids when he was performing on the independent wrestling scene, stating that he had quit using them in November 2005 to comply with WWE's Talent Wellness Program, implying that his job in the promotion was worth more than extra muscle mass. However, 12 days later on August 30, Anderson and nine other WWE wrestlers were named in a Sports Illustrated article as having received performance-enhancing drugs, in violation of the WWE Talent Wellness Program. Anderson received anastrozole, somatropin, and testosterone between October 2006 and February 2007. He later claimed that the steroids were for his latissimus dorsi muscle, which was injured in 2005. Championships and accomplishments All-Star Championship Wrestling/ACW Wisconsin ACW Heavyweight Championship (4 times) ACW Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Mike Mercury (1), Eric Hammers (1), and Adrian Serrano (1) ACW Television Championship (1 time) ACW Hall of Fame (Class of 2009) Big League Wrestling BLW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) BLW Tag Team Championship (1 time) Championship Of Wrestling cOw/WPWI United Championship (1 time) Great Lakes Championship Wrestling GLCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)Heavy on WrestlingHoW Undisputed Championship (1 time) Mid American Wrestling MAW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Midwest NWA Midwest Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Nu-Wrestling Evolution/New Wrestling Entertainment NWE World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 7 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2011 Pro Wrestling Pride PWP Heavyweight Championship (1 time) River City Championship Wrestling RCCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Total Nonstop Action Wrestling TNA World Heavyweight Championship (2 time) Ultimate Pro Championship Wrestling UPCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Big Daddy Loker World Association of Wrestling WAW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) World Wrestling Entertainment WWE United States Championship (1 time) Money in the Bank (2007) Wrestling Observer Newsletter''Best Gimmick (2005) Worst Gimmick (2013) as a member of Aces & Eights Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling''' XICW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Padgett References External links TNA Wrestling profile 1976 births Aces & Eights members American atheists American male professional wrestlers Living people Minnesota Republicans NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions New Jersey Republicans People from Two Rivers, Wisconsin Professional wrestlers from Wisconsin Sportspeople from Jersey City, New Jersey Sportspeople from Minneapolis TNA World Heavyweight/Impact World Champions United States Army soldiers Wisconsin Republicans

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The City of Manchester Stadium in Manchester, England, also known as the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship reasons, is the home of Premier League club Manchester City F.C., with a domestic football capacity of 53,400, making it the fifth-largest in the Premier League and tenth-largest in the United Kingdom. Built to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, the stadium has since staged the 2008 UEFA Cup Final, England football internationals, rugby league matches, a boxing world title fight, the England rugby union team's last match of the 2015 Rugby World Cup and summer music concerts during the football off-season. The stadium, originally proposed as an athletics arena in Manchester's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, was converted after the 2002 Commonwealth Games from a 38,000 capacity arena to a 48,000 seat football stadium at a cost to the city council of £22 million and to Manchester City of £20 million. Manchester City F.C. agreed to lease the stadium from Manchester City Council and moved there from Maine Road in the summer of 2003. The stadium was built by Laing Construction at a cost of £112 million and was designed and engineered by Arup, whose design incorporated a cable-stayed roof structure which is separated from the main stadium bowl and suspended entirely by twelve exterior masts and attached cables. The stadium design has received much praise and many accolades, including an award from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004 for its innovative inclusive building design and a special award in 2003 from the Institution of Structural Engineers for its unique structural design. In August 2015, a 7,000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed, in time for the start of the 2015–16 football season. The expansion was designed to be in keeping with the existing roof design. History Background Plans to build a new stadium in Manchester were formulated before 1989 as part of the city's bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics. Manchester City Council submitted a bid that included a design for an 80,000-capacity stadium on a greenfield site west of Manchester city centre. The bid failed and Atlanta hosted the Games. Four years later the city council bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, but this time focusing on a brownfield site east of the city centre on derelict land that was the site of Bradford Colliery, known colloquially as Eastlands. The council's shift in focus was driven by emerging government legislation on urban renewal, promising vital support funding for such projects; the government became involved in funding the purchase and clearance of the Eastlands site in 1992. For the February 1993 bid the city council submitted another 80,000-capacity stadium design produced by design consultants Arup, the firm that helped select the Eastlands site. On 23 September 1993, the games were awarded to Sydney, but the following year Manchester submitted the same scheme design to the Millennium Commission as a "Millennium Stadium", only to have this proposal rejected. Undeterred, Manchester City Council subsequently bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, once again proposing the same site along with downsized stadium plans derived from the 2000 Olympics bid, and this time were successful. In 1996, this same planned stadium competed with Wembley Stadium to gain funding to become the new national stadium, but the money was used to redevelop Wembley. After successful athletics events at the Commonwealth Games, conversion into a football venue was criticised by athletics figures such as Jonathan Edwards and Sebastian Coe as, at the time, the United Kingdom still lacked plans for a large athletics venue due to the capability of installing an athletics track having been dropped from the designs for a rebuilt Wembley Stadium. Had either of the two larger stadium proposals developed by Arup been agreed for funding, then Manchester would have had a venue capable of being adapted to hosting large-scale athletics events through the use of movable seating. Sport England wished to avoid creating a white elephant, so they insisted that the City Council agree to undertake and fund extensive work to convert CoMS from a track and field arena to a football stadium, thereby ensuring its long-term financial viability. Sport England hoped either Manchester City Council or Manchester City F.C. would provide the extra £50 million required to convert the stadium to a 65,000 seater athletics and footballing venue with movable seating. However, Manchester City Council did not have the money to facilitate movable seating and Manchester City were lukewarm about the idea. Stadium architects Arup believed history demonstrated that maintaining a rarely used athletics track often does not work with football – and cited examples such as the Stadio delle Alpi and the Olympic Stadium with both Juventus and Bayern Munich moving to new stadiums less than 40 years after inheriting them. 2002 Commonwealth Games The stadium's foundation stone was laid by Prime Minister Tony Blair in December 1999, and construction began in January 2000. The stadium was designed by Arup and constructed by Laing Construction at a cost of approximately £112 million, £77 million of which was provided by Sport England, with the remainder funded by Manchester City Council. For the Commonwealth Games, the stadium featured a single lower tier of seating running around three sides of the athletics track, and second tiers to the two sides, with an open-air temporary stand at the northern end; initially providing a seating capacity for the Games of 38,000, subsequently extended to 41,000 through the installation of additional temporary trackside seating along the east and south stands. The first public event at the stadium was the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games on 25 July 2002. Among the dignitaries present was Queen Elizabeth II who made a speech, delivered to her in an electronic baton, and 'declared the Commonwealth Games open'. During the following ten days of competition, the stadium hosted the track and field events and all the rugby sevens matches. Sixteen new Commonwealth Games track and field records (six men's and ten women's) were set in the stadium, eight of which (three men's and five women's records) are still extant after three subsequent series of Games in 2006, 2010 and 2014. Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London, the 2002 Games was the largest multi-sport event ever to be staged in the United Kingdom, eclipsing the earlier London 1948 Summer Olympics in numbers of teams and competing athletes (3,679), and it was the world's first multi-sport tournament to include a limited number of full medal events for elite athletes with a disability (EAD). In terms of number of participating nations, it is still the largest Commonwealth Games in history, featuring 72 nations competing in 281 events across seventeen (fourteen individual and three team) sports. Stadium conversion Sections of the track were removed and relaid at other athletics venues, and the internal ground level was lowered to make way for an additional tier of seating, on terracing already constructed then buried for the original configuration. The three temporary stands with a total capacity of 16,000 were dismantled, and replaced with a permanent structure of similar design to the existing one at the southern end. This work took nearly a year to complete and added 23,000 permanent seats, increasing the capacity of the converted stadium by 7,000 to approximately 48,000. Manchester City F.C. moved to the ground in time for the start of the 2003–04 season. The total cost of this conversion was in excess of £40 million, with the track, pitch and seating conversion being funded by the city council at a cost of £22 million; and the installation of bars, restaurants and corporate entertainment areas throughout the stadium being funded by the football club at a cost of £20 million. The Games had made a small operating surplus, and Sport England agreed that this could be reinvested in converting the athletics warm-up track adjacent to the main stadium into the 6,000 seat Manchester Regional Arena at a cost of £3.5 million. Stadium expansion The stadium is owned by Manchester City Council and leased by the football club on a 'fully repairing' basis. All operating, maintenance and future capital costs are borne by the club; who consequently receive all revenues from stadium users. The 2008 takeover made the football club one of the wealthiest in the world, prompting suggestions that it could consider buying the stadium outright. Manchester City signed an agreement with Manchester City Council in March 2010 to allow a £1 billion redevelopment led by architect Rafael Viñoly. During the 2010 closed season the football pitch and hospitality areas were renovated, with a £1 million investment being made in the playing surface so that it is better able to tolerate concerts and other events without damage. In October 2010, Manchester City renegotiated the stadium lease, obtaining the naming rights to the stadium in return for agreeing to now pay the City Council an annual fixed sum of £3 million where previously it had only paid half of the ticket sales revenue from match attendances exceeding 35,000. This new agreement occurred as part of a standard five-year review of the original lease and it amounts to an approximate £1 million annual increase in council revenues from the stadium. During 2011–14, the club sold all 36,000 of its allocated season tickets each season and experienced an average match attendance that is very close to its maximum seating capacity (see table in previous section). Consequently, during the 2014–15 season, an expansion of the stadium was undertaken. The South Stand was extended with the addition of a third tier which, in conjunction with an additional three rows of pitch side seating, increased stadium capacity to approximately 55,000. Construction commenced on the South Stand in April 2014 and was completed for the start of the 2015–16 season. A final phase of expansion, which received planning approval at the same time as the others but remains unscheduled, would have added a matching third tier of seats to the North Stand. In November 2018 the club consulted with season ticket holders on possible alternative configurations for this expansion; including proposals for a still larger two-tier North Stand without executive boxes or corporate hospitality lounges, and possibly with areas convertible to safe standing. The full length of the second tiers in the East and West stands would then be reconfigured as premium seating associated with new hospitality bar areas. Depending on the preferred design option, this final phase could bring the stadium's total seating capacity up to approximately 63,000, making the Etihad Stadium the nation's third largest capacity club ground. Behind Old Trafford and (potentially) the London Stadium, but marginally greater than Tottenham Hotspur Stadium. Architecture When planning the development, Manchester City Council required a sustainable "landmark" structure that would be an "icon" for the regeneration of the once heavily industrialised site surrounding Bradford Colliery, as well as providing spectators with good sightlines in an "atmospheric" arena. Arup designed the stadium to be "an intimate, even intimidating, gladiatorial arena embodying the atmosphere of a football club" with the pitch six metres below ground level, a feature of Roman gladiatorial arenas and amphitheatres. The attention to detail, often absent in stadium design, has been remarked upon, including the cigar-shaped roof supports with blue lighting beacons, sculpted rainwater gutters, poly-carbonate perimeter roof edging and openable louvres to aid pitch grass growth with similarities also made to high-tech architecture. Roof design The toroidal-shaped stadium roof is held together by a tensioned system, which has been described as "ground-breaking" by New Steel Construction magazine. The stadium's architectural focal point is the sweeping roof and support masts which are separate from the concrete bowl. A catenary cable is situated around the inner perimeter of the roof structure which is tied to the masts via forestay cables. Backstay cables and corner ties from the masts are connected to the ground to support the structure. With the expansion of the South Stand in 2015 to accommodate a third tier of seating, the original south end roof was dismantled; but with the southern masts and corner ties remaining, so as to continue to tie the catenary cable which now runs below the new roof. The new higher South Stand roof is a separate structure, with its own set of braced masts and cables; and it is expected that a counterpart arrangement will be adopted for the proposed North Stand expansion. Cables are attached to the twelve masts circling the stadium with rafters and purlins for additional rigid support. The cigar-shaped masts double as visual features, with the highest at . Access to the upper tiers of seats is provided by eight circular ramps with conical roofs resembling turrets above which eight of the twelve masts rise up providing the support structure for the roof. The roof of the south, east and west stands built for the athletics stadium configuration was supported by the cable net system. The temporary open stand at the north end was built around the masts and tie down cables that would ultimately support the roof of the North Stand. After the games the track and field were excavated. The temporary bleachers at the north end were removed and the North Stand and lower tier of seats constructed on the prepared excavation. The North Stand roof was completed by adding rafters, purlins and cladding. Facilities and pitch The stadium has facilities for players and match officials in a basement area below the west stand, which also contains a kitchen providing meals for up to 6,000 people on match days, press rooms, ground staff storage, and a prison cell. The stadium also has conference facilities and is licensed for marriage ceremonies. Fitting out of the hospitality suites, kitchens, offices, and concourse concessions was accomplished by KSS Architects, and included the installation of the communications cabling and automatic access control system. The stadium's interior comprises a continuous oval bowl, with three tiers of seating at the sides, and two tiers at each end. Entry by patrons is gained by contactless smart card rather than traditional manned turnstiles. The system can admit up to 1,200 people per minute through all entrances. A service tunnel under the stadium provides access for emergency vehicles and the visiting team's coach to enter the stadium directly. Once inside the stadium patrons have access to six themed restaurants, two of which have views of the pitch, and there are 70 executive boxes above the second tier of seating in the north, west and east stands. The stadium is equipped with stand-by generators should there be an electrical mains failure. These are capable of keeping the stadium electrics running as well as the floodlights at 800 lux, the minimum level stipulated by FIFA to continue to broadcast live football. To create the optimum grass playing surface in the stadium bowl, the roof was designed to maximise sunlight by using a ten-metre band of translucent polycarbonate at its periphery. Additionally, each of the corners of the stadium without seating have perforated walls with moveable louvres that can be adjusted to provide ventilation of the grass and general airflow through the stadium. Drainage and under-pitch heating were installed to provide optimum growing conditions for the grass. The pitch has a UEFA standard dimension of . and is covered with natural grass reinforced by artificial fibres made by Desso. The field of play is lit by 218 2000-watt floodlights, consuming a total of 436,000 watts. The grass playing surface is recognised as being one of the best in English football, and has been nominated five times in the last nine seasons for best Premier League pitch, an accolade it won in 2010–11 among other awards. Names The stadium was named the City of Manchester Stadium by Manchester City Council before construction began in December 1999, but has a number of commonly used alternatives. City of Manchester Stadium is abbreviated to CoMS when written and spoken. Eastlands refers to the site and the stadium before they were named SportCity and CoMS respectively, and remains in common usage for both the stadium and the whole complex, as does SportCity but with less frequency. The stadium was also officially referred to as Manchester City Stadium for the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The football club, under its new ownership, renegotiated its 250-year lease with the city council in October 2010, gaining the naming rights in return for a substantial increase in rent. The stadium was renamed the Etihad Stadium by the club in July 2011 as part of a ten-year agreement with the team kit sponsors Etihad Airways. The agreement encompasses sponsorship of the stadium's name, extends the team kit sponsorship for ten years, and relocated the club's youth academy and training facilities to the City Football Academy onto the Etihad Campus development across the road from the stadium. Despite being a continuous oval bowl, each side of the stadium is named in the manner of a traditional football ground. All sides were initially named by compass direction (North Stand and South Stand for the ends, East Stand and West Stand for the sides). In February 2004, after a vote by fans, the West Stand was renamed the Colin Bell Stand in honour of the former player. The vote was almost cancelled (and the stand instead named after Joe Mercer) due to suspicions it had been hijacked by rival fans who wished to dub the renamed stand The Bell End. However, core supporters of the club made it clear they still wished the stand named after their hero. The East Stand is unofficially known by fans as the Kippax as a tribute to the very vocal east stand at the club's Maine Road ground. The North Stand is the only part of the stadium built after the Commonwealth Games, during the stadium's conversion. The temporary unroofed north stand it replaced had been dubbed the New Gene Kelly Stand by supporters, a reference to the unroofed corner between the Kippax and the North Stand at the club's former Maine Road home, because, being exposed to the elements, they frequently found themselves "singing in the rain". Commencing season 2010–11, seating in the North Stand has been restricted to only supporters accompanied by children, resulting in this end of the ground now being commonly referred to as the Family Stand. Although the North Stand has never been officially renamed and is still frequently referenced that way, most external ticketing offices and stadium guides, in addition to the club itself, now preferentially label and refer to this section of the ground as the Family Stand when discussing seating and ticket sales. Supporters initially dubbed the South Stand the Scoreboard End (the former name of the North Stand at Maine Road), and it houses the majority of City's more vocal fans. Supporters of visiting teams are also normally allocated seats in this stand, as it has ready access from the visitor supporter coach park. From 2003 to 2006, the South Stand was renamed the Key 103 Stand for sponsorship reasons, though this was largely ignored by regular patrons. The November 2018 consultation exercise on further expansion options envisages the North Stand then becoming the Home End, with no corporate hospitality areas, a greatly extended second tier, "affordable" ticket prices and possible areas capable of conversion to safe standing. The singing area would then be in the North Stand, and the Family Stand would be relocated elsewhere in the Stadium. SportCity The stadium is the centrepiece of SportCity, which includes several other nationally important sporting venues. Adjacent to the stadium is the Manchester Regional Arena, which served as a warm-up track during the Commonwealth Games and is now a 6,178-capacity venue that hosts national athletics trials, but has previously also hosted the home games of both the Manchester City women's team and the club's under-21 reserve team. The Regional Arena has regularly hosted the AAA Championships and Paralympic World Cup, and is currently the home ground of amateur rugby league side Manchester Rangers. The National Squash Centre and the National Cycling Centre, which includes both the Manchester Velodrome and the National Indoor BMX Arena, are all a short distance from the stadium. The Squash Centre, which has hosted the British National Squash Championships since 2003 was added to the SportCity complex for the Commonwealth Games along with CoMS. The Velodrome, another showpiece venue used to stage all the track cycling events for the Games, was already in place and had been home to British Cycling, the governing body for cycling in Britain, since it was built in 1994, as part of Manchester’s unsuccessful 2000 Olympics bid. Prior to the completion of the Lee Valley VeloPark for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Velodrome had been the only indoor Olympic-standard track in the United Kingdom. The collocated BMX Arena houses the United Kingdom’s only permanent indoor BMX track and provides seating for up two thousand spectators. It was added to the National Cycling Centre at SportCity in 2011. Other major sporting and sport-related venues located in SportCity in the immediate vicinity of the Etihad Stadium, all legacies of the 2002 Commonwealth Games are the English Institute of Sport, west of the stadium, adjacent to the southwest corner of the Regional Arena; the Manchester Regional Tennis Centre, adjacent to the north end of the stadium; and the Manchester Tennis & Football Centre, also adjacent to the stadium, which is operated and administered by the Manchester Sport and Leisure Trust. Public sculpture Between 11 March (Commonwealth Day) and 10 August 2002, as part of the preparations for the upcoming Commonwealth Games and to celebrate Her Majesty the Queen's Golden Jubilee, a national Spirit of Friendship Festival was organised. On 9 July, a few weeks before the Games began, a sculpture outside the new national headquarters of the English Institute of Sport at SportCity was unveiled by the middle-distance runner Steve Cram. This sculpture, commissioned in late 2001, was created in a little over eight weeks by Altrincham-based artist, Colin Spofforth, who had submitted to Manchester City Council his idea for a heroic-sized sculpture of a sprinter as a means of celebrating the beauty, power and determination of the competing athletes. Reaching thirty feet high, weighing seven tonnes, and titled The Runner, this unique larger-than-life bronze statue of a male sprinter surmounting a bronze globe was, at the time, the United Kingdom's largest sporting sculpture. It depicts the very moment the runner leaves the blocks once the starter's gun has fired. From 2005 to 2009 a Thomas Heatherwick sculpture, B of the Bang, was situated to the southeast of the stadium at the junction of Ashton New Road and Alan Turing Way. Built after the Commonwealth Games to commemorate them, it was the tallest sculpture in the United Kingdom. However, numerous structural problems led to the 184 ft. sculpture being dismantled in 2009 for safety reasons. In 2014, money recovered by the Manchester City Council as a result of lengthy legal battles consequent to this debacle was used to fund a new £341,000 public sculpture a few hundred yards further south. Stadium firsts The first public football match at the stadium was a friendly between Manchester City and Barcelona on 10 August 2003. Manchester City won the game 2–1, with Nicolas Anelka scoring the first ever goal in the stadium. The first competitive match followed four days later, a UEFA Cup match between Manchester City and Welsh Premier League side The New Saints, which City won 5–0 with Trevor Sinclair scoring the first competitive goal in the stadium. Having started the Premier League season with an away match, Manchester City's first home league fixture in the new stadium was on 23 August, a game drawn 1–1 with Portsmouth, with Pompey's Yakubu scoring the first league goal in the stadium. 2011–12 saw the Etihad Stadium play host to the setting of a number of new club and Premier League footballing records, such as the club becoming the first ever team to win eleven of its opening twelve games in a Premier League season, and going on to remain unbeaten at the Etihad Stadium in all nineteen of the Premier League games played there. The club's record of 55 home points out of a possible 57 at the stadium is a joint best Premier League record, and the club's record of twenty consecutive home wins at the stadium (going back to the end of the previous season) also set a new Premier League record in March 2012. The record football attendance at the stadium not involving its host team Manchester City is 43,878, which was set at the 2008 UEFA Cup Final game between Zenit Saint Petersburg and Rangers on 14 May 2008. As is customary for such games, the then 47,715 maximum physical capacity of the stadium had been reduced by UEFA to around 44,000 for this final. However, neither limit would have been able to accommodate the vast number of supporters of the Scottish club, estimated to be in excess of 130,000, that travelled down from Glasgow to Manchester on the day of the game, despite the club's official ticket allocation being just 13,000 and police requests for fans without tickets to stay home. This order of magnitude mismatch between the numbers of travelling fans and those holding tickets ultimately led to a serious public disorder incident in the centre of the city now inextricably associated with this final, despite the fact that the 44,000 or so crowd who watched the game inside the stadium were perfectly well-behaved. Reception The 2002 Commonwealth Games were deemed a success and the stadium gained critical acclaim for its atmosphere and architectural design. It has won a number of design awards, including the 2004 Royal Institute of British Architects Inclusive Design Award for inclusive building design, the 2003 Institution of Structural Engineers Structural Special Award, and in 2002 a BCI Major Project high commendation was awarded by the British Construction Industry. In July 2014, the stadium was declared one of the United Kingdom's five most iconic structures by the Construction Industry Training Board. In 2003, initial reception by Manchester City supporters was polarised, with some lukewarm about moving from Maine Road which had a reputation for being one of English football's most atmospheric grounds, whilst others were enthusiastic about the bigger stadium and move back to East Manchester where the club was formed. Since 2010, the club has boasted more than 36,000 season ticket holders each season, which is more than the 35,150 maximum capacity of Maine Road just before the club moved homes. A 2007 Premier League survey found that fans thought sight lines at the stadium were the second best in the Premier League after the Emirates Stadium. Opposition fans have generally given positive feedback, with CoMS coming second to Old Trafford in a 2005 poll to find the United Kingdom's favourite football ground. In 2010, the City of Manchester Stadium was the third most visited stadium after Old Trafford and Anfield by overseas visitors. In the early years of Manchester City's tenure, the stadium suffered from a poor atmosphere, a common problem with modern stadia when compared with traditional football grounds such as Maine Road. In the 2007 Premier League survey, Manchester City supporters rated the atmosphere as second worst in the league, but the atmosphere has since significantly improved and continues to do so. In October 2014, the club received two national VisitFootball awards for the quality of its customer care of Premier League fans visiting the Etihad Stadium during the previous season. VisitFootball, a joint venture between the Premier League and the national tourism board's VisitEngland, has been assessing the care that patrons receive at football grounds since August 2010, and presents annual awards for those clubs who deliver outstanding customer service. Manchester City had been one of the first four clubs to receive an inaugural VisitFootball award in 2011, but in 2014 it was the recipient of both the Club of the Year and Warmest Welcome awards. According to the panel of experts from the football and customer service industries that assess the services and facilities provided at each of the twenty Premier League club stadia, "Manchester City are the gold standard in providing fans with the best matchday experience." Etihad Campus Etihad Campus and CFA In July 2011, CoMS was renamed the Etihad Stadium, sponsored by Etihad Airways who fought off competition from Ferrostaal and Aabar to gain the stadium naming rights. The lucrative ten-year sponsorship deal included not just the naming rights to the stadium itself but to the whole £200 million complex of football-related facilities into which it was soon to be incorporated. In mid-September 2011, development plans were duly announced for a new state-of-the-art youth academy and training facility, now known as the City Football Academy (CFA) to be built on derelict land adjacent to the stadium and which would include a 7,000 capacity mini-stadium plus fifteen additional outdoor football pitches, six swimming pools and three gyms. The planned CFA facility was not only to become the new home base of the Manchester City first team squad, reserve (under-21 youth) team squad, and all of the Academy younger age group squads, but also the new home of the prior loosely affiliated Manchester City Ladies team (which was re-branded in 2012 as Manchester City Women's F.C. and more formally merged into the Manchester City family of affiliated football teams). Also fully integrated into the new CFA facility would be the parent club's world headquarters. At the beginning of March 2014, the structural framework for a new pedestrian walkway/footbridge over the junction of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road connecting the CFA with the Etihad Stadium was lowered into place. With sponsor Suisse Power & Gas SA having subsequently secured the naming rights, the completed SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened and turned over to Manchester City Council for general public access on 26 November 2014. Twelve days later, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, presided over the official opening of the CFA. Community outreach/Urban regeneration As part of Manchester City's commitment to community outreach in their redevelopment plans for the areas of East Manchester adjacent to the Etihad Stadium, other urban regeneration plans incorporated into the overall Etihad Campus development project include the new £43 million Beswick Community Hub, that includes Connell Sixth Form College; a community leisure centre (with swimming pool, dance studio, health and fitness gym, rugby pitch, and grass sports pitches); and a planned Manchester Institute of Health and Performance. On 26 November 2014, the same day the SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened, a "globally admired" grouping of stainless steel sculptures, consisting of three towering metallic chess pieces called Dad's Halo Effect by its internationally acclaimed creator, Ryan Gander, was likewise unveiled to the public. Commissioned by the Manchester City Council to represent both the past industrial and current sporting heritage of this area of east Manchester, the public artwork is located in front of the Connell Sixth Form College, close to the central circus of the Beswick Community Hub, and only a few hundred yards south from where the area's last public sculpture, B of the Bang, had been situated. Transport The stadium is 2.5 km east of Manchester city centre. Manchester Piccadilly railway station, which serves mainline trains, is a twenty-minute walk away along a well-lit signposted route that is supervised by stewards close to the ground. Piccadilly station also has a Metrolink tram stop (in the undercroft); from which regular trams along the East Manchester Line to Ashton-under-Lyne serve the stadium and Etihad Campus, with enhanced service frequencies and doubled tram units on matchdays. The Etihad Campus tram stop close to Joe Mercer Way to the immediate north of the stadium opened in February 2013, and handles several thousand travellers each matchday; spectators travelling by tram from Manchester city centre being able to board services at Piccadilly Gardens, the journey taking approximately 10 minutes. The Velopark tram stop also opened in February 2013 and provides access to the southeastern approach to the stadium, as well as closer access to other areas of SportCity such as the Manchester Velodrome and the City Football Academy. There are many bus routes from the city centre and all other directions which stop at, or close to, SportCity. On match and event days special bus services from the city centre serve the stadium. The site has 2,000 parking spaces, with another 8,000 spaces in the surrounding area provided by local businesses and schools. Other uses Under the terms of its lease, the stadium is able to host non-football events such as concerts, boxing and rugby fixtures at Manchester City's prerogative. Manchester City applied for a permanent entertainment licence in 2012 in a bid to expand the number of non-footballing events at the stadium. Concerts Outside the football season, the stadium hosts annual summer concerts, and is one of the United Kingdom's largest music venues, having a maximum capacity of 60,000 for performances. It was the largest stadium concert venue in England before the new Wembley Stadium was built. The first concert was a performance by the Red Hot Chili Peppers supported by James Brown in 2004. An Oasis concert at the ground was featured on the DVD, Lord Don't Slow Me Down and the band's concert in 2005 set the attendance record of 60,000. Take That released a DVD of their 2006 performance at the stadium, Take That: The Ultimate Tour. Other artists who have played the stadium are U2, Beyoncé, Jay-Z, George Michael, Rod Stewart, Foo Fighters, Pet Shop Boys, Manic Street Preachers, Bastille, Dizzee Rascal, The Futureheads, the Sugababes, Taylor Swift, Sophie Ellis-Bextor, Coldplay, Bruce Springsteen, Muse, Bon Jovi (three times), Robbie Williams, One Direction, The Stone Roses and the Spice Girls. Concerts and boxing matches eventually took their toll on the pitch. In 2008, late post-concert pitch renovation, combined with an early start to the football season, led to the pitch not being ready for the first home fixture, causing the club to play its UEFA Cup first round qualifying match at Barnsley's Oakwell Stadium and a moratorium to be imposed on the staging of non-football events at Eastlands. In May 2010, the club invested in a new pitch and summer concerts resumed in 2011 when Take That played eight nights, with ticket sales totalling approximately 400,000. Other football events CoMS is rated a category 4 stadium by UEFA and has hosted several major football matches in addition to Manchester City's home fixtures. It became the fiftieth stadium to host an England international football match when the English and Japanese national teams played on 1 June 2004. In June 2005, the stadium hosted England's opening game in the UEFA Women's Championship, setting an attendance record of 29,092 for the competition. The stadium also hosted the 2008 UEFA Cup Final, in which Zenit Saint Petersburg defeated Rangers 2–0. In May 2011, the stadium hosted the Conference National play-off final between AFC Wimbledon and Luton Town; Wimbledon gained promotion to the Football League after beating Luton in a penalty shoot-out. The stadium was used for the play-offs because the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final was due to take place at Wembley on 28 May 2011 and UEFA regulations stipulate the stadium hosting the Champions League final must not be used for other matches during the previous two weeks. Other sports In October 2004, the stadium played host to a rugby league international match between Great Britain and Australia in the Tri-Nations series in front of nearly 40,000 spectators. The stadium also hosted the Magic Weekend for three consecutive seasons (2012–2014). After a record attendance in 2012 – both for a single day (32,953) and the aggregate for the whole weekend (63,716) – the Etihad Stadium became the venue of choice for this annual rugby league event, setting another attendance record (36,339/64,552) for it in May 2014. However, construction work involved with the expansion of the South Stand caused it to be relocated to St. James' Park, Newcastle, for summer 2015. On 24 May 2008, Stockport born and twice IBF and IBO light welterweight champion boxer Ricky Hatton defeated Juan Lazcano in a contest billed as "Hatton's Homecoming". The fight was held in front of 56,337 fans, setting a record attendance for a British boxing event post World War II. On 10 October 2015, the stadium hosted a 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool A match between hosts nation England and Uruguay. England won 60–3 with 50,778 in attendance. England national football games See also List of Commonwealth Games venues Notes References Specific Bibliography Further reading External links City of Manchester Stadium official website Manchester City Football Club official website Images tagged City of Manchester Stadium at Flickr Arup Associates PDF format article about the original design of the stadium Arup Associates PDF format article about the transformation of the stadium after the 2002 Games Modern Steel Construction PDF format article about the innovative construction of the stadium's roof YouTube video depicting MCFC's vision for planned Etihad Campus / CFA development YouTube video depicting sequential construction steps required to expand stadium's South Stand YouTube video depicting hub circus location of Dad's Halo Effect public sculpture Etihad Airways Premier League venues Football venues in England Manchester City F.C. Sports venues in Manchester 2002 Commonwealth Games venues Music venues in Manchester Commonwealth Games rugby union venues Rugby union stadiums in England Sports venues completed in 2002 2002 establishments in England High-tech architecture Ove Arup buildings and structures

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The GT200 is a fraudulent "remote substance detector" that was claimed by its manufacturer, UK-based Global Technical Ltd, to be able to detect, from a distance, various substances including explosives and drugs. The GT200 was sold to a number of countries for a cost of up to £22,000 per unit, but the device has been described as little more than "divining rods" which lack any scientific explanation for why they should work. After the similar ADE 651 was exposed as a fraud, the UK Government banned the export of such devices to Iraq and Afghanistan in January 2010 and warned foreign governments that the GT200 and ADE 651 are "wholly ineffective" at detecting bombs and explosives. The owner of Global Technical, Gary Bolton, was convicted on 26 July 2013 on two charges of fraud relating to the sale and manufacture of the GT200 and sentenced to seven years in prison. Description and background The GT200 consists of three main components—a swivelling antenna mounted via a hinge to a plastic handgrip, into which "sensor cards" can be inserted. It requires no battery or other power source and is said to be powered solely by the user's static electricity. The device becomes active when the operator starts moving and detects various substances via "DIA/PARA magnetism". It is made by Global Technical Ltd of Ashford, Kent. The company (registered number 03300333) was established as a private limited company on 9 January 1997 with Gary Bolton as director. A number of overseas partners including Segtec, Napco, Nikunj Eximp Enterprises, Electronic K9 Singapore, Aviasatcom and Concord Consulting have distributed its products in Central America, the Middle East, India, Southeast Asia and Thailand respectively. Global Technical also had a sister company, Global Technical Training Services Ltd (registered company 03793910), which was established on 23 June 1999 but is now dissolved. Promotional material issued about the GT200 claims that it can detect a wide variety of items including ammunition, explosives, drugs, gold, ivory, currency, tobacco and "human bodies" at ranges of up to on the surface, depths of up to underground or under of water, or even from aircraft at an altitude of up to . A "Substance Sensor Card" inserted into the device is said to create an "attracting field" utilising "dia/para magnetism" between the device and the substance that is to be detected. The field is claimed to make the antenna of the GT200 lock onto a signal, indicating the direction in which the substance can be located. According to the promotional material, if the device is used correctly, it "can detect substance(s) through walls, (even lead-lined and metal ones), water, (fresh and salted), fresh and frozen food, (fish, fruit, tea, coffee, ice), vacuum flask, containers, petrol and diesel fuel and even buried in the earth" and can detect narcotics for up to two weeks after they have been ingested by a target individual. According to the Thai newspaper The Nation, the GT200 is "just a new name" for a previous Global Technical product, the MOLE programmable substance detection system. It operated in the same way as the GT200, using a swinging antenna to point to a target material indicated via "programmable cards" inserted into a reader. The MOLE was tested in the United States in 2002 by Sandia National Laboratories but was found to perform no better than random chance. According to the Sandia report, the MOLE appears "physically nearly identical" to a product Sandia examined in October 1995 called the Quadro Tracker, which was marketed by a South Carolina company but which was banned in 1996 and the makers prosecuted for fraud. A BBC Newsnight television investigation of the GT200 in January 2010 found that the "sensor card" consisted only of two sheets of card between which was sandwiched a sheet of paper, white on one side and black on the other, that had been cut off from a larger sheet with a knife or scissors. It contained no electronic components whatsoever. When the device's case was dismantled, it too was found to contain no electronic components. Explosives expert Sidney Alford told Newsnight: "Speaking as a professional, I would say that is an empty plastic case." Gary Bolton of Global Technical said that the lack of any electronic parts "does not mean it does not operate to the specification." A GT200 unit was examined on Thailand's Nation Channel in an interview with Lt Col Somchai Chalermsuksan of the Thai Central Institute of Forensic Science. The host commented that "there is no battery here or way of powering it" and that the bottom half of the device was completely empty. Asked if there was anything in the sealed top half of the device, Lt Col Somchai said: "There is nothing. Once there was an accident and the device came apart. There was nothing inside." The host concluded: "So it is just two pieces of plastic put together." Export ban, police investigation and criminal charges Following controversy over a similar device, the ADE 651, the UK Government issued an order under the Export Control Act 2002 that came into force on 27 January 2010, banning the export to Iraq and Afghanistan of "'electro-statically powered' equipment for detecting 'explosives'", on the grounds that such equipment "could cause harm to UK and other friendly forces". The export ban covers all such devices, including the GT200. Officers from the City of London Police Overseas Anti-Corruption Unit subsequently raided the offices of Global Technical and two other makers of similar "bomb detectors". A large amount of cash and several hundred of the devices and their component parts were seized. The police said that they were investigating on suspicion of fraud by false representation and were also investigating whether bribes had been paid to secure contracts to supply the devices. On 27 February 2011 the British government told BBC Newsnight that it had helped Global Technical sell the GT200 around the world between 2001 and 2004. Royal Engineers sales teams demonstrated the devices at arms fairs and the UK Department of Trade and Industry helped two companies sell the GT200 and similar products in Mexico and the Philippines. On 12 July 2012, Andrew Penhale, Deputy Head of the Crown Prosecution Service's Central Fraud Division, authorised charges against six individuals, including Gary Bolton, for the manufacture, promotion and sale of a range of fraudulent substance detector devices. Bolton was formally charged at the City of London Magistrates' Court on 19 July with one count of fraud by false representation and one count of making or supplying an item for use in fraud between January and July 2012, and pleaded not guilty to both charges. Bolton was convicted on 26 July 2013 at The Old Bailey and released on bail pending sentence. Bolton was subsequently sentenced to 7 years Imprisonment on 20 August 2013. Bolton was also ordered to pay over £1.25 million to prevent seven additional years of imprisonment. Bolton reportedly made £45 million selling the fraudulent devices. Users Thailand The GT200 was used extensively in Thailand. Reportedly, over 800 GT200 units were procured by Thai public bodies since 2004; these include the Royal Thai Army's purchase of 535 units for combating the South Thailand insurgency and another 222 units for use in other areas, the Royal Thai Police's purchase of 50 units for use in Police Region 4 (Khon Kaen), 6 units acquired by the Central Institute of Forensic Science and an equal number acquired by the Customs Department, the Royal Thai Air Force's purchase of 4 units, and the single unit acquired by the Chai Nat police. Other agencies, such as the Border Patrol Police Bureau and the Office of the Narcotics Control Board, use a similar Alpha 6 from the company detect drugs. According to the Bangkok Post, the first to procure the GT200 was the Royal Thai Air Force, in 2006, for purposes of detecting explosives and drugs at airports; the next was the Royal Thai Army. According to Lt Gen Daopong Rattansuwan, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Royal Thai Army, each GT200 bought by the army cost 900,000 baht (£17,000/US$27,000), rising to 1.2 million baht (£22,000/US$36,000) if 21 "sensor cards" were included with it. In total, Thailand's government and security forces have spent between 800 and 900 million baht (US$21 million) on the devices. Figures updated in 2016 claim that the Thai government spent 1.4 billion baht on the purchase of 1,358 devices between 2006 and 2010. Even after the efficacy of the device was debunked by Thai and foreign scientists, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha, then army chief, declared, "I affirm that the device is still effective." The Bangkok Post commented that, "The GT200 case was a unique scandal because the devices...seemed to fool only the people closely connected to their sale and purchase." In total, 14 government agencies were duped into buying GT200s: the Central Institute of Forensic Science; Royal Thai Army Ordnance Department; Customs Department; Provincial Administration Department; Royal Thai Aide-De-Camp Department; Provincial Police of Sing Buri and Chai Nat; Songkhla Provincial Administration; Royal Thai Navy Security Centre; and five provinces: Phitsanulok, Phetchaburi, Phuket, Yala, and Sukhothai. The head of Ava Satcom Ltd., the Thai company that sold eight GT200 devices to the Royal Thai Aide-De-Camp Department in 2008, was sentenced in September 2018 to nine years in prison and fined 18,000 baht. The purchase cost the government more than nine million baht. The week previously a court had sentenced him to 10 years in prison for selling GT200 devices to the army for 600 million baht. The judgements will be appealed on the grounds that the GT200s were imported on the orders of the military. The defense claims that army officers approached Ava Satcom with instructions, and specific specifications to buy, import, and resell 535 GT200s to the army. The military men involved have never been censured for their obvious gullibility and possible wrongdoing. Mexico The device was widely used in Mexico, where it was jokingly called "The devil's Ouija" (Spanish: La Ouija del diablo), as security forces ineffectively used it in an attempt combat drug traffickers and to search for explosives. The Mexican government has spent over 340 million pesos (US$27 million) buying GT200s at a cost of 286,000 pesos (US$22,000) each. According to the government of Guanajuato state, the federal government has bought more than 700 GT200s. State governments have also bought their own GT200s; the device is reported to be in use by police in the Mexican states of Tabasco, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Michoacán and Baja California. The Mexican military also utilises the GT200. In 2008 the Secretariat of National Defense had purchased 300 GT200s for use throughout the country, including at 133 strategic locations. By late 2009 the figure had increased to 521 GT200s, which had been deployed to 11 strategic checkpoints and 284 regional control stations around the country. In the violence-wracked city of Ciudad Juárez, the newspaper Excélsior reported that "military squads roam the streets and go from house to house, using a molecular detector known as GT200" to find weapons, drugs and money. Prison personnel in Juárez and its parent state, Chihuahua, have been provided with GT200s to detect escape tunnels being dug by prisoners. African states The device is used to detect smuggled ivory in the central African states of Zambia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and the Republic of the Congo. The Lusaka Agreement Task Force (LATF) and the United Nations Environment Programme bought 15 GT200s in 2005 at a cost of $5,000 each and distributed them to the five LATF member states. In Uganda, the GT200s were installed at Entebbe International Airport, border crossings and internal checkpoints. A report submitted by Kenya to the CITES Standing Committee in 2006 stated that "three staffs from Tanzania were trained on the use of GT 200 Ivory Detector for the purposes of law enforcement against illegal dealing in ivory products, in the country. Four (4) Ivory Detectors are currently in place and are used for law enforcement activities especially at entry and exit points." Elsewhere The GT200 has been demonstrated in India for organisations including the Central Reserve Police Force, Indo-Tibetan Border Police, National Security Guards, Narcotics Control Bureau and the Bureau of Civil Aviation Security and was procured by the Dubai Customs in 2009. Hotels in Manila in the Philippines use it to detect bombs. It is also in use in Lebanon, Jordan and China. Controversy over use Thailand The effectiveness of the GT200 has been the subject of controversy in Thailand, where the device has been reported to have been implicated in several deaths when it failed to detect improvised explosive devices which detonated, killing civilians and personnel from the security forces. Three members of a border patrol police unit were killed on 7 November 2008 in Panare District when the GT200 they were using failed to detect a bomb planted on a road. In the Mueang Yala District of Yala Province, security forces used a GT200 to investigate the scene of the murder of two officials, but were unable to detect a follow-up boobytrap bomb, which exploded just after they had declared the area to be clear of bombs. Numerous people were killed and injured in two bomb attacks in October 2009 in which the GT200 was used by security forces. On 6 October 2009, a car bomb exploded opposite the Merlin Hotel in Su-ngai Kolok, killing one person and injuring 20, after it had been "scanned" using a GT200 and declared to be free of explosives. A motorcycle bomb exploded on 19 October in Yala, injuring another 26 people, again after a scan with a GT200 had returned negative results for explosives. False positives have also been reported, with civilians being arrested after a GT200 "detected" traces of explosives on them. Similar erroneous readings were reported to have caused "pandemonium" at Pattani Hospital. On one occasion the device was reported to have "incriminated the top of a coconut tree", though it was said the alert turned out to have been triggered by a plastic bag with vegetable oil inside. Thai journalist Charoon Thongnual reported personally experiencing the GT200 showing false positives: The Bangkok Post reported on a Thai army field training session using the GT200 near Yala city in November 2009, in which a bomb squad using GT200 devices repeatedly failed to detect explosives: Hundreds of people are said to have been detained by Thai security forces on the basis of GT200 readings. According to Human Rights Watch, about 10 percent of those detained on suspicion of involvement in the insurgency have been arrested on this basis. In one village in Narathiwat Province, 32 people were arrested after GT200s were used to "detect" traces of explosive substances on their bodies. Most of them were detained without charge for an extended period. Brad Adams of Human Rights Watch commented: "It is common during security sweeps in the south to see Muslim men lined up on the roadside with their shirts off while being screened by a GT200. Many of those implicated by the GT200 have been arrested and then tortured." The Working Group on Justice for Peace, a Thai non-governmental human rights organisation, published an article in November 2009 that was strongly critical of the GT200: "The operation of the device is causing a lot of suspicion among scientists in Thailand for several reasons. According to them, the procedure of finding suspicious objects is not based on a reliable scientific method. Besides, GT200 is not being used by credible international organisations." Government response Concerns were raised by some within the Thai establishment. General Pathomphong Kasornsuk, the former chief advisor of the Supreme Command, urged Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva to investigate the procurement scheme for the GT200 devices and other elements of the counter-insurgency campaign in southern Thailand. Jetsada Denduangboripan, a scientist at Chulalongkorn University, told a committee of the House of Representatives of Thailand in January 2010 that "The GT200 cannot detect explosives. It is not scientific equipment. It works on the users' hunch. It is similar to a wood stick that people used to detect dead bodies buried in a cemetery." He used a set of pliers, a radio antenna and a piece of paper to produce a "bomb detector" that he said worked just as effectively as the GT200. The House committee on national security said that it would investigate the GT200 further and set up an inquiry into its effectiveness that would involve the military and scientists. Deputy Interior Minister Thaworn Senneam told journalists after a fatal bomb attack in southern Thailand on 6 October 2009 that the police had failed to detect the bomb "because the officer handling the GT200 detector was too nervous... His nervousness caused his temperature to rise which, in turn, caused the bomb detector to malfunction." He announced that in future two officers would be assigned to use the device, with the second ready to take over from the first if he was "not ready to use it." Following media criticism, army chief General Anupong Paochinda accused the press of working for Avia Satcom's competitors. He organised a demonstration to "prove" to the media that the devices worked. Fourth Army chief Lt. General Pichet Wisaijorn told the press, "It is not Gen Anupong saying the device is effective. Officers in the South and the North and the current and former 4th Army commanders also say the same thing. We have bought them and if the users insist they are good, that's end of the discussion." Joint Military Police Civilian Taskforce commander Lt-General Kasikorn Kirisri said any issues with the GT200 scanner were due to human error. According to Col Banpot Poonpian of the Thai Army's Internal Security Operations Command, the GT200 has "proved effective although it may not work perfectly". It was used only as an auxiliary tool to detect something suspicious, with two other devices being used to identify the suspicious object. A recent investigation had found that failures were the result of users relying solely on the GT200 and not using the other two devices, following which bomb disposal personnel had undergone additional training. According to a commander in the army, which makes extensive use of the device, how well it works "depends on the static electricity stored in the body of its user. If the person using the detector is feeling weak physically, his static electricity will be down and weaken the effectiveness of the device." After the BBC reported that the British government was to warn foreign governments that the GT200 and other similar devices were "wholly ineffective" at detecting bombs and explosives, General Anupong said that the procurement of more GT200s would be halted if the device was proven to be ineffective, although existing GT200s would continue to be used for bomb detection purposes. Other senior military figures continued to insist that the device worked as advertised, saying that it had detected explosives, weapons and narcotics in 173 out of 236 incidents, with a success rate higher than 80 percent. Army Spokesperson Sansern Kaewkamnerd insisted that the GT200 units worked with 100 percent confidence and that the Army was ready to prove the units' effectiveness any time, anywhere. Pornthip Rojanasunand, Director of the Central Institute of Forensic Science, also defended the use of the GT200 devices, claiming that they were effective when searching for bombs and even nails under water. She said: "I do not feel embarrassed if the bomb detector is proven ineffective. Personally, I have never handled the device myself. But my people have used it and it is accurate every time. Long long time ago, people believed that the Earth is flat and anyone who said otherwise faced execution. Things which are not visible does not necessarily mean they do not exist. The devices are there and no one has the right to ban their use. I will continue to use it." Review At the start of February 2010, Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva said that he agreed that the device should be tested to determine whether it was effective. He told the media: "It's dangerous if you think something unworkable is working. So we must test to see whether the device works. We should also discuss what we should do." If the devices were found to be ineffective, an investigation would be ordered to determine why they had been bought. Following Abhisit's intervention, the Thai Cabinet ordered the Ministry of Science and Technology to carry out tests on the GT200. The Interior and Justice Ministries also commissioned the ministry to test the similar Alpha 6 device, which they used to search for drugs. The evaluation team included engineers, scientists, military, police and representatives from the Office of the Narcotics Control Board and the National Statistics Office. The tests were carried out by the National Electronics and Computer Technology Center at the Thailand Science Park's Sirindhorn Science Home in Pathum Thani, in a process involving 30 GT200 operators, 30 members of the investigating committee and 10 independent observers. Ten GT200 units were used in double blind tests to detect 20 grams of C4 explosive concealed in one of four identical plastic boxes. However, the testers were not allowed to examine the interior of the GT200 because of confidentiality agreements prohibiting the disclosure of "any information regarding the device." The test results were announced by Prime Minister Abhisit on 16 February, who disclosed that the investigators found that the GT200 had correctly detected explosives only four times in 20 tests. He said, "The result has no statistical significance. The performance is equivalent to random chance." Following the test results, he ordered security forces to stop buying the devices and review the use of those already in service. He said that the government would consider suing the GT200's manufacturer, Global Technical, and its Thai distributor Avia Satcom Co. An Army spokesman said that units on the ground would have discretion to continue using the GT200 unless they could find a substitute, though the Army would be sending proven alternatives such as sniffer dogs to assist the troops. Pornthip Rojanasunand of the Central Institute of Forensic Science said that although she knew it was "not scientific equipment", she believed that forensic scientists could still use it effectively: "We won't buy more, but we won't stop using them either." Global Technical rejected the tests' conclusions. The company issued a statement saying that it was "surprised and disappointed" by the outcome of the tests. It claimed that the results were "completely at odds with other tests carried out by independent bodies" and with "the experience of the large number of users of this product all over the world." Despite the outcome of the tests, Thai Army chief General Anupong Paojinda said that he would not order his soldiers to stop using the GT200. He insisted that "the device operators on the ground can use them effectively. This may not be explained scientifically, but I'm telling the truth." While not rejecting the result of the tests, he stood by the device's effectiveness and argued that "as the men on the ground are impressed with it and demanded the equipment, it is the duty of the commander to procure them." He rejected the use of sniffer dogs on the grounds that they could not detect explosives at a distance and were disliked by Muslims for religious reasons. The former army chief General Sonthi Boonyaratglin also argued that the purchase of the GT200 had been justified as there was demand from operational units, despite the high price of the device: "Price is not an issue if the device is able to save people's lives." Prime Minister Abhisit ordered the scientists who had conducted the tests to explain their findings to the military and ask them to stop using the device, but said that he did not want to confront the army. Some soldiers, however, were reported to have abandoned the GT200 and turned instead to using chopsticks and their own hands to detect bombs hidden on motorcycles. In August 2012, the Thai Department of Special Investigation (DSI), which had been carrying out a review of 13 government agencies' procurement of the GT200, stated that the buyers had been deceived by the device's manufacturer. The DSI's chief, Tarit Pengdith, told a press conference that the manufacturer had "set out to lure potential buyers into buying its devices from the beginning". He said that the government agencies were now considering prosecuting the GT200's manufacturer and resellers for fraud. , fourteen years after the Thai military and police spent millions on bogus GT200 "bomb detectors", the National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) investigation is still "on-going". Surasak Keereevichien, an NACC member, stated in August 2018 that it is difficult for the anti-graft agency to ascertain whether there was any wrongdoing committed in the 1.13-billion baht purchase of fake "remote substance detectors". He said the NACC would come up with a decision on the matter "at an appropriate time. The NACC will not allow the statute of limitations to expire...." Surasak claimed that officials bought the devices despite their exorbitant price tag because they thought they would work. "Sometimes, it is not about the value of devices. It's more about belief, just like when you buy Buddha amulets," Surasak said. "Officials who used this device found it worth the price. But some people see the price as too high." When the GT200 scandal first came to light, the equipment was tested by the National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and it found that the GT200 consisted of two pieces of plastic and lacked any electronic components, as was advertised in a brochure distributed to potential customers. Alpha 6 controversy In the wake of the GT200 controversy, the procurement by the Interior and Justice Ministries of the Alpha 6 "molecular detector" device has come under scrutiny. The Thailand Science and Technology Ministry announced that it would broaden its tests to verify the claimed effectiveness of the Alpha 6. The case was declared "closed" in May 2018 after 10 years of investigation. Three minor officials are deemed responsible for the purchase of 493 of the "worthless [Alpha 6] boxes" at a cost of 350 million baht. The British scammer who sold the devices to Thailand was found guilty of fraud in the UK and imprisoned in 2013. The Bangkok Post fumed that, "The disappointing and unsatisfactory outcome of this astoundingly long investigation shows up the enormous failings of the anti-graft commission." Kenya The use of the GT200 as a means of tracking smuggled ivory in Kenya has also been questioned. Stephen Fry, who saw the GT200 being used by Kenyan rangers in an attempt to catch poachers, described the misinformation which accompanied the devices as "cynical, cruel and monstrous." He told the BBC's Newsnight programme: "I was horrified. They had spent a vast sum of money on a modern equivalent of a hazel twig divining rod. There was no possibility that such a thing could work." Mexico Most of the Mexican media coverage on GT200 lacked of a critical point of view, but science populariser Martin Bonfil Olivera wrote on 17 February 2010, the first article warning about this scam. However, the impact of this article (and the next on 10 March 2010,) on the rest of the press was almost imperceptible, with only Fausto Ovalle from La-Ch.com writing about it. Only after Marc Lacey from The New York Times wrote on 15 March 2010 about the British government warning on the GT200, the scam was exposed in some Mexican newspapers. Later, Juan José Morales from Por Esto! wrote a couple of columns and Bonfil Olivera was interviewed by Ana Paula Ordorica and Enrique Acevedo for La Otra Agenda TV show. A local newspaper in Cuernavaca published about the detector in their science popularisation section in the charge of the Academy of Sciences of the State of Morelos. A few critical articles published in 2011 include two interviews by Benito Jiménez and an interview by Guillermo Cárdenas. All of this had been not enough to create public awareness on this subject. Main press and TV continued not just ignoring the subject but even justifying it. Mexican military continues doing searches and explosives are ruled out based on GT200 results. This situation might have changed the publication by a major newspaper, El Universal, of a critical article in its first page. Subsequent articles were published daily for a week in the main and editorial pages of that newspaper, and interviews with scientists and human rights defenders were transmitted in television and radio channels. According to data available in Federal Institute of Access to Public Information (IFAI) and press notes, the GT200 has been bought among others by the SEDENA, SEMAR, some PEMEX filials and some state police agencies. As of 2011, more than MXN$340 million Mexican pesos (US$26 million US dollars (at 2011-09-16 rate)) have been spent to purchase more than 940 detectors. On 13 September 2011, a group of scientists, including members of the Science Council of the Presidency and the president of the Mexican Academy of Science, met members of the Science Committee of the Senate to discuss the GT200. The scientists argued that the claimed scientific basis for the operation of the GT200 was false and that the device was unlikely to work, they pointed out the risks to the armed forces and to the civilian population from the continued use of the "detector", and that notwithstanding the apparent number of favourable testimonies, the devices had to be subjected to controlled double blind tests. The senators announced they would present a resolution to the main assembly of the Senate in order to audit the armed forces and demand a scientific test of their equipment. On 3 October 2011, Karla Macías Lovera, a judge in the state of Veracruz, took a historic decision, ordering the release of Ernesto Cayetano Aguilar, a man that had been accused of carrying drugs eight months back, when he was singled out by the GT200 from among the passengers of a bus where a kilogramme of marijuana was found. The judge argued that the GT200 provided no credible evidence, as there is no scientific proof that it actually works. On 21 October 2011, double blind tests were finally performed in México to assess the efficacy of the GT200 detector. The results of this test were to be presented as a proof in an ongoing judicial process. Although the judge has not yet resolved the case (October 2012), El Universal, a major Mexican newspaper, published a detailed account of the results. The test was conducted by two physicists, members of the Mexican Academy of Science, and several military men and policemen participated, including two certified expert operators of the GT200. More than 1600 amphetamine capsules and four bullets were hidden in one of eight cardboard boxes distributed on a large abandoned ballroom. In a first stage the substances were hidden in plain view of all the participants and the GT200 was 100% successful (four successes in four tries). However, the second stage was double blind, and only three searches succeeded out of twenty tries, a result consistent with chance but not with any useful effectiveness. Thus, it was demonstrated that the GT200 yields reliable results only when the operator knows beforehand where the substance is hidden, but is otherwise useless. The El Paso Times reported on 24 October 2011 that the Mexican army turned down an offer from the Mexican Association for the Sciences to help test the effectiveness of the GT200. In a written response, the Mexican army stated that their contract with the GT200 supplier prevents them from accepting the offer. On 5 June 2012 the Mexican Congress approved a declaration exhorting the President to collect from the scientific community and to analyse all opinions and evidence on the effectiveness of the GT200 as a molecular detector, with the help of his Science Council. It may be interesting to note that to this date (Aug.9, 2012), after five and a half years of his presidency, president Calderón had never met with his Science Council. On 29 August 2012, the Supreme Court of Justice announced that it would review a case involving the GT200. It seems that two young men were accused of dealing with cocaine. The judge disregarded the case stating that there was no scientific evidence proving the usefulness of the GT200. The Attorney General appealed this decision and the Supreme Court stepped in. On 22 December 2012, a newspaper announced that the new Attorney General (Procurador General de la República) had prohibited its use by the police forces under his command, as the GT200 had failed scientific tests, and that their purchase was being investigated. See also List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Sniffex References External links Report on the GT200 – BBC Newsnight, 16 February 2010 Questions About Sniffex, ADE651, GT200, H3 TEC, HEDD1, and other Explosive Detectors, an informative blog. Fraudulent detection devices Law enforcement in Thailand 2010 in Thailand

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Black Eyed Peas (also known as The Black Eyed Peas) is an American musical group consisting of rappers will.i.am, apl.de.ap, and Taboo and singer J. Rey Soul. Originally an alternative hip hop group, they subsequently refashioned themselves as a more marketable pop-rap act. Although the group was founded in Los Angeles in 1995, it was not until the release of their third album, Elephunk, in 2003, that they achieved high record sales. Black Eyed Peas' first major hit was the 2003 single "Where Is the Love?" from Elephunk, which topped the charts in 13 countries, including the United Kingdom, where it spent seven weeks at number one and went on to become Britain's biggest-selling single of 2003. Their fourth album, Monkey Business, was an even bigger worldwide success, and became certified 3× Platinum in the United States. In 2009, the group became one of only 11 artists to have simultaneously held the number-one and number-two spots on the Billboard Hot 100, with their singles "Boom Boom Pow" and "I Gotta Feeling", which topped the chart for an unprecedented 26 consecutive weeks. The album The E.N.D. produced a third Hot 100 number-one placement with "Imma Be", making the group one of few to ever place three number one singles on the chart from the same album, before being followed with "Rock That Body" and "Meet Me Halfway", which peaked in the top 10 of the Hot 100. "I Gotta Feeling" became the first single to sell more than one million downloads in the United Kingdom. At the 52nd Grammy Awards ceremony, held in January 2010, they won three awards out of six nominations. In November 2010, they released the album The Beginning. In February 2011, the group performed in the Super Bowl XLV halftime show. Black Eyed Peas have sold an estimated 80 million records, making them one of the best-selling groups of all time. They were ranked 12th on Billboards 2000s Decade-End Artist of the Decade Chart, and 7th on the Hot 100 Artists of the Decade. History 1988–1994: Musical beginnings In 1988 while attending two different high schools, William James Adams Jr and Allan Pineda Lindo Jr met at the all-ages dance venue Club What? in Los Angeles. They formed a hip-hop dance and music crew named Tribal Nation. Adams took the stage name Will 1X while Pinedo Lindo adopted the name apl.de.ap. Their friends joined the group – Dante Santiago and Mooky Mook, followed shortly by DJ Motiv8. Actor David Faustino opened an all-ages club named Balistyx in 1991 inside the old Whisky a Go Go, and Tribal Nation played there. Rapper Eazy-E caught their show and signed the group to Ruthless Records, changing the group name to Atban Klann. Their first album project, Grass Roots, was shelved at the end of 1993, never to be released. They released a promo song "Let Me Get Down" in 1994, billed as being produced by the Black Eyed Peas: the production team of DJ Motiv8 and Will 1X. Mooky Mook left the group in 1995, and Eazy-E died of HIV/AIDS. The group's contract with Ruthless was stalled, so Santiago also left the group. Will 1X changed his stage name to will.i.am. 1995–2001: Behind the Front and Bridging the Gap In 1995 will.i.am and apl.de.ap formed a new group named Black Eyed Pods with Jaime Gomez (Taboo), and Kim Hill, a singer who featured on a selected number of their tracks. They later changed "Pods" to "Peas". Unlike the "gangsta rap" sounds of Los Angeles-based hip hop acts at the time, the trio performed with a live band and adopted a conscious musical and appearance style. After being signed to Interscope Records and releasing their debut, Behind the Front (1998) the group (and their accompanying live band) earned critical acclaim. One of the singles from the album was "Joints & Jam", and was featured on the Bulworth soundtrack. Singer Sierra Swan appeared as a guest on the 1998 song "Fallin' Up". Their second album, Bridging the Gap (2000), produced the singles "Weekends" featuring Esthero and "Request + Line" featuring R&B singer Macy Gray. Hill left the band while producing the album, but was still featured on the album tracks for "Hot" and "Tell Your Mama Come" as well as in the video for "Weekends". 2002–2005: Addition of Fergie and Elephunk In 2002, Stacy Ferguson was chosen as the lead singer. Their new album, Elephunk, indicated a shift to a polished pop sound designed to attract mass audiences. In a positive review of the Black Eyed Peas' new-found style, Rolling Stone noted that after the group "hired a blond bombshell named Stacy 'Fergie' Ferguson and gave up their pursuit of backpack-rapper cred, they have made a kind of spiritual practice of recording futuristic songs – a total aesthetic commitment that extends from their garish wardrobes to their United Colors of Benetton worldview." From Elephunk came "Where Is the Love?", which became the Black Eyed Peas' first major hit, peaking at No. 8 on the U.S. Hot 100. It was more successful abroad, topping the charts in several other countries, including seven weeks at No. 1 in the United Kingdom, where it became the biggest-selling single of 2003. The single had similar results in Australia, staying at No. 1 for six weeks. In an interview with TalkofFame.com, Taboo shared that Justin Timberlake's split with Britney Spears impacted the recording of "Where Is the Love?". The album subsequently spawned "Shut Up", which peaked at No. 2 in the UK and topped the charts and went gold and platinum in the U.S., UK, Germany, and other European markets. The third single from the album, although significantly restyled from the original Elephunk version, "Hey Mama" hit the top 5 in Australia and the top 10 in the UK, Germany and other European countries and reached No. 23 in the U.S. The song received even more exposure in 2003 when it was featured in the first "silhouette" television commercial for the iPod. The fourth single from the album was "Let's Get It Started". It won a 2005 Grammy for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group and also received two nominations for Record of the Year and Best Rap Song. In 2004, the Black Eyed Peas embarked on their international Elephunk Tour, touring many countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia. 2004–2008: Monkey Business Their fourth album, Monkey Business, was recorded through 2004 and was released on June 7, 2005. Much of the pre-production writing was performed on the John Lennon Educational Tour Bus while on the Black Eyed Peas tour of 2004. The album's first single, "Don't Phunk with My Heart", was a hit in the U.S., reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100. This Billboard status was the highest peak yet of their career in the U.S. (this was later broken when "Boom Boom Pow" peaked at the top spot of the Billboard Hot 100) and earned them another Grammy for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group. The song reached three in the UK, and five in Canada, and stayed at number one for three weeks in Australia. Some radio stations, concerned about complaints of obscenity, played an alternative version, "Don't Mess with My Heart". "Don't Lie", the second single from the album, saw success on the U.S. Hot 100, reaching No. 14, although becoming somewhat more successful in the UK and Australia, reaching a peak of No. 6 in both countries. "My Humps", another song from the album, immediately achieved commercial success in the U.S. and also garnered fairly substantial radio play despite the sexually suggestive lyrics. It reached number three on the U.S. Hot 100 and number one in Australia, making it their fourth Australian number one single. However, many mocked the song for its poor lyrical content. For instance, John Bush, writing for AllMusic, described it as "one of the most embarrassing rap performances of the new millennium". Despite this, the album Monkey Business debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart, selling over 295,000 copies in its first week and was later certified 3× platinum by the RIAA. Their next and final commercially released single from the album was "Pump It", which borrows much of its sound from "Misirlou", specifically Dick Dale's version. The track peaked at number 8 in Australia and number 18 in the U.S. In September 2005, the Black Eyed Peas released an iTunes Originals playlist of their greatest hits, as well as some that were re-recorded specially available for purchase through iTunes. The playlist includes popular songs such as "Don't Lie", "Shut Up", and a new version of "Where Is the Love?". It has small stories containing info and commentary about the songs and how the group first met. In autumn 2005, the Black Eyed Peas set off to tour with Gwen Stefani as supporting act. In December 2005, they embarked on the "European Tour", which toured multiple countries in Europe. The European leg which opened in Tel Aviv, Israel, continued onto Ireland, the UK, France and Germany. After heading to Europe and Asia, they toured the U.S. again. The tour concluded in South America. In addition to touring, the Black Eyed Peas also headlined the halftime show at the Grey Cup on November 27, 2005. The Black Eyed Peas starred in a series of web shorts for Snickers, called Instant Def, appearing as a group of hip-hop superheroes. On March 21, 2006, the Black Eyed Peas released a remix album, titled Renegotiations: The Remixes to iTunes. It features remixed versions of "Ba Bump", "My Style", "Feel It", "Disco Club", "They Don't Want Music", "Audio Delite at Low Fidelity" plus the standard version and video of "Like That". The following week, the iTunes compilation was released on CD (without the music video). Participants on the EP included DJ Premier, Pete Rock, Erick Sermon, DJ Jazzy Jeff, and Large Professor. In March 2006, the Black Eyed Peas hit the road again as the featured headliner for the 6th Annual Honda Civic Tour with supporting bands Flipsyde and the Pussycat Dolls. They again brought the John Lennon Educational Tour Bus on the tour with them to craft new songs for Fergie's solo debut album. In 2006, they went on tour with the Pussycat Dolls. In 2007, the Black Eyed Peas embarked on the Black Blue & You World Tour, visiting more than 20 countries, including: Macau, Sweden, Poland, Romania, Hungary, South Africa, South Korea, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Israel, Singapore, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Australia, Nigeria, Mexico, Thailand, Venezuela, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Argentina, the Philippines, El Salvador and Brazil. This tour was presented by Pepsi, in conjunction with the new "Pepsi More" advertising campaign, featuring the Black Eyed Peas. They recorded the song "More" for the new Pepsi spot. On December 31, 2006, the Black Eyed Peas's tour concluded at Ipanema Beach in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil for more than 1 million people, being their biggest concert ever. The Black Eyed Peas performed at the UK leg of Live Earth on July 7, 2007 at Wembley Stadium, London. will.i.am performed a new song, "Help Us Out", at the event, which would appear on his album, Songs About Girls, as "S.O.S. (Mother Nature)". They headlined the main Ocean Stage at the Summer Sonic Festival in Tokyo, Japan on August 11, and in Osaka, Japan on August 12, 2007. 2009–2011: The E.N.D, The Beginning and hiatus The group's fifth studio album, The E.N.D, title that stands for "The Energy Never Dies", was released on June 9, 2009. The overall sound of the album has a more electro hop beat rather than the usual hip pop/R&B feeling of their previous albums. Following its release, will.i.am remarked that the album had been inspired by a trip to Australia, specifically the sound of The Presets' "My People". "The energy on the Presets' small little stage was crazy energy. That song My People – that shit is wild," will.i.am said, "That's the reason why this record sounds the way it does – my three months in Australia." In its first week, the album sold 304,000 copies and debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200. In the United States, the album became the ninth album to top the one million mark in sales in 2009. The album spent 38 weeks within the top 10 of the Billboard 200. The E.N.D was the 7th best-selling album of 2009 in the U.S. It also debuted at number one in Australia, number two in New Zealand and three in the United Kingdom. Three additional singles, "Imma Be", "Alive", and "Meet Me Halfway", were released through the iTunes Store in the three weeks running up to the album's release. The first single "Boom Boom Pow" was released on March 30, 2009 in the U.S. on iTunes. The single sold 465,000 downloads in its first week of digital release, the third-largest number of download sales in a single week overall, and the largest single-week and debut-download totals by a group in the history of digital-download sales, reaching No. 1 on the U.S. The single also reached the top spot in Billboard Hot 100 and Pop 100. being the group's first U.S. No. 1, holding the spot for twelve consecutive weeks. It also reached number 1 in Australia, Canada, and the UK. On May 21, the Black Eyed Peas released "I Gotta Feeling" (produced by David Guetta) as the official second single from the album. The single charted at number three and then went to number one on the UK Singles Chart. It debuted at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 behind "Boom Boom Pow" and later surpassed it, taking the number 1 spot. The Black Eyed Peas joined a group of artists who have held the No.1 and 2 Spot on the Billboard Hot 100 simultaneously. From April 18, 2009, when "Boom Boom Pow" reached No. 1, through October 10, 2009, the last week "I Gotta Feeling" was at No. 1, the group was on top of the chart for 26 weeks, more consecutive weeks than any other artist. On July 30, 2009, Billboard announced that the Black Eyed Peas set a record for the longest successive No. 1 chart run by a duo or group in the Billboard Hot 100's history. "I Gotta Feeling" hit its fifth consecutive week at No. 1, following 12 weeks at the top by the Peas' "Boom Boom Pow"; Boyz II Men reigned on the chart for two 16-week runs in the mid-'90s. "Meet Me Halfway" was released as the third single from the album in September 2009. The single reached number one in the UK and Australia, making it their third chart topper from The E.N.D in both countries. It also peaked at seven on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, making it the group's third top-10 single from The E.N.D "Imma Be" was released as the fourth single in the U.S. on December 15, 2009, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks, becoming the group's third number one single on that chart. Heavy airplay in Canada caused "Imma Be" to reach number 5 on the Canadian Hot 100, their fourth consecutive top-five hit from the album. "Rock That Body" was then released as the fifth single, and has so far reached number nine on the Billboard Hot 100. In September 2009, the group embarked on The E.N.D World Tour, visiting Japan, Thailand, Malaysia, Australia, and New Zealand. In October 2009, they also were the opening acts for 5 concerts of the U2 360° Tour North America leg. The group performed at the Grammys on January 31, 2010. They performed a mash-up of "Imma Be"/"I Gotta Feeling". They won three awards out of the six nominations, including Best Pop Vocal Album for The E.N.D., Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Group for "I Gotta Feeling", and Best Short Form Video for "Boom Boom Pow". On July 27, 2010, the Black Eyed Peas released a remix album: The E.N.D. Summer 2010 Canadian Invasion Tour: Remix Collection. It was released on iTunes in Canada only, during the Canadian leg of The E.N.D World Tour. It mostly features remixes of the singles taken from The E.N.D. It also features a remix of "Let's Get It Started" taken from Elephunk; the remix was also a bonus track on the deluxe edition of The E.N.D. Their sixth studio album, The Beginning, was released on November 30, 2010, and received mixed reviews. The album's first single release was called "The Time (Dirty Bit)", and was revealed on October 20, 2010, through will.i.am's Twitter account. The music video was directed by Rich Lee, who had previously directed the video for "Imma Be Rocking That Body". "Just Can't Get Enough", the second single from The Beginning was released on February 18, 2011. Its music video was released on March 16, 2011, and it was filmed in Tokyo, one week before the earthquake and the tsunami. The video was directed by Ben Mor. The group's third single was "Don't Stop the Party" and it was released on May 10, 2011. On the same day, a music video for the song was released on iTunes, along with the single. The video, which is directed by Ben Mor, features on stage and backstage footage of the group during The E.N.D. World Tour in 2009–10. The video premiered on Vevo on May 12, 2011. On May 22, the group appeared on the 2011 Billboard Music Awards and won one of their four nominations, for "Top Duo/Group". On February 6, 2011, the Black Eyed Peas headlined the Super Bowl XLV halftime show. The Black Eyed Peas were the second artist to have performed in both the Super Bowl and Grey Cup halftime shows, and are one of only three artists to have ever done so. . Shania Twain did it before them (performing in the 2002 Grey Cup and 2003 Super Bowl halftime shows) and Lenny Kravitz did it after them (performing in the 2007 Grey Cup and 2014 Super Bowl halftime shows). On July 6, 2011, during a concert at Alton Towers in Staffordshire, the Black Eyed Peas announced they are taking an indefinite hiatus following the completion of their current tour. will.i.am later confirmed the news on Twitter, adding that the break does not mean they will "stop creating". On November 23, 2011, the group made their last performance for The Beginning Tour in Miami with opening acts including Cee Lo Green and Queen Latifah. 2015–2018: Fergie's departure, addition of J. Rey Soul, and Masters of the Sun During an interview with NRJ, will.i.am, in talking about his solo album, also confirmed that the Black Eyed Peas would start recording sessions for their seventh studio album in 2015. In an interview on Capital Breakfast, will.i.am said that the Peas would reform in 2015 for their 20th anniversary. The Peas premiered a new song titled "Awesome", that was included in commercials for the 2015 NBA playoffs. The song did not include Fergie, with people questioning if she would be a part of the upcoming album. On the 20th anniversary of their debut, the Peas premiered a new song titled "Yesterday" through Apple Music, though the song also did not feature Fergie. On August 31, 2016, the Black Eyed Peas released a new version of their 2003 song "Where Is the Love?". The song, titled "#WHERESTHELOVE", is credited to "The Black Eyed Peas featuring The World". The song, as well as the accompanying video feature all four members of the group, will.i.am, Fergie, apl.de.ap, and Taboo, and many other popular artists such as Justin Timberlake, DJ Khaled, and Jessie J. It is the group's most recent work with Fergie, and her last live performance with them happened in 2015. On June 3, 2017, they performed at the opening ceremony of the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final in the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff, Wales. The performance, which included a pyrotechnic display, ran long and delayed the second-half kickoff by several minutes. On June 2, 2017, a Billboard article rumored that Fergie was departing from the band. will.i.am initially dismissed this, but they announced that she was taking a break from the group to work on her second solo album Double Dutchess, while the remaining members were working on the graphic novel Masters of the Sun. On January 9, 2018, Black Eyed Peas released their first single without Fergie, titled "Street Livin'". On February 18, 2018, will.i.am confirmed Fergie would not feature on the group's seventh studio album, in an interview with the Daily Star. The next day, former The Voice of the Philippines season 1 finalist and Team Apl.de.ap member Jessica Reynoso (under the stage name "J. Rey Soul") joined the group as a female vocalist and "semi-official" member. On May 17, 2018, the Black Eyed Peas released a single called "Ring the Alarm". The single "Get It" was released on July 10, 2018. The music video for "Constant pt. 1 and 2" was released on YouTube on August 30, 2018. The group released a single named "Big Love" on September 12, 2018. The group released another single titled "Dopeness", featuring South Korean rapper CL, on October 25, 2018. Their seventh studio album, Masters of the Sun Vol. 1, was released the following day on October 26. This marked their first album since 2010's The Beginning. The album is considered to be a sequel to Bridging the Gap. 2019–present: Translation In 2019, the group signed a deal with their new label Epic Records. On October 11, 2019, the group released the song "Ritmo (Bad Boys for Life)", taken from the Bad Boys for Life soundtrack (2020). The song debuted at number 100 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became the Black Eyed Peas' 17th Hot 100 entry and their first since 2011's "Don't Stop the Party". "Ritmo" peaked at number 26 on the Hot 100. On April 10, 2020, the group released the single "Mamacita", which featured J. Rey Soul alongside rapper Ozuna. In an interview with Billboard on May 19, 2020, Reynoso talked about an upcoming eighth album, describing it as "very Afrobeat, Latin vibe, dance -- just very uplifting music, which is what we need right now at this time of our life, you know?" On June 11, 2020, the band revealed the tracklist and album title as Translation. with the release date as June 19. While promoting the album, will.i.am said that Fergie had stepped back from the group because she wished to devote more time to her role as a mother. will.i.am continued "we're here for her, and she knows how to contact us for a retreat or a breakaway" should she wish to return to the group. On August 30, 2020, the group closed for the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards. The performance was met with negative reception due to will.i.am., apl.de.ap and Taboo performing with glowsticks in their genital area. The band was also criticized by longtime fans who were not yet aware of Fergie's previous departure from the group, or J. Rey Soul's membership. Appearances On September 8, 2009, the group performed live for Oprah Winfrey's 24th Season Kickoff Party, on Michigan Avenue in Chicago. An estimated 21,000 dancers in the streets performed a flash mob to the live performance of "I Gotta Feeling". The group performed at the American Music Awards of 2009 with the songs "Meet Me Halfway" and "Boom Boom Pow". They also won 2 out of 3 categories in which they were nominated; Favorite Rock/Pop Group & Favorite R&B/Soul Group. On March 30, 2010, the Black Eyed Peas were the first group to broadcast a concert live in 3D. In June 2010, the Black Eyed Peas performed "Where is the Love?", "Pump It", "Meet me Halfway", "Boom Boom Pow", and "I Gotta Feeling" at the 2010 FIFA World Cup Kick-Off Celebration concert in South Africa. The concert had over 700 million viewers worldwide, making it the biggest event the group performed in. They also performed at T in the Park 2010 on the NME Stage on the Friday July 9 and Oxegen in Kildare, Ireland on Saturday July 10 on the Vodafone stage. In July 2010, the Black Eyed Peas performed "Boom Boom Pow", "Rock That Body" and "I Gotta Feeling" in Central Park as part of Good Morning America's free summer concert series. In December 2010 they appeared on the seventh series of The X Factor in the UK performing "The Time (Dirty Bit)". The group headlined the Super Bowl XLV halftime show on February 6, 2011. On April 2, 2011, the group appeared on the 24th Annual Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. After taking a few years on hiatus the group made their first live appearance at the opening ceremony of the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final in Millennium Stadium, Cardiff on June 3, 2017. The following day the group performed at the One Love Manchester benefit concert on June 4, 2017. They performed "Where Is the Love?" with headliner Ariana Grande. In 2018 the Black Eyed Peas performed as part of the pre-game entertainment at the AFL Grand Final. The Black Eyed Peas performed in the closing ceremony of the 2019 Southeast Asian Games in the Philippines. The Black Eyed Peas performed in the 93rd Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in 2019. They appeared on the NHL float and performed their latest hit "Ritmo (Bad Boys For Life)." Philanthropy On December 10, 2005, the Black Eyed Peas' cover of the John Lennon classic "Power to the People", which was mostly recorded on the John Lennon Educational Tour Bus, was released by Amnesty International as part of the Make Some Noise campaign to celebrate human rights. The song was later released on the 2007 John Lennon tribute album, Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur. The Black Eyed Peas dedicated the music video of their 2011 single "Just Can't Get Enough" to Japan as the country had been hit by an earthquake. The group filmed the music video a week before the earthquake struck. In July 2011, the Black Eyed Peas founded a school for New York teenagers where students of 13–19 years can learn video production and music using professional equipment. The Peapod Foundation, in collaboration with the Adobe Foundation, opened the music academy and media Peapod Adobe Youth Voices in Manhattan on July 19. The school will have its facilities in a building operated by the Urban Arts Partnership, which provides art-school programs for adolescents studying in areas of very low income. Young people will be admitted according to the recommendations of their teachers and their expressions of interest in the subjects taught, such as camera work, editing and graphic design. On September 3, 2011, the group performed a concert in Minot, North Dakota to benefit the victims of the 2011 Souris River flood that damaged over 4,000 homes and displaced over 12,000 people in Minot and along the Souris River. Fergie is married to Minot native, Josh Duhamel. On September 30, 2011 the group performed a free concert, "Chase Presents The Black Eyed Peas and Friends", for over 50,000 people in New York City's Central Park. The event raised over $4 million for the charity. On August 31, 2016, the Black Eyed Peas' remake of their song, "Where Is the Love?", titled "#WHERESTHELOVE" was released and will.i.am told in an interview that all proceeds raised from the song will go to his "i.am.angel foundation", which funds educational programs and college scholarships in the United States. Other media In June 2011, Ubisoft announced they were developing The Black Eyed Peas Experience, a dance video game for Kinect and Wii. On November 11, 2011, the game was released internationally in association with Ubisoft. Members Current Will.i.am – vocals, piano, synthesizer, bass (1995–present) Apl.de.ap – vocals, drums (1995–present) Taboo – vocals, DJ, guitar (1995–present) J. Rey Soul – vocals (2018–present) Former Kim Hill – vocals (1995–2000) Fergie – vocals (2002–2016) Timeline Discography Studio albums Behind the Front (1998) Bridging the Gap (2000) Elephunk (2003) Monkey Business (2005) The E.N.D. (2009) The Beginning (2010) Masters of the Sun Vol. 1 (2018) Translation (2020) Tours 2003: Justified/Stripped Tour (featured for Justin Timberlake and Christina Aguilera) 2004: Elephunk Tour 2005: Harajuku Lovers Tour (featured for Gwen Stefani) 2005–06: Monkey Business Tour 2006: Honda Civic Tour 2007: Black Blue & You Tour 2009–10: The E.N.D. World Tour 2011: The Beginning 2018: Masters of the Sun Tour 2020: Translation Comic books Black Eyed Peas Present: Masters of the Sun ― The Zombie Chronicles #1 (2017) Awards and nominations See also List of artists who have had number-one singles on the UK Official Download Chart List of best-selling music downloads in the United Kingdom List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists References External links Profile at Forbes Black Eyed Peas YouTube channel Hip hop groups from California American pop music groups American contemporary R&B musical groups Pop-rap groups Dance-pop groups Electropop groups Electronic music groups from California Musical groups from Los Angeles Musical groups established in 1995 Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners Rappers from Los Angeles A&M Records artists Sony Music Publishing artists Universal Music Group artists Interscope Records artists Grammy Award winners for rap music MTV Europe Music Award winners 1995 establishments in California Alternative hip hop groups

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Big Star was an American rock band formed in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1971 by Alex Chilton, Chris Bell, Jody Stephens, and Andy Hummel. The group broke up in early 1975, and reorganized with a new lineup 18 years later following a reunion concert at the University of Missouri. In its first era, the band's musical style drew on the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Byrds. Big Star produced a style that foreshadowed the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s. Before they broke up, Big Star created a "seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations", in the words of Rolling Stone, as the "quintessential American power pop band", and "one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll". Big Star's first album, 1972's #1 Record, was met by enthusiastic reviews, but ineffective marketing by Stax Records, and limited distribution stunted its commercial success. Frustration took its toll on band relations: Bell left not long after the first record's commercial progress stalled, and Hummel left to finish his college education after a second album, Radio City, was completed in December 1973. Like #1 Record, Radio City received excellent reviews, but label issues again thwarted sales—Columbia Records, which had assumed control of the Stax catalog, likewise effectively vetoed its distribution. After a third album, recorded in the fall of 1974, was deemed commercially unviable and shelved before receiving a title, the band broke up late in 1974. Four years later, the first two Big Star LPs were released together in the UK as a double album. The band's third album was finally issued soon afterward; titled Third/Sister Lovers, it found limited commercial success, but has since become a cult classic. Shortly thereafter, Chris Bell was killed in a car accident at the age of 27. During the group's hiatus in the 1980s, the Big Star discography drew renewed attention when R.E.M. and the Replacements, as well as other popular bands, cited the group as an influence. In 1992, interest was further stimulated by Rykodisc's reissues of the band's albums, complemented by a collection of Bell's solo work. In 1993, Chilton and Stephens reformed Big Star with recruits Jon Auer and Ken Stringfellow of the Posies, and gave a concert at the University of Missouri. The band remained active, performing tours in Europe and Japan, and released a new studio album, In Space, in 2005. Chilton died in March 2010 after suffering from heart problems. Hummel died of cancer four months later. These deaths left Stephens as the sole surviving founding member. Big Star was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2014. Since December 2010, several surviving members have appeared in a series of live tribute performances of the album Third/Sister Lovers, under the billing "Big Star's Third". , that project has remained active. First era: 1971–1974 Formation of the band From 1967 to 1970, Chilton was the lead singer for the blue-eyed soul group the Box Tops, who scored a No. 1 hit with the song "The Letter" when he was 16. After leaving the group, he recorded a solo studio album. He was offered the role of lead vocalist for Blood, Sweat & Tears, but turned down the offer as "too commercial". Chilton had known Chris Bell for some time: Both lived in Memphis, each had spent time recording music at Ardent Studios, and each, when aged 13, had been impressed by the music of the Beatles during the band's 1964 debut U.S. tour. A song Chilton wrote nearly six years after he first witnessed a Beatles performance, "Thirteen", referred to the event with the line "rock 'n' roll is here to stay". Chilton asked Bell to work with him as a duo modeled on Simon & Garfunkel; Bell declined, but invited Chilton to a performance by his own band, Icewater, comprising Bell, drummer Jody Stephens, and bassist Andy Hummel. Attracted by Icewater's music, Chilton showed the three his new song "Watch the Sunrise", and was asked to join the band. Both "Watch the Sunrise" and "Thirteen" were subsequently included on Big Star's first album, #1 Record. The now four-piece band adopted the name Big Star when one member was given the idea from a grocery store often visited for snacks during recording sessions. One of many Big Star Markets outlets in the Memphis region at the time, it had a logo consisting of a five-pointed star enclosing the words "Big Star"; as well as the store's name, the band used its logo but without the word "Star" to avoid infringing copyright. #1 Record Although all four members contributed to songwriting and vocals on the first album, Chilton and Bell dominated as a duo intentionally modeled on John Lennon and Paul McCartney. The album was recorded by Ardent founder John Fry, with Terry Manning contributing occasional backing vocals and keyboards. The title #1 Record was decided towards the end of the recording sessions and evinced, albeit as a playful hope rather than a serious expectation, the chart position to be achieved by a big star. Although Fry—at the band's insistence—was credited as "executive producer", publicly he insisted that "the band themselves really produced these records". Fry recalled how Ardent, one of the first recording studios to use a sixteen-track tape machine, worked experimentally with the band members: "We started recording the songs with the intent that if it turned out OK we'd put it out [...] I wound up being the one that primarily worked on it: I recorded all the tracks and then they would often come late at night and do overdubs. One by one, they all learned enough engineering." Describing the mix of musical styles present on #1 Record, Rolling Stones Bud Scoppa notes that the album includes "reflective and acoustic" numbers, saying that "even the prettiest tunes have tension and subtle energy to them, and the rockers reverberate with power". Scoppa finds that in each mode, "the guitar sound is sharp-edged and full". #1 Record was released in June 1972, and quickly received strong reviews. Billboard went as far as to say, "Every cut could be a single". Rolling Stone judged the album "exceptionally good", while Cashbox stated, "This album is one of those red-letter days when everything falls together as a total sound", and called it "an important record that should go to the top with proper handling". It was voted number 188 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums 3rd Edition (2000). Proper handling, however, was not forthcoming: Stax Records proved unable to either promote or distribute the record with any degree of success, and even when the band's own efforts to get airplay generated interest, fans were unable to buy it as Stax could not make it available in many stores. Stax, in an effort to improve its catalog's availability, signed a deal with Columbia Records, already successful distributors in the U.S., making Columbia responsible for the entire Stax catalog. But Columbia had no interest in dealing with the independent distributors previously used by Stax and removed even the existing copies of #1 Record from the stores. Radio City The frustration at #1 Records obstructed sales contributed to tension within the band. There was physical fighting between members: Bell, after being punched in the face by Hummel, retaliated by smashing Hummel's new bass guitar to pieces against the wall. Hummel took revenge at a later date: Finding Bell's acoustic guitar in the latter's unattended car, he repeatedly punched it with a screwdriver. In November 1972, Bell quit the band. When work continued on songs for a second album, Bell rejoined, but further conflict soon erupted. A master tape of the new songs inexplicably went missing, and Bell, whose heavy drug intake was affecting his judgment, attacked Fry's parked car. In late 1972, struggling with severe depression, Bell quit the band once more, and by the end of the year Big Star disbanded. After a few months Chilton, Stephens, and Hummel decided to reform Big Star, and the three resumed work on the second album. The title chosen, Radio City, continued the play on the theme of a big star's popularity and success, expressing what biographer Robert Gordon calls the band's "romantic expectation". As Hummel put it: Stephens recalled: "Radio City, for me, was just an amazing record. Being a three-piece really opened things up for me in terms of playing drums. Drums take on a different role in a three-piece band, so it was a lot of fun. [...] Radio City was really more spontaneous, and the performances were pretty close to live performances." Although uncredited, Bell contributed to the writing of some of the album's songs, including "O My Soul" and "Back of a Car". Shortly before the album's release, Hummel left the band: judging that it would not last, and in his final year at college, he elected to concentrate on his studies and live a more normal life. He was replaced by John Lightman for a short tenure prior to the band dissolving. Rolling Stones Ken Barnes, describing the musical style of Radio City, opens by noting as a backdrop that the band's debut, #1 Record, established them as "one of the leading new American bands working in the mid-Sixties pop and rock vein". Radio City, Barnes finds, has "plenty of shimmering pop delights", although "the opening tune, 'O My Soul,' is a foreboding, sprawling funk affair"; Barnes concludes that "Sometimes they sound like the Byrds, sometimes like the early Who, but usually like their own indescribable selves". Radio City was released in February 1974 and, like #1 Record, received excellent reviews. Record reported, "The sound is stimulating, the musicianship superb, and the result is tight and rollickingly rhythmic." Billboard judged it "a highly commercial set". Rolling Stones Bud Scoppa, then with Phonograph Record, affirmed, "Alex Chilton has now emerged as a major talent, and he'll be heard from again". Cashbox called it "a collection of excellent material that hopefully will break this deserving band in a big way". But just as #1 Record had fallen victim to poor marketing, so too did Radio City. Columbia, now in complete control of the Stax catalog, refused to process it following a disagreement. Without a distributor, sales of Radio City, though far greater than those of #1 Record, were minimal at only around 20,000 copies. Third/Sister Lovers In September 1974, eight months after the release of Radio City, Chilton and Stephens returned to Ardent Studios to work on a third album. They were assisted by producer Jim Dickinson and an assortment of musicians (including drummer Richard Rosebrough) and Lesa Aldridge, Chilton's girlfriend, who contributed on vocals. The sessions and mixing were completed in early 1975, and 250 copies of the album were pressed with plain labels for promotional use. Parke Putterbaugh of Rolling Stone described Third/Sister Lovers as "extraordinary". It is, he wrote, "Chilton's untidy masterpiece. [...] beautiful and disturbing"; "vehemently original"; of "haunting brilliance": To listen to it is to be "plunged into a maelstrom of conflicting emotions. Songs are drenched in strings and sweet sentiment one minute, starkly played and downcast the next. No pop song has ever bottomed out more than "Holocaust", an anguished plaint sung at a snail's pace over discordant slide-guitar fragments and moaning cello [...] On the up side, there's the delicious pop minuet "Stroke It Noel", the anticipatory magic of "Nightime" ("Caught a glance in your eyes and fell through the skies," Chilton rhapsodizes) [...] Big Star's baroque, guitar-driven pop reaches its apotheosis on songs like "Kizza Me", "Thank You Friends" and "O, Dana". [...] Without question, Third is one of the most idiosyncratic, deeply felt and fully realized albums in the pop idiom. Fry and Dickinson flew to New York with promotional copies and met employees of a number of record labels, but could not generate interest in the album. When a similar promotion attempt failed in California, the album was shelved as it was considered not commercial enough for release. Fry recalled, "We'd go in and play it and these guys would look at us like we were crazy". In late 1974, before the album was even named, the band broke up, bringing Big Star's first era to its end. Dickinson later said that he was "nailed for indulging Alex on Big Star Third, but I think it is important that the artist is enabled to perform with integrity. What I did for Alex was literally remove the yoke of oppressive production that he had been under since the first time he ever uttered a word into a microphone, for good or ill." Since quitting the band in 1972, Bell had spent time in several different countries trying to develop his solo career. In 1978, after his return to Memphis, the first two Big Star albums were released together in the U.K. as a double album, drawing enthusiastic reviews and interest from fans. Soon afterward, Big Star's recognition grew further when, four years after its completion, the third album too was released in both the U.S. and the U.K. By now, the hitherto untitled Third/Sister Lovers had become known by several unofficial names, including Third (reflecting its position in the discography), Beale Street Green (acknowledging the legendary site nearby, once a focal point for Memphis blues musicians), and Sister Lovers (because during the album's recording sessions, Chilton and Stephens were dating sisters Lesa and Holliday Aldridge). Not long after the release of Third/Sister Lovers, Bell died in a car accident. He apparently lost control of his car while driving alone and was killed when he struck a lamp post after hitting the curb a hundred feet before. A blood test found that he was not drunk at the time, and no drugs were found on him other than a bottle of vitamins. Bell is believed to have either fallen asleep at the wheel or become distracted. Second era: 1993–2010 Big Star returned in 1993 with a new lineup when guitarist Jon Auer and bassist Ken Stringfellow joined Chilton and Stephens. Auer and Stringfellow remained members of the Posies, founded by the pair in 1986. Stringfellow is also known for his work with R.E.M. and the Minus 5. Hummel elected not to participate. First-era material dominated Big Star's performances, with the occasional addition of a song from the 2005 album In Space. Stringfellow recalled that during the 1990s, "We were working out the set list and we went to this little cafe. Little did I know we'd be playing that set for the next ten years". The resurrected band made its debut at the 1993 University of Missouri spring music festival. A recording of the performance was issued on CD by Zoo Records as Columbia: Live at Missouri University. The concert was followed by tours of Europe and Japan, as well as an appearance on The Tonight Show. Big Star's first post-reunion studio recording was the song "Hot Thing", recorded in the mid-1990s for the Big Star tribute album Big Star, Small World. As with their prior studio release, however, the tribute album was delayed for years due to its record company going under. Originally scheduled for a 1998 release on Ignition Records, the album was eventually released in 2006 on Koch Records. In Space was released on September 27, 2005, on the Rykodisc label. Recorded during 2004, the album consisted of new material mostly co-written by Chilton, Stephens, Auer, and Stringfellow. Reviewing In Space, Rolling Stones David Fricke first pointed out that the context of the release was now "a world expecting that American Beatles ideal all over again" from a band that "achieved its power-pop perfection when no one else was looking." In Fricke's estimation, this seemingly unrealistic expectation was met in part: "It's here – in the jangly longing and ice-wall harmonies of 'Lady Sweet'" — however, Fricke found that the successful songs were interleaved with "the eccentric R&B and demo-quality glam rock that have made Chilton's solo records a mixed blessing," and that "'A Whole New Thing' starts out like old T.Rex, then goes nowhere special." Warming nevertheless to "the rough sunshine" of "Best Chance", Fricke concluded, "In Space is no #1 Record, but at its brightest, it is Big Star in every way." The band appeared at San Francisco's Fillmore Auditorium on October 20, 2007. San Francisco-based band Oranger performed as opening act. Big Star performed at the 2008 Rhythm Festival, staged from August 29–31 in Bedfordshire, U.K. On June 16, 2009, the #1 Record/Radio City double album was reissued in remastered form. The same month, it was announced that a film of Big Star's history, based on biographer Rob Jovanovic's book Big Star: The Story of Rock's Forgotten Band, was in pre-production. On July 1, 2009, Big Star performed at a concert in Hyde Park, London, U.K. On September 15, 2009, Rhino Records issued a four-CD box set containing 98 recordings made between 1968 and 1975. Keep an Eye on the Sky included live and demo versions of Big Star songs, solo work, and material from Bell's earlier bands Rock City and Icewater. On November 18, 2009, the band performed at the Brooklyn Masonic Temple in New York City. Post-Chilton releases and tributes Alex Chilton memorial shows On March 17, 2010, Chilton suffered a fatal heart attack. He was pronounced dead on arrival at Tulane Medical Center in New Orleans. Big Star had been scheduled to play at SXSW Music Festival that same week. The remaining members, joined by special guests original bassist Andy Hummel, M. Ward, Evan Dando, R.E.M. bassist Mike Mills, and Chris Stamey, staged the concert as a tribute to him. "Big Star's Third" shows Four months after Chilton's death, Hummel died of cancer on July 19, 2010. Asked about the band's plans after the death of Chilton and Hummel, Stephens told Billboard, "It's music we all really love to play, and we love to play it together, so we're trying to figure out a way forward where we can keep doing it." In a Rolling Stone interview, Stephens said that the May 2010 tribute performance would be the group's final show as Big Star, although not his last show with Auer and Stringfellow, stating, "I can't see us going out as Big Star ... But I would hate to compound the loss of Alex by saying,'That's it' for Ken and Jon, too. I can't imagine not playing with them. There's so much fun—but an emotional bond there too." In December 2010, under the billing "Big Star's Third", Stephens teamed with Mitch Easter, Stamey, and Mills, along with a string section, to perform a live tribute performance of Big Star's album Third/Sister Lovers in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Joined by additional performers such as Matthew Sweet, Big Star's Third was performed in a similar tribute concert in New York City on March 26, 2011, and at the Barbican in London on May 28, 2012. The project continued with concerts in Chicago and New York in 2013, a January 2014 concert in Sydney, Australia, and a series of U.S. shows that included Seattle's Bumbershoot festival on August 31, 2014. In November 2014, Auer and Stringfellow rejoined Stephens, Easter, Stamey, and Mills for a free benefit performance in Athens, Georgia. , Big Star's Third continues to perform. On April 21, 2017, Concord Records released a Big Star's Third live concert documentary on two DVDs, along with a three-CD live album, both titled Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More. The concert was performed in April 2016 at Glendale, California's Alex Theatre. Posthumous releases In June 2011, Ardent Records released the EP Live Tribute to Alex Chilton, and Stephens confirmed on the Ardent blog that the tribute performance in May 2010 was the last performance for Big Star as a band. A documentary titled Big Star: Nothing Can Hurt Me (2012), directed by Drew DeNicola and Olivia Mori, chronicled the group's career and band members' solo efforts. In 2013, the documentary was released in theaters and on DVD, and it had a limited theatrical re-release in England in August 2014. In November 2014, Live in Memphis was released by Omnivore Recordings on CD, vinyl, and as a DVD of Big Star's performance of October 29, 1994, their only known show to be professionally filmed in its entirety. According to Mojo, the DVD documents how Big Star's 1990s lineup defied expectations and endured for another 16 years: "Chilton's musicality is mesmerising as he drives the band. … Alternating between lead and rhythm, he plays with a mix of laser focus and utter insouciant cool." Musical style and influences Bell took up guitar when 12 or 13, but only on hearing the first Beatles records was he motivated to play the instrument regularly. He acted as lead and rhythm guitarist and vocalist for a sequence of bands, performing songs by the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Kinks, the Zombies, and the Animals. Chilton's first awareness of music came at the age of 6 when his brother repeatedly played a record by the Coasters. His father's liking for jazz then exposed him over the next few years to the music of Glenn Miller, Ray Charles, and Dave Brubeck. Chilton's enthusiasm for music took hold when at age 13 he first heard Beatles records; he recalled having known of 1950s rock 'n' roll, but "by 1959 Elvis was syrup and Jerry Lee was pretty much gone, and the rockabilly thing was sort of over so I didn't get really caught up in the rock scene until the Beatles came along". Chilton took up electric guitar at 13, playing along with Beatles songs, later saying, "I really loved the mid-sixties British pop music [...] all two and a half minutes or three minutes long, really appealing songs. So I've always aspired to that same format, that's what I like. Not to mention the rhythm and blues and the Stax stuff, too". Chilton abandoned his guitar-playing during his time with the Box Tops and then took up the instrument again; he met Roger McGuinn, guitarist for the Byrds, and developed particular interest in electric guitar and acoustic folk. Stephens enjoyed the music of Otis Redding, the Isley Brothers, the Who, the Kinks, and especially the Beatles. Hummel likewise was a member of more than one band during his early musical years, again influenced by the Beatles and other British Invasion acts. The bassist also played acoustic guitar for personal enjoyment, following the styles of Simon & Garfunkel and Joni Mitchell and using finger-picking techniques to play folk and bluegrass. Most songs on the first three albums are credited to either Bell/Chilton or Chilton, but some credit Hummel, Stephens and others, as either writer or co-writer. At the only seven live performances in the original era, the last of which took place before the second album's release, all four members contributed vocally. While primarily inspired by the music of the Beatles and other British Invasion bands, acknowledging too the jangle pop and power pop of the period, Big Star also incorporated dark, nihilistic themes to produce a striking blend of musical and lyrical styles. The body of work resulting from the first era was a precursor of the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s, at the same time yielding material today considered an outstanding example of power pop. The stylistic range is evident from modern day critiques. Bogdanov et al., commenting on #1 Record in their All Music Guide to Rock, perceive in "The Ballad of El Goodo" a "luminous, melancholy ballad", whereas John Borack's Ultimate Power Pop Guide singles out Radio Citys "September Gurls" as a "glorious, glittering jewel" of power pop. Borack notes too that Third/Sister Lovers is "slower, darker and a good deal weirder" than the first two albums, identifying "Holocaust" as "Alex Chilton at his haunting best", yet finds "Thank You Friends" exemplifying "left-field gems" also present in which "the hooks are every bit as undeniable" as before. Jovanovic writes that when recording what Peter Buckley in his Rough Guide to Rock terms the "snarling guitar rock" of the first album's "Don't Lie to Me", the band, deeming conventional instruments inadequate for the task, wheeled two Norton Commando motorcycles into the studio and gunned the engines to intensify the song's bridge. Bogdanov et al. reserve "snarl" for a Radio City song, "Mod Lang"; here Buckley writes that "the power of the performance and the erratic mix gave a sense of chaos which only added to the thrill". Legacy and influence Although Big Star's first era came to an end in 1974, the band acquired a cult following in the 1980s when new acts began to acknowledge the early material's significance. R.E.M.'s Peter Buck admitted, "We've sort of flirted with greatness, but we've yet to make a record as good as Revolver or Highway 61 Revisited or Exile on Main Street or Big Star's Third. I don't know what it'll take to push us on to that level, but I think we've got it in us." Chilton, however, told an interviewer in 1992, "I'm constantly surprised that people fall for Big Star the way they do... People say Big Star made some of the best rock 'n roll albums ever. And I say they're wrong." In 2014, Paul Stanley cited Big Star as an influence to early Kiss moments: "We've always been about verses, choruses, bridges (...) It's called a hook for a reason, because it grabs you. And that's my mentality. Give me the Raspberries. Give me Small Faces. Give me Big Star." Critics have continued to cite Big Star's first three albums as a profound influence on subsequent musicians. Rolling Stone notes that Big Star "created a seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations of rockers, from the power-pop revivalists of the late 1970s to alternative rockers at the end of the century to the indie rock nation in the new millennium". Jason Ankeny, music critic for AllMusic, identifies Big Star as "one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll", whose "impact on subsequent generations of indie bands on both sides of the Atlantic is surpassed only by that of the Velvet Underground". Ankeny describes Big Star's second album, Radio City, as "their masterpiece—ragged and raw guitar-pop infused with remarkable intensity and spontaneity". In 1992, Rykodisc generated further interest in the band when it reissued Third/Sister Lovers and released a posthumous compilation of Bell's solo material, I Am the Cosmos. In his 2007 book Shake Some Action: The Ultimate Power Pop Guide, John Borack ranks the #1 Record/Radio City double album at No. 2 in his chart "The 200 Greatest Power Pop Albums". Rolling Stone includes #1 Record, Radio City and Third/Sister Lovers in The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and "September Gurls" and "Thirteen" in The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In addition to R.E.M., artists including Teenage Fanclub, The Replacements, Primal Scream, the Posies, and Bill Lloyd and the dB's cite Big Star as an inspiration, and the band's influence on Game Theory, Matthew Sweet, and Velvet Crush is also acknowledged. A cover version of "September Gurls" appeared on the Bangles' 1986 triple platinum album Different Light. "September Gurls", Borack wrote, "was and is the sine qua non of power pop, a glorious, glittering jewel with every facet cut and shined to absolute perfection.... a peerless, aching distillation of love and longing. 'September Gurls' may not actually be the greatest song ever recorded, but for the duration of its 2:47 running time, you can be forgiven for believing it is." The 1987 tribute song "Alex Chilton", co-written by three members of the Replacements, was released as a single from the album Pleased to Meet Me and contains the lyric "I never travel far without a little Big Star." "I'm in Love with a Girl" from Radio City features in the soundtrack of the 2009 film Adventureland. In 1998, an ad hoc, shortened version of #1 Records "In the Street" (recorded by Todd Griffin) was used as the theme song for the sitcom That '70s Show, and in 1999, a new version titled "That '70s Song (In the Street)" was recorded by Cheap Trick also specifically for the show. "That '70s Song" and Big Star's own "September Gurls" are included on the 1999 album That '70s Album (Rockin') released by the television program's producers. The 2006 tribute album Big Star, Small World includes Big Star covers by the Posies, Teenage Fanclub, Gin Blossoms, Wilco, the Afghan Whigs, and Whiskeytown, among others. Lucero, a Memphis, Tennessee-based alternative country band, covered "I'm in Love with a Girl" on their 2015 release All a Man Should Do, an album which takes its title from a lyric in the song. Founding member Jody Stephens, and later additions to Big Star, provide backup on the track. "Thirteen" from Big Star is featured in the 2020 Disney+ film Stargirl. The song is then sung by the two leads, Grace VanderWaal as Susan "Stargirl" Caraway and Graham Verchere as Leo Borlock. Personnel Alex Chilton – guitars, piano, vocals (1971–1974, 1993–2010; died 2010) Jody Stephens – drums, vocals (1971–1974, 1993–2010) Chris Bell – guitars, vocals (1971–1972; died 1978) Andy Hummel – bass guitar, vocals (1971–1973; died 2010) John Lightman – bass guitar, backing vocals (1974) Jon Auer – guitar, vocals (1993–2010) Ken Stringfellow – bass guitar, vocals, keyboards (1993–2010) Timeline Discography Studio albums #1 Record (Ardent/Stax, 1972) Radio City (Ardent/Stax, 1974) Third/Sister Lovers (PVC, 1978) In Space (Rykodisc, 2005) Live albums Live (Rykodisc, 1992) Columbia: Live at Missouri University 4/25/93 (Zoo, 1993) Nobody Can Dance (Norton, 1999) – rehearsals and live recordings Live Tribute at the Levitt Shell (Ardent, 2011) – Big Star with John Davis Live in Memphis (Omnivore, 2014) – Big Star live on October 29, 1994 Complete Columbia: Live at University of Missouri University 4/25/93 (Volcano/Legacy, 2016) Live at Lafayette's Music Room – Memphis, TN (Omnivore, 2018) – Big Star live in January 1973 Live On WLIR (Omnivore, 2019) – Remastered and restored performance originally recorded and broadcast in 1974 Compilations Biggest (Line Records, 1994) – greatest hits The Best of (Big Beat Records, 1999) – greatest hits Big Star Story (Rykodisc, 2003) – greatest hits with one new track Keep an Eye on the Sky (Rhino, 2009) – box set with a live disc Nothing Can Hurt Me (Omnivore Recordings, 2013) – soundtrack to movie Playlist (1972–2005) (Legacy Recordings, 2013) – first compilation to cover all eras of band The Best of Big Star (Craft Recordings, 2017) – greatest hits with some rare mixes and edits of songs Big Star's Third Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More (2017, Concord) – Big Star's Third concert, recorded live in April 2016 (3 CDs) Videography Big Star Big Star: Nothing Can Hurt Me (Magnolia, DVD, 2012) Live in Memphis (Omnivore, DVD, 2014) – Big Star live on October 29, 1994 Big Star's Third Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More (2017, Concord) – concert documentary of Big Star's Third live performance in April 2016 (2 DVDs) References External links for Big Star's Third project Big Star biography by Jason Ankeny, discography and album reviews, credits & releases at AllMusic Big Star albums to be listened as stream at Spotify.com 1971 establishments in Tennessee American power pop groups Musical groups established in 1971 Musical groups disestablished in 1974 Musical groups reestablished in 1993 Musical groups disestablished in 2010 Musical groups from Memphis, Tennessee Musical quartets American musical trios Norton Records artists Rock music groups from Tennessee Rykodisc artists 20th-century American guitarists

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Hope Logan is a fictional character from The Bold and the Beautiful, an American soap opera on the CBS network. The character was portrayed by several child actors since Hope's introduction in 2002, most notably Rachel and Amanda Pace. In 2010, the role was rapidly aged and recast with actress Kim Matula, who made her first appearance in January 2010. Matula departed the serial as a series regular in December 2014, but she made guest appearances in 2015 and 2016. As of 2018, the role is portrayed by Annika Noelle. Introduced in 2002, Hope is the result of an affair between Brooke Logan and Deacon Sharpe, Brooke's ex-son-in-law. Upon Matula's casting, her main storylines revolved around relationships with former love interests Liam and Wyatt Spencer, and rivalry with Steffy Forrester, the latter of which mirrors the rivalry between their mothers, Brooke Logan and Taylor Hayes. Matula was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series in 2014 for her portrayal of Hope. Noelle's portrayal later earned a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2020. Casting Between the years of 2002 and 2009, the character was played by child actresses, and appeared as a young girl around 5 years old by 2007. On December 4, 2009, it was announced that Hope was to be dramatically aged and portrayed by Kim Matula. Matula signed on as a contract character. Matula began taping The Bold and the Beautiful on November 19, 2009, and made her first appearance on January 11, 2010. On November 5, 2014, it was announced that after five years with the series, Matula would be departing the series. Matula taped her final scene on November 6 and made her final appearance on December 12. In March 2015, Soap Opera Digest reported news that Matula would make a return to the series, in a guest appearance as Hope. She is set to report to set on March 4, 2015, she aired on April 17 and 20, 2015. In February 2016, Matula was reported to make a guest return to the soap; she appeared on March 16, 2016. In November 2017, Soap Opera Digest announced that actress Annika Noelle had been cast in the role of Hope; she made her first appearance on January 8, 2018. Characterization The young adult character of Hope was first described as "A polar opposite of what her mother Brooke once was, Hope makes no secret of her more traditional and reserved views on sex and marriage". Matula has described Hope as "Unlucky in love". Speaking about the character's dramatic aging and her storyline, head writer Bradley Bell stated: "Aging the character of ‘Hope’ to a teenager allows us to bring the next generation of ‘Logans’ to the forefront, as well as play a broader range of the ‘Forrester’ vs. ‘Logan’ story. ‘Hope’s’ presence at Forrester Creations, as well as in ‘Brooke’ and ‘Ridge’s’ home, sparks an intense competition between ‘Hope’ and her step-sister ‘Steffy’ as well as creates new conflict between long-time rivals ‘Brooke’ and ‘Taylor’ as each woman is determined to protect her own daughter." Storylines Back story Hope was conceived during an affair between Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang) and Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan). At the time, Deacon was married to Hope's half-sister, Bridget Forrester. Hope was born at the Big Bear Cabin and delivered by Stephanie. Deacon signed over his paternal rights in 2007 to Ridge Forrester when RJ and Hope were taken from Brooke when she was proven to be an unfit mother by Social Services, reported by Stephanie Forrester (Susan Flannery). Nick Marone (Jack Wagner) was also a father figure for Hope when he was married to Brooke. 2010–2016 After the character was dramatically aged (SORASed), Hope is almost raped by a photographer, Graham Darros, but she is saved by Nick and Aggie Jones. As high school graduation approaches, she meets Oliver Jones, a DJ who becomes her first serious boyfriend. Instantly, the assertive Steffy takes an interest in Oliver, teasing him in front of Hope for a reaction response. At a Forrester fashion show Pam Douglas tampers with a sign by removing the letters 'p' and 'e' out of Hope's name to create a sign that reads "Ho Logan". Then, at Hope's graduation party (with a mask theme), Brooke has sex with Oliver, claiming she thought it's her husband Ridge behind the mask; this is revealed by a video which Steffy located. It was later revealed the video was tampered by Justin Barber and Liam Cooper, who worked for Spencer Publications – who are against Forrester Creations). Despite unresolved feelings, Hope forgives her mother and tries to recover her relationship with Oliver, until she meets Liam. Hope meets Liam Cooper, who was soon to be revealed to be the son of Bill Spencer Jr., Hope and Liam forge a friendship but there is something more there which Oliver, her boyfriend, sees whenever they are together. Liam and Hope fall deeply in love. Their love grows despite Oliver trying to win back Hope by making her jealous. Liam and Hope's relationship faces hardship when Amber falls pregnant after supposedly sleeping with Liam, and Liam is thought to be the father. Amber manipulates Liam every chance she gets and causes problems for Liam and Hope. Hope tries to move on but Steffy encourages her to trust Liam. The baby is born and it is quite evident the baby is not Liam's, turns out to be Marcus's baby instead. Liam and Hope reunite and he proposes to her. However, she wanted to use this as a way to promote her fashion line, so their wedding was planned for months ahead. Hope tells Liam she wants to wait to consummate their relationship after marriage, Steffy supports the relationship and Liam (who saves her from drowing, when she hits her head after falling in the bath) until she hears so much about the pain Liam is going through. Steffy came to believe that Hope was not right for him and fell in love with Liam. Finally, the night before the wedding (Hope/Liam), Steffy is conned into collecting Liam from his Bachelor Party. Steffy says goodbye and good luck to Liam and offers a goodbye kiss. After witnessing the kiss, Hope takes off her engagement ring and leaves it at Liam's house. Hope spoke with Liam, by phone and says that she doesn't want to be married, doesn't want to talk and doesn't want to see him again. Heartbroken and angry, Liam takes the ring and proposes to Steffy, who accepts. Liam and Steffy travel to Aspen, where they are married. Then Thomas set his eyes on Hope. They shared a kiss despite Hope's unresolved feelings for Liam. Thomas whisks her away to Mexico, for a weekend holiday, without realizing that he is taking Hope to Liam's honeymoon! Thomas proposes to Hope, who says she's not ready and that she still loves Liam, but 'I feel safe with you'. Liam sees Hope and goes after Thomas and Hope on a ATV chase, chasing Hope. Steffy, on her own ATV & goes after Liam and is injured when it all goes wrong. She ends up in the hospital and everyone flies down and Bill decides to manipulate the situation. Bill perpetuates a lie about Steffy's health, bribing the doctors to say that her life was at risk and she must not be upset. Katie finds out about the lie and 'blames' Steffy. Liam, feeling betrayed by Bill and Steffy, immediately leaves to find Hope. He finds her on the rooftop where he proposed to her and tells her that he loves her and that he wants to be with her to give their relationship a true chance, without manipulations. When they later confront Bill with what they know and what they want from him, Bill refuses to give in, reminding Liam that Steffy is his wife. Liam, decides to end his marriage with Steffy. mind Despite her pleading, Liam has annulment papers drawn, which Steffy refuses to sign. She offers him a divorce, but not an annulment. Brooke, arranges for a wedding for Hope and Liam in her home, convinced that her son Rick would seduce Steffy into signing the annulment papers. Steffy refuses, signing 'Sucker' on the paperwork, for Rick. Fearing that Liam might return to his 'wife', Brooke insists that Hope should have sex with Liam, as the only way to keep him. Hope's first attempt at 'adultery' did not go as well as Hope had wished, and she ended up traumatized. Brooke showed up early the next morning and found Hope in tears. Brooke took Hope to see a sex therapist, for some relaxation medication, to help her with her trauma and so she can be with Liam. All this accomplishes though is getting Hope hooked on anxiety pills and wit the help of Amber, Hope begins to take illegal medication. When she passes out at the Forrester pool, Liam starts to worry. Liam is then sent, by Bill, to Aspen, to cover the ski Fashion (winter line), where Steffy is promoting her Forrester Creations Ski Line. Hope does not trust Liam and Steffy being together in their 'special' place and follows. On the slopes, Hope is high on her pills and accidentally runs into Steffy, on the slopes. Once again, Steffy is taken to hospital, after Liam finds her on the slopes. Liam is angry that Hope just left Steffy there and did not seek help. When the paramedics arrive, Liam refers to Steffy as his 'wife'. Hope then, confesses to Liam that she is hooked on the pills that she is taking, to allow her to commit adultery (which doesn't sit well for her). In the hospital, Steffy signs the annulment papers, which she has been carrying with her, but Liam tears them up, deciding instead to proceed with a divorce. Once the divorce becomes final, Liam and Hope went to Italy at Brooke's insistence to marry. Bill interferes, bringing in Deacon Sharpe, so Hope is late to the wedding and Liam thinking that she had once again walked out on him, turned to Steffy for comfort and asked her to leave with him and marry him again. Hope then arrived at Liam's hotel suite, with Steffy in the bathroom, hearing it all, while Hope told Liam what happened. Steffy insisted that Liam go ahead and marry Hope, so the wedding went off without a hitch. Once back in the States, Hope saw a video of Steffy and Liam kissing and falling onto the bed together on 'Hope's wedding day' and refuses to sign papers making their marriage legal in the US. Hope insists on another wedding. Liam agrees, and Hope plans another wedding at the Forrester Estate, with yet another new designer gown. The night before the next wedding, Hope and Liam make plans to spend the evening together – a 'date' night, but Stephanie is not well and Hope decides to stay with her. Sworn to secrecy, by Stephanie about her illness, Hope phones Liam and cancels their 'date'. Liam goes straight to where he knows Steffy will be, with her girlfriends and a DJ stint (working). Liam went off with some people who were unknown to Steffy and returned, drunk and with a red streak in his hair and a removable tattoo. He went to the roof and fell asleep on a lounger. Steffy found him there and stayed, on another lounger, waking him, to take him to the wedding venue. Liam went to have a shower and clean up, for the wedding, but Hope heard Steffy's motorcycle and went to see Liam, before he had a chance to wash it off. Outraged by Liam's continued reliance on Steffy, Hope calls off the wedding and her relationship with Liam. Thomas and Hope then becomes friends. On the professional front, Hope cancels her line, the wedding line, making a public announcement, that there will be no wedding. Liam turns again to Steffy, entering a living commitment (Steffy doesn't trust marriage at that time, until she is sure). Steffy, is called to Paris, by her Father and before she leaves, takes a 'pregnancy test'. Hope, learns that she was lied to, by Rick, about what went on the night before their planned wedding. Hope, hearing that Steffy has just left for Paris (from Rick) races to 'their' (Liam and Steffy's) home, where she walks into their room and begins throwing Steffy's belongings around the room, then grabs Liam and falling on the bed, begins to attempt a seduction. At that moment, Steffy arrives home, to tell Liam that they are pregnant. Steffy leaves for Paris, leaving Liam to make up his mind what and who he wants, without knowing about the baby. Hope makes the most of Steffy's absence, but Liam cannot decide. He needs time. When Steffy returns from Paris, she is ready to share her news, but Liam asks Steffy to move out, so that he can decide where his future lies. Liam sets a date, on which he will finally make his decision. Steffy remains silent about the pregnancy, because she wants Liam to make up his own mind. However, the day before Liam is due to 'make his decision', Brooke set up a 'surprise' wedding for Hope and Liam! using Forrester staff. A staffer calls Steffy and tells her what is going on and all bets are off. If Liam is not given the opportunity to make up his own mind, but is being manipulated, then he'll do so, knowing the truth. Brooke, who has the priest from Italy, ready in a 'surprise', to tell Liam that he can marry him and Hope, phones Liam and asks him to come home. Brooke also calls Hope and asks her to meet at Liam's home. Liam feels trapped, but Brooke, whispers to him and Hope arrives in a white dress, ready for marriage. Just as he is dithering about actually making the 'commitment', Steffy arrives to tell liam about the baby. Steffy makes it very clear, that she is happy to co-parent, IF Liam has made the decision to be with Hope, but if he's only doing what Brooke has planned, then he deserves at least to know, before making that commitment. Liam tells Hope, that he will not leave Steffy, and will not leave a child, who was conceived in love! Hope leaves in tears, surprised by Liam's words and tells her Mother what was said. Brooke, declares that the only reason he is with Steffy – is because she got herself pregnant – on purpose. After Steffy is involved in an accident (a car runs a red light), losing her and Liam's child, she learns that she cannot have children. Steffy tells Hope she is leaving and asks Hope to be with Liam, love him and make him happy and give him the Family he so badly wants, without telling Hope or Liam the real issue. Hope and Liam go to Big Bear Cabin together, to talk. While on a walk, she sees a naked stranger taking a shower. She takes a photo of him, only for him to turn around and see her. She runs away and he chases her. She then falls and is knocked unconscious. The stranger then carries her to safety and when she wakes up he kisses her. The mysterious stranger turns out to be Wyatt Fuller. After doing some digging, she learns he is the son of Bill Spencer, Jr., therefore the half-brother of Liam. Wyatt and Hope get closer after Liam flies off to see Steffy, at Hope's insistence, asking Steffy why she left the way she did. Steffy rejects him and Liam comes home and proposes to Hope, who accepts. Wyatt moves in with Liam, but when Liam catches him kissing Hope, he punches Wyatt, and after a fight between Bill and Wyatt, Wyatt moves out. After Hope and Liam have an argument, about him not being able to let go of Steffy, Hope and Wyatt fly to Mexico to get the Hope Diamond for the line, which makes problems for Liam. Eventually, Hope and Liam get engaged, but when Hope receives a goodbye video Liam made for Steffy, it creates tension between them. Liam, thinking it was Wyatt that sent the video, later finds out it was actually Quinn, and Liam quickly informs Hope. Confronting them both, Hope finds out that Quinn did send the video, but Wyatt had no idea of it until the Hope Diamond reveal. Hope forgives them both. She later ends her engagement to Liam when she is feeling insecure about Liam always turning to Steffy. They soon reconcile, but Hope wants to wait before they get married. Aly Forrester, who has a crush on Liam, sends him a picture of Wyatt and Hope kissing at a photoshoot. Liam decides to confront Hope about her refusal to marry, demands that they do so and that she cut all professional and personal ties with Wyatt and Quinn Artisan Jewelers. Hope chooses Liam over Wyatt and Eric reluctantly agrees to break the contract. Wyatt tries desperately to change Hope's mind but she won't, confessing to her mother that she had never met Liam & fallen in love with him, then Wyatt might have had a chance. On the day of the wedding, Hope goes to see Liam, wher he is getting ready for the wedding, in the cabin, but she finds him with Steffy at the cabin. Knowing that Steffy is back from Paris, and guessing she would be back to fight for Liam, Hope decides to rehire Quinn, and she and Wyatt go to Hawaii together. Liam follows soon after to explain to Hope that Steffy had informed him that she is now able to conceive again, and that it was Quinn who once again interfered with their relationship. He then asks her to marry him immediately. Hope declines and ends her relationship with him, finally choosing Wyatt over Liam. Their happiness is short-lived when it is revealed by Liam that Wyatt took the Hope diamond as a P.R stunt, before the real jewel thieves had intentions to steal it. It almost ends their relationship completely, but Hope decides to give Wyatt another chance, much to Liam's dismay. Hope then endures a pregnancy scare, and with Liam's persuasion about making the right decision for her life before getting pregnant or married, Hope decides to date both brothers, agreeing that she will choose who she wants to spend the rest of her life with at the end of it. Finally, Hope chooses Liam and they become engaged. Quinn unsuccessfully tries to interfere. Wyatt declares his support for Liam and Hope's relationship. Because of this, Liam and Hope decide to rehire Wyatt at Forrester Creations. Wyatt inherits the Hope for the Future Diamond after Ricardo Montemayor dies. He gifts it to Hope, which causes friction between Liam and Hope, and the two brothers. When Liam demands Hope give it back to Wyatt, Hope refuses, and publicly declares at a press conference that she is keeping the diamond. Wyatt and Rick decide to take Hope and the diamond on a promotion tour, starting with a photo shoot in Paris. Hope, finally deciding to make her decision between the brothers, lays an ultimatum, for Liam to meet at the photo shoot, near the Eiffel Tower. Liam, feeling that he doesn't have time to make it, is planning not to try, but Ivy convinces him to make the effort. Wyatt begs Hope not to marry Liam, though she insists that she and Liam belong together. Liam misses his deadline with Hope, who then leaves with Wyatt on the Spencer jet. Wyatt takes her to Bill's yacht in Monte Carlo, where Wyatt proposes to Hope using the HFTF diamond, and Hope accepts and marries Wyatt. About a month later, Hope learns,from Liam, that Quinn orchestrated her and Wyatt's marriage by pushing Ivy off the Seine causing Liam to miss her ultimatum. After confronting Quinn for her role and Wyatt for defending his mother, Hope learned that she was pregnant. Liam and Hope met, privately, where Liam asked Hope, how she could be sure that the child was not his and asked her to leave Wyatt. Hope said that she 'just knows' that Wyatt is the Father, he is her husband. Liam then asks Hope to get rid of the baby, or let it be his and to come to him. Hope explains that she doesn't want her child to grow up with multiple fathers and have a complicated relationship like she did. She ended things with Liam for good and told him that she wanted to give her marriage to Wyatt a chance now with the baby on the way. This is all changed when she suffers a miscarriage, because she didn't pay attention to where she was going.. Hope left LA, after telling Liam that she was divorcing Wyatt and was available for him. Liam thinks of Steffy and replies, that there is only one woman he cannot imagine his life without her in it, it is not Ivy. Hope leaves in tears and visits Brooke in Milan, Italy. Hope does not return to L.A. with Brooke to get over the loss of her child. In Milan, according to Hope, she 'dated' and had a 'few relationships', but she could not get over Liam. When Brooke and Ridge married again, Hope was invited home, for the wedding and decided to stay. She made an agreement with Ridge, to stay out of Steffy's marriage with Liam, and she could work again on her 'label' HFTF. 2018–present Hope returns to Los Angeles in January 2018, at Ridge's request, to surprise her mother. She makes her intentions known of returning to Forrester. When Hope meets Sally Spectra, she finds out that Liam and Steffy's marriage is in trouble and so she visits Liam to offer her support and friendship. Hope learns of Steffy and Bill sleeping together. Hope later starts to fall in love with Liam again. Bill manipulates Liam to believe that Bill and Steffy are involved; Liam leaves Steffy and their daughter, Kelly, and proposes to Hope. Liam decides to give Steffy another chance for the sake of Kelly, but Hope soon discovers she's pregnant, from the one night she and Liam spent together before their aborted wedding. Steffy catches Liam and Hope making out behind the scenes of the Hope for the Future fashion show and she breaks up with him; Steffy steps back and gives Liam to Hope because she can no longer be involved in a triangle for Liam's heart and she needs to do what is best for Kelly. In August 2018, Hope and Liam wed in front of their friends, families, Steffy, and Taylor and were finally together. They blissfully awaited the birth of their daughter & basked in the happiness they had always longed for. In January 2019, Hope and Liam are devastated when their infant daughter Elizabeth 'Beth' Avalon Spencer is stillborn. It is revealed that Dr. Reese Buckingham stole Hope and Liam's daughter Beth Spencer and gave them a stillborn baby girl. Reese later brought baby Beth Spencer to his apartment and his friend Flo pretended to be the birth mother. Steffy adopted the baby and named her Phoebe after Steffy's late sister. Hope holds Phoebe for the first time (Beth) and has a connection to her. Steffy then worries about Hope when she starts to get too conformable with Beth. After Steffy takes Kelly and Phoebe to Paris for Hope and Liam to work out their marriage, Hope and Liam's marriage starts to crumble. Hope later meets Wyatt's ex-girlfriend Flo, and learns that she was Phoebe's birth mother and is looking for her biological father. The Logan family learns that Flo is Storm's daughter revealing that Hope and Flo are cousins. Happy, Hope welcomes Flo into their family and in the Forester Company. Thomas Forester(Mathew Atkinson) returns to L.A with devastating news, about Caroline passing away. Hope then bonds with Douglas, and helps to heal him from losing Caroline. Afterwards Thomas starts to have an obsession with Hope and manipulates Caroline's death by writing a fake letter saying that Douglas needs a mother and wants Hope to be that mother figure for him. Also uses Douglas to convince Hope to be with his dad. Which lead to Hope and Liam getting an annulment, and wanting to fulfill Caroline's wish. Also Hope pushes Liam into being with Steffy and wanting him to raise Kelly and Phoebe together. Hope accepts Thomas's proposal. Hope almost had second thoughts about marrying Thomas, until Liam revealed that he and Steffy had sex one night. When Hope and Thomas are married, she still loves Liam, but wants to move forward with Beth being gone. However Hope feels unconformable with Thomas's advances and not wanting to have sex with him. When Hope is about to go on her honeymoon with Thomas, Douglas reveals to Hope and Liam that their daughter Beth is alive. Hope believes that Douglas is just confused, and goes on her Honeymoon with Thomas. Their Honeymoon is cut short when Hope still refuses to have sex with Thomas and Thomas receiving a call from Douglas. Thomas and Hope goes back to L.A at Forester's, and Hope locks the office door. Liam storms in the office to tell Hope that Douglas is telling the truth that Beth is alive and Flo has lied about being Phoebe's birth mother. Hope at first refuses to believe Liam until he reveals to her, that he confronted Flo, and she confirmed that she was never pregnant. Hope tries to process Liam's information, but Thomas breaks down the door, punches Liam, and grabs Hope to the helicopter. Hope tries to calm him down and asks Thomas to tell her the truth about Beth. Thomas lies to her, and tells her to forget about Beth. Liam sprints and attacks Thomas. After Thomas trying to escape to the helicopter, Liam has him in a headlock and forces Thomas to tell Hope about keeping Beth away from her. When Hope realizing that Thomas could not look her in the eye, she finally realize that Beth is alive. Thomas then punches Liam again and escapes to his helicopter. Hope and Liam cry tears of joy, and Liam says that their daughter was here this whole time, and Steffy had her, but did not know about Phoebe being Beth. Finally, Hope and Liam go over Steffy's house and Hope holds her daughter Beth for the first time, realizing she is alive. When Hope asks how Steffy had their daughter Beth. Liam reveals that he overheard Thomas and Flo arguing at her and Thomas's wedding and Thomas saying that Hope cannot know about a secret. Liam asks Wyatt to talk to Flo to get her to open up, and Flo accidentally revealed that she never had a baby to Wyatt. After what Douglas had told Liam about Phoebe being Beth, Liam called the hospital in Vegas where Flo supposedly had Phoebe, and it turns out that Flo was never was a patient at the hospital in Vegas, there was no medical records of her being there according to Flo's supposed doctor. Also Flo revealed to him and Wyatt that Dr. Buckingham owed some people for a gambling debt and needed to pay them or they would kill his daughter Zoe. Liam goes on reveal that a woman was also Dr. Buckingham's patient lost her baby which was stillborn in Catalina. When Hope passed out after giving birth to Beth, he switch the babies. Hope learns that she hold the unknown woman's stillborn baby, believing that Beth was dead. Liam says that Taylor told Reese that Steffy was looking to adopt a sister for Kelly and Reese told that there was a woman who is willing to adopt, in which Flo comes in. Liam explains to Hope that Dr. Buckingham and Flo knew each other from Vegas and he needed her to pose as the birth mother to "Phoebe". Liam then tells Hope that Taylor did not know about Phoebe being Beth and that she gave Dr. Buckingham a lot money in cash for their daughter. In shocked and crying, Hope asks Liam who else knew about Beth. Liam says that Zoe knew but did not want her dad to get arrested, Xander Avant, and Emma Barber. However Liam reveals that Emma found out when Zoe and Xander was arguing and was on her way to tell Hope the truth before she died. Finally Liam warns Hope that Thomas knew about Beth around the time they got an annulment and that he was chasing Emma and crashed her car in a ditch. Hope apologizes to Liam, and vows to leave Thomas for his deceit. When Steffy returns Hope and Liam tells her about Flo not being Phoebe's birth mother and that Phoebe is Beth. Hope and Steffy argue about Beth and that Steffy still wants to keep her, but realizes that Hope was robbed of being Beth's mother and decides to give Beth back to Hope and Liam, much to Steffy's sadness. Afterwards Hope and Liam go to the cabin and Douglas arrives. Hope lets Douglas knows that she is happy that she has her daughter back, and that she thanks him for telling the truth. Also she tells Douglas that she will still take care of him. Hope and Liam have a celebration on having Beth back with their family. While going back to the cabin Flo is there. After putting Beth down, Hope confront Flo about her betrayal, and tells her that she would never forgive her for keeping her daughter away from her for months. Hope and Liam talks with Justin about reversing the adoption and to serve Thomas annulment papers for his deceit. Hope later contacts Thomas to confront him on keeping Beth away from her, manipulating her grief, and using Douglas and announces that they are getting a divorce. When Hope is getting the rest of Beth's things from Steffy's house, Thomas shows up and wants to convince her to not end their marriage. Hope does not want to hear him, and tries to leave but Thomas grabs her. Hope breaks free and runs outside but Thomas tries to tell her that if he would had told the truth she would leave him for Liam. Hope tries to get out of his grip to tell him that it is over between them. Brooke arrives to the Steffy's house gets Hope out of Thomas grips. When Thomas tries to apologise, Brooke pushes him out of the way and Thomas falls over the cliff. At the hospital Hope angrily wants Thomas to wake up so that he can face the consequences of his action, Thomas then awakens. Thomas tells Detective Sanchez that his fall was an accident in front of Brooke, Ridge, Liam and Hope. Also he apologizes to Hope for lying to her and hopes she can forgive him. Hope, Liam, and Beth are at the cabin, and Hope tells Liam that she will never forgive Thomas for keeping Beth away from them, and believes that he only told Detective Sanchez that Brooke pushed him by accident in hopes to get back in her good graces. Liam tells her that they still got a lot of time with Beth, and to only worry about the present. References External links Hope Logan profile – Soapcentral.com The Bold and the Beautiful characters Television characters introduced in 2002 Female characters in television

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A dead end, also known as a cul-de-sac (, from French for 'bag-bottom'), no through road or no exit road, is a street with only one inlet or outlet. The term "dead end" is understood in all varieties of English, but the official terminology and traffic signs include many different alternatives. Some of these are used only regionally. In the United States and other countries, cul-de-sac is often not an exact synonym for dead end and refers to dead ends with a circular end, allowing for easy turning at the end of the road. In Australia and Canada, they are usually referred to as a court when they have a bulbous end. Dead ends are added to road layouts in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some dead ends provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists, pedestrians or other non-automotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths, an example of filtered permeability. The International Federation of Pedestrians proposed to call such streets "living end streets" and to provide signage at the entry of the streets that make this permeability for pedestrians and cyclists clear. Its application retains the dead end's primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity. History The earliest examples of dead ends were unearthed in the El Lahun workers' village in Egypt, which was built circa 1885 BC. The village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to a grid but irregular. The western part of the excavated village, where the workers lived, shows fifteen narrow and short dead-ends laid out perpendicularly on either side of a wider, straight street; all terminate at the enclosing walls. Dead-end streets also appeared during the classical period of Athens and Rome. The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead-end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes. He writes: The same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle, when he criticized the Hippodamian grid: In the UK, their prior existence is implied by the Public Health Act 1875 which banned their use in new developments. Inferential evidence of their earlier use can also be drawn from the text of a German architect, Rudolf Eberstadt, that explains their purpose and utility: It was in the United Kingdom that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with the Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. The proponents of the Act, Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, thus gained permission to introduce culs-de-sac in their subsequent site plans, and they promoted it as a suitable street type for Garden Suburbs. Unwin's applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of the road network. This design feature reflects the predominance of pedestrian movement for local trips at the turn of the 20th century, and presages the current planning priority for increased pedestrian accessibility. The 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to . Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City, all included culs-de-sac. In the 1920s, the garden city movement became more popular in the United States and, with it, came its design elements, such as the cul-de-sac. Clarence Stein, a main proponent of the movement, incorporated it in the Radburn, New Jersey subdivision, which was to become a model for subsequent neighborhood developments. The country's Federal Housing Authority (FHA) recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and the power of lending development funds. In Canada, a variation of Stein's Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents (loops) instead of culs-de-sac was built in 1947: Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, designed by Hubert Bird. In 1954, the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation published its own guidelines in which the cul-de-sac was strongly recommended for local streets and, as the FHA in the US, used its lending power to see its inclusion in development plans. The Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary, Alberta also used the Radburn model in the late 1960s. In the 1960s the cul-de-sac attained systematic international application in planned new cities such as Doxiadis' Islamabad (1960). In the UK, new towns such as Harlow (1947) by Sir Frederick Gibberd and Milton Keynes (1967) incorporated culs-de-sac and crescents in their layouts. Planning theorists have suggested the use of alternatives to culs-de-sac. Most notably, Christopher Alexander et al., in his 1977 book "A Pattern Language" (pattern #49) suggests the use of looped local roads which do not abruptly stop. Although dead end streets (culs-de-sac), would fit his definition of looped local roads Alexander suggestions that "culs-de-sacs are very bad from a social standpoint—they force interaction and they feel claustrophobic, because there is only one entrance". Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine. Originally-unplanned dead ends Originally-unplanned dead ends have been added in city centers that are laid out on a grid by blocking through-traffic. Whole neighbourhood street reconfigurations emerged in several cities, mainly concentrated in North America and the UK, which include Berkeley, California; Seattle, Washington; and Vancouver, British Columbia. The transformation of grid plans since the 1970s limits access to an existing road that is newly designated as a major artery, enabling traffic to move smoothly on it, alleviating residents' concerns. This selective, sporadic transformation is continuing. As traffic volumes increase and as cities decide to remove or reduce traffic on specific streets of central areas, streets are closed off using bollards or landscaping thus making new, originally unplanned dead ends and producing a new, functional blend of the inherited grid with newer street types. A recent variation of limiting traffic is managed closure by using retractable bollards that are activated only by designated card-holders. However, besides cars, they also stop ambulances and other emergency vehicles, and they often lack adequate turning. Suburban use and benefits Since the end of World War II, new subdivisions in the United States and Canada, as well as New Towns in England and other countries have made extensive use of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loops) street types. Typically, there is one or several central roads in the subdivision with many cul-de-sac streets of varying length, branching out from the main roads, to fill the land in the subdivision, a dendrite or hierarchical pattern. Since the 1960s, the pattern has been the dominant road network structure of suburbs and exurbs in the United States, Canada, and Australia. It is also increasingly popular in Latin America, Western Europe, and China. In this pattern, there are only a few roads (relative to the number of cul-de-sac streets) leading out of the subdivision and into other subdivisions or onto major roads. In the US, these changes can be attributed to real-estate developers' desire to meet FHA guidelines and make federal home loans available to their customers. In Canada, a similar incentive was provided to developers by CMHC. The incentives, which were discontinued in the 1970s, gave the initial impetus for the application of the hierarchical pattern. In other countries, such incentives do not exist, and adoption is motivated by customer preferences. American urban planning, in the 19th and the early 20th centuries, emphasized a grid plan, partly out of extensive reliance on foot, horse and trams for transportation. In such earlier urban development, alleys were included to allow for deliveries of soiled supplies, such as coal, to the rear of houses that are now heated by electricity, piped natural gas or oil. The use of culs-de-sac reduces the amount of car traffic on residential streets within the subdivision, thus reducing noise, air pollution and the probability of accidents. Ben-Joseph (1995), and Lovegrove and Sayed (2006), indicate a substantially lower collision rate for street networks based on the cul-de-sac street type. Dumbaugh and Rae (2009) suggest that land-use patterns play a significant role in traffic safety and should be considered in conjunction with the network pattern. While all intersection types in general increase the incidence of fatal crashes, four-way intersections, which rarely occur in a network with cul-de-sac or loop streets, increase total and injurious crashes significantly. The study recommends hybrid street networks with dense concentrations of T-intersections and concludes that a return to the 19th century gridiron is undesirable. The decrease in traffic, in turn, is thought to lower the incidence of crime and increase desirability, because in most cases the people who traverse the cul-de-sac either live there or are guests of those who do. CPTED planning principles suggest increased natural surveillance and sense of ownership as a means of fostering security in a neighbourhood. Both of these phenomena occur naturally on a cul-de-sac street as does social networking. Design guidelines based on the CPTED perspective recommend its use for those reasons. Cul-de-sac streets increase spontaneous outdoor activity by children. A study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and culs-de-sac. The findings indicate that culs-de-sac showed substantial increase in play activity than the open grid street pattern. Culs-de-sac reduce perceived danger from traffic, thereby encouraging more outdoor play. Similar studies in Europe and Australia found that children's outdoor play is significantly reduced on through roads where traffic is, or perceived by parents to be, a risk. In addition, they confirmed the results of the seminal Donald Appleyard 1982 study, which showed the negative correlation between amount of traffic and social networks. The inverse correlation between amounts of traffic and sociability of streets was reconfirmed by a newer study that repeated Appleyard's San Francisco analysis in Bristol, UK. It showed that the cul-de-sac street with the lowest traffic of the three streets had the highest level of social interaction. The studies recommend the use of the cul-de-sac or strong traffic calming measures. When culs-de-sac are interconnected with foot and bike paths, as for example in Vauban, Freiburg and Village Homes in Davis, California, they can increase active modes of mobility among their residents. Real estate developers prefer culs-de-sac because they allow builders to fit more houses into oddly-shaped tracts of land and facilitate building to the edges of rivers and property lines. They also choose these discontinuous network patterns of cul-de-sac and loop streets because of the often significant economies in infrastructure costs compared to the grid plan. From an environmental perspective, culs-de-sac allow greater flexibility than the common grid in adapting to the natural grades of a site and to its ecologically sensitive features, such as streams, creeks, and mature forest growth. The desirability of the cul-de-sac street type among home buyers is implied by the evidence that they often pay up to a 20% premium for a home on such a street, according to one study. That could be because there is considerably less passing traffic, resulting in less noise and reduced actual or perceived risk, increasing the sense of tranquility. A survey of residents on three types of streets: cul-de-sac, loop, and through (grid) recorded their preferences among these types. It found that 82% of cul-de-sac residents preferred their own street type, 18% preferred a loop, and 0% the grid. Only 13% of grid street residents preferred their own type and 54% would choose a cul-de-sac. Two other studies, reported in 1990 and 2009 respectively, confirmed the upward trend and determined the premium that cul-de-sac streets command. The first found a 29% premium over the streets in a grid. The second, focused on trails and greenbelts, found that other amenities including cul-de-sac streets add significantly to the home value. The positive feelings that a cul-de-sac street could evoke, that residents value, are expressed vividly by Allan Jacobs in describing Roslyn Place, a short (), narrow (), densely built (), and wood-paved cul-de-sac in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: "Step into Roslyn Place and you are likely to sense, immediately, that you are in a place, a special place, a handsome place, a safe place, a welcoming place, a place where you might wish to live." "narrowness and enclosure and intimacy bring a feeling of safety to Roslyn Place... 'Stay on our street' is all the kids have to know". Gated communities, whose numbers steadily increase worldwide, use cul-de-sac and loop street networks because the dendrite structure reduces the number of through roads and thus the corresponding number of entries and exits that need to be controlled. Criticisms and discussion Traffic safety issues Dead ends are traditionally considered safer traffic environments for children than normal streets, but research shows that areas with many dead ends in fact have higher rates of traffic accidents involving young children. This increased risk of death is due to multiple factors, including: families living on dead-end streets drive longer distances to reach their destinations, parents living on dead-end streets spend less time teaching their children to be as wary of traffic, and an increased risk of the parents accidentally driving over the children in front of their own homes. Environmental, health, and crime issues Culs-de-sac are criticised by urban designers like those of the Foundation for the Built Environment in the UK for encouraging car transport for even short distances, as more direct connections are precluded by the geometry, which necessitates long travel distances even to physically-nearby locations. This increases fuel consumption and vehicle emissions and has negative effects on health by reducing walking and cycling rates. Related research in the United States by Richard Jackson has shown that people in car-based (cul-de-sac heavy) communities weigh on average more than those in traditional towns (with open grid networks). An extensive analysis of the research evidence by TRB, however, shows only an association between the built environment and physical activity levels, not causal connections. The evidence also does not identify with certainty which characteristics of the built environment are most closely associated with physical activity behaviour. The study also warns against confusing inadequate physical activity with obesity which is the outcome of an energy imbalance. Many contemporary lifestyle trends, some inevitable (sedentary work) and some avoidable (frequent energy-rich food consumption or the watching of television [four hours per day]), contribute to the imbalance and must be considered in understanding and combating obesity. The impermeability deficiency of the typical cul-de-sac street can be addressed by applying a modified, improved version of it, mentioned above, that enables pedestrian and bicycle through-movement. While this more permeable version can be applied in new developments easily, modifying existing impermeable cul-de-sac streets is problematic as it encounters property ownership issues. Efforts in that direction are, however, being made. Because of the complicated legal process and the sheer number of existing cul-de-sac streets, however, such efforts would be slow to produce results and may have little impact in changing the landscape of existing districts. Conversely, transforming existing streets that are part of a grid plan into permeable, linked culs-de-sac, as was done in Berkeley, California, and Vancouver, British Columbia, is physically and administratively easy due to the public ownership of the street right-of-way. However, residents on adjacent through roads may resent the potential traffic increase and delay the process. In Berkeley, the barriers used were permeable to both pedestrian and bicycle traffic and became the backbone of the bicycle boulevard system in that region. Increases in pedestrian and bicycle permeability may result in a displacement of local car trips for short-distance destinations and consequently a reduction in neighbourhood vehicle emissions. The impermeable cul-de-sac not only discourages walking and biking but also increases the length of car trips by the circuitous geometry of the dendrite network structure of which it is a part. Research studies examined the influence of several variables on the amount of car travel that residents of several types of districts recorded. Results vary considerably among them, but there is general agreement on a number of key correlations: a) the wealthier and the larger the family is, the more cars they own, and the more they drive, b) the farther away a family lives from the city centre, and the fewer the jobs in the vicinity, plus a slow bus service, the more they drive, and c) street patterns may add a 10% length to local trips, but the total VKTs are affected more by the "macro" urban than the "micro" neighbourhood structure. Culs-de-sac, especially those that also limit pedestrian routes instead of only road-traffic routes, have also been criticised for negative effects on safety because they decrease the amount of through-traffic (vehicular or pedestrian) that might notice an accident or crime victim in need of help. Proponents of culs-de-sac and gated communities have in turn countered that the reduction in through-traffic makes any "stranger" much more recognisable in the closed local environment and thus reduces crime danger. That view has in turn been characterized as unrealistic. It is argued that, since only very few of all non-locals passing through the area are potential criminals, increased traffic should increase rather than decrease safety. Research has expanded the discussion on the disputed issue. A 2008 study did extensive spatial analysis and correlated several building, site plan and social factors with crime frequencies and identified subtle nuances to the contrasting positions. The study looked at, among others, a) dwelling types, b) unit density (site density) c) movement on the street, d) culs-de-sac or grids, and e) the permeability of a residential area. Among its conclusions are, respectively, that a) flats are always safer than houses and the wealth of inhabitants matters, b) density is generally beneficial but more so at ground level, c) local movement is beneficial but larger-scale movement not so, d) relative affluence and the number of neighbours has a greater effect than either being on a cul-de-sac or being on a through-street. It also established again that simple, linear culs-de-sac with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly-used permeability is a crime hazard. More generally, the New Urbanism movement has offered criticism of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loop) street types not intended to network with each other. It has been suggested that such street layouts can cause increased traffic on the collector streets. It is recognized that culs-de-sac and looped streets inherently remove car traffic through them and restrict access to residents only. Resident traffic is naturally channelled to minor residential collectors and to arterials that provide inter-neighbourhood and inter-district connectivity. A study, reported in 1990, compared the traffic performance in a development that was laid out using two approaches, one with and the other without hierarchy or cul-de-sac streets. It concluded that the non-hierarchical, traditional layout generally shows lower peak speed and shorter, more frequent intersection delays than the hierarchical pattern. The traditional pattern is not as conducive to long trips as the hierarchical but more conducive to short trips. Local trips in it are shorter in distance but about equivalent in time with the hierarchical layout. A later similar comparative traffic study of about concluded that all types of layouts perform adequately in most land-use scenarios and that a refined hierarchical, dendrite network can improve traffic performance. Anecdotal and research evidence suggests that navigation (especially on foot) in a disconnected network of cul-de-sac and looped streets is inconvenient and non-intuitive, particularly when combined with curvilinear geometry. Loss of orientation and sense of direction is also a common experience in older cities with cul-de-sac streets (Medina of Arab cities or Mediterranean hill towns) as well as in cities with highly-irregular block geometries and sizes and corresponding street alignments that produce a labyrinthine effect. The long history of such cities implies that an irregular, complicated street network that appears entirely illegible to a visitor is well understood and used by the inhabitants. More convincing about its workability for their permanent residents are the case histories of cities such as Regensburg that show a gradual transformation of an imported or imposed orthogonal, "legible" grid to the traditional "confusing" street networks. Cul-de-sac and loop streets can reduce the size of any given neighbourhood to a single street. Neighbourhoods can be defined by geographic boundaries but more often it is shared ethnic, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics that produce social cohesion irrespective of apparent physical "boundaries". Mehaffy et al. (2010), who propose a model for structuring an urban network, suggest that neighbourhoods cannot be designed into being. "Community" is viewed as a dynamic social and cultural construct, especially in contemporary, open, multicultural cities. Residential area street configuration can assist its emergence only by reducing through-traffic and increasing local pedestrian movementa design goal for which connected cul-de-sac and looped streets are suited. Issues of pedestrian trip length and isolation are very evident in the back-to-front housing arrangement where the front of the house fronts onto the cul-de-sac street while the rear fronts onto the main roads. Some of the problems can be mitigated by the newer practice of connecting the neighbouring roads and culs-de-sac with public pedestrian or cycle paths. In effect, this removes the discontinuity aspect for these modes of transport. Built examples of such connected culs-de-sac can be found in the United States (such as Radburn, New Jersey, and Village Homes, California), England (such as Milton Keynes), and Greece (such as Papagou, a suburb of Athens). Acknowledging their use, Germany, under the 2009 amendment to the Road Traffic Act, introduced an additional sign for culs-de-sac that are permeable to pedestrians and cyclists (see under signage below). A new system for organizing connected, permeable culs-de-sac into complete neighbourhoods, the fused grid, has been developed by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. In the development context and planning literature of North America, culs-de-sac have been associated with low-density residential development. Sustainable development theorists and proponents claim that to be, in some undefined way, inefficient. The increased prevalence of cul-de-sac streets occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, a period of rapid economic and city expansion, when a detached house on a large lot meant an ideal form of habitation. The temporal coincidence of the wide adoption of a street type and an increasing demand for large lots and houses suggests a necessary relationship between street type and unit density. Historically, however, the earliest systematic application of the cul-de-sac street type by Raymond Unwin (1909) had a unit density between , considerably higher than mid-to-late 20th century. Even in the 21st century, developments rarely achieve densities above in the suburbs. Conversely, early 1950s suburban developments that were laid out on a grid exhibit similar low densities. Evidently, street, network type and density are not linked causally; other factors, such as land scarcity and income, influence the outcome as, for example, in cities that are landlocked or that have low average incomes. Another concern is often voiced by emergency services, which can have difficulty locating streets when a community consists of a large number of similarly named culs-de-sac; also, large fire response vehicles, in particular, can have great difficulty with turning around in a cul-de-sac. However, confusing street naming is not a necessary outcome of street network design and can be improved. The practice of naming orthogonal networks by numbers and letters in the corresponding cardinal directions has been criticized by Camilo Sitte as lacking imagination. Nonetheless, police and fire departments now use advanced GPS systems that quickly locate the destination and the shortest path to follow. School buses can also have a hard time turning around, which means that children who live in a cul-de-sac must often walk to a bus stop on a main through-road. However, recent research on obesity and urban planning suggests that to be a possible advantage because it enables children to get daily physical activity. Longer walking distances, however, reduce interest to use buses especially when a car is available. This disincentive to walking to a school bus-stop can be overcome in planned cul-de-sac streets by regulating their maximum length to about , as was recommended and practiced by R. Unwin and others. Weighing available evidence has led a few US cities including Austin, Texas; Charlotte, North Carolina; and Portland, Oregon, to restrict and regulate the inclusion of cul-de-sac streets in new suburbs. However, a 2010 study on sprawl in North America by a legal expert concludes that "neighborhoods dominated by culs-de-sac are less walkable than those that include street grids.... On the other hand, culs-de-sac do have a countervailing public benefit: because of their very inaccessibility, they tend to have less automobile traffic. Given the existence of important public policy goals on both sides, a city seeking to maximize walkability should not favor culs-de-sac over grids, but should also allow some culs-de-sac as a legitimate residential option.... In addition, there are "middle ground" alternatives between prohibiting culs-de-sac and mandating them. For example, a city could encourage culs-de-sac combined with pedestrian walkways." This design combination is shown in the Village Homes layout and is an integral part of the Fused Grid. Terminology George Orwell wrote in his 1946 article "Politics and the English Language" that the term "cul de sac" is another foreign word used in English as pretentious diction and is unnecessary. The word "cul-de-sac" and its synonyms or near synonyms "dead end" and "no exit" have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture, often with the result that a word or phrase seeming to have a negative connotation is replaced in street signs with a new coinage ("no outlet" is another alternative name used on street signs). The expression cul-de-sac comes from French, where it originally meant "bottom of a sack". It was first used in English in anatomy (since 1738). It was used for dead-end streets since 1800 in English (since the 14th century in French). The often-heard erroneous folk etymology "arse/ass [buttocks] of the sack" is based on the modern meaning of cul in French, Catalan, and Occitan, but cul does not have that meaning in cul-de-sac, which is still used to refer to dead ends in modern Frenchalthough the terms and are more common. J. R. R. Tolkien used the name Bag End as a translation of "cul-de-sac" to poke fun at the British use of French terms. Australia In Australia, dead-end streets are signposted as and often referred to as a "No Through Road". Suffixes for these types of streets include "court", "close" or "place". The term "cul-de-sac" generally only refers to a reasonably short street with a bulbous end, or even only to the end portion. A long road that is a no-through road and terminates abruptly is usually called a dead end. Canada In Canada, "cul-de-sac" is commonly used in speech but "no exit" or "no through road" is more common in road signs, especially in western Canada. In Quebec and Newfoundland, "Cul-de-Sac" is in far more common use, although Quebec is using "Impasse" too. France Cul de sac is French for 'bag-bottom'. New Zealand In New Zealand, dead-end streets are sometimes signposted as "No Exit", but are often not signposted at all. The terms 'cul-de-sac' and 'dead end' have the same senses as in Australia. United States U.S. Federal Highway Administration rules state: "The Dead End sign may be used at the entrance of a single road or street that terminates in a dead end or cul-de-sac. The No Outlet sign may be used at the entrance to a road or road network from which there is no other exit." There is no federal regulation on "no exit". The phrase "No Exit" is also preferred for Chicago signs, although "dead end" is still used there. New York City has favored "dead end" since at least the 1930s, when Sidney Kingsley used the phrase to title his Broadway play about poor, tough East Side youths with lives of little promise, in contrast to the dead-end streets of the nearby Sutton Place neighborhood. (Similarly, French existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre titled a play about three damned sinners, Huis Clos, translated into English as "No Exit".) Kingsley's play was later made into a movie, Dead End, which proved so popular that it spawned similar movies, many starring a group of recurring characters known as the Dead End Kids. The play and movies produced such a strong image of bleak futures and an unfair society that some municipalities changed the sign terminology for culs-de-sac, often to "no outlet" or "no exit". (The "dead end" signs currently at Sutton Place are bright yellow with black lettering.) In New York City, as of 2008, there were 4,659 "dead end" traffic signs, along with 160 "no outlet" signs. The city records, which go back to the 1960s, show only a couple of "no exit" signs once existing near the approaches to the Midtown Tunnel, and which are no longer there. New York City Commissioner of Transportation Janette Sadik-Khan said in 2008: "We hear that some towns use 'no outlet' instead of 'dead end' because they think it sounds less morbid." "We tell New Yorkers the truth: it's a 'dead end', and we think that motorists get the point quickly." California uses the phrase Not a Through Street or Not a Through Road to mark roads or road systems that end in culs-de-sac. More recently, No Outlet has been shown on some signs as well (an example being Meyers Avenue south of Eureka Street in the Pine Hills area). Other uses In military parlance, a "cul-de-sac" refers to a situation where an army is "hemmed in on all sides but behind". "Cul-de-sac" is also used metaphorically to mean a line of thought or action that leads nowhere. In medicine, the expression is used to refer to the recto-uterine pouch, also known as the Pouch of Douglas, the deepest point of the female peritoneal cavity. Signage See also Fused Grid Permeability (spatial and transport planning) Turnaround (road) References External links Types of streets

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EFX was a Las Vegas Strip production show residing at the MGM Grand Hotel & Casino which opened on March 23, 1995 and closed on December 31, 2002. When it premiered, it was the most expensive and largest-scaled theater installation in the world. A significant entertainment landmark of the strip for nearly eight years, it was known for changing its headline star every two years. Performers in the lead role were Michael Crawford, David Cassidy, Tommy Tune, and Rick Springfield. Michael Crawford version, 1995 Plot The original production of EFX featured a loose plot involving the celebration of the human mind. The EFX Master, in charge of EFX, a world where "anything is possible" thanks to imagination, invites the audience to relive their childhood innocence and wonder by taking them on a journey through four different stories: those of Merlin and King Arthur, a futuristic P.T. Barnum and his alien circus, the last days of Harry Houdini, and H.G. Wells' classic novella, The Time Machine. Each story was its own "act," and was introduced by a "helper" of the EFX Master's based upon their "mastership" of that story's overall theme. After being introduced to the world of EFX, the EFX Master transforms himself into Merlin as the Master of Magic tells the audience that they are about enter the time of a young Arthur, before he became king. Arthur begs Merlin to teach him about magic, and Merlin explains that Arthur first needs to learn how to live in harmony with nature. Their lesson is interrupted by the arrival of the witch Morgana, who seeks to kill Arthur to keep him from fulfilling his destiny of becoming king. Merlin and Morgana duke it out as giant dragons in a fiery on-stage battle before Arthur pulls the sword from the stone and defeats the evil sorceress. The audience is left with the message that "good must triumph always." The Master of Laughter then sends us deep into outer space where we meet up with the EFX Master, now P.T. Barnum, and his crazy alien circus. Mishaps and hilarity abound as the intergalactic ensemble perform, and, led by the assistant Vladimir, eventually try to upstage the ringmaster Barnum. This act of the show is the one that was the most re-written. It originally featured a long, innuendo-laced solo-stand-up act by Barnum that included a mind-reading trick involving playing cards and audience participation, an evade-the-blade stunt with the ill-fated Martian Mingo-Sniffer named Muffy, and a juggling act using the cannonballs of Bull Run. The card trick was quickly cut from the show, and Bull Run was reworked to become part of a human cannonball stunt, which gets botched up nicely by Vladimir. Barnum was also supposed to dance the entire Irish jig with the cast, but a hip injury sustained during one of the many stunts left Michael Crawford unable to dance for long, and the number was re-staged to feature just the ensemble performing the jig while Barnum tries in vain to catch Vladimir in an effort to stop his assistant from upstaging him. After leaving the Intergalactic Circus of Wonders, the Master of Spirits appears and asks us if we wish to make contact with the other side. The audience is then brought to a seance led by Bess Houdini in which she asks to speak to the spirit of her dead husband, the famous illusionist Harry Houdini. The EFX Master, as Houdini, appears, and he and Bess reunite briefly to relive various moments of their past, starting with the night that they first met at one of Houdini's escapes. Upon being reminded of Harry's dangerous career, a disillusioned Bess asks Houdini if he ever really loved her, or if his feelings were really an illusion like his many tricks: "Did you just make me believe that you loved me and not even care enough to stay alive?" We then see Houdini's death, drowning in a water tank before freeing himself from his chains, and Houdini tells Bess, "There's nothing here on Earth that is stronger than the love that I have for you. I only wish I learned that sooner." They then say their goodbyes, promising to be reunited again someday. The final act is introduced by the Master of Time, who asks us if we are brave enough to see what the years ahead have in store for us. He takes us to see the EFX Master, who has now become H.G. Wells. Wells expresses his amazement that his novel The Time Machine has been so enthusiastically received by the public, and goes on to explain that his own personal interest in the story lies in the scientific possibility of actually traveling through time for research purposes. He has even built a real time machine, but is hesitant to use it, citing the "effects on future generations not yet shaped. It could be dangerous." The Master of Time urges him to "take the journey you've always dreamed of," adding that sometimes the risks are worth it. Wells agrees, and uses the time machine to enter the far-distant future, an effect achieved through a 3D music video projected onto a scrim during the scene change. Wells arrives in a beautiful garden to find that the surviving human population has been enslaved by a race of reptilian-like creatures, the Morlocks, who force the humans to work underground. The Morlocks steal the time machine while Wells befriends one of the female slaves who managed to escape. Together, Wells and the slave girl enter the caves to free the other slaves and take back the time machine. After successfully defeating the Morlocks, the slave girl tries to persuade Wells into taking her back with him. He refuses and she kisses him. Moved by the kiss, and an earthquake, Wells agrees to let the slave girl join him, and together they travel back to his own time. The EFX Master then appears one final time, this time as himself, and with the entire cast, he praises the human imagination and encourages us to continue to create incredible tales and believe in ourselves and our capacity for creation. We're asked to open ourselves up to infinite possibilities. Casting EFX was originally conceived as a showcase for performer Michael Crawford, who was fresh off his four-year run in The Phantom of the Opera and enjoying a successful solo career at the time. Crawford jumped at the opportunity to showcase his talents, and the result was his being cast as all five of the show's main characters, which included Crawford revisiting the role of P.T. Barnum, a role he originated in the West End production of the Cy Coleman musical Barnum. Tina Walsh and Kevin Koelbl doubled-up on a few supporting roles, while Jeffrey Polk, Stewart Daylida, Rick Stockwell, Lisa Geist, and over seventy ensemble members rounded out the rest of the cast. Cast The EFX Master, Merlin, P.T. Barnum, Harry Houdini, and H.G. Wells: Michael Crawford Morgana and Bess Houdini: Tina Walsh The Master of Spirits and Vladimir: Kevin Koelbl The Master of Magic: Jeffrey Polk The Master of Laughter: Stewart Daylida The Master of Time: Rick Stockwell Young King Arthur: Lisa Geist Creative team EFX was originally created by Gary Goddard and Tony Christopher, with additional material and dialogue provided by Michael Crawford and Bruce Vilanch, respectively. The show was directed by Scott Faris and Anthony van Laast, who also provided the choreography, and Theoni V. Aldredge provided the costumes. The original music was composed by Don Grady, Ted King, Gary Goddard, Andy Belling, B. A. Robertson, and Michael Crawford, and featured lyrics by Doug Brayfield, Ted King, Gary Goddard, Andy Belling, Marty Panzer, and B. A. Robertson. Composer John Barry's theme from the film Somewhere in Time was also used as pre-show music during the show's original 1995 run. Barry, who had worked with Michael Crawford before on previous projects such as the West End musical Billy and the British movie musical of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, gave Crawford permission to add vocals to the Somewhere in Time theme. Lyrics were provided by B.A. Robertson. Original Cast Album The original EFX cast album, featuring Michael Crawford, was released in 1995 on the Atlantic Theatre label, which was a division of the Atlantic label that Crawford held a record deal with at the time. To date, this version of the cast album is the only EFX cast album to receive a general release. Subsequent albums were only available through the EFX gift shop. The recording features Michael Crawford on lead vocals. Jeffrey Polk, Kevin Koelbl, Rick Stockwell, and Stewart Daylida provide brief solo vocals on the track "Nexus," Ginny Grady duets with Crawford on the reprise of "The Magic That Surrounds You," and Tina Walsh provides vocals on the track "Tonight." The CD also features two instrumentals, "Morgana's Arrival" and "The Jig." Track listing Somewhere in Time Nexus EFX The Magic That Surrounds You, Part 1 Merlin Ballet, Part 2 The Magic That Surrounds You (Reprise), Part 3 Morgana's Arrival The Intergalactic Circus of Wonders The Jig Tonight Counting Up to Twenty Finale Open Your Eyes "Somewhere in Time" and "Open Your Eyes" were bonus tracks that were used as pre- and-post-show music, respectively, during Crawford's run in the show. Crawford's departure Due to the intensity of the stunts and the extreme physical demand required to perform the show, Michael Crawford sustained many serious physical injuries during his run in EFX, during both rehearsals and performances. Crawford, famous for his penchant to perform his own stunts, refused to use a stunt double (except for the end of the H.G. Wells act, in which a double was necessary due to a costume change). Many times, especially during early runs of EFX, Crawford took tumbles from scenery and zip-lines. Scenery would often fly out from under him (most notably the flying saucer) and either send him crashing to the stage or leave him dangling from a safety harness up to twelve feet in the air. One rehearsal of the Merlin act even resulted in his costume catching on fire, with half of it reportedly burned away before the flames could be extinguished. Crawford often took pain killers in order to perform every night, and some of the more demanding scenes were rewritten to accommodate performing around his injuries. In the end, a fall from a zip-line during the Barnum act required hospitalization and an early hip replacement, causing Crawford to leave the show permanently in August 1996. Bootlegs Bootleg recordings of live performances of Crawford's EFX surfaced around 1997, possibly in response to fans of the original version's poor reception of David Cassidy's re-write of the show. A VHS of Michael Crawford's performance near the end of his run surfaced in Nevada and on the US West Coast. While the video featured the majority of the show, several elements had been cut out of the tape, most notably the songs "Nexus," "Merlin Ballet," "Counting Up to Twenty," and all act introductions made by the Masters of Magic, Laughter, Spirit, and Time. The video eventually made its way onto YouTube with most of the ballet and "Counting Up to Twenty" added back in. However, the videos have subsequently been deleted due to copyright claims. Two audio recordings of the entire show, one of the March 23rd opening night performance with Crawford and another with the 1996 post-Crawford/pre-Cassidy cast, circulated in Germany. These are the only complete recordings of the show that are known to exist. Alternate version with understudy cast, 1996 EFX continued without Michael Crawford and while David Cassidy was in rehearsals to take over. Most of the original cast remained with Kevin Koelbl playing the roles of the EFX Master and Harry Houdini in addition to the Master of Spirits, and Stewart Daylida taking on the additional roles of Merlin and P.T. Barnum while still playing the Master of Laughter. Tina Walsh remained to play Morgana and Bess Houdini, and Lisa Geist continued to play a young King Arthur to Ginny Grady's recorded vocals. Sheldon Craig replaced Jeffrey Polk as the Master of Magic, Saif Eddin took over Rick Stockwell's Master of Time, and Joe Machota was cast as (a much younger) H.G. Wells. In addition to the casting changes, there were also alterations made to the show itself. While it largely remained true to the original version, all of the lyrics for the Masters of Magic, Laughter, Spirit, and Time were rewritten, and some scenes were edited down. Barnum's entire stand-up routine was cut and replaced with a group ensemble number that featured a tumbling troupe and later, a flying trapeze act from Russia. Other changes included the addition of 1930s-style radio voice-over commentary (recorded by Stewart Daylida) that played during the Houdini scene, the editing down of the music in the finale, and cutting the pre- and-post-show music all together. Around the second year of the show, two of the Masters left to pursue other jobs. Rick Stockwell was replaced as the Master of Time by Saif Eddin and Jeffrey Polk was replaced as the Master of Magic by Sheldon Craig. During the time Michael Crawford left the show, the four masters, who were the official understudies for the lead to be split into four acts took over for the first few days while it was being decided if Mr. Crawford would return. Kevin Koelbl (Master of Spirits) took over the opening and closing number, as well as for Houdini), Stewart Daylida (Master of Laughter) took over as Merlin, Sheldon Craig (Master of Magic) took over as P.T. Barnum and Saif Eddin took over the H.G. Wells role. Sheldon had already committed to do STARLIGHT EXPRESS after those 3 days so Stewart Daylida did double-duty as Merlin and P.T. Barnum. They performed as the leads for several more weeks (while some of the dancers doubled as the Masters, usually lip-synching to previously recorded tracks by the Masters). Saif Eddin had already left the show and his replacement as the Master of Time, Joe Mahoda, had learned the H.G. Wells part and went on but Stewart Daylida kept performing as P.T. Barnum instead of being replaced by Paul Finocchiaro since special material had been written to make that section work. David Cassidy version, 1996 David Cassidy took over as headliner in November 1996, but only after he requested that he be given creative control. Dissatisfied with the show's original loose and free-flowing story line, Cassidy asked for a major overhaul. Bill Wray was brought in to refine and replace music, and writer David Chisholm and Cassidy's half-brother Shaun Cassidy were brought in to reconstruct the libretto (the book) together with Cassidy. The plot was rewritten and about half of the original songs were either cut or replaced. Plot The original plot from the 1995 production was rewritten by Chisholm and Shaun Cassidy under David Cassidy's supervision, and the music was profoundly changed by Bill Wray, who thought that the audience would better appreciate a more "coherent" story with a logical plot progression. The resulting book focused on David the bus boy, a character that it was felt the audience would identify with more, rather than an EFX Master who ruled a world of dreams. The darker, more serious themes of the show were also cut and replaced by more humorous elements, particularly those that poked fun at the Master of Time. The show opens with the EFX Master (now a projection of James Earl Jones' face) instructing the Masters of Magic, Laughter, Spirit, and Time to find a human who has "lost their imagination" and bring them to EFX. The Masters discover David, a disenchanted bus boy who's serving drinks in the audience. David reveals that he's lost something in his life since losing his love Laura (an audience member selected by the cast before every performance). The Masters tell him that they'll help him regain that lost part of himself, and find Laura, if he's willing to go on a journey to do so. David agrees, and the Master of Magic turns him into King Arthur. Merlin explains that magic is in nature and is accessible by everyone. Arthur is skeptical until Morgana arrives and engages Merlin in a wizard's duel. Just when it seems that Merlin is about to lose the battle, Arthur understands the lesson that the old wizard was trying to teach him, and pulls the sword from the stone to defeat Morgana. With his belief in the impossible and the power of imagination restored, David is sent on the next part of his journey. David becomes P.T. Barnum, the ringmaster of the Intergalactic Circus of Wonders (whose theme song of the same name is now a rap performed by One Spirit). Barnum performs with the circus, and in the process, rediscovers his sense of humour and ability to have a good time. As the circus comes to an end, Barnum spots Laura in the audience, but she's whisked away before he can get to her. He has no choice but to continue on ... Wondering if Laura might be in the spirit world, David becomes Harry Houdini. He fails to find Laura, but Houdini and his wife Bess are briefly reunited and relive some of his greatest escapes before he has to perform one more daring feat: escaping from the spirit world before the Master of Spirits traps him there for all eternity. Houdini escapes, and now remembering what it's like to love, continues his quest for Laura. The final part of David's journey requires him to travel through time. After having a humorous go at the light-hearted Master of Time, David becomes H.G. Wells and travels into the far distant future. Upon his arrival, he discovers that Laura has been kidnapped by the monstrous creatures known as the Morlocks, and is being held captive, along with other humans, in the Morlocks' caverns. Wells enlists the help of two slaves who managed to escape, and together, they defeat the Morlocks and free Laura and the others. Laura and Wells then return to the present time where the cast presents Laura, who is played by an audience member, with flowers for her participation in the show. David, now reunited with his long-lost love and filled with a new-found joy for life, reflects on his adventure and celebrates with the cast while encouraging the audience to embrace all the wonders life has to offer. Casting The casting of EFX also underwent changes. The EFX Master was cut almost completely. All that remained of the character was a giant projection of his face that appeared briefly at the beginning of the show. The Masters of Magic, Laughter, Spirit, and Time became the main characters of the world of EFX, and are responsible for leading the audience through the show. The lead role written for Cassidy was that of a bus boy who's brought into the world of EFX by the four Masters, and it's his story that the audience witnesses. Cast David the bus boy, King Arthur, P.T. Barnum, Harry Houdini, and H.G. Wells: David Cassidy The EFX Master: James Earl Jones (pre-recorded voice only) The Master of Magic: Paul Finocchiaro Morgana: Amelia Prentice-Keene The Master of Laughter and Merlin: Stewart Daylida The Master of Spirits: Kevin Koelbl Bess Houdini: Satomi Hofmann The Master of Time: Paul May Laura: a randomly selected member of the audience Former cast members Tina Walsh and Lisa Geist did not return for the 1997 version of the show. Geist's role as Young King Arthur was cut to allow Cassidy to play an older version of the character, while Walsh's roles as Morgana and Bess Houdini were divided and given to Amelia Prentice-Keene and Satomi Hofmann, respectively. Other casting changes included bringing in Sal Salangsang to perform a thirty-minute comedic pre-show, and casting Paul May as not only the Master of Time, but the lead understudy to David Cassidy and the other three Masters. Cast Album The David Cassidy version of the EFX cast album was released in 1997 by the MGM Grand and was available only through the EFX gift shop at the hotel. The musical theatre feel of the Michael Crawford cast album was replaced with a more pop/rock sound that was better suited to David Cassidy's musical style. The new music was written by Bill Wray, David Cassidy, Andrew Gold, Sue Shifrin, and One Spirit. Track listing Master's Theme EFX The Magic That Surrounds You, Part 1 The Intergalactic Circus of Wonders The Greatest Showman in the Universe The Jig Tonight River in Time The Stick Dance Break-Out Finale Dance/The Big Beat Let It Shine, Part 1 Let It Shine, Part 2 "Tonight" was cut from performances because Cassidy felt it was "too sad" for the audiences to handle. It was included on the cast album as a bonus track; however, it was erroneously labeled as having been "inspired by the Houdini Scene in EFX" instead of being credited as part of the original set list. Differences between the 1995 and 1997 cast albums "Merlin Ballet," the reprise of "The Magic That Surrounds You," and the instrumental track "Morgana's Arrival" were omitted from the new recording. "Nexus" was replaced by the instrumental "Master's Theme," and H.G. Wells' song "Counting Up to Twenty" was replaced by "River in Time." The pre- and-post-show songs "Somewhere in Time" and "Open Your Eyes" were cut from the 1997 production. "Tonight" was also cut from performances, but is included as a bonus track on the 1997 album. Two numbers from the original 1995 production, "The Greatest Showman in the Universe" and "The Stick Dance," are included on the David Cassidy recording and are performed by the 1997 cast. Other new material added by Cassidy includes the songs "Break-Out" and parts one and two of "Let It Shine." Due to the character of the EFX Master being cut from the show, the title song is now performed by the Four Masters and David Cassidy. Two of the original songs were completely rewritten: "The Intergalactic Circus of Wonders" and the finale dance music. "Circus" became a rap performed by Cassidy and the group One Spirit, while the finale featured a more driving, percussion-heavy sound. These new versions are virtually unrecognizable from the originals. Cassidy's departure While most of the initial technical issues that plagued EFX original run and forced Michael Crawford to leave his contract early had been ironed out by 1996, the show was still not without risk. The five-lead-roles-in-one were still highly physically demanding, causing frequent exhaustion, and multiple issues with trap-door exits not only aggravated pre-existing injuries, but resulted in new leg and back injuries for David Cassidy. As a result, Cassidy chose not to renew his contract, and in 1999, he left the show. Tommy Tune version, 1999 The cast of EFX changed once again in 1999. The EFX Master was cut from the show completely, as was David Cassidy's character of Bus Boy. King Arthur was portrayed once again as a young boy, and the roles of Morgana and Bess Houdini were once more performed by the same actress. Cast M.C., Merlin, P.T. Barnum, Harry Houdini, and H.G. Wells: Tommy Tune The Master of Magic: Michael Pointek Young King Arthur: Kristofer Saly Morgana and Bess Houdini: Tina Walsh The Master of Laughter: Stewart Daylida The Master of Spirits: Lawson Skala The Master of Time: Paul May New additions to the cast included Ernest Chambers and Ken Young, who performed the song "River in Time," and dancer Andy Pellick. Original cast member Tina Walsh returned to reprise her roles as Morgana and Bess Houdini, and her re-casting led to the song "Tonight" being added back into the Houdini act of the show. Sal Salangsang stayed on to perform the pre-show, and at Tommy Tune's insistence, was formally recognized as a cast member during the curtain call. Paul May continued to understudy all the Masters, and co-starred with Andy Pellick as the understudy to Tommy Tune, Paul providing vocals and Andy dancing Tommy's choreography. Stewart Daylida was recognized as the only cast member to have performed in all three versions of EFX, having originated the role of the Master of Laughter and playing the character until the Masters were written out of the show by Rick Springfield in 2001. Plot Tommy Tune brought his own vision to EFX when he replaced David Cassidy in 1999. The show was once again rewritten, this time to better suit Tommy's performance style, most particularly his dancing. The 1999 plot was a somewhat more serious show than the David Cassidy version; however, it still retained some of the humor that had been introduced by Cassidy.. There was also an emphasis on dreams, with the line "Wake up and dream!" becoming the unofficial slogan. Cast Album The Tommy Tune version of the EFX original cast album was released in 1999 by the MGM Grand and, like its predecessor, was available only through the hotel gift shop. More changes were made to the music to accommodate the changes in the script, and several new songs by Bill Wray were added, heightening the emotional impact of the album. Track listing Prologue In Dreams What a Night EFX (Bring on the Dream) When You Believe (Lullaby) Merlin Ballet Greatest Showman Intergalactic Circus of Wonders The Jig Eclipse Tonight Duet River in Time The EFX Masters Apotheosis (Finale Dance) Let It Shine (Part One) The Wedge Song and Dance Man Let It Shine (Part Two) The Curtain Call The packaging of the 1999 cast recording contained an error on the track list: "The Wedge" and "Song and Dance Man" were reversed; track 16 is "Song and Dance Man" and track 17 is "The Wedge." Differences between the 1997 and 1999 cast albums "Master's Theme" was replaced by "Prologue," "In Dreams," and "What a Night." The title song was rewritten as "EFX (Bring on the Dream)," and the original music and lyrics of the theme became "The EFX Masters," a reflective piece similar to the opening of the Michael Crawford finale, that segues into the finale dance. "The Magic That Surrounds You" was replaced by "When You Believe (Lullaby)." "Greatest Showman in the Universe" was lengthened and is now performed before "The Intergalactic Circus of Wonders." A new instrumental, "Eclipse," was added to the Houdini scene. "The Stick Dance" is not featured on the 1999 cast album. "River in Time" is no longer performed by the lead character. The finale dance music was once again rewritten. Two new songs, "Song and Dance Man" and "The Wedge," were added between parts one and two of "Let It Shine." A live recording of the curtain call was included. Tune's departure Tommy Tune originally signed a one-year contract to appear in EFX. At the end of his run in 1999, he extended his contract for another six months before leaving in mid-2000. Rick Springfield version, 2001 Rick Springfield took over for Tommy Tune, completely revamping the show and debuting his version in 2001. EFX, now retitled EFX Alive!, became more of a "theatrical concert production" as opposed to being an actual musical. The Masters were written out of the show, along with scenes that featured dancer Andy Pellick and the Flying Kaganovich, a trapeze troupe that had joined the Barnum ensemble in 1996. Sal Salangsang's role was said to have been expanded, though no further details were given. Paul May and Kevan Patriquin shared the role of lead understudy to Rick Springfield. Paul stayed on as a lead understudy until he left the production for other projects a few months into Springfield's run. Paul's understudy duties were subsequently given to Salangsang. As with Tommy Tune, Rick Springfield initially signed a one-year contract. Despite becoming the newest victim in EFX long history of performance-related accidents, fracturing his arm and spraining his wrist early on in his run, Springfield renewed his full contract and stayed with the show until it closed permanently on December 31, 2002. The final performances of EFX Alive! were shot with several cameras. The result was a complete DVD video of EFX Alive! (compiling footage from multiple performances) released exclusively by Springfield's Gomer Records as part of a three-disc limited edition of his 2005 studio album, The Day After Yesterday and available only through the official Rick Springfield merchandise site. An original cast album of the Springfield version of EFX was not released. References 1995 establishments in Nevada 2002 disestablishments in Nevada Defunct tourist attractions in the United States Production shows in the Las Vegas Valley MGM Grand Las Vegas Las Vegas shows Morgan le Fay Merlin Works based on Arthurian legend Cultural depictions of P. T. Barnum Cultural depictions of Harry Houdini Cultural depictions of H. G. Wells The Time Machine

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History of Sarawak can be traced as far as 40,000 years ago to the paleolithic period where the earliest evidence of human settlement is found in the Niah caves. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, first arrived in Sarawak. Sarawak was later governed by the Brooke family between 1841 and 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British. Following this, it became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, and this led to the three-year Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. From 1960 to 1990, Sarawak experienced a communist insurgency. Prehistory The first foragers visited the West Mouth of the Niah Caves (located southwest of Miri) 65,000 years ago instead of 40,000 years ago as previously believed, when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia. The landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, and rivers. The foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants. This new timeline of 65,000 years was established when five pieces of microlithic tools that were aged 65,000 years old and a human skull that was aged 55,000 years were discovered at part of the Niah Caves complex, Trader cave, during excavation work. An earlier evidence is the discovery of a modern human skull, nicknamed "Deep Skull", in a deep trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson (a British ethnologist) in 1958; this is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia. The Deep Skull probably belongs to a 16- to 17-year-old adolescent girl. When compared with the Iban skull and other fossils, the Deep Skull most closely resembles the indigenous people of Borneo today, with their delicate features and small body size, and it has few similarities with the skulls of the indigenous Australians. Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites have also been found. The area around the Niah Caves has been designated the Niah National Park. Another earlier excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at Santubong (near Kuching) that date to the Tang and the Song dynasties in the 8th to 19th century AD. It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during the Yuan dynasty, and the port was deserted during the Ming dynasty. Other archaeological sites in Sarawak can be found inside the Kapit, Song, Serian, and Bau districts. Old Kingdoms The following areas were the sites of old settlements and kingdoms in the northwestern area of Borneo Island: Niah: c65000 - 9000 BC Sarawak, aka Cerava: started c2000 BC - Santubong: started c500 - 1300 AD Dusun: c520 - 1356 AD Iban: c700 -1300 AD Melano: c1300 - 1400 AD Brunai: from c1400 AD Samarahan: started c1300 AD Sadong aka Sadu: started c1300 AD Kalaka aka Kalka: started c1300 AD Saribas: started c1300 AD Brunei: c1356 AD The ancestors of the Dayaks are believed to have originated from South China based on the theory of population migration to Kalimantan or Borneo. Mikhail Coomans (1987: 3) states: “… All Daya tribes belong to a group that migrated en masse from mainland Asia. The Daya tribe is descended from immigrants from the province now called Yunnan in Southern China. From there a small group traveled through Indo China to the Malaysian peninsula which became a stepping stone to enter the islands in Indonesia, in addition, there may be groups who choose other stepping stones, namely through Hainan, Taiwan and the Philippines. The migration was not so difficult, because in the glacial (ice age) the sea level was very low (receding), so that even with small boats they could cross the waters that separated the islands." It is believed that the people of Yunnan at that time made the migration in search of a place that was considered most able to provide freedom of movement to earn a living, especially for farming and hunting. Apparently the migration did not occur only once, but took place gradually, as Coomans (1987: 3) says: “The first groups to enter the Borneo region were the Negroid and Weeddid groups called [Austroasiatics], which are now extinct [in Borneo Kalimantan but still exist in the Isthmus Peninsula and elsewhere in the Island SEA]. Then followed by a larger group, called the Proto [Austronesians]. This migration lasted another 1000 years, between 3000-1500 BC." It is further stated that, “About five hundred years before Christ there was another major migration from mainland Asia to the Indonesian islands. These groups are called Deutro [Austronesians]” (Coomans 1987: 4). According to Tjilik Riwut (1993: 231), the Proto Austronesians initially inhabited the coastal areas but with the arrival of the Deutro Austronesians, the Proto Austronesians moved inland, either to avoid conflicts or to gain better resources. Deutro Austronesians in particular, have lived in one community, (such as a longhouse or village instead of being nomadics), and know the technique of dryland farming, namely shifting cultivation. Santubong Kingdom The Santubong kingdom started circa 500 AD. It was later subject to the Srivijaya and Majapahit Empires. James Brooke found "Nandi dan Yoni" in 1857 and later gold artifacts. Sarawak Museum under Tom Harrisson in 1949 collected thousands of ceramic pieces at Santubong which indicates Santubong existed as a settlement between the 7th and 10th to 14th centuries. About 40,000 tonnes of iron slag was found at Santubong which shows it was a major and vital fort city. The iron industry existed from the 900s to 1350s. Even O.W. Wolters confirms China knew of this iron slag from the 13th century, and interpreted that Pulau Tan-lan mentioned in the Chinese report as located in the western part of Sarawak which was locally known as Pulau Talang-Talang. However, archaeologists of the Sarawak Museum never associate Pulau Talang-Talang with the discovery of the iron slag although its distance is not far from Santubong. At Bongkissam, thousands of ceramic pieces were found and dated to around the 14th century by the Sarawak Museum. The Chinese manuscript of Nan-hai-chih, written in 1304, listed the kingdom in Borneo known as Tung-yang Fo-ni, and indicates it controlled the entirety of north Borneo. The Negarakartagama manuscript of Java written in 1365 shows that Bo-ni was under Majapahit whose expansion up to 1350 diverted trade with China from Santubong to Malano and consequently, no ceramics from the Ming dynasty were found at Santubong. Malano was the most important polity in Tanjungpura at this point in time, according to Negarakartagama: "14 Polities: Kandandangan, Landa, Samadong dan Tirem not forgetting Sedu, Barune (ng), Kalka, Saludong, Solot and also Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, followed by Tanjung Kutei [but] Malano being the most important in Tanjungpura Island". Christie contended that Po-ni was Santubong which was locally known as Muara Punik. Santubong's name was lost from history until a new name, Sawaku (very near to Sarawak) in Negarakartagama. The presence of Majapahit caused the local population to migrate to uplands like Lidah Tanah, Samarahan and Sadong. The local version of the origin of the Santubong kingdom is according to the narration and genealogy provided by the present descendant of the "Tungkat Kerabat" of the Santubong kingdom. The kingdom started at Santubong and expanded to cover the whole northwest of Borneo. It was established by Indrana Jang Sorgi (Hyang Gi) who became the first ruler of the area. He was from Tanjong Pura. His grandfather's name was Indrana Manika, the first ruler of Tanjong Pura. When Indrana Manika died, he was replaced by his son Indrana Sapan who became the second ruler of Tanjong Pura. Indrana Sapan had two sons, Indrana Jang Talar and Indrana Jang Sorgi. Talar was also known as Hyang Ta while Sorgi as Hyang Gi. The message from the grandfather, Indrana Manika, stated he wanted one of his grandsons to rule Tanjong Pura after their father's death. In intrigue before the appointment of Hyang Gi, Indrana Jang Talar (Hyang Ta) was made the ruler of Tanjong Pura. This made Indrana Jang Sorgi (Hyang Gi) unhappy with the decision. He requested that Talar give the throne to him after Talar ruled Tanjong Pura for ~ ten years. To avoid a dispute among those within the palace, Talar gave Indra Jang Sorgi (Hyang Gi) the area of Mora Ponek (Santubong) to rule. Hyang Gi agreed with the arrangement. He built his kingdom at Mora Ponek, changing the name, Mora Ponek, to Indra Ponek (Muara Tebas now). The list of rulers of the Tanjungpura kingdom (the first three) and the Santubong kingdom is as follows: i. Indrana Manika (grandfather's name, the first king of the Tanjungpura kingdom), 800-? ii. Indrana Sapan (the second ruler of Tanjong Pura kingdom) iii. Indrana Jang Talar aka Hyang Ta, (900–977) 1. Indrana Jang Sorgi aka Hyang Gi, ~925-974 - first ruler of Santubong kingdom 2. Indra Siak, 974-1011 3. Sagenta Galam (Indra Galam real name), 1011-1053 4. Saganda Sarik (Indra Sarik real name), 1053-1096 5. Saganda Leleng (Indra Ragga), 1096-1131 6. Saganda Surik (Indhara Uteh), 1131-1173 7. Saganda Pratima (Indra Simma), 1173-1211 8. Saganda Siga (Indraka Sigat), 1211-1242 9. Saganda Junjunan (Indrana Junjunan), 1242-1277 10. Saganda Manikam (Siagasangsana), 1277- 1303 11. Pangiran Tuanku Mahkuta (Indra Lewang), 1303-1332 12. Indra Daha (Raja Leok /Raja Elok), 1332-1376 13. Indranajakkiana or Pangiran Tuanku Mahraja Kanna, 1376-1408 14. Indrana Rajian aka Tuanku Ibrahim Jaffaruddin aka Sultan Abdul Jalil Ibrahim Jaffaruddin, The First Raja Tengah, 1408 - 1447 14b. Pangiran Paduka Tuan Saenan ruled as acting ruler from 1447 - 1462 (as his eldest son, Pangiran Paduka Tuan Ismail Hassanuddin was only ten years old and his brother Abdullah Muhammad was only two). 15. Ismail Hasanuddin aka Sultan Abdul Jalil Ismail Hasanuddin, The Second Sultan Tengah (Indrana Ngemas), 1462 - 1490 16. Sultan Abdul Jalil Muhammad Al Hafiz Zussalam, the third and last Sultan of Santubong, 1490 - 1512 (The last sultan who used the title Abdul Jalil after his late brother and father) 17. Tuanku Ibrahim bin Abdulah Muhammad (vanished at Pulau Lakeyr) 18. Pangiran Paduka Tuan Muhammad Daud - acting Sultan (died at Pulau Burung. 19. Moheddin bin Tuanku Ibrahim (hiding in Kapung Jaheyr) According to this Tungkat Kerabat, the Brunei kingdom attempted to colonize Sarawak at least four times. The first time was when Awang Balitar assassinated Abdullah Muhammad in 1512 and he was executed as a consequence. Brunei troops attacked and conquered Santubong on 15 August 1512, following the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511. The second time was when Pangeran Muda Tengah (1599-1641), aka Sultan Ibrahim Ali Omar Shah, established a fort at Bukit Bedil at the foot of Mount Santubong in 1599. The third time was when Pengiran Kasuma Yuda Pengiran Sharifuddin (died 1832) migrated to Sadong. Earlier in 1780, he attacked Lidah Tanah which flourished after the fall of Santubong in 1512. There is a mausoleum of Pengiran Anak Sabtu at Muara Tuang to this day. He was the father of Pengiran Indera Mahkota Muhamad Salleh who became the Brunei Sultan's representative to Sarawak proper (now Kuching) in 1826 and relocated his court to a place called Serawak to try and control the antimony trade in favour of the Brunei Sultan. The fourth time was in 1837 when Raja Muda Hashim arrived at Sarawak with his 13 brothers (Walker 2002 p. 26). They established a settlement at the present Astana. James Brooke arrived at Sarawak from Singapore in 1838 and became the first White Rajah of Sarawak in 1841. Iban Kingdom The Iban Kingdom is thought to exist from about 700 to 1300 AD at the Tanjung Sirek. It is stated that Tanjung Sirek (today - Bruit) was built as a fortress for the Kingdom around Rajang, Paloh and Mato around 700 AD. Its territory is believed to extend from the Rajang Estuary to Brunei. It is then replaced by the Malano Kingdom. Malano Kingdom The Melano kingdom existed from about 1300 to 1400 AD and centred at the Mukah river. Rajah Tugau is the most renowned King in Sarawak as of now. His kingdom consisted of groups of similar Melanau and Kajang language speakers and covered coastal Sarawak until Belait. They also share almost identical culture and heritage. According to the manuscript of Brunei's rulers, following the fall of Majapahit, Barunai led by Awang Semaun being reinforced by the Iban, conquered Tutong under its chief Mawanga and the whole of the Melano kingdom until Igan under its chief Basiung despite reinforcement from Sambas. Barunai continued the conquest of the entire south and then north of Borneo Island, after which conquered the whole Sulu and Philippines. Nagarakertagama, written in 1365 during Hayam Wuruk, mentions Malano and Barune(ng) among the 14 tributaries of Majapahit. After the fall of Majapahit, Barune(ng) expanded its territory along the northern coast of Borneo island. The Catalan Atlas published in 1375 shows the map of the Malano kingdom. This was confirmed by a Portuguese map which shows the existence of a polity called Malano. At Florence, Italy, an old map dated 1595 shows the Sarawak coastal areas as districts of Oya, Balingian dan Mukah which was marked as Malano. In the Nan-hai-chih of China mentioned Achen atau Igan. Bruneian Empire During the 16th century, the Kuching area was known to Portuguese cartographers as Cerava, one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo. During its golden age, Brunei under Nahkhod Raga Sultan Bolkiah (1473-1521 AD) managed to conquer the Santubong Kingdom in 1512. For a short period of time, it was self-governed under the Sultan of Brunei's younger brother, Sultan Tengah in 1599. The new Sultan's younger brother, Pengiran Muda Tengah, also wanted to become Sultan of Brunei by claiming himself rightful successor on the basis of having been born when his father became the Crown Prince. Sultan Abdul Jalilul Akbar responded by proclaiming Pengiran Muda Tengah as Sultan of Sarawak, as at that time Sarawak was a territory administered by Brunei. Sultan Tengah was killed at Batu Buaya in 1641 by one of his followers. He was buried in Kampong Batu Buaya. With his death, the Sultanate of Sarawak came to an end and later consolidated into Brunei once more. By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. The Bruneian Empire had authority only along the coastal regions of Sarawak held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by Iban, Kayan, and Kenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories. Following the discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region, Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak; this led to civil unrest and chaos. In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle to restore order. Pangeran Muda Hashim requested the assistance of British sailor James Brooke in the matter, but Brooke refused. However, in 1841 during his next visit to Sarawak in 1841 he agreed to a repeated request. Pangeran Muda Hashim signed a treaty in 1841 surrendering Sarawak to Brooke. On 24 September 1841, Pangeran Muda Hashim bestowed the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842. In 1843, James Brooke decided to create a pro-British Brunei government by installing Pangeran Muda Hashim into the Brunei Court as he would take Brooke's advice, forcing Brunei to appoint Hashim under the guns of East India Company's steamer Phlegethon. The Brunei Court was unhappy with Hashim's appointment and had him assassinated in 1845. In retaliation, James Brooke attacked Kampong Ayer, the capital of Brunei. After the incident, the Sultan of Brunei sent an apology letter to Queen Victoria. The sultan also confirmed James Brooke's possession of Sarawak and his mining rights of antimony without paying tribute to Brunei. In 1846 Brooke effectively became the Rajah of Sarawak and founded the White Rajah Dynasty of Sarawak. Brooke dynasty James Brooke ruled the area and expanded the territory northwards until his death in 1868. He was succeeded by his nephew Charles Anthoni Johnson Brooke, who in turn was succeeded by his son, Charles Vyner Brooke, on the condition that Charles Anthoni should rule in consultation with Vyner Brooke's brother Bertram Brooke. Both James and Charles Anthoni Johnson Brooke pressured Brunei to sign treaties as a strategy to acquire territories from Brunei and expand the territorial boundaries of Sarawak. In 1861, Brunei ceded the Bintulu region to James Brooke. Sarawak was recognised as an independent state by the United States in 1850 and the United Kingdom in 1864. The state issued its first currency as the Sarawak dollar in 1858. In 1883 Sarawak was extended to the Baram River (near Miri). Limbang was added to Sarawak in 1890. The final expansion of Sarawak occurred in 1905 when Lawas was ceded to the Brooke government. Sarawak was divided into five divisions, corresponding to territorial boundaries of the areas acquired by the Brookes through the years. Each division was headed by a Resident. Sarawak became a British protectorate in 1888, while still ruled by the Brooke dynasty. The Brookes ruled Sarawak for a hundred years as "White Rajahs". The Brookes adopted a policy of paternalism to protect the interests of the indigenous population and their overall welfare. While the Brooke government established a Supreme Council consisting of Malay chiefs who advised the Rajahs on all aspects of governance, in the Malaysian context the Brooke family is viewed as a colonialist. The Supreme Council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first General Council meeting taking place at Bintulu in 1867. Meanwhile, the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia. The Brooke dynasty encouraged the immigration of Chinese merchants for economic development, especially in the mining and agricultural sectors. Western businessmen were restricted from entering the state while Christian missionaries were tolerated. Piracy, slavery, and headhunting were banned. Borneo Company Limited was formed in 1856. It was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak such as trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development. In 1857, 500 Hakka Chinese gold miners from Bau, under the leadership of Liu Shan Bang, destroyed the Brookes' house. Brooke escaped and organised a bigger army together with his nephew Charles and his Malayo-Iban supporters. A few days later, Brooke's army was able to cut off the escape route of the Chinese rebels, who were defeated after two months of fighting. The Brookes subsequently built a new government house by the Sarawak River at Kuching. An anti-Brooke faction at the Brunei Court was defeated in 1860 at Mukah. Other notable rebellions that were successfully quashed by the Brookes include those led by an Iban leader Rentap (18531863), and a Malay leader named Syarif Masahor (18601862). As a result, a series of forts were built around Kuching to consolidate the Rajah's power. These include Fort Margherita, which was completed in 1879. In 1891 Charles Anthoni Brooke established the Sarawak Museum, the oldest museum in Borneo. In 1899, Charles Anthoni Brooke ended the intertribal wars in Marudi. The first oil well was drilled in 1910. Two years later, the Brooke Dockyard opened. Anthony Brooke was born in the same year and became Rajah Muda in 1939. In 1941, during the centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak, a new constitution was introduced to limit the power of the Rajah and to allow the Sarawak people to play a greater role in the functioning of the government. However, the draft included a secret agreement drawn up between Charles Vyner Brooke and British government officials, in which Vyner Brooke ceded Sarawak as a British Crown Colony in return for a financial compensation to him and his family. Japanese occupation and Allied liberation The Brooke government, under the leadership of Charles Vyner Brooke, established several airstrips in Kuching, Oya, Mukah, Bintulu, and Miri for preparations in the event of war. By 1941, the British had withdrawn its defending forces from Sarawak to Singapore. With Sarawak now unguarded, the Brooke regime decided to adopt a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri would be destroyed and the Kuching airfield will be held as long as possible before being destroyed. Meanwhile, Japanese forces seized British Borneo to guard their eastern flank in the Malayan Campaign and to facilitate their invasion of Sumatra and West Java. A Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 (eight days into the Malayan Campaign) and conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941. British forces led by Lieutenant Colonel C.M. Lane retreated to Singkawang in Dutch Borneo bordering Sarawak. After ten weeks of fighting in Dutch Borneo, the Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942. When the Japanese invaded Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke had already left for Sydney, Australia, while his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp. Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months. Sarawak, together with North Borneo and Brunei, formed a single administrative unit named Kita Boruneo (Northern Borneo) under the Japanese 37th Army headquartered in Kuching. Sarawak was divided into three provinces, namely: Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu, each under their respective Japanese Provincial Governor. The Japanese retained pre-war administrative machinery and assigned Japanese for government positions. The administration of Sarawak's interior was left to the native police and village headmen, under Japanese supervision. Though the Malays were typically receptive toward the Japanese, other indigenous tribes such as the Iban, Kayan, Kenyah, Kelabit and Lun Bawang maintained a hostile attitude toward them because of policies such as compulsory labour, forced deliveries of foodstuffs, and confiscation of firearms. The Japanese did not resort to strong measures in clamping down on the Chinese population because the Chinese in the state were generally apolitical. However, a considerable number of Chinese moved from urban areas into the less accessible interior to lessen contact with the Japanese. Allied forces later formed the Z Special Unit to sabotage Japanese operations in Southeast Asia. Beginning in March 1945, Allied commanders were parachuted into Borneo jungles and established several bases in Sarawak under an operation codenamed "Semut". Hundreds of indigenous people were trained to launch offensives against the Japanese. During the battle of North Borneo, the Australian forces landed at Lutong-Miri area on 20 June 1945 and had penetrated as far as Marudi and Limbang before halting their operations in Sarawak. After the surrender of Japan, the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces at Labuan on 10 September 1945. This was followed by the official surrender ceremony at Kuching aboard the Australian Corvette HMAS Kapunda on 11 September 1945. The Batu Lintang camp was liberated on the same day. Sarawak was immediately placed under British Military Administration until April 1946. British crown colony After the war, the Brooke government did not have enough resources to rebuild Sarawak. Charles Vyner Brooke was also not willing to hand over his power to his heir apparent, Anthony Brooke (his nephew, the only son of Bertram Brooke) because of serious differences between them. Furthermore, Vyner Brooke's wife, Sylvia Brett, tried to defame Anthony Brooke in order to install her daughter to the throne. Faced with these problems, Vyner Brooke decided to cede sovereignty of Sarawak to the British Crown. A Cession Bill was put forth in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly) and was debated for three days. The bill was passed on 17 May 1946 with a narrow majority (19 versus 16 votes). Supporters of the bill were mostly European officers, while the Malays opposed the bill. This caused hundreds of Malay civil servants to resign in protest, sparking an anti-cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak Sir Duncan Stewart by Rosli Dhobi. Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown, and was linked to anti-cessionist groups in Sarawak, especially after the assassination of Sir Duncan Stewart. Anthony Brooke continued to claim sovereignty as Rajah of Sarawak even after Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946. For this he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government and was allowed to return only 17 years later for a nostalgic visit, when Sarawak became part of Malaysia. In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp-down by the colonial government. In 1951 Anthony relinquished all his claims to the Sarawak throne after he used up his last legal avenue at the Privy Council. Self-government and the Federation of Malaysia On 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya, announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei, to be called Malaysia. This plan caused the local leaders in Sarawak to be wary of Tunku's intentions in view of the great disparity in socioeconomic development between Malaya and the Borneo states. There was a general fear that without a strong political institution, the Borneo states would be subjected to Malaya's colonisation. Therefore, various political parties in Sarawak emerged to protect the interests of the communities they represented. On 17 January 1962, the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the proposed federation. Between February and April 1962, the commission met more than 4,000 people and received 2,200 memoranda from various groups. The commission reported divided support among the Borneo population. However, Tunku interpreted the figures as 80 percent support for the federation. Sarawak proposed an 18-point memorandum to safeguard its interests in the federation. In September 1962, Sarawak Council Negri (now Sarawak state legislative assembly) passed a resolution that supported the federation with a condition that the interests of the Sarawak people would not be compromised. On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia. Sarawak was officially granted self-government on 22 July 1963, and formed the federation of Malaysia with Malaya, North Borneo, and Singapore on 16 September 1963. The Malaysian federation had drawn opposition from the Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei People's Party, and the Sarawak-based communist groups. The Philippines and Indonesia claimed that the British would be "neocolonising" the Borneo states through the federation. Meanwhile, A. M. Azahari, leader of the Brunei People's Party, instigated the Brunei Revolt in December 1962 to prevent Brunei from joining the Malaysian federation. Azahari seized Limbang and Bekenu before being defeated by British military forces sent from Singapore. Claiming that the Brunei revolt was solid evidence of opposition to the Malaysian federation, Indonesian President Sukarno ordered a military confrontation with Malaysia, sending armed volunteers and later military forces into Sarawak, which became a flashpoint during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation between 1962 and 1966. The confrontation gained little support from Sarawakians except from the Sarawak communists. Thousands of communist members went into Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with the Communist Party of Indonesia. During the confrontation, around 10,000 to 150,000 British troops were stationed in Sarawak, together with Australian and New Zealand troops. When Suharto replaced Sukarno as the president of Indonesia, negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia which led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966. After the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the ideology of Maoism started to influence Chinese schools in Sarawak. The first communist group in Sarawak was formed in 1951, with its origins in the Chung Hua Middle School (Kuching). The group was succeeded by the Sarawak Liberation League (SLL) in 1954. Its activities spread from schools to trade unions and farmers. They were mainly concentrated in the southern and central regions of Sarawak. Communist members successfully penetrated the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP). SLL tried to realise a communist state in Sarawak through constitutional means but during the confrontation period, it resorted to armed struggle against the government. Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were the two notable leaders of the SLL. Following this, the Sarawak government relocated Chinese villagers into security-guarded settlements along the KuchingSerian road to prevent the communists from getting material support from the villagers. The North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) (also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970. In 1973, Bong surrendered to chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub; this significantly reduced the strength of the communist party. However, Weng, who had directed the CCO from China since the mid-1960s, called for armed struggle against the government, which after 1974 continued in the Rajang Delta. In 1989 the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) signed a peace agreement with the government of Malaysia. This caused the NKCP to reopen negotiations with the Sarawak government, which led to a peace agreement on 17 October 1990. Peace was restored in Sarawak after the final group of 50 communist guerrillas laid down their arms. Notes References History of Brunei Borneo Raj of Sarawak History of Malaysia

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The Gulf of Mexico () is an ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southwest and south by the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and Quintana Roo; and on the southeast by Cuba. The U.S. states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, which border the Gulf on the north, are often referred to as the "Third Coast" of the United States (in addition to its Atlantic and Pacific coasts). The Gulf of Mexico took shape approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics. The Gulf of Mexico basin is roughly oval in shape and is approximately wide. Its floor consists of sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba. Because of its narrow connection to the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2 (615,000 sq mi). Almost half of the basin consists of shallow continental-shelf waters. The volume of water in the basin is roughly (). The Gulf of Mexico is one of the most important offshore petroleum-production regions in the world, making up one-sixth of the United States' total production. Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as: A line joining Cape Catoche Light () with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35'W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at the eastern end of Florida Bay and all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf. Geology The consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico is that before the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the Late Triassic, the area now occupied by the Gulf of Mexico consisted of dry land, which included continental crust that now underlies Yucatán, within the middle of the large supercontinent of Pangea. This land lay south of a continuous mountain range that extended from north-central Mexico, through the Marathon Uplift in West Texas and the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma, and to Alabama where it linked directly to the Appalachian Mountains. It was created by the collision of continental plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range was breached in Late Cretaceous times by the formation of the Mississippi Embayment. Geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic times, the continental crust was stretched and thinned. This thinning created a broad zone of transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting, and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness of normal continental crust. It was at this time that rifting first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the opening basin to create the Gulf of Mexico as an enclosed marginal sea. While the Gulf of Mexico was a restricted basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites. During the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. Seafloor spreading stopped at the end of Jurassic time, about 145–150 million years ago. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the basin occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence was the result of a combination of crustal stretching, cooling, and loading. Initially, the combination of crustal stretching and cooling caused about of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. Because subsidence occurred faster than sediment could fill it, the Gulf of Mexico expanded and deepened. Later, loading of the crust within the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers of sediments during the rest of the Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its current position about below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, thick clastic wedges built out the continental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the Gulf of Mexico. To the east, the stable Florida platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucatán platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has characterized the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the Early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. In 2002 geologist Michael Stanton published a speculative essay suggesting an impact origin for the Gulf of Mexico at the close of the Permian, which could have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event. However, Gulf Coast geologists do not regard this hypothesis as having any credibility. Instead they overwhelmingly accept plate tectonics, not an asteroid impact, as having created the Gulf of Mexico as illustrated by papers authored by Kevin Mickus and others. This hypothesis is not to be confused with the Chicxulub Crater, a large impact crater on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the Yucatán Peninsula. Increasingly, the Gulf of Mexico is regarded as a back-arc basin behind the Jurassic Nazas Arc of Mexico. In 2014 Erik Cordes of Temple University and others discovered a brine pool below the gulf's surface, with a circumference of and feet deep, which is four to five times saltier than the rest of the water. The first exploration of the site was unmanned, using Hercules and in 2015 a team of three used the deep submergence vehicle . The site cannot sustain any kind of life other than bacteria, mussels with a symbiotic relationship, tube worms and certain kinds of shrimp. It has been called the "Jacuzzi of Despair". Because it is warmer than the surrounding water ( compared to ), animals are attracted to it, but cannot survive once they enter it. Today, the Gulf of Mexico has the following seven main areas: Gulf of Mexico basin, which contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone. Northeast Gulf of Mexico, which extends from a point east of the Mississippi River Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of Apalachee Bay. South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope, which extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas Campeche Bank, which extends from the Yucatán Straits in the east to the Tabasco–Campeche Basin in the west and includes Arrecife Alacran. Bay of Campeche, which is an isthmian embayment extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the offshore regions just east of the port of Veracruz. Western Gulf of Mexico, which is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north. Northwest Gulf of Mexico, which extends from Alabama to the Rio Grande. History Pre-Columbian As early as the Maya Civilization, the Gulf of Mexico was used as a trade route off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula and present-day Veracruz. Spanish exploration Although the Spanish voyage of Christopher Columbus was credited with the discovery of the Americas by Europeans, the ships in his four voyages never reached the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, the Spanish sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola. The first alleged European exploration of the Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. Columbus is purported to have followed the coastal land mass of Central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. However, this first voyage of 1497 is widely disputed and many historians doubt that it took place as described. In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous world map, depicting Cuba as an island, was produced. In 1506, Hernán Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indigenous slaves for his effort. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered the Yucatán Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings and a complex social organization which they recognized as being comparable to those of the Old World; they also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command of Hernán Cortés, which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico. Hernández did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Diego Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as the captain of the next expedition to Yucatán. In 1523, Ángel de Villafañe sailed toward Mexico City but was shipwrecked en route along the coast of Padre Island, Texas, in 1554. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and immediately sent Villafañe marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which had already been visited from that community. He arrived in time to greet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team labored until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, in combination with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, gave rise to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and more quickly rescue castaways. As a result, the expedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559. On December 11, 1526, Charles V granted Pánfilo de Narváez a license to claim what is now the Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narváez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along the coast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for two days looking for a great harbor the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known of it. In 1697, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville sailed for France and was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana which the English coveted. Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on October 24, 1698. On January 25, 1699, Iberville reached Santa Rosa Island in front of Pensacola founded by the Spanish; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island, later renamed Dauphin Island. He cast anchor between Cat Island and Ship Island; and on February 13, 1699, he went to the mainland, Biloxi, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. On May 1, 1699, he completed a fort on the north-east side of the Bay of Biloxi, a little to the rear of what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi. This fort was known as Fort Maurepas or Old Biloxi. A few days later, on May 4, Pierre Le Moyne sailed for France leaving his teenage brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, as second in command to the French commandant. Geography The Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the Gulf coastline spans , receiving water from 33 major rivers that drain 31 states. The Gulf's southwestern and southern shores lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. The Mexican portion of the Gulf coastline spans 1,743 miles (2,805 km). On its southeast quadrant, the Gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves of Yucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid. River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone. The Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf, as a continuation of the Caribbean Current-Yucatán Current-Loop Current system. Other circulation features include the anticyclonic gyres which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westward where they eventually dissipate and a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche. The Bay of Campeche in Mexico constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the Mississippi River and the Rio Grande in the northern gulf, and the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach. The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin. The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, most notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism. The gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive human death and other destruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water from the depths and making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow in its wake (warm water being one of the preconditions necessary for their formation). However, the Gulf is shallower; when a hurricane passes over the water temperature may drop but it soon rebounds and becomes capable of supporting another tropical storm. The Gulf is considered aseismic; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter magnitude scale). Earthquakes may be caused by interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust. 2006 earthquake On September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred about west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida, around 10:56 am EDT. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida in the Southeastern United States. There were no reports of damage or injuries. Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida. The earthquake was described by the USGS as an intraplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region. According to the September 11, 2006 issue of The Tampa Tribune, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy, northwest of Tallahassee. Maritime boundary delimitation agreements Cuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone of Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 26, 1976. Cuba and United States: Maritime boundary agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, of December 16, 1977. Mexico and United States: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 23, 1970; Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 4, 1978, and Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Mexican States on the delimitation of the continental shelf in the Western Gulf of Mexico beyond , of June 9, 2000. On December 13, 2007, Mexico submitted information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) regarding the extension of Mexico's continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. Mexico sought an extension of its continental shelf in the Western Polygon based on international law, UNCLOS, and bilateral treaties with the United States, in accordance with Mexico's domestic legislation. On March 13, 2009, the CLCS accepted Mexico's arguments for extending its continental shelf up to into the Western Polygon. Since this would extend Mexico's continental shelf well into territory claimed by the United States, however, Mexico and the U.S. would need to enter a bilateral agreement based on international law that delimits their respective claims. Shipwrecks A ship now called the Mardi Gras sank around the early 19th century about off the coast of Louisiana in of water. She is believed to have been a privateer or trader. The shipwreck, whose real identity remains a mystery, lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In May 2007, an expedition, led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with the Minerals Management Service (now BOEM), was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation ever attempted at that time to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for eventual public display in the Louisiana State Museum. As part of the project educational outreach Nautilus Productions in partnership with BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network and Veolia Environmental produced a one-hour HD documentary about the project, short videos for public viewing and provided video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was an integral part of this outreach and used extensively in the Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck documentary. On July 30, 1942, the Robert E. Lee, captained by William C. Heath, was torpedoed by the . She was sailing southeast of the entrance to the Mississippi River when the explosion destroyed the #3 hold, vented through the B and C decks and damaged the engines, the radio compartment and the steering gear. After the attack she was under escort by USS PC-566, captained by Lieutenant Commander Herbert G. Claudius, en route to New Orleans. PC-566 began dropping depth charges on a sonar contact, sinking U-166. The badly damaged Robert E. Lee first listed to port then to starboard and finally sank within about 15 minutes of the attack. One officer, nine crewmen and 15 passengers were lost. The passengers aboard Robert E. Lee were primarily survivors of previous torpedo attacks by German U-boats. The wreck's precise location was discovered during the C & C Marine survey that located the U-166. The German submarine U-166 was a Type IXC U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. The submarine was laid down on December 6, 1940 at the Seebeckwerft (part of Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau AG, Deschimag) at Wesermünde (modern Bremerhaven) as yard number 705, launched on November 1, 1941 and commissioned on March 23, 1942 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Hans-Günther Kuhlmann. After training with the 4th U-boat Flotilla, U-166 was transferred to the 10th U-boat Flotilla for front-line service on June 1, 1942. The U-boat sailed on only two war patrols and sank four ships totalling . She was sunk on July 30, 1942 in Gulf of Mexico. In 2001 the wreck of U-166 was found in of water, less than from where it had attacked Robert E. Lee. An archaeological survey of the seafloor before the construction of a natural gas pipeline led to the discoveries by C & C Marine archaeologists Robert A. Church and Daniel J. Warren. The sonar contacts consisted of two large sections lying approximately apart at either end of a debris field that indicated the presence of a U-boat. Biota Various biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and non chemosynthetic communities such as bacteria and other micro – benthos, meiofauna, macrofauna, and megafauna (larger organisms such as crabs, sea pens, crinoids, demersal fish, cetaceans, and the extinct Caribbean monk seal) are living in the Gulf of Mexico. Recently, resident Bryde's whales within the gulf were classified as an endemic, unique subspecies and making them as one of the most endangered whales in the world. The Gulf of Mexico yields more finfish, shrimp, and shellfish annually than the south and mid-Atlantic, Chesapeake, and New England areas combined. The Smithsonian Institution Gulf of Mexico holdings are expected to provide an important baseline of understanding for future scientific studies on the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. In Congressional testimony, Dr. Jonathan Coddington, Associate Director of Research and Collections at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, provides a detailed overview of the Gulf collections and their sources which Museum staff have made available on an online map. The samples were collected for years by the former Minerals Management Service (renamed the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement) to help predict the potential impacts of future oil/gas explorations. Since 1979, the specimens have been deposited in the national collections of the National Museum of Natural History. Pollution The major environmental threats to the Gulf are agricultural runoff and oil drilling. There are frequent "red tide" algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast, from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida. In 1973 the United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited the dumping of undiluted chemical waste by manufacturing interests into the Gulf and the military confessed to similar behavior in waters off Horn Island. The Gulf contains a hypoxic dead zone that runs east-west along the Texas-Louisiana coastline. In July 2008, researchers reported that between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size. It was in 2017, the largest ever recorded. Poor agricultural practices in the northern portion of the Gulf of Mexico have led to a tremendous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in neighboring marine ecosystems, which has resulted in algae blooms and a lack of available oxygen. Occurrences of masculinization and estrogen suppression were observed as a result. An October 2007 study of the Atlantic croaker found a disproportioned sex ratio of 61% males to 39% females in hypoxic Gulf sites. This was compared with a 52% to 48% male-female ratio found in reference sites, showing an impairment of reproductive output for fish populations inhabiting hypoxic coastal zones. Microplastics within semi-enclosed seas like the Gulf have been reported in high concentrations and the Gulf's first such study estimated concentrations that rival the highest globally reported. There are 27,000 abandoned oil and gas wells beneath the Gulf. These have generally not been checked for potential environmental problems. Ixtoc I explosion and oil spill In June 1979, the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout leading to a catastrophic explosion, which resulted in a massive oil spill that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This was ranked as the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion; it sank a day and a half later. It was in the process of being sealed with cement for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems. Although initial reports indicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24, it was claimed by BP that approximately of oil per day were issuing from the wellhead, about below the surface on the ocean floor. On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately per day, five times the original estimate, were pouring into the Gulf from the wellhead. The resulting oil slick quickly expanded to cover hundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing a serious threat to marine life and adjacent coastal wetlands and to the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen. Coast Guard Rear Adm. Sally Brice O'Hare stated that the US government will be "employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns" to combat the oil spill. By May 1, 2010, the oil spill cleanup efforts were underway but hampered by rough seas and the "tea like" consistency of the oil. Cleanup operations were resumed after conditions became favorable. On May 27, 2010, The USGS had revised the estimate of the leak from to 12,000– an increase from earlier estimates. On July 15, 2010, BP announced that the leak stopped for the first time in 88 days. In July 2015 BP reached an $18.7bn settlement with the US government, the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, as well as 400 local authorities. To date, BP's cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic damages and penalties has reached $54bn. Minor oil spills According to the National Response Center, the oil industry has thousands of minor accidents in the Gulf of Mexico every year. Brutus oil spill On May 12, 2016, a release of oil from subsea infrastructure on Shell's Brutus oil rig released 2,100 barrels of oil. This leak created a visible oil slick in the sea about south of Port Fourchon, Louisiana, according to the U.S. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. See also Charlotte Harbor (estuary), an estuary in Florida Green Canyon, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area Gulf Coast of the United States Gulf of Mexico Foundation Jack 2 (a test well in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico) Keathley Canyon, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area Nepheloid layer Orca Basin Outer Continental Shelf Sigsbee Escarpment, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area Territorial evolution of the Caribbean References External links Resource Database for Gulf of Mexico Research Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck Bathymetry of the Northern Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean East of Florida United States Geological Survey The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe written by Thomas Kitchin, 1778, in which Kitchin discusses, in chapter 1, why the Gulf should have been called the "West Indian Sea." BP Oil Spill, NPR Bodies of water of Alabama Bodies of water of Florida Bodies of water of Louisiana Bodies of water of Mississippi Bodies of water of Texas Gulfs of Mexico Gulfs of the Atlantic Ocean Gulfs of the United States Landforms of Campeche Landforms of Tabasco Landforms of Tamaulipas Landforms of Veracruz Landforms of Yucatán Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean Mexico–United States border

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The Battle of Grand Port was a naval battle between squadrons of frigates from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy. The battle was fought during 20–27 August 1810 over possession of the harbour of Grand Port on Isle de France (now Mauritius) during the Napoleonic Wars. The British squadron of four frigates sought to blockade the port to prevent its use by the French through the capture of the fortified Île de la Passe at its entrance. This position was seized by a British landing party on 13 August and, when a French squadron under Captain Guy-Victor Duperré approached the bay nine days later, the British commander, Captain Samuel Pym, decided to lure them into coastal waters where his forces could ambush them. Four of the five French ships managed to break past the British blockade, taking shelter in the protected anchorage, which was only accessible through a series of complicated routes between reefs and sandbanks that were impassable without an experienced harbour pilot. When Pym ordered his frigates to attack the anchored French on 22 and 23 August, his ships became trapped in the narrow channels of the bay: two were irretrievably grounded; a third, outnumbered by the combined French squadron, was defeated; and a fourth was unable to close to within effective gun range. Although the French ships were also badly damaged, the battle was a disaster for the British: one ship was captured after suffering irreparable damage, the grounded ships were set on fire to prevent their capture by French boarding parties and the remaining vessel was seized as it left the harbour by the main French squadron from Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin. The British defeat was the worst suffered by the Royal Navy during the entire war and left the Indian Ocean and its vital trade convoys exposed to attack from Hamelin's frigates. In response, the British authorities sought to reinforce the squadron on Île Bourbon under Josias Rowley by ordering all available ships to the region, but this piecemeal reinforcement resulted in a series of desperate actions as individual British ships were attacked by the confident and more powerful French squadron. In December an adequate reinforcement was assembled with the provision of a strong battle squadron under Admiral Albemarle Bertie, that rapidly invaded and captured the Isle de France. Background During the early 19th century, the Indian Ocean formed an essential part of the network of trade routes that connected the British Empire. Heavily laden East Indiamen travelled from British Indian port cities such as Bombay and Calcutta to the United Kingdom carrying millions of pounds worth of goods. From Britain, the ships returned on the same routes, often carrying soldiers for the growing British Indian Army, then under the control of the Honourable East India Company (HEIC). Following the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803, the British Admiralty had made the security of these routes a priority, and by 1807, the Dutch bases at the Cape of Good Hope and Java had been neutralised by expeditionary forces to prevent their use by enemy raiders. The French Indian Ocean possessions, principally Île Bonaparte and Isle de France, were more complicated targets, protected from attack not only by the great distances involved in preparing an invasion attempt but also by heavy fortifications and a substantial garrison of French Army soldiers augmented by large local militias. The French had recognised the importance of these islands as bases for raiding warships during the French Revolutionary Wars (1793–1801), but by late 1807 the only naval resources allocated to the region were a few older frigates and a large number of local privateers. Following the reduction of these remaining naval forces on Isle de France during 1808, by defeat in battle and disarmaments due to age and unseaworthiness, the French naval authorities made a serious attempt to disrupt British trade in the region, ordering five large modern frigates to sail to Isle de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin. Four of these ships broke through the British blockade of the French coast, arriving in the Indian Ocean in the spring of 1809, where Hamelin dispersed them into the Bay of Bengal with orders to intercept, attack and capture or destroy the heavily armed but extremely valuable convoys of East Indiamen. The first French success came at the end of the spring, when the frigate Caroline successfully attacked a convoy at the action of 31 May 1809, seizing two heavily laden merchant ships. Commodore Josias Rowley was given command of the British response to the French deployment, a hastily assembled force composed mainly of those ships available at the Cape of Good Hope in early 1809. Ordered to stop the French raiders, Rowley was unable to spread his limited squadron wide enough to pursue the roving French frigates, instead using his forces to blockade and raid the French Indian Ocean islands in anticipation of Hamelin's return. In August, Caroline arrived with her prizes at Saint-Paul on Île Bonaparte and Rowley determined to seize the frigate. He planned a successful invasion of the town, launched on 20 September, which resulted in the capture of the port's defences, Caroline and the captured East Indiamen. With his objectives complete, Rowley withdrew five days later. Almost a year later, Rowley returned with a larger task force and made a second landing around the capital of Île Bonaparte, Saint-Denis. Marching on the seat of government, Rowley's troops rapidly overwhelmed the defences and forced the island's garrison to surrender, renaming the island Île Bourbon and installing a British governor. Hamelin had used the British preoccupation with Île Bonaparte to send additional frigates to sea during 1809 and early 1810, including his flagship Vénus, which captured three East Indiamen at the action of 18 November 1809, and Bellone, which took the Portuguese frigate Minerva in the Bay of Bengal a few days later. Minerva, renamed Minerve in French hands, was subsequently involved in the action of 3 July 1810, when a further two East Indiamen were captured. The squadron in this action was commanded by Guy-Victor Duperré in Bellone, whose ships were so badly damaged that Duperré was forced to spend nearly a month repairing his vessels in the Comoros Islands before they were ready to return to Isle de France. Operations off Grand Port With Île Bourbon secured in July 1810, the British now occupied a large fortified island base within easy sailing distance of Isle de France. Even before Île Bourbon was completely in British hands, Rowley had detached HMS Sirius from the invasion squadron with orders to restore the blockade of Isle de France. Shortly afterwards, Sirius's captain Samuel Pym led his men in a raid on a coastal vessel moored off the southern side of the island. Two days after this successful operation, reinforcements arrived in the form of the frigates HMS Iphigenia, HMS Nereide and the small brig HMS Staunch. Nereide carried 100 specially selected soldiers from the 69th and 33rd Regiments and some artillerymen from the garrison at Madras, to be used in storming and garrisoning offshore islands, beginning with Île de la Passe off Grand Port, a well defended islet that protected a natural harbour on the southeastern shore. These fortified islands could be used to block entry to the ports of Isle de France and thus trap Hamelin's squadron. Grand Port was an easily defensible natural harbour because the bay was protected from the open sea by a large coral reef through which a complicated channel meandered, known only to experienced local pilots. Île de la Passe was vitally important in the control of Grand Port because it featured a heavy battery that covered the entrance to the channel, thus controlling the passage to the sheltered inner lagoon. The British planned to use the troops on Nereide, under her captain Nesbit Willoughby, to storm Île de la Passe and capture the battery. Willoughby would then use a local man serving on his ship named John Johnson (known in some texts as "the black pilot"), to steer through the channel and land troops near the town, distributing leaflets promising freedom and prosperity under British rule in an attempt to corrode the morale of the defenders. The first attack on Île de la Passe was launched on the evening of 10 August, with Staunch towing boats carrying over 400 soldiers, Royal Marines and volunteer sailors to the island under cover of darkness, guided by Nereide's pilot. During the night the pilot became lost; the boats were scattered in high winds and had not reassembled by dawn. To distract French attention from the drifting boats, Pym directed Captain Henry Lambert in Iphigenia to sail conspicuously off Port Napoleon, where the main body of the French squadron, led by Hamelin in Vénus, was based. Pym joined Lambert later in the day and the frigates subsequently returned to the waters of Grand Port by different routes, confusing French observers from the shore as to British intentions. By 13 August, the boats originally intended for the attack had still not been assembled and Pym decided that he could not risk waiting any longer without the French launching a counterattack. Launching his own boats at 8:00 pm, guided by the pilot and commanded by Pym's second in command, Lieutenant Norman, Pym's marines and sailors landed on the island in darkness under heavy fire from the defenders. Norman was killed in the initial exchange of fire, but his deputy, Lieutenant Watling, seized the island by storming the fortifications surrounding the battery. Seven British personnel were killed and 18 wounded in the battle, in which the storming party managed to seize intact French naval code books and took 80 prisoners. Willoughby was furious that Pym had assumed command of the operation without his permission and the officers exchanged angry letters, part of an ongoing disagreement between them that engendered mutual distrust. With Île de la Passe secure, Pym gave command of the blockade of Grand Port to Willoughby and returned to his station off Port Napoleon with Iphigenia. Willoughby used his independent position to raid the coastline, landing at Pointe du Diable on 17 August on the northern edge of Grand Port with 170 men and storming the fort there, destroying ten cannon and capturing another. Marching south towards the town of Grand Port itself, Willoughby's men fought off French counterattacks and distributed propaganda pamphlets at the farms and villages they passed. Willoughby re-embarked his troops in the evening but landed again the following day at Grande Rivière to observe the effects of his efforts. Burning a signal station, Willoughby advanced inland, but was checked by the arrival of 800 French reinforcements from Port Napoleon and returned to HMS Nereide. The brief expedition cost the British two men wounded and one missing, to French casualties of at least ten killed or wounded. Willoughby followed the attack on Grande Rivière with unopposed minor landings on 19 and 20 August. Duperré's arrival Willoughby's raiding was interrupted at 10:00 am on 20 August when five ships were sighted, rapidly approaching from the southeast. These ships were Guy-Victor Duperré's squadron of Bellone, Minerve, corvette Victor and prizes Windham and Ceylon returning from the Comoros Islands. Following a month of repairs on Anjouan, Duperré had sailed for Isle de France without encountering any opposition on his return passage, and was intending to enter Grand Port via the channel protected by Île de la Passe. Duperré was unaware of the British occupation of the island, and Willoughby intended to lure the French squadron into the channel by concealing the British presence off the harbour. Once there, Willoughby hoped to defeat them or damage them so severely that they would be unable to break out unaided, thus isolating Duperré's squadron from Hamelin's force in Port Napoleon and containing the French in separate harbours to prevent them from concentrating against the British blockade squadrons. Willoughby brought Nereide close to Île de la Passe to combine their fire and protect his boats, which were carrying 160 men back to Nereide from a raid near Grand Port that morning. Raising a French tricolour over Île de la Passe and on Nereide, Willoughby transmitted the French code captured on the island: "L'ennemi croise au Coin de Mire" and received an acknowledgement from Duperré. The use of these signals convinced Duperré, over the objections of Captain Pierre Bouvet on Minerve, that Nereide was Surcouf's privateer Charles, which was expected from France. The French squadron closed with the harbour during the morning, Victor entering the channel under Île de la Passe at 1:40 pm. As Victor passed Nereide and the fort Willoughby opened fire, Lieutenant Nicolas Morice surrendering the outnumbered corvette after the first volley. Willoughby sent boats to attempt to take possession of Victor, but they were unable to reach the vessel. Behind the corvette, Minerve and Ceylon pushed into the channel and signalled Morice to follow them, exchanging fire with the fort. As Morice raised his colours again and followed Minerve, a large explosion blasted out of Île de la Passe, where the false French flag had ignited on a brazier as it was lowered and set fire to a nearby stack of cartridges, which exploded in the close confines of the fort. Three men were killed and 12 badly burned, six cannon were dismounted and one discharged unexpectedly, killing a British sailor in a boat attempting to board Victor. With the fort out of action and a significant number of her crew scattered in small boats in the channel, Nereide alone was unable to block French entry to Grand Port. With Willoughby's ambush plan ruined, the scattered boats sought to rejoin Nereide, passing directly through the French squadron. Although several boats were in danger of being run down by the French ships and one even bumped alongside Minerve, all eventually rejoined Nereide safely. The opportunity to cause significant damage to the French in the narrow channel had been lost, with Bellone joining the squadron in passing through the channel with minimal resistance. In addition to British losses in the explosion at the fort, two men had been killed and one wounded on Nereide. French losses were more severe, Minerve suffered 23 casualties and Ceylon eight. With both sides recognising that further action was inevitable, Willoughby sent a boat to Sirius requesting additional assistance and Duperré sent a message overland with Lieutenant Morice, requesting support from Hamelin's squadron (Morice fell from his horse during the mission and was severely injured). Command of Victor passed to Henri Moisson. In the afternoon, Willoughby used mortars on Île de la Passe to shell the French squadron, forcing Duperré to retreat into the shallow harbour at Grand Port and Willoughby subsequently sent officers into Grand Port on 21 August under a flag of truce, demanding the release of Victor, which he insisted had surrendered and should thus be handed over to the blockade squadron as a prize. Duperré refused to consider the request. One French ship had failed to enter the channel off Grand Port: the captured East Indiaman Windham. Early on 21 August, her French commander attempted to shelter in Rivière Noire. Sirius spotted the merchant ship under the batteries there and sent two boats into the anchorage, stormed the ship and brought her out without a single casualty, despite the boarding party having forgotten to take any weapons with them and being only armed with wooden foot-stretchers wielded as clubs. Battle From prisoners captured on Windham, Pym learned of the nature and situation of Duperré's squadron and sent orders to Port Napoleon with Captain Lucius Curtis in the recently arrived HMS Magicienne for Iphigenia to join Sirius and Nereide off Grand Port. Sirius and Nereide met on the morning of 22 August, Willoughby welcoming Pym with signals describing an "enemy of inferior force". Although Duperré's squadron was technically weaker than the four British frigates combined, Willoughby's signal was misleading as the French had taken up a strong crescent shaped battleline in the bay and could cover the mouth of the channel through which the British ships could only pass one at a time. Duperré also anticipated the arrival of reinforcements from Port Napoleon under Governor Charles Decaen at any time and could call on the support of soldiers and gun batteries on shore. In addition, French launches had moved the buoys marking the channel through the coral reef to confuse any British advance. British attack On 22 August, at 2:40 pm, Pym led an attack on Duperré's squadron without waiting for Iphigenia and Magicienne, entering the channel that led to the anchorage at Grand Port. He was followed by Nereide, but Willoughby had refused to allow Pym to embark the harbour pilot: the only person in the British squadron who knew the passage through the reefs. Without guidance by an experienced pilot, Sirius was aground within minutes and could not be brought off until 8:30 am on 23 August. Nereide anchored nearby during the night to protect the flagship. At 10:00 am, Iphigenia and Magicienne arrived and at 2:40 pm, after a conference between the captains as to the best course of action, the force again attempted to negotiate the channel. Although the squadron was now guided by Nereide's pilot, Sirius again grounded at 3:00 pm and Magicienne 15 minutes later after over-correcting to avoid the reef that Sirius had struck. Nereide and Iphigenia continued the attack, Iphigenia engaging Minerve and Ceylon at close range and Nereide attacking Bellone. Long-range fire from Magicienne was also directed at Victor, which was firing on Nereide. Within minutes of the British attack, Ceylon surrendered and boats from Magicienne sought but failed to take possession of her. The French crew drove the captured East Indiaman on shore, joined shortly afterwards by Minerve, Bellone and later by Victor, so that by 6:30 pm the entire French force was grounded and all but Bellone prevented from firing their main broadsides by beached ships blocking their arc of fire. Bellone was ideally positioned to maintain her fire on Nereide from her beached position, and at 7:00 pm a cannon shot cut Nereide's stern anchor cable. The British frigate swung around, presenting her stern to Bellone and pulling both her broadsides away from the French squadron. Raked by Bellone and desperate to return fire, Willoughby had the bow anchor cable cut, bringing a portion of his ship's starboard broadside to bear on Bellone. At 8:00 pm, Duperré was seriously wounded in the cheek by shrapnel from a grape shot fired by Nereide; Ensign Vigoureux concealed his unconscious body under a signal flag and discreetly brought him below decks while Bouvet assumed command of the French squadron on board Bellone, placing Lieutenant Albin Roussin in charge of Minerve. Building an improvised bridge between the French ships and the shore, Bouvet increased the men and ammunition reaching Bellone and thus significantly increased her rate of fire. He also had the rail removed between the foredeck and the quarterdeck of Minerve, and had iron hooks nailed to the freeboard below the starboard gangway as to provide attachment points for additional guns, thus building a continuous second deck on his frigate where he constituted a complete second battery. By 10:00 pm Nereide was a wreck, receiving shot from several sides, with most of her guns dismounted and casualties mounting to over 200: the first lieutenant was dying, the second was severely wounded and Willoughby's left eye had been dislodged from its socket by a wooden splinter. Recognising her battered state, Bouvet then diverted fire from Nereide to concentrate on Magicienne. Refusing to surrender until all options had been exhausted, Willoughby dispatched boats to Sirius, asking Pym if he believed it would be practical to send boats to tow Nereide out of range. Pym replied that with the boats engaged in attempting to tow Sirius and Magicienne off the reef it was not possible to deploy them under fire to tow Nereide. Pym also suggested that Willoughby disembark his men and set fire to his ship in the hope that the flames would spread to the French ships clustered on shore. Willoughby refused this suggestion as it was not practical to disembark the dozens of wounded men aboard Nereide in the growing darkness and refused to personally abandon his men when Pym ordered him to transfer to Sirius. At 11:00 pm, Willoughby ordered a boat to row to Bellone and notify the French commander that he had surrendered. Willoughby's boat had been holed by shot and was unable to make the short journey. The message was instead conveyed by French prisoners from Nereide who had dived overboard and reached the shore during the night. Recalling the false flags used on 20 August, Bouvet resolved to wait until morning before accepting the surrender. Attempted withdrawal At 1:50 am on 24 August, Bellone ceased firing on the shattered Nereide. During the remaining hours of darkness, Pym continued his efforts to dislodge Sirius from the reef and sent orders to Lambert, whose Iphigenia had been blocked from firing on the French by Nereide and also prevented from pursuing the Minerve by a large reef blocking access to the beach. With Iphigenia now becalmed in the coastal waters, Pym instructed Lambert to begin warping his ship out of the harbour, using anchors attached to the capstan to drag the ship slowly through the shallow water. Magicienne, like Iphigenia, had been stranded out of range of the beached French ships and so had instead directed her fire against a battery erected on shore, which she had destroyed by 2:00 am. When daylight came, it showed a scene of great confusion, with Sirius and Magicienne grounded in the approaches to the harbour, the French ships "on shore in a heap" in the words of Pym, Iphigenia slowly pulling herself away from the French squadron and Nereide lying broken and battered under the guns of Bellone, a Union Flag nailed to her masthead. This flag prompted a fresh burst of cannon fire from Bouvet, and it was not until Willoughby ordered the mizenmast to be chopped down that the French acknowledged the surrender and ceased firing. At 7:00 am, Lambert notified Pym that he had cleared the reef separating Iphigenia from the French ships and suggested that if Pym sent reinforcements from Sirius he might be able to board and capture the entire French squadron. Pym refused permission, insisting that Lambert assist him in pulling Sirius off the reef instead. Although Lambert intended to subsequently attack the French alone, Pym forbade him and sent a direct order for Lambert to move out of range of the enemy. At 10:00 am, Iphigenia reached Sirius and together the ships began firing at French troops ashore, who were endeavouring to raise a gun battery within range of the frigates. Magicienne, irretrievably stuck on the reef, rapidly flooding and with her capstan smashed by French shot, now bore the brunt of long-range French fire from both Bellone and the shore until Pym ordered Curtis to abandon his ship, transferring his men aboard Iphigenia. At 7:30 pm Magicienne was set on fire, her magazines exploding at 11:00 pm. On the shoreline, Duperré had been unable to spare any men to take possession of Nereide until 3:00 pm. A party under Lieutenant Roussin, second in command on Victor and temporarily in command of Minerve, was sent but had orders to return once the ship had been disarmed: freeing the remaining French prisoners, Roussin spiked the guns to prevent their further use, administered basic medical care and returned to shore, recounting that over 100 men lay dead or dying aboard the British frigate. At 4:00 am on 25 August, the newly erected French gun battery opened fire on Sirius and Iphigenia, which returned fire as best they could. Accepting that Sirius was beyond repair, Pym removed all her personnel and military supplies, setting fire to the frigate at 9:00 am, shortly after Iphigenia had pulled beyond the range of the battery, using a cannon as an anchor after losing hers the previous day. French boats attempted to reach Sirius and capture her before she exploded, although they turned back when Pym launched his own boats to contest possession of the wreck. The frigate's remaining munitions exploded at 11:00 am. During the morning, Duperré sent an official boarding party aboard Nereide, who wet the decks to prevent any risk of fire from the ships burning in the harbour and removed 75 corpses from the frigate. French response When news of the arrival of Duperré's squadron reached Decaen at Port Napoleon, he immediately despatched fast couriers to Grand Port and ordered Hamelin's squadron, consisting of the frigates Vénus, Manche, Astrée and the brig Entreprenant, to make ready to sail in support of Duperré. Hamelin departed Port Napoleon at midnight on 21 August, intending to sail northeast and then south, down the island's eastern shore. On 23 August, Hamelin's squadron spotted and captured a British transport ship named Ranger, sent 24 days earlier from the Cape of Good Hope with 300 tons of food supplies and extensive naval stores for Rowley on Île Bourbon. On rounding the northern headlands of Isle de France, Hamelin found he could make no progress against the headwinds and reversed direction, passing the western shore of the island and arriving off Grand Port at 1:00 pm on 27 August. The two extra days Hamelin had spent rounding Isle de France saw activity from the British forces remaining at Grand Port. There had been no strong winds in the bay and Iphigenia was forced to resort to slowly warping towards the mouth of the channel in the hope of escaping the approaching French reinforcements. Boats had removed the crews of Sirius and Magicienne to Île de la Passe, where the fortifications had been strengthened, but supplies were running low and Magicienne's launch was sent to Île Bourbon to request urgent reinforcement and resupply from Rowley's remaining squadron. On the morning of 27 August, Lambert discovered the brig Entreprenant off the harbour mouth and three French sail approaching in the distance. Iphigenia was still from Île de Passe at the edge of the lagoon and was low on shot and unable to manoeuvre in the calm weather without anchors. Recognising that resistance under such conditions against an overwhelming force was futile, Lambert negotiated with Hamelin, offering to surrender Île de la Passe if Iphigenia and the men on the island were given permission to sail to Île Bourbon unmolested. British surrender On the morning of 28 August, Lambert received a message from Hamelin, promising to release all the prisoners under conditions of parole within one month if Île de la Passe and Iphigenia were both surrendered without resistance. The message also threatened that if Lambert refused, the French would attack and overwhelm the badly outnumbered British force. Recognising that food supplies were low, reinforcements had not arrived and that his ammunition stores were almost empty, Lambert agreed to the terms. Lambert later received a message from Decaen proposing similar terms and notified the French governor that he had surrendered to Hamelin. Decaen was furious that Hamelin had agreed terms without consulting him, but eventually agreed to accept the terms of the surrender as well. The wounded were treated by French doctors at Grand Port and later repatriated, although the remainder of the prisoners were placed in a cramped and unpleasant prison at Port Napoleon from which, despite the terms of the surrender, they were not released until British forces captured the island in December. Rowley first learned of the operations off Grand Port on 22 August, when Windham arrived off Saint Paul. Eager to support Pym's attack, Rowley immediately set sail in his frigate HMS Boadicea, with the transport Bombay following with two companies of the 86th Regiment of Foot to provide a garrison on any territory seized in the operation. The headwinds were strong and it was not until 29 August that Rowley arrived off Grand Port, having been notified of the situation there by Magicienne's launch the previous day. Sighting a cluster of frigates around Île de la Passe, Rowley closed with the island before turning sharply when Vénus and Manche raised their colours and gave chase. Rowley repeatedly feinted towards the French ships and then pulled away, hoping to draw them away from Grand Port in the hope that Bombay might board the now unprotected Iphigenia and capture her. Bombay was thwarted by the reappearance of Astrée and Entreprenant and Rowley was chased by Vénus and Manche back to Saint Denis, anchoring there on 30 August. Rowley attempted a second time to rescue Iphigenia from Grand Port the following week, but by the time he returned Bellone and Minerve had been refloated and the French force was far too strong for Rowley's flagship to attack alone. Aftermath The battle is noted as the most significant defeat for the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. Not only had four frigates been lost with their entire crews, but 105 experienced sailors had been killed and 168 wounded in one of the bloodiest frigate encounters of the war. French losses were also heavy, with Duperré reporting 36 killed and 112 wounded on his squadron and among the soldiers firing from the shore. The loss of such a large proportion of his force placed Rowley at a significant disadvantage in September, as Hamelin's squadron, bolstered by the newly commissioned Iphigénie, now substantially outnumbered his own (the ruined Néréide was also attached to the French squadron, but the damage suffered was so severe that the ship never sailed again). Withdrawing to Isle de France, Rowley requested that reinforcements be diverted from other duties in the region to replace his lost ships and to break the French blockade of Île Bourbon, led by Bouvet. These newly arrived British frigates, cruising alone in unfamiliar waters, became targets for Hamelin, who twice forced the surrender of single frigates, only for Rowley to beat his ships away from their prize each time. On the second occasion, Rowley was able to chase and capture Hamelin and his flagship Vénus, bringing an end to his raiding career and to the activities of his squadron, who remained on Isle de France until they were all captured at the fall of the island in December by an invasion fleet under Vice-Admiral Albemarle Bertie. In France the action was greeted with celebration, and it became the only naval battle commemorated on the Arc de Triomphe. The British response was despondent, although all four captains were subsequently cleared and praised at their courts-martial inquiring into the loss of their ships. The only criticism was of Willoughby, who was accused of giving a misleading signal in indicating that the French were of inferior force on 22 August. Contemporary historian William James described British reaction to the battle as "that the noble behaviour of her officers and crew threw such a halo of glory around the defeat at Grand Port, that, in public opinion at least, the loss of four frigates was scarcely considered a misfortune." He also notes that "No case of which we are aware more deeply affects the character of the Royal Navy than the defeat it sustained at Grand Port." On 30 December 1899, a monument was erected at the harbour of Grand Port in the memory of the British and French sailors who were killed in the engagement. In literature The battle attracted the attention of authors from both Britain and France, featuring in the 1843 novel Georges by Alexandre Dumas, "Dead Reckoning" by C. Northcote Parkinson and the 1977 novel The Mauritius Command by Patrick O'Brian. Monuments On 30 December 1899, a monument was erected at the harbour of Grand Port in the memory of the British and French sailors who were killed in the engagement. Order of battle Notes ^ The British total does not include the 13 killed and 33 wounded in preliminary actions between 10 and 20 August. ^ The French total does not include those killed or wounded in preliminary actions between 10 and 20 August, but does include 15 personnel wounded on shore during the battle. References Bibliography External links 1810 in Mauritius 1810 in France Conflicts in 1810 Isle de France (Mauritius) Military history of Mauritius Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars Wars involving Mauritius August 1810 events Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe

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Jost Winteler (21 November 1846 - 23 February 1929) was a Swiss professor of Greek and history at the Kantonsschule Aarau (today called the Old Cantonal School Aarau), a linguist, a “noted” philologist, an ornithologist, a journalist, and a published poet. He served as both a mentor and father figure to a teenage Albert Einstein, who boarded at his home from October 1895 to October 1896, while he attended his final year of secondary school. Early life (1846-1865) Jost Winteler was born on 21 November 1846 in Filzbach, canton of Glarus. His father was a secondary school teacher, and, as such, Winteler received his primary schooling at home, starting around 1855. In 1862, he attended school in Nesslau, canton of St. Gallen. Then, from 1862 to 1866, Winteler attended the Progymnasium in Schiers, canton of Graubünden. Winteler received his Matura, the equivalent of a high school diploma, from the Thurgau Kantonsschule in Frauenfeld, canton of Thurgau. At university (1866-1875) Winteler studied history and German language from 1866 to 1870 at the University of Zürich, where he received his Diplom (in 1870). He went on to study philology at the University of Jena from 1870 to 1875. His doctoral thesis, Die Kerenzer Mundart des Kantons Glarus: In Ihren Grundzügen Dargestellt (1876), was supervised by linguist Eduard Sievers. Winteler's academic training has been described as "rigorous". Jost met his future wife, Pauline Eckart, in Jena, Germany, while he was studying at the University of Jena. Marriage and children Winteler married Pauline “Rosa” (née Eckart) (25 August 1845 - 1 November 1906) on 16 November 1871. Together, they had seven children: Anna (1872-1944), Jost Fridolin “Fritz” (1873-1953), Rosa (1875-1962), Marie (24 April 1877 - 24 September 1957), Mathias (1878-1934), Julius “Jost Jr.” (d. 1 November 1906), and Paul (1882-1952). As a teacher Professor Winteler began work as a teacher in the Autumn of 1876 at the Zollikofer school for girls, located in Romanshorn, canton of Thurgau. Then, from 1877 to 1880, he taught at the gymnasium in Burgdorf, canton of Bern. He then become the director of the gymnasium in Murten, canton of Fribourg, starting in 1880, but he resigned from his post several years later, in 1884, as a direct result of coming into conflict with the school's "hardline" ultramontanist governors. For the next twenty-five years of his life, from 1884 to 1909, Winteler would teach Greek and history at the Aargau Kantonsschule. The Aargau Kantonsschule (Aargau Canton School), located close by to an experimental school that had been created by the educational reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, was, “one of the best-regarded in Switzerland”. Like Pestalozzi's school, the Aargau Kantonsschule was a welcoming place where the students were, “allowed to reach their own conclusions”. Albert Einstein's only sister, Maria “Maja” Winteler-Einstein, once described Winteler's school, which her brother had attended in his youth, as having, “a deservedly high reputation”. As such, the school was often attended by foreigners, some of whom had traveled as far away as overseas. Friendship with Albert Einstein Introduction In late October 1895, Winteler met a 16-year-old Albert Einstein when he arrived at the train station in Aarau, the latter having just come from Zürich, a city some 25 miles away. Jost brought Einstein to his new home, called Rößligut, which was located right across the street from the Gymnasium where he taught Greek and history, and the Gewerbeschule, or Technical School, that Einstein was due to attend. However, as Einstein had chosen to be a student of the technical school, and not the gymnasium, he never had an official class with Professor Winteler. On 26 October 1895, Einstein was enrolled as a third-year pupil at the secondary school; the school year had already started three days earlier. Aarau, famously known as the “City of beautiful Gables”, was once described by Einstein himself as, “an unforgettable oasis in that European oasis, Switzerland”. An “enchanting village”, Aarau is located in a “magnificent setting” near the Jura Mountains and the Aare River. Einstein had had to move to Aarau due to the fact that he had failed the general-education half of the two-part entrance exam to the Swiss Federal Polytechnical School at Zürich, thereby failing the test overall. He had subsequently been advised by the director of the Polytechnic, Albin Herzog, to finish up his education and obtain his Matura at a local secondary school before returning to Zürich to retake the exam the following year. Gustav Maier, a mutual friend to both the Wintelers and the Einsteins, helped to arrange for Einstein to board at Winteler's home for a year. By this time, Winteler had already boarded several students at his home and was used to such an arrangement. Einstein's younger sister, Maja, would also board with the Wintelers later on, arriving in September 1899. She would stay at the Winteler's home for several years, leaving in 1892. It is noted in Barry R. Parker’s book, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, that Einstein was “extremely lucky” to be taken in by Winteler and his family. Einstein's maternal cousin, Robert Koch, was also sent to stay with one of Winteler's neighbors, as he and Einstein were to attend the same school at the same time. However, Winteler's friend, Gustav Maier, wrote to Winteler on 26 October 1895, and advised him that Koch should be, “under your most immediate supervision,” and that, if Koch proved too unruly in his new home, he should “swap” rooms with his, “much more mature” cousin, Albert. Maier explained that Einstein would kindly, “make this little sacrifice,” for his cousin's sake. But this plan never came to pass. Einstein would remain at Winteler's home for the duration of his stay in Aarau. Winteler's home was so large that Einstein was able to have his own room. Two days later, on 29 October, Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, wrote to Winteler to express his gratitude for taking in his son, and praised his hospitality. He wrote: “I have… high hopes regarding the many intellectual benefits his stay there is going to bring him; the stimulating conversations in your house will also be of special benefit to his knowledge.” Hermann looked up to Jost, as he had received a greater education than himself. Winteler and Einstein waited to discuss the terms of boarding until after Albert was comfortably settled in his new home. Life at Winteler's house Right away, Jost, his wife, Pauline, and their seven children made Einstein feel as though he were part of the family; indeed, the seven siblings each treated Einstein as though he were a brother. In time, he developed a deep bond with all of Winteler's children. Soon after arriving, Einstein started referring to Winteler and his wife as “Papa” and “Mama” respectively. According to Walter Isaacson’s book Einstein: His Life and Universe, the Wintelers were, “a wonderful family”, who helped the young, and shy, Einstein to, “flower emotionally and open himself to intimacy.” Albert would sometimes study by himself, but, as Winteler's eldest child would later recount, he would, “more often... sit with the family around the table.” The head of the household, Jost, often lead the family during their frequent post-supper discussions (or “stimulating conversations”, as Hermann Einstein once called them), or else would read aloud at the dinner table instead. These debates featured a variety of topics, some controversial. Winteler actively encouraged his children, and Albert, to speak their minds openly and, “say… whatever they felt, without fear of reprimand.” Winteler's “boisterous” home was also, “a place of books, music, [and] parties.” According to Dennis Overbye, the author of Einstein in Love, Albert, “quickly felt more at home in the Winteler household than he ever felt at his own home.” The year before he had been invited to stay with the Wintelers, Albert had had to endure isolation and loneliness from the absence of his parents and little sister, who had relocated to Italy so that his father could start a new electrical business after the old one had failed. He was left behind in Münich, Germany (with a "distant relative") so that he could finish his studies. While there, he witnessed the demolition of his beloved childhood home just before his family moved to Italy without him. This, coupled with the frustration of having to attend a school that he hated, had resulted in a full-out depression for the 15-year-old Einstein. So life at Winteler's cheerful and stimulating home naturally provided a welcome change for Einstein, and no doubt improved his mood. Einstein's sister herself once wrote in Albert Einstein: A Biographical Sketch, that her brother's stay in Aarau with the Winteler family was, “one of the best periods of his life.” Einstein attends the Alte Kantonsschule Aarau The young Einstein was favorably impressed by the Alte Kantonsschule Aarau, the school where Winteler was headmaster, and found it much better than the strict Luitpold Gymnasium (now called the Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium München) that he had left behind in Germany. Albert had disdained his former school's (and indeed Germany's) heavy emphasis on militarism, military parades, and mandatory military service, which clashed strongly with his innate pacifist beliefs. Einstein was so wary of his old school's “philistine” and repressive teaching methods that, when he first moved to Aarau, the Aargau Kantonsschule's mere close proximity to Germany was enough to stoke his harbored fears that his new school would just be more of the same. However, upon meeting Winteler, Einstein came to realize that he had nothing to worry about. The teaching style of Winteler's school was in stark contrast to that of the Luitpold Gymnasium, as Einstein would soon come to see, and thoroughly appreciate, for himself. While the Luitpold Gymnasium was, in Einstein's eyes, a “factory of rote learning”, the school that Winteler taught at placed value on, “free action and personal responsibility,” instead. As Maja Winteler-Einstein explains: The Kantonsschule Aarau turned out to be Einstein's favorite school. Einstein's first thought experiment The time Albert Einstein spent in Aarau with the Wintelers was the setting for his very first Gedankenexperiments (or “visualized thought experiments”) in regards to his (then future) special theory of relativity. As he recounts in his autobiographical notes: Einstein falls in love with Marie Winteler A few months after moving into Winteler's house, Einstein fell deeply in love with Winteler's youngest (and “prettiest”) daughter, Marie. Marie Winteler was 18-years-old at the time; two years his senior. Jost, as were his wife and Einstein's parents, was “thrilled” by the budding romance. Marie soon became Albert Einstein's first girlfriend; they were already a couple by Christmastime. Albert and Marie enjoyed playing the piano together; however, in a large household of ten people, it was a challenge for them to have any privacy. On 21 December 1895, Winteler would inform his “dear friend”, Gustav Maier, by letter that he believed that Einstein and his cousin had, “come to the right place”. At the time Winteler wrote this letter, Einstein had been living at his home for about two months. Christmas of 1895 Einstein elected to stay with the Wintelers for the Christmas holidays of 1895, instead of returning home to his own family in Pavia, Italy. His parents both wrote to Winteler and his family on 30 December 1895, thanking them for their Christmas greetings, and for taking such good care of their son. In her holiday greetings to the Winteler family, Einstein's mother, Pauline Einstein (née Koch), expressed that she was “happy” and “relieved” to know that Albert was, “under such exquisite care.” She also thanked Marie, Albert's new girlfriend, for writing to her. Einstein's father's words to Winteler shared a similarly optimistic tone. He wrote: Hermann was also “exceedingly pleased” that Winteler had expressed a positive view of his son. Towards the end of his letter, Einstein made mention that he was returning Albert's report card that a concerned Jost had forwarded to him; he was not too worried about his son's grades, which he knew would get better in time, for he was used to seeing, “not-so-good grades along with very good ones.” Einstein Studying in Winteler's constantly busy home was apparently not an issue for the budding genius, for, as his sister later remembered: Spring break and graduation (April - October 1896) On 8 April 1896, the school year came to an end, and Einstein left Winteler's house to return home to Italy for spring break. In the letter he wrote to Winteler's wife on 14 July 1896, as he was visiting his parents and younger sister in Pavia, Einstein complimented Winteler's abilities as a poet, after having read Winteler's Tycho Pantander (1890), a collection of poems that had been published in book form. Of the book, Einstein said: “We’ve already been reading a lot from Pantander, my parents are enthralled by it. Papa finds that this coupling of good emotion and powerful thoughts reminds him vividly of Heine, who is his favorite poet.” Tycho Pantander, eine Geistesentwicklung in Liedern (1890), Winteler's book of poetry, was dedicated to his “dear friend”, Léon Bachelin. Jost's daughter and Albert exchanged numerous, and passionate, love letters during this time that Albert was in Pavia for spring break. School in Aarau resumed on 29 April, and Einstein returned, once again, to Winteler's house. The dedication of the Alte Kantonsschule Aarau's new three-story science building took place on 26 April 1896, which Einstein attended. The ceremony was held outside, and August Tuschmidt gave a speech about, "the value of education and the higher principles of life." On 3 October 1896, Einstein received his graduation certificate (Maturitätszeugnis) from the Aargau Kantonsschule. He then left Winteler's home in mid-October and headed for his future university in Zürich. His stay at Winteler's home had successfully fulfilled its purpose. After having studied those general education subjects (i.e. literary history, political history, natural sciences, and German) that he had been remiss in back in early 1895, Einstein passed all of his leaving exams (though he quite nearly failed French), and graduated from the Alte Kantonsschule Aarau. As promised, this meant that he was let into the Zürich Polytechnic without having to retake the entrance exam. Einstein breaks up with Marie Winteler (May 1897) Just as they had done while Einstein had been visiting his family in Italy, Einstein and Marie kept in contact by writing a series of letters to one another. However, his affection for Marie was starting to cool off., After having put off the decision for some time, Albert officially broke up with Jost's daughter in May 1897. When he finally wrote to Winteler's wife (instead of Marie herself) to end their relationship for good, Albert cited his rationale for the breakup as a desire to devote more of his time to his “intellectual work” (i.e. his “strict angels”). While this was true, it must also be noted that, by the time Albert had broken off romantic relations with Marie, he had already met and befriended his future wife, Mileva Marić, who was, “the only woman in Einstein’s section of the Polytechnic.” The breakup, which left Marie both heartbroken and vulnerable, placed an inevitable emotional strain on Einstein's familial relationship with the Wintelers. At one point, the tension became so great that a family friend believed that it would be for the best not to mention Einstein's name to the Wintelers. Einstein was also upset as he believed that the Wintelers thought that he was, "living a life of debauchery." Yet, despite this, the loving friendship between Jost Winteler, his family, and Einstein would never completely sever. The Winteler and Einstein families would, “long remain entwined”. Paul Winteler, Jost's youngest child, would go on to marry Einstein's sister, and Anna Winteler, Winteler's eldest, eventually married Einstein's best friend, Michele Besso. With his sister's marriage to Winteler's son, Einstein, "truly [became] a member of the Winteler family." Lasting friendship with Einstein (1901-1929) Winteler and Einstein continued to correspond with each other long after the latter had left Aarau. In 1901, about four years after Einstein left Winteler's house, Jost even went so far as to assist Albert, who, at the time, was desperate for work, in searching for a job. After hearing of a vacant position at the Burgdorf Technikum, Winteler informed Albert's parents about it. Although Einstein did not get the job in question, he appreciated his mentor's thoughtfulness. Writing to Winteler on 8 July 1901, he said: Einstein explained to Winteler that, immediately after having received his parent's letter, he had written directly to the director of the Burgdorf Technikum to apply for a teaching job. He informed the director that his former teachers at the Aargau Kantonsschule could give their opinions on his character and conduct. Einstein also explicitly indicated to the Burgdorf Technikum's director that he and Jost were “personal friends” because he did not want to put his friend in the “awkward” position of having to give an “objective judgment” about him; he noted: “in this way you can easily refrain from giving an opinion if this seems more appropriate to you.” The now 22-year-old Einstein also shared with Jost that he was “exceptionally pleased” with teaching and that it had “never occurred to him before that he would enjoy it so much”. Evidently, Professor Winteler was one of four teachers (the other three being August Tuchschmidt, Friedrich Mühlberg, and Heinrich Ganter) who had inspired Einstein to become a teacher himself. Albert Einstein found in Professor Winteler both an “ally” and a trusted confident; someone he could turn to whenever he needed to, “[vent] his frustration,” or, “get something off his chest”. For example, in a letter written on 8 July 1901, Albert confided to Jost that he had been infuriated by Paul Drude, a German professor and editor of Annalen der Physik, a scientific journal on physics. He had sent a letter to Drude several months before, in June, criticizing two points on his work on electron theory, but Drude had written off both of his criticisms. In response, Einstein vowed to Winteler that he would, “soon make it hot for the man,” by writing a critical article about Drude. However, he never came through on this particular threat. Einstein signed off this very same letter with what would become one of his most famous sayings: “Unthinking respect for authority is the greatest enemy of truth.” In his 7 February 1907 note to Jost, Einstein addressed his friend as, “Dear Professor”. He then mentioned that Michele Besso, who was Winteler's son-in-law by his eldest daughter's marriage, and Einstein's longtime best friend, had “probably” gone to Trieste. Einstein had come to this conclusion because he had received a postcard that Besso had sent from Göschenen. He subsequently thanked Winteler for his, “kind letter” and asked him if he would give notice of his next visit to Bern, the capital city of Switzerland, “so that I can look you up”. Albert would later inform Jost several years later, in a letter written on 23 June 1913, that Besso had once again gone to Trieste, “for a business meeting”. It is implied in this letter that Winteler had inquired, in his previous letter, if Besso would know of his youngest son's “whereabouts”. Einstein replied that he doubted that Besso would have the answer to his question, though he added that Rosa would, “certainly be able to give you this information”. He also encouraged Jost to, “drop in to see me if your path should lead you to Zürich.” In his letter, Albert referred to Paul Winteler, his and Besso's brother-in-law, as “Uncle Paul” in jest. On 9 January 1914, Einstein, while visiting with Rosa, again wrote to Jost, saying: “I cannot resist the temptation to send you my kind regards”. He also promised that he would, “grant myself the pleasure of visiting you,” sometime before April. When Winteler was 77 years old, he received yet another letter from Einstein on 3 October 1924 (coincidentally, the 28th anniversary of Einstein attaining his graduation certificate from the Aargau Kantonsschule). Albert shared with his old friend that he was in Lucerne, visiting with Anna and her husband, Michele, whom he described as “cheerful company”. He also nostalgically reminisced on, “those fine, quiet walks near Aarau during which you said so many things to me”. Winteler's political "predictions" Einstein remembered his former mentor, and his “distrust of imperial Germany”, many years later when Germany expanded under Hitler during World War II; a conflict that Winteler, who died in early 1929, had not lived long enough to see for himself. In a letter to his sister, written on 31 August 1935, Einstein said: “I think often of Papa Winteler and of the prophetic accuracy of his political views.” He also, “reminded several of his friends about [Jost’s predictions].” Personal views Winteler was a liberal whose, “political idealism helped to shape Einstein’s social philosophy.” Politically, Winteler and Einstein were kindred spirits; they both believed in, “world federalism, internationalism, pacifism, and democratic socialism, with a strong devotion to individual liberty and freedom of expression.” Winteler and Einstein also shared a mutual distrust of imperial Germany's nationalism. Winteler encouraged Einstein to consider himself, “a citizen of the world,” and thus may have possibly inspired Einstein to relinquish his German citizenship and become temporarily stateless (he would remain stateless from 28 January 1896 until 21 February 1901, when he acquired his Swiss citizenship). Jost is said to have possessed an “edgy honesty”, and evidently placed great stock in integrity, as he helped his friend, Gustav Maier, to, “found the Swiss branch of the Society for Ethical Culture.” Personality According to Barry Parker's book, Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist, Jost was an “easy-going” and “unusually kind” person. Parker expanded further on this by saying that: “The Wintelers had a warmth and openness of heart that marked them out from their cool Swiss neighbors.” Jost, a loving father and husband, clearly had a deeply passionate relationship with his wife, Pauline (who also went by the nickname, Rosa), as described by a young Albert Einstein in a letter written to Winteler's wife in August 1896: “I already see little Mama as usual again… grinning a bit shyly, as if the professor had given her a very tender kiss.” Hans Byland, a school friend of Einstein's, once described the Winteler family as being “romantically inclined.” Winteler and his family appreciated those with, “a great sense of humor”. Einstein shared this same, fun-loving sentiment, and would often “laugh heartily” while in their company. Jost, a keen outdoorsman, often took pleasure in organizing kite-flying expeditions and nature hikes that his family and friends (and a few students) would attend regularly. A passionate ornithologist, Winteler quite enjoyed searching for “rare birds” during the outings that he organized. He was also known for the eccentricity of holding conversations with his pet birds. While Albert Einstein looked up to and respected his “Papa” Winteler, and found him to be an enduring source of inspiration, he did acknowledge several faults in him; mainly, that he was, “a rather self-willed and complicit,” man. However, these were common complaints that he had with everyone he knew. And, despite once complaining to his first wife, Mileva Marić, that Professor Winteler was, “an old schoolmaster, whatever he says”, Einstein always held Winteler in the highest esteem. Jost has been described as “handsome” and “distinguished-looking”. Family tragedy (1 November 1906) Jost faced a terrible triple tragedy on 1 November 1906, when his son, Julius, shot and killed his wife and his son-in-law, Ernst Bandi, then committed suicide. Julius, who had been working as a merchant ship's cook in America, had returned home to Switzerland showing clear signs of severe mental illness. A “distraught” Albert Einstein, Winteler's former houseguest, sent him a letter of condolence on 3 November 1906, in which he expressed his sympathy and deep grief at the loss of life. Einstein wrote: Einstein was living in Bern, a Swiss city 52 miles (or 83 kilometers) from Aarau, at the time the tragedy occurred. Winteler believed that his son had inherited his mental illness from his wife's side of the family. Later life Jost had at least five grandchildren, including Vero Besso (1898-1971), the son of his eldest daughter, Anna, and her husband, Michele Besso, Benvenuto (1905-1926) and Ernst (1907-1991), by his middle daughter, Rosa, and her husband, Ernst Bandi (18??-1906), and Paul Albert (b. 8 August 1912-?) and Heinz (1915-?) by his youngest daughter, Marie, and her husband, Albert Müller (1887-?). Carlo Michelstaedter, an Italian writer and philosopher, was Winteler's son-in-law by his eldest son's (Fritz’) marriage to Michelstaedter's older sister, Paula. Jost started losing his voice in 1909. In this same year, he began work as a part-time religious instructor. He retired from teaching in the spring of 1914 and moved to Krummenau, canton of St. Gallen. Death Jost Winteler died at the age of 82 on 23 February 1929, in Wattwil, canton of St. Gallen. Legacy Winteler's former home in Aarau, which still stands today, bears a commemorative plaque that reads: ‘In this house lived 1895/96 as a cantonal student Albert Einstein 1879-1955 The famous physicist’. In 2006, a building at the Alte Kantonsschule Aarau, which was originally named after physicist August Tuchschmid (1855-1939), was renamed ‘Albert-Einstein-Haus’ (or Albert Einstein House) in honor of Winteler's former houseguest. In popular culture Jost Winteler was portrayed by actor Nicholas Rowe as a recurring character on National Geographic’s first scripted series, Genius (2017). The series, which was based on Walter Isaacson’s biography of Albert Einstein, Einstein: His Life and Universe (2007), premiered on National Geographic on April 25, 2017. Winteler’s character was featured in three episodes: Einstein: Chapter One, Einstein: Chapter Two, and Einstein: Chapter Four. The series’ pilot episode, which was directed by Ron Howard, was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special. References Brian, Denis (2005). The Unexpected Einstein: The Real Man Behind the Icon. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. . Brown, Kevin (2008). Reflections on Relativity. Lulu.com. . Calaprice, Alice; Kennefick, Daniel; Schulmann, Robert (2015). An Einstein Encyclopedia. Princeton: Princeton University Press. . Calle, Carlos I (2005). Einstein for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing, Inc. . Einstein, A. (1987). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 1. Ed. J. Stachel et al. Princeton University Press; . Einstein, A. (1987). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 1. (English translation). Trans. by A. Beck, Consultant P. Havas. Princeton University Press; . Einstein, A. (1995). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 5. (English translation). Trans. by A. Beck, Consultant D. Howard. Princeton University Press; . Einstein, A. (1998). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 8. Ed. R. Schulmann et al. Princeton University Press; . Einstein, A. (2015). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 14. Ed.D. Kormos Buchwald et al. Princeton University Press; . Einstein, A. (2018). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 15. (English translation). Ed.D. Kormos Buchwald, Consultant A. Aebi, Consultant K. Hentschel, Princeton University Press; . Einstein, Albert, and Alice Calaprice (2013). The Ultimate Quotable Einstein. Princeton: Princeton University Press. . Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. . Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. . Lacayo, Richard. “Birth of A Beautiful Mind.” Time. 26 May 2017: 24–29. Print. Marková, Ivana. (2003). Dialogicality and social representations: The dynamics of mind. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. . Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. New York: Oxford University Press. . Parker, Barry (2003). Einstein: The Passions of a Scientist. New York: Prometheus Books. . Overbye, Dennis (2001). Einstein in Love: A Scientific Romance. New York: Penguin Group Inc. . Winteler, Jost (1890). Tycho Pantander. Eine Geistesentwicklung in Liedern Dargestellt. Frauenfeld: J. Huber. . External links Winteler's doctoral thesis, Kerenzer Mundart Winteler's book of poetry, Tycho Pantander The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein "Digital Einstein" at Princeton University (Volumes 1–14; Volume 15, published in April 2018, has yet to be added) Excerpt of Einstein in Love from the archive of the New York Times "Who Were the Most Important People in Einstein's Life", an article on National Geographic's website Linguists discussing whether or not Winteler's interest in "linguistic relativity" influenced Einstein's theory of relativity An old, black and white photo of Winteler's house A German article that was written about Winteler's photo album photo album, which is decorated with assorted seashells on its front cover 1846 births 1929 deaths People from Glarus University of Zurich alumni University of Jena alumni 20th-century Swiss educators 19th-century Swiss educators

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The 2014 Latakia offensive was a rebel offensive in the Latakia Governorate of Syria launched on 21 March 2014 by rebel Islamist groups including Al-Nusra Front, which called the offensive "Anfal", while a coalition of Supreme Military Council rebel groups called the offensive "The Martyrs Mothers". The objectives of the offensive have been stated to be the taking over of all strategic observatories, government villages and the Mediterranean coast. Observers have stated a strategic aim was to force the Syrian army to redeploy forces to Latakia, which would relieve pressure on other rebels elsewhere in Syria. They reportedly succeeded in this with government forces being sent from Idlib, Hama and Aleppo to bolster defenses. During the offensive the Syrian military was joined by Hezbollah, Iraqi Shi'ite militia and Iranian military advisers. After almost two months of fighting, the offensive stalled and eventually petered out, with rebels losing most of their early gains. However, the rebels' established strategic bridgehead consisting of the town of Kessab and nearby territory remained. By mid-June a new advance by government forces recaptured the last rebel gains of the campaign, including Kessab. The offensive, and in particular the degree of Turkish involvement in it, has been widely attributed with the deportation of the native ethnic Armenians of the town of Kessab, who make up 70% of its population, and has been compared with the past Turkish killings of Armenians during the Hamidian massacres and Armenian genocide. Background The Armenians of Kessab were previously victims of Turkish violence during the Hamidian massacres, Adana massacres and the Armenian genocide, last two of which took place in the last century and involved the massacre of two millions of Armenians. Three days before the assault on Kessab, the leader of Turkey's opposition Republican People's Party (CHP), Kemal Kilicdaroglu, called on Chief of General Staff General Necdet Ozel "not to embark on an adventure" with a military intervention in Syria, saying that "He [Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan] could decide to move the army into Syria before the elections." Kilicdaroglu Kessab was the only city bordering Turkey that was controlled by the Syrian government. Syrian-Armenian war correspondent Sarkis Kassargian believes taking control of Kessab means taking control of the border crossing with Turkey, which allows anti-government fighters to advance toward the coastline, and in turn strengthen their position on the ground. In addition, the alleged capture of Samra village by rebel forces grants them access to the highest point in the village. Abdoullah Ali, an expert on Islamic groups in Syria, confirmed the takeover was headed by Abou Mousa al-Chechani (Chechnyan), among other senior and experienced fighters who had previously fought in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Chechnya and Iraq, thus indicating the importance of this battle. Human Rights Watch Syria and Lebanon researcher Lama Fakih told the UK Telegraph rebel groups had wanted to attack Kassab for a long time, but Turkey had previously denied them access, citing a lack of unity. Offensive Initial rebel advance In the early hours of 21 March 2014, rebel fighters led by the al-Nusra Front advanced from inside Turkish territory and attacked the Kasab border crossing with Turkey. The fighters reportedly crossed into Syria from the Turkish village of Gözlekçiler. Subsequently, the civilian populations of Kessab and its surrounding villages either fled or were evacuated, with most seeking safety in Latakia, as Kessab remained under the control of rebel groups. The rebel fighters initially managed to capture guard posts around the crossing but not the crossing itself. The also captured the nearby Al-Sakhra hill and a police station and directed mortar fire from the hill at the crossing and at the nearby Alawite village of Karsana, killing five people including a child. The leader of Al-Nusra for Latakia province was killed during the fighting. Rebels had also captured the Jabal al-Nisr mountain, but it was recaptured by the military within hours. By 22 March, the rebels managed to capture the Kasab crossing, while Kesab town remained under government control and fighting was still continuing around both of them. Government forces launched a counter-attack in an attempt to recapture the crossing and a security source stated the Army had retaken the previous day two police stations that were seized by the rebels. According to the opposition activist group the SOHR, rebels at the crossing had been targeted by government troops since the previous day. In the meantime, rebels directed their attacks against a strategic hill known as Observatory 45, which they captured later in the day. Overall, the SOHR reported fighting in three government-held villages that were coming under a rebel attack and three rebel-held villages which the Army was trying to capture. As fighting spread to other villages, the military responded with air strikes and ambushes which left 20 rebels dead and 30 wounded around Observatory Kherbah Solas. On 23 March, Turkish Air Force F-16 jet fighters shot down a Syrian warplane that allegedly bombed rebels fighting around the border post. The pilot ejected safely, according to a Syrian military spokesman, who also claimed that the plane was in Syrian airspace; Turkish officials, however, claimed it violated their airspace. Meanwhile, significant military reinforcements were sent to the border area. Rebels also launched a new attack against the village of Kherbah Solas, about 25 kilometers south of Kasab. Opposition sources claimed that over 20 soldiers surrendered to the rebels in the village of Nab Al-Murr after a three-hour siege on a building. Later during the day, government forces recaptured Observatory 45 and secured the village of Al-Samra, while rebels captured the village of Al-Nab'in and the surroundings of Jabal al-Nisr, which forced the Army to evacuate it. However, the rebels were not able to capture the top of Jabal al-Nisr itself due to the Army's control of Observatory 45, which is the highest point in the region and oversees Jabal al-Nisr. During the day's fighting, the NDF commander of Latakia province, Hilal al-Assad, and seven pro-government militiamen were killed in fighting in Kasab. According to the rebel Islamic Front, he was killed when they used Grad rockets to hit a scheduled meeting of pro-government militia leaders in Latakia city. On 24 March, according to the SOHR, rebels were in control of the village of Kasab, after capturing the main square the previous day, with fighting continuing in the town's outskirts, specifically the hills outside the center of Kasab. However, according to a military source, neither side had control of the village and the situation was unclear. Rebel jihadists reportedly took Armenian families hostage in Kasab and desecrated the town's three Armenian churches. The Army managed to recapture the town of Nab al-Murr. Meanwhile, Turkish media claimed the leader of the pro-government Syrian Resistance militia, Mihraç Ural, had been killed the previous day. However, that evening Mihraç Ural posted a video on his Facebook account denying rumors of his death. Al-Arabiya television also claimed that two other cousins of Bashar al-Assad were killed in the fighting. According to Col. Afif al-Suleimani, head of Idlib's rebel Military Council, the Army withdrew many of its soldiers from Idlib province to reinforce their forces in Latakia province after the rebel offensive against the coastal area began. On 25 March, rebels captured Al-Samra and were reportedly advancing towards Anfal. A military source denied the village had fallen stating that fighting was still ongoing and that the Army was in complete control of the mountains overlooking Al-Samra. Meanwhile, fighting was still raging at Kasab, with the Army shelling the town and the Air force striking it four times around noon. Later, a pro-government news agency claimed the Army managed to recapture most of Kasab. According to the editor-in-ehief of Aztag Daily, information warfare was being conducted and that it was too early to conclude whether government forces managed to regain control of the town, but confirmed fighting was ongoing. Rebels had also once again captured Observatory 45, after a Tunisian suicide bomber in an armored troop carrier blew himself up in the Observatory's yard killing a number of soldiers, including Colonel Samuel Ghannum, commander of Observatory 45. The fall of the Observatory removed the threat of artillery strikes against Jabal al-Nisr and the rebels were able to occupy its peak. Government troops from the hill retreated towards Qastal Maaf. Fighting around Observatory 45 continued. Meanwhile, the Army recaptured Al-Nab'in. Nineteen rebels and 16 soldiers were killed during the day's fighting and 40 soldiers and 100 rebels were wounded. The Turkish Army accused the Syrian government of "harassing" five Turkish F-16 fighter jets with surface-to-air missile systems. The Turkish F-16's intercepted four Syrian aircraft approaching Turkish airspace in Yayladagi and Cilvegozu of Hatay province in southern Turkey before the incident occurred. On 26 March, rebels slowly pressed their advance from Observatory 45 and attacked the town of Qastal Maaf. Fighting had also renewed at Al-Nab'in. The battle for both towns had been described as a seesaw one with both attacks and retreats. At the same time, fighting continued around Kasab, Observatory 45 and Al-Samra as the Army intensified its shelling on Kasab and Al-Samra. The government mobilised thousands of soldiers and NDF fighters to retake the areas that had been lost to the rebels and many government supporters, the majority of them Alawites, volunteered to fight against the rebels. A military officer claimed rebels had been pushed back from Observatory 45, but were still in nearby areas. Another source also confirmed that the Army had beaten back the rebels from Observatory 45, but did not reoccupy it, instead securing the hill's surroundings. The military had also evacuated from Nab al-Murr, due to the town's vulnerability to rebel shelling from Observatory 45 and Jabal al-Nisr. Pro-government sources claimed 500 rebels and 50 soldiers had been killed since the start of the offensive, while the SOHR stated around 100 fighters on each side had died. The Syrian government called on the United Nations to halt the Turkish involvement in the Kasab region. It accused the Turkish government for "organizing, receiving, funding and hosting tens of thousands of terrorists from various Takfiri movements and facilitating their entry into the Syrian territories" and for providing the rebels with direct military support in the region. On 27 March, several helicopter and air strikes were conducted against Observatory 45, while Jabhat Al-Nusra reinforcements arrived in the contested areas. Two pro-government sources reported the military managed to defend their positions at Al-Nab'in and Qastal Maaf and was advancing towards Kasab from the two towns. A pro-opposition source reported that rebels managed to capture Al-Nab'in but that fighting was ongoing as the military was trying to recapture both it and Kasab. Another source reported that the military recaptured Al-Nab'in after it received reinforcements from troops who evacuated Jabal al-Nisr. Fighting was also still raging around Al-Samra. A pro-government newspaper also claimed another 200 rebel fighters had been killed in the last day. The military intelligence head in Latakia province was reportedly able to escape after he was surrounded by rebels for five days in Al-Nab'in. By the end of this day, according to the SOHR, more than 150 pro-government fighters, including 14 officers, had been killed since the start of the offensive. On 28 March, it was reported that the rebels had blocked several attempts by the Syrian Army to send reinforcements to Latakia. On 29 March, Al-Nab'in was once again reported under rebel control, but with fighting continuing in its outskirts. Al Aan TV claimed that 10 pro-government fighters were killed in an attempt by the Army to recapture Observatory 45. It also reported the arrival of Hezbollah fighters in the area. According to a local activist, the FSA had set up a joint operations room under command of Brigadier General and FSA Chief of staff Abdul-Ilah al-Bashir to support the rebel offensive. On 30 March, the SOHR reported that several attempts by the Army to retake areas in northern Latakia had been repelled by the rebels. However, the military was bringing more reinforcements from the coastal city of Tartous to try to stem the rebel advance. The battle for Observatory 45 By 31 March, thousands of refugees reportedly fled to Latakia city, while a rising tension between the Armenian-Christian-Alawite community and the Turkmen community was reported. At this time, Barnabas Aid stated 80 Christian civilians were killed and thousands more displaced after rebel fighters captured Kasab; however, a delegation from the Armenian National Assembly visited and interviewed refugees from Kessab who fled to Latakia and concluded that "fortunately, no casualties were reported on the Armenian side," though around 2500 were displaced. According to the SOHR, 1,052 fighters from both sides had been killed and wounded since the start of the offensive. Among the dead were 27 Army officers and 56 foreign rebel fighters. During the day, government forces made an attempt to advance towards Kasab as the rebel offensive started to stagnate and state TV made a live report from near the hilltop of Observatory 45 claiming the Army had recaptured it. The SOHR confirmed the Army made progress in the area and stated that government troops managed to install multiple rocket launcher on Observatory 45, but fighting was continuing in the vicinity of the hillside. Meanwhile, rebels hit the pro-government village of Bahloulieh with seven Grad missiles. Other pro-government villages were also shelled with mortars. The Turkish Army stated that they had returned fire after mortar shells and a rocket struck areas near the town of Yayladagi. After midnight, government troops ambushed rebels in the forest around Observatory 45 resulting in a number of deaths among opposition fighters. On 1 April, Ahmad Jarba, head of the Syrian National Coalition, visited the front-line in the Kasab region. The SOHR also denied State TV's claim that the Army had recaptured Observatory 45, stating that clashes were still ongoing over the hilltop. On 2 April, according to the SOHR, the rebels reached the perimeter of al-Badrousiya village where violent clashes took place amid new Army reinforcements in that area. Opposition activists in Latakia claimed that the rebels repulsed an Army attack on Observatory 45. During the fighting for the hill, the Moroccan leader of the Harakat Sham al-Islam rebel group, Ibrahim bin Shakran, was killed. A local rebel commander was also killed in other clashes, while "dozens of bodies" of pro-government fighters were reportedly bussed to the city of Tartous, according to opposition activist's claims. An opposition TV station also claimed that 11 Hezbollah fighters were captured in an ambush by rebels in the province, but this report could not be verified. On 3 April, according to the SOHR, rebels managed to regain control over the buildings of Observatory 45 after they were captured by pro-government fighters during the night. At least 11 rebels were killed in the fighting, while at least 20 pro-government fighters were killed and wounded. But later activists reported that government forces, supported by the NDF, had managed to reach the peak of Observatory 45 and clashes ensued with opposition fighters, including Jabhat al-Nusra. The SOHR also updated the past day's rebel death toll to 20. On 4 April, the SOHR reported that 64 rebels, including 40 foreign fighters, and 35 government soldiers were killed in fighting for Observatory 45 over the previous two days. 50 soldiers were also wounded and among rebel fatalities, beside the leader of Harakat Sham al-Islam, was the group's Egyptian military commander, Abu Safiya Al-Masri. Fighting was continuing around Observatory 45 with mutual bombardment from both sides. Eight rebels and eight pro-government fighters were killed and 15 wounded in the fighting at Observatory 45. Meanwhile, the Turkish Army fired shells into Syria, responding to six shells that landed in Yayladadi. Continued Army advance On 5 April, after midnight, government troops ambushed rebels on the road towards Al-Nab'in resulting in a number of deaths among opposition fighters, while two Moroccan field commanders of Ahrar Al-Sham were killed in fighting in Kasab. It was reported that Latakia city was hit by two Grad missiles during the day. On 7 April, fighting erupted on the edges of the Jabal al-Haramiya area with government forces advancing. On 12 April, fighting erupted in Al-Nab'in and Nab Al-Murr and later in the day clashes were still ongoing in the towns perimeters. The next day, the Army recaptured Chalma mountain (also known as Sal-Darin mountain), near Kassab, while heavy clashes were still taking place near Observatory 45. By 15 April, the FSA commander for Latakia province stated the offensive had stagnated after rebel forces had become exhausted due to the number of casualties they had endured and a shortage of ammunition. Three days later, another opposition commander criticised the opposition Syrian National Coalition for not providing enough financial support for the offensive and supporting countries for not providing enough arms. Capture of Al-Samra and the battle for the hills On 27 April, government forces captured a guard post near Al-Samra, namely the town's police station, after an amphibious assault from the sea. As evening came, rebels had retreated from Al-Samra and government forces captured the village. The next day, the military secured Chalma mountain and engaged rebels on top of Tal Al-Ahmar, while other government troops, including Special Forces from Al-Samra, advanced towards Al-Nab'in. Four soldiers were killed and 75 wounded by mid-day, while an unknown number of rebels also died. Government forces from Observatory 45 had also advanced, capturing Height 724 north of the Observatory. The Army further captured Heights 959 and 1017. Two days later, government forces were fighting rebels on Jabal al-Nisr mountain, near Al-Nab'in, and on three hills overlooking Kasab in an attempt to capture the hilly terrain before engaging opposition forces in the towns themselves. Later in the day, government troops fully secured Al-Samra and its surrounding hills. On 3 May, government troops captured radar hill 1013 overlooking and the next day fighting erupted in Al-Nab'in. In mid-May, rebels reportedly recaptured Hills 53, 724 and 1013, as well as Seriatel and Al-Nab'in hills. Opposition forces also attempted to capture Observatory 45, but failed. As of 18 May, the offensive was considered to had petered out. Syrian army offensive – Rebel retreat On 12 June, the military started a new offensive and by the next day captured Hills 714, 767 and 803. On 14 June, most rebels retreated from Kasab, while a few of them stayed to protect the retreating fighters. This came after the Army took hold of areas that surround Al-Nab'in and advanced towards Kasab. The SOHR reported the military was moving towards nearby villages, including Al-Nab'in, while state TV already reported the capture of the town. SANA also stated two-thirds of Kasab were under military control. On 15 June, the Syrian Army took control of Kasab, its border crossing, Al-Nab'in and Nab Al-Murr, fully reversing all opposition gains during the three-month campaign. Meanwhile, the Army intensified its operations in the east of the province near Salma. Controversies Allegations of Turkish involvement It was reported that the attackers, members of the al-Nusra Front, Sham al-Islam, and Ansar al-Sham, advanced directly from the village of Gözlekçiler on Turkish territory, were being supported by the Turkish military, and that injured rebel fighters were being sent to medical centres in Turkey. Some Kessab village guards reported that the Turkish military withdrew from its positions along the border shortly before the fighters crossed from Turkey. Mehmet Ali Ediboğlu, MP of Turkish CHP party, who visited the area several days after the attack began, said locals told him that "thousands of fighters coming from Turkey crossed the border at at least five different points to launch the attack on Kassab." While journalists were barred from visiting Gözlekçiler, Ediboğlu said he personally observed "dozens of Syrian-plated cars nonstop transporting terrorists and firing into the Syrian outpost from the military road between Gözlekçiler village and our military base at Kayapinar." According to security sources in Kessab, the attacks were waged under heavy artillery cover by the Turkish army, while the injured were being carried back and treated in the city of Yayladagi in Turkey, which borders Syria. An terrorist told the Telegraph on 21 March "Turkey did us a big favour… They allowed our guys to enter from their border post," allowing them to finally access Kessab. Turkey denied the allegations as "totally unfounded and untrue", the Telegraph reported, but HRW's Fakih replied "it is not feasible that these groups could have crossed into Syria from where they did without the knowledge of the Turks." Turkish shootdown of Syrian fighter jet After Turkish Air Force F-16 jet fighters had shot down a Syrian warplane near the border post, the pilot, who ejected safely, claimed that the plane was in Syrian airspace. Turkish officials, however, claimed it violated their airspace. Turkey's opposition leader, Kemal Kilicdaroglu (CHP) claimed that the Syrian jet was a reconnaissance plane and that its downing was part of a government scheme to provoke war with Syria to divert attention from corruption scandals enveloping Turkey's president Erdogan and his party. Istanbul-based journalist Amberin Zaman commented that the recently leaked audio tapes in which Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu is heard discussing ways to spark a war with Syria might vindicate Kilicdaroglu's claims. Armenian civilian fatalities The offense has been widely compared to the Hamidian massacres and Armenian genocide, as over 70% of Kessab's population is Armenian and is one of the last Armenian settlements in the Cilicia region, where the Armenian population had been massacred twice by Turkey. President of Armenia Serzh Sargsyan stated, "All of us perfectly remember the history of Kessab, which was unfortunately full of hellish realities of deportations in the last 100 years", referring to both events. On 2 April, during a hearing before the House State-Foreign Operations Appropriations Subcommittee and in response to a question by Congressman Schiff, US ambassador to the UN Samantha Power, said that Kessab "is an issue of huge concern". Congressman Schiff noted that many of the residents were descendants of victims of the Armenian genocide and that "there is a particular poignancy to their being targeted in this manner." On 3 April Armenia's Minister of Diaspora Hranush Hakobyan said that 38 of Kessab's Armenian inhabitants had been captured when the town fell to the rebels, 24 of them were later released, 3 had been forcefully taken into Turkey and were now in the village of Vaqif, and that 670 Armenian families had been displaced after the attack on Kessab, with about 400 of the families, at least 2,000 ethnic Armenian civilians, sought refuge in Latakia and other neighboring hills. The minister also said that in Kessab, Armenian churches had been defaced, crosses on the churches had been removed, Armenian shops and homes had been looted. Also on 3 April, Ruben Melkonyan, deputy dean of the Oriental Studies department at Yerevan State University, said that the Armenian community of Kessab was unlikely to recover and that what had happened were "crimes that make a genocide". A number of eyewitness accounts of looting and occupation of Armenian homes, stores, and churches left behind were reported in Kessab. Armed men entered the town, looted Armenian shops and homes, taking families hostage, and desecrating the town's three churches. Kessab Armenians who phoned their neighbors and relatives homes from Latakia discovered that their houses are already occupied by rebel fighters, who went on to taunt and threaten the refugees. Some of the rebels had spoken in Turkish. Some 670 Armenian families, the majority of the population of Kessab, were evacuated by the local Armenian community leadership to safer areas in neighboring Basit and Latakia. Ten to fifteen families with relations too elderly to move were either unable to leave or chose to stay in their homes. According to witnesses, the rebels had raped elderly women because they couldn't find any girls. Aftermath After the Syrian Army retook Kessab and the surrounding villages, news agencies and local residents of Kessab reported that the town's Armenian Catholic and Evangelical churches had been ruined and burnt by the Islamist groups, along with the Misakyan Cultural Centre. Around 250 families from Kessab who had taken refuge in Latakia returned to their homes a day after the Syrian Army recaptured the town. On 25 July the St. Astvatsatsin Church in Garaturan was reconsecrated, with the first liturgy since the ending of the Islamist occupation taking place on 27 July, the day of Vardavar, and attended by a large number of people Foreign reaction – President Serzh Sargsyan made a press statement at the World Forum Convention Center in The Hague (Netherlands) expressing his deep concern over the events in Kessab, remembering that the Armenian population of Kessab had experienced exile and deportation in April 1909 and in 1915 (during the Armenian genocide), making a parallel with the 2014 situation: "The third deportation of Kessab Armenians today is a serious challenge to ethnic minority rights protection mechanisms of the 21st century." He also thanked the Syrian authorities for the steps being taken to protect the Armenians in Kessab. – Andrew P. W. Bennett, Canadian Ambassador to the Office of Religious Freedom stated: "Canada is deeply concerned by the recent attacks by al Qaeda affiliated armed groups on the ancient Armenian town of Kessab in the Latakia district of northern Syria during which Armenian churches were reportedly desecrated and Armenians driven from their homes...We stand determined that the perpetrators be brought to justice for such acts and to stem the rising tide of sectarian violence.". – David Babayan, Spokesman for the President of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, said that Turkey continues its anti-Armenian policy, in particular in Kessab: "Through subversive attacks, Turkey tries to make Armenians leave Syria and aims to liquidate the Armenian community of Syria." He also stated that while it would be preferable for Syrian Armenians to remain in Syria and preserve their communities there, Nagorno-Karabakh would be ready to accept and welcome any refugees. – Gennady Gatilov, Deputy Foreign Minister of Russia, condemned the attack on Kesab and the ethnic cleansing of Armenian Syrians in Latakia. He accused Turkey, the western countries and the Persian gulf states of supporting terrorism in Syria and called for an urgent meeting of the United Nations Security Council to discuss the situation. The UN Security Council declined Russia's meeting proposal. – Ramzan Kadyrov, Head of the Chechen Republic, condemned the attack on Kesab and accused Turkey of assisting terrorists and expressed his condolences to the ethnic Armenian victims. He said: "The official data says the attack on Kesab was carried out by al-Qaida militants affiliated with the so-called al-Nusra Front and Islamic Front. I am stating herein bindingly that these terrorists have nothing in common with Islam and cannot be called Moslems." Kadyrov also accused the U.S. and European countries of remaining silent on the attack and accused NATO members of contributing to it: "These terrorists have been reared, fostered and armed by the West and trained by secret services of NATO countries. They are fulfilling a task to ruin Syria and weaken the Islamic countries." – State Department Deputy Spokesperson Marie Harf stated during a press briefing on 28 March: "We are deeply troubled by recent fighting and violence that is endangering the Armenian community in Kessab, Syria and has forced many to flee. As we have said throughout this conflict, we deplore continued threats against Christians and other minorities in Syria". She ended adding: "The United States will continue its steadfast support to those affected by violence in Syria and throughout the region, including Syrian Armenians. We have long had concerns about the threat posed by violent extremists, and this latest threat to the Armenian community in Syria only underscores this further". The Congressional Armenia Caucus noted their concern in a letter to the President. The Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA), has condemned the "onslaught on Kessab" and accused Turkey of facilitating the infiltration of radical groups in their attacks on Christian and other minority populations in Kessab. The group has also called on the US administration and Congress to pressure Ankara to end its support for "the destruction of Kessab." In a statement, the group said, "For months, we have warned the international community of the imminent threat posed by extremist foreign fighters against the Christian minority population in Syria. These vicious and unprompted attacks against the Armenian-populated towns and villages of Kessab are the latest examples of this violence, actively encouraged by neighboring Turkey. We call upon all states with any influence in the Syrian conflict to use all available means to stop these attacks against the peaceful civilian population of Kessab, to allow them to return to their homes in safety and security." See also 2013 Latakia offensive References Military operations of the Syrian civil war in 2014 Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the al-Nusra Front Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the Free Syrian Army Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the Syrian government Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving Hezbollah Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving Turkey Latakia Governorate Anti-Armenianism in Asia Recep Tayyip Erdoğan controversies

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USS The Sullivans (DD-537) is a retired United States Navy . The ship was named in honor of the five Sullivan brothers (George, Francis, Joseph, Madison, and Albert) aged 20 to 27 who lost their lives when their ship, , was sunk by a Japanese submarine during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942. This was the greatest military loss by any one American family during World War II. She was also the first ship commissioned in the Navy that honored more than one person. After service in both World War II and the Korean War, The Sullivans was assigned to the 6th Fleet and was a training ship until she was decommissioned on 7 January 1965. In 1977, she and cruiser were processed for donation to the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park in Buffalo, New York. The ship now serves as a memorial museum ship and is open for public tours. Construction and career The Sullivans was originally laid down as Putnam on 10 October 1942, at San Francisco by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation. She was initially renamed Sullivan until President Franklin Roosevelt changed the name to The Sullivans to clarify that the name honored all five Sullivan brothers. The name was made official on 6 February 1943, and launched 4 April 1943. The ship was sponsored by Mrs. Thomas F. Sullivan, the mother of the five Sullivan brothers. The Sullivans was commissioned on 30 September 1943, with Commander Kenneth M. Gentry in command. 1944 Following a shakedown cruise, The Sullivans got underway with sister ships and on 23 December 1943. The group arrived at Pearl Harbor five days later. During training operations in Hawaiian waters, the ship was assigned to Destroyer Squadron (DesRon) 52. On 16 January 1944, she steamed out of Pearl Harbor with Task Group 58.2 (TG 58.2) bound for the Marshall Islands. En route to Kwajalein Atoll the group was joined by Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9). Two days later, as the American warships neared their target, picket destroyers were sent ahead to protect the main force from the enemy. On 24 January, TG 58.2 arrived at the dawn launching point for air strikes against Roi. For two days, The Sullivans screened , , and as they launched nearly continuous aerial raids. Thereafter, the destroyer continued her operations to the north and northwest of Roi and Namur Islands throughout the Battle of Kwajalein until 4 February, when TG 58.2 retired to Majuro to refuel and replenish. Underway at noon on the 12th, The Sullivans screened (protected) the sortie of Task Group 58.2, as part of Task Force 58's raid on Truk. The same carriers – Essex, Intrepid, and Cabot – whose planes had attacked Roi and Namur steamed in the van now headed for the Japanese fortress-base in the Central Pacific. From the time the group arrived at its launching point on 16 February, the carriers launched what seemed to be nearly continuous air strikes against Truk. "No enemy opposition of any kind was encountered," wrote The Sullivans commander, "indicating that the initial attacks came as a complete surprise." While the enemy may have been slow to react at the outset, they soon struck back – torpedoing Intrepid at 00:10 on the 17th. The carrier slowed to and lost steering control. The Sullivans, , and stood by the stricken carrier and escorted her to Majuro for repairs. Reaching Majuro on 21 February, the destroyer soon sailed on to Hawaii, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 4 March for drydocking and upkeep. Underway again on the 22nd, The Sullivans covered the sortie of Task Groups 58.2, 58.9, and 50.15 from Majuro, bound for the Palaus, Yap, and Woleai Islands. On the evening of the 29th, while the American warships were approaching the target area, enemy aircraft attacked but were driven off by the anti-aircraft fire from the ships. The next day, The Sullivans screened the carriers during air strikes and that evening helped to beat off a Japanese air attack. After returning to Majuro for replenishment, the warship screened TG 58.2 during air strikes on Hollandia (currently known as Jayapura), Tanahmerah, Wakde, and Aitape to support amphibious operations on New Guinea. Late in April, The Sullivans participated in support of air strikes on the Japanese base at Truk. On the 29th during one of these raids, the Japanese retaliated with a low-level air attack. American radar picked up four Japanese planes away, coming in fast at altitudes varying from 10 to . When the planes came within range, The Sullivans opened up with one 40-millimeter twin mount and all five guns. Two aircraft splashed into the sea due to the firing of the American ships, and one crossing ahead of The Sullivans was taken under fire and crashed in flames off her port beam. The Sullivans arrived off the northwest coast of Ponape on the afternoon of 1 May and provided cover for the battleships led by which bombarded the island. From the disengaged side of the screen, The Sullivans fired 18 rounds from extreme range at Tumu Point. She then noted three beached Japanese landing barges and shifted her fire to them. However, she received the general cease-fire order shortly thereafter. During the task unit's retirement, The Sullivans refueled from and arrived at Majuro on 4 May. Ten days later, TG 58.2 sortied again, bound for Marcus and Wake Islands. Launching the first raid at 08:00 on the 19th, the American carriers kept up nearly continuous air strikes with no enemy interruptions for three days. En route back to Majuro, The Sullivans and her sister destroyers conducted a thorough but unsuccessful search for a suspected submarine. On 6 June, The Sullivans got underway again, bound for Saipan, Tinian, and Guam to screen carriers in conducting air strikes. On occasion while in the screen, The Sullivans''' radar picked up enemy "snoopers" around the periphery of the formation – and before dawn at 03:15 on the 12th, TG 58.2 shot down one in flames. The second day's strikes against Saipan took place on the 13th to support the American landings there. Assigned to the duty of communication-linking station between task forces, The Sullivans remained within visual sighting distance of both TG's 58.1 and 58.2 during the day. That day, she picked up 31 Japanese merchant seamen after their ship had been sunk offshore and transferred these prisoners to flagship . On 19 June 1944, during the first day of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Japanese aircraft attacked the task group. The Sullivans picked up a plane visually at a range of less than five miles (8 km). "Judies," diving from , pressed home their attacks. One, taken under fire by The Sullivans, took tracer fire from the ship's 20- and 40-millimeter batteries and, moments later, crashed just short of the horizon. American air attacks against Pagan Island, made without enemy retaliation, topped off the Saipan-Tinian-Guam strikes; and The Sullivans proceeded with TG 58.2 to Eniwetok for upkeep. Underway on 30 June, The Sullivans resumed work in the screen of carriers launching air strikes to support operations against Saipan and Tinian. During this action, The Sullivans served as fighter-direction ship for TU 58.2.4. On Independence Day, The Sullivans joined Bombardment Unit One (TU 58.2.4) to conduct a shore bombardment of airfields, shore batteries, and other installations on the west coast of Iwo Jima. The heavy ships in the group opened fire at 15:00, and smoke and dust soon obscured targets along the western shore of the island, making spotting difficult. The Sullivans, second ship in a column of destroyers, opened fire at 15:48 on planes parked on the southern airstrip. After three ranging salvos, the ship commenced hitting twin-engined "Bettys" parked in revetments along the strip. Five planes blew up, and eight other planes were probably damaged by shrapnel and burning gasoline. Minutes later, an enemy ship resembling an LST came under The Sullivans gunfire and caught fire astern. While closed to complete the destruction of the enemy vessel, The Sullivans and the remainder of the bombardment unit retired and rejoined TG 58.2. From 7 to 22 July, TG 58.2 operated south and west of the Marianas, conducting daily air strikes on Guam and Rota Islands before returning to Garapan Anchorage, Saipan, to allow the carriers to replenish bombs. Underway at dawn on the 23d, The Sullivans accompanied the task group as it sped towards the Palaus for air strikes on the 26th and 27th. She joined TG 58.4 for temporary duty on 30 July and continued air strikes until 6 August, when she joined TG 58.7, the heavy bombardment group, and operated with TP 34 until 11 August, when the group returned to Eniwetok for replenishment. Early in September, as the Navy prepared to take the Palaus, The Sullivans supported neutralizing air strikes against Japanese air bases in the Philippines. At dawn on the 7th, she began radar picket duty for TG 38.2 and continued the task through the strikes of the 9th and 10th. From 18:00 on 12 September, the ships noted an increase in air activity – observing many bogies that merely orbited the formations as snoopers. The carriers conducted further raids on the central Philippines on the 13th and 14th and then shifted course to the north to subject Manila to air attacks commencing on the 21st. Three days later, American planes again hit the central Philippines. Returning to Tanapag Harbor, Saipan, at dawn on the 28th, The Sullivans went alongside for ammunition, provisions, and routine upkeep. However, the cross-swells in the anchorage swept The Sullivans hard against the battleship's steel hide, damaging the destroyer's hull and superstructure. Following brief antisubmarine patrol duty, she proceeded to Ulithi on 1 October. While undergoing tender repairs alongside , The Sullivans formed part of a nest of destroyers blown away from the tender during a heavy storm that lashed the anchorage. The Sullivans drifted free downwind and got up steam 'in a hurry'. However, she collided with . Many small boats were being tossed about, and The Sullivans rescued four men from 's gig before it disappeared beneath the waves. As the storm abated on the 4th, the warship returned to Ulithi to complete the abbreviated tender overhaul alongside Dixie. At 16:15 on 6 October, The Sullivans sortied with the carriers and protected them during raids against targets on Formosa and the Ryukyus. On the evening of the 12th, as the planes returned to the carriers, radar spotted the first of many Japanese aircraft coming down from the north. For the next six hours, approximately 50 to 60 Japanese aircraft subjected the American task force to continuous air attacks. Nearly 45 minutes after sunset, The Sullivans sighted a "Betty," coming in low on the starboard side, and took it under fire. During the next 15 minutes, the formation to which The Sullivans was attached shot down three planes; between 18:56 and 19:54, the destroyer herself took five planes under fire. Varying speed between 18 and , the formation undertook eight emergency maneuvers. Again and again, timely turns and the great volume of gunfire thrown up by the ships repulsed the enemy air attacks. The second phase of the attack began at 21:05 on the 12th and continued through 02:35 on the 13th. The Japanese increased the use of "window" to jam American radar transmissions while their flares lit up the evening with ghostly light. The formation made smoke whenever enemy flare-dropping planes approached, creating an eerie haze effect which helped baffle the enemy pilots. Meanwhile, The Sullivans and the other ships in formation executed 38 simultaneous turn movements at speeds between 22 and as their guns kept up a steady fire to repel the attackers. The next day, the carriers again launched successful strikes on Formosa. During the ensuing night retirement, the formation again came under attack by Japanese torpedo-carrying "Betties" which struck home this time and damaged . The Sullivans then helped to protect the damaged cruiser. On the 14th, "Betty" torpedo bombers scored against .The Sullivans soon joined the screen which guarded the two battle-battered cruisers – nicknamed "CripDiv 1" – as they retired toward Ulithi. Things progressed well until the 16th, when the Japanese mounted a heavy air attack to attempt to finish off cruisers. Houston reeled under the impact of a second hit astern, and The Sullivans opened fire on the "Frances" which had made the attack and splashed the Japanese plane. The Sullivans and then took a second "Frances" under fire and knocked it down off the bow of .The Sullivans rescued 118 Houston men and kept them on board until the 18th, when she transferred them to . While the damaged cruisers were making their way to Ulithi, a Japanese surface force attempted to close the formation before TF 38 intervened to drive them back. The Sullivans transferred salvage gear to Houston and helped with the ship's many wounded. For his part in directing the destroyer's rescue and salvage attempts, Comdr. Ralph J. Baum received his first Silver Star. On 20 October, The Sullivans joined TG 38.2 for scheduled air strikes on the central Philippines in support of the Leyte landings. At dawn of the 24th, reconnaissance located a Japanese surface force south of Mindoro, and the American carriers launched air strikes all day against the enemy warships. That morning, a Japanese air attack developed, and The Sullivans downed an "Oscar" fighter plane. By 25 October, enemy forces were sighted coming down from the north; TF 34, including The Sullivans, was formed and headed north, following the carrier groups in TF 38. At dawn on the 25th, the carriers launched air strikes to harass the Japanese surface units, now some north. At 11:00, TF 34 reversed course, topped-off the destroyers with fuel, and formed fast striking group TG 34.5, with Iowa, , three light cruisers, The Sullivans, and seven other destroyers. The American force missed the Japanese by three hours, but ran across a straggler and reported sinking an . Japanese records fail to confirm the claim. After sweeping south along the coast of Samar hunting for enemy "cripples," The Sullivans and other units of TG 34.5 reported back to TG 38.2. The destroyer then remained in the Philippine area, screening the fast carriers and standing by on plane guard duties, through mid-November. At dusk on the 19th, during one of the many air attacks fought off by The Sullivans, the destroyer damaged a "Betty" by gunfire and watched it disappear over the horizon, smoking but stubbornly remaining airborne. Six days later, she had better luck when her guns set a Japanese plane afire and splashed it into the sea. Two days later, her task group returned to Ulithi. The destroyer undertook training exercises from 8 to 11 December before rejoining TG 38.2 to screen its warships during air strikes on Manila and southern Luzon beginning on 14 December. On the 17th, running low on fuel, The Sullivans commenced refueling but, with the weather worsening minute by minute, she broke off the operation. Typhoon Cobra swept through the Fleet, with the wind clocked at an estimated on the morning of 18 December. Three destroyers were sunk and several ships damaged by the winds and waves. The Sullivans, her "lucky shamrock" painted on her funnel, emerged from the typhoon undamaged and, on the 20th began searching for men lost overboard from other ships. The lingering bad weather resulted in cancellation of air strikes, and The Sullivans retired to Ulithi on Christmas Eve. 1945 After a brief run to Manus and back, escorting Iowa, The Sullivans sortied from Ulithi on 30 December to screen TG 38.2's air strikes on Formosa in support of the American landings on Luzon. Heavy seas forced a three-day postponement of a high-speed thrust toward the target originally planned for the night of 6 January 1945. During the evening of the 9th, the task force passed through the Bashi Channel and entered the South China Sea. Three days later, carrier planes from TG 38.2 swept over Saigon and Camranh Bay, Indochina, hammering at whatever enemy merchantmen they found. Soon after the conclusion of the air strikes, a bombardment group, TG 34.5, was formed to go after possible "cripples" and dispatch them by surface gunfire. Accordingly, two battleships, two heavy cruisers, three light cruisers, and 15 destroyers raced into Camranh Bay but found it devoid of Japanese shipping. Throughout the day, however, carrier pilots had better luck and enjoyed a veritable "field day" with coastal marus. During subsequent air strikes on Hainan Island, Hong Kong, and Formosa, The Sullivans served on radar picket duty ahead of the task group. A brief respite for upkeep at Ulithi in late January preceded the ship's deployment with TG 58.2, covering the carriers as they launched devastating air strikes against the Japanese homeland itself, hitting Tokyo and other targets on Honshū on 16 and 17 February. From the 18th through the 21st, American carrier-based air power struck at Japanese positions contesting the landings on Iwo Jima. More strikes were scheduled for Tokyo four days later, but bad weather forced their cancellation. Retiring from the area, TF 58 fueled and commenced a high-speed run at Okinawa at noon on 28 February. Later that day, The Sullivans sighted and destroyed a drifting mine. At dawn on 1 March, Hellcats, Avengers, Dauntlesses, and Helldivers attacked Japanese positions on Okinawa. The ships of the task force encountered no enemy opposition from sea or sky and soon retired towards Ulithi.The Sullivans sortied 12 days later, bound for Kyushu and southern Honshū to support the invasion of Okinawa. Once again screening for TG 58.2, The Sullivans stood by as the carriers launched air strikes on 14 March. On 20 March, The Sullivans fueled from at 11:52, clearing the carrier's side five minutes later when a kamikaze alert sent the ships scurrying. At 14:39, The Sullivans commenced maneuvering to go alongside Enterprise again – this time to pick up a part for her FD radar antenna. Soon, however, another enemy air attack scattered the ships. As a line had not yet been thrown across to the carrier, The Sullivans bent on speed and cleared her as other ships in the task group opened fire on the attackers. A Japanese plane came through the antiaircraft fire and crashed into astern as that destroyer was fueling alongside . The stricken destroyer lost steering control and started to veer across the big carrier's bow, and only rapid and radical maneuvering on Hancocks part averted a collision.The Sullivans soon closed Halsey Powell to render emergency assistance. She slowed to a stop 11 minutes later and lowered her motor whaleboat to transfer her medical officer and a pharmacist's mate to Halsey Powell, when another kamikaze came out of the skies, apparently bent on crashing into The Sullivans. At 16:10, the destroyer's radar picked up the "Zeke" on its approach; and, as soon as the motor whaler was clear of the water, The Sullivans leapt ahead with all engines thrusting at flank speed. Bringing right full rudder, The Sullivans maneuvered radically while her 20- and 40-millimeter guns sent streams of shells at the "Zeke," which passed over the masthead and escaped. Meanwhile, Halsey Powell managed to achieve a steady course at five knots; and, with The Sullivans, she retired toward Ulithi. However, their troubles were not yet over. At 10:46 on the following day, 21 March, The Sullivans picked up a plane, closing from . Visually identified as a twin-engined "Frances," the aircraft was taken under fire at by The Sullivans' 5 inch battery. Halsey Powell joined in too; and, within a few moments, the "Frances" crashed into the sea about abeam of The Sullivans. At 12:50, a combat air patrol (CAP) Hellcat from Yorktown, under direction by Halsey Powell, splashed another "Frances." At 13:20, a CAP Hellcat from Intrepid, directed by The Sullivans, downed a "Nick" or "Dinah." On 25 March, The Sullivans and Halsey Powell arrived at Ulithi, the former for upkeep prior to training exercises and the latter for battle repairs. The warship next rendezvoused with TF 58 off Okinawa and guarded the carriers supporting the landings on the island. While operating on radar picket duty on the 15th, the ship came under enemy air attack, but downed one plane and emerged unscathed. She continued conducting radar picket patrols for the task group, ranging some 12 to out from the main body of the force. On the afternoon of 29 April, she commenced fueling from , but a kamikaze alert interrupted the replenishment, forcing The Sullivans to break away from the carrier's side. During the ensuing action, and were both crashed by suiciders but survived. Kamikazes continued to plague the ships of TG 58.3 as they supported the troops fighting ashore on Okinawa. Everything from landing craft to battleships were targeted. On the morning of 11 May, a kamikaze crashed into Bunker Hill. The Sullivans promptly closed the carrier to render assistance and picked up 166 men forced over the side by the fires that at one point ravaged the ship. After transferring them to ships in TG 50.8 and replenishing her fuel bunkers, she helped to screen TG 58.3 during air strikes on Kyushu. In a morning air attack three days later, Enterprise was hit by a kamikaze. Four enemy planes were shot down in the melee – one by The Sullivans in what proved to be her last combat action during World War II.The Sullivans anchored at San Pedro Bay, Leyte Gulf, on 1 June for recreation and upkeep. She departed Leyte on the 20th, bound, via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor, for the west coast. The destroyer arrived at Mare Island, Calif., on 9 July and, two days later, commenced her overhaul. She thus missed the final fleet activity that closed the war. Meanwhile, since the return of peace greatly reduced the Navy's need for warships, The Sullivans was decommissioned at San Diego on 10 January 1946 – soon after her overhaul was completed – and she was placed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Korean War serviceThe Sullivans remained decommissioned at San Diego until May 1951, when she began to undergo reactivation. This was due to naval fleet expansion because of the Korean War. She was recommissioned on 6 July 1951 with Commander Ira M. King in command. The Sullivans soon headed to her home port in Newport, R.I. by way of the Panama Canal. During the winter of 1951–52, the ship conducted training exercises off the east coast and in the Caribbean. The Sullivans departed Newport on 6 September 1952 bound for Japan. Proceeding via the Panama Canal, San Diego, Pearl Harbor, and Midway she arrived at Sasebo, Japan on 10 October 1952. The next day she got underway to join Task Force 77 off the eastern shores of Korea. Her duties included screening the fast carriers which were launching repeated air strikes to interdict enemy supply lines. She also supported United Nations ground forces who were battling communist forces. The Sullivans remained on this duty until 20 October 1952 when she steamed to Yokosuka, Japan for a brief refit. Following the refit, The Sullivans stopped at Buckner Bay, Okinawa and then proceeded to rejoin Task Force 77. Upon her arrival on 16 November 1952 she resumed screening activities and plane guard duty. She supported the carriers as they made the northernmost stab at North Korean supply lines, approaching within of the Soviet base at Vladivostok, Russia. MiG-15 fighters approached the task force, but combat air patrol Grumman F9F Panthers downed two of the attackers and damaged a third in history's first engagement between jet fighters over water. The destroyer arrived back at Sasebo, Japan on 5 December 1952. From Sasebo she joined United Nations forces on 14 December 1952 in blockading the Korean coasts. Her mission was to interdict seaborne traffic and bombard shore targets to support United Nations ground troops and interdict enemy supply operations. Arriving in Area "G" the following day, The Sullivans made contact with the enemy on the 16th off Songjin, North Korea which was an important rail terminus and supply center. For the next few days, she bombarded railroad trains and tunnels. She frequently opened fire to destroy railroad rolling stock, depots and prevented repairs to railroad tracks and buildings. On Christmas Day 1952, The Sullivans scored direct hits on a railroad bridge while under fire from enemy artillery positions on shore. Fifty rounds from enemy guns failed to touch the ship, although near-misses showered the warship's decks with shell fragments. Counter-battery fire from the ship destroyed at least one of the enemy artillery positions.The Sullivans was ordered home and departed Yokosuka, Japan on 26 January 1953. On the voyage home the ship called at Buckner Bay, Okinawa, Hong Kong, Subic Bay, Singapore, Colombo, Ceylon, Bombay, India, Bahrain and Aden. The Sullivans then steamed through the Red Sea, transited the Suez Canal, and proceeded to Cannes, France, via Naples. After a brief fueling stop at Gibraltar the warship reached Newport, R.I. on 11 April 1953. 6th Fleet deployment The destroyer operated out of her home port well into the summer of 1953, before deploying to the Mediterranean for a tour of duty with the 6th Fleet. She remained on this duty through the end of the year and returned to Newport on 3 February 1954 for operations off the east coast and into the Caribbean through May 1955. She again deployed to European and Mediterranean waters from May to August of that year before returning to Newport late in the summer. In the years that followed, The Sullivans continued alternating east coast operations with Mediterranean deployments. The summer of 1958 saw a communist threat to the security of Lebanon, and president Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered American ships to land troops there to protect Americans and to help stabilize the tense situation. The Sullivans supported the landings of Marines at Beirut. After their presence had dispelled the crisis, she returned to the United States for a three-month navy yard overhaul and subsequent refresher training at Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Back at Newport in March 1959, The Sullivans joined a hunter/killer group formed around the aircraft carrier . Then, after making a midshipman training cruise for USNA and NROTC midshipmen in which she also conducted antisubmarine warfare operations, the destroyer sailed for another Mediterranean deployment which lasted until she returned home in the autumn. Operations out of Newport occupied The Sullivans until early spring of 1960 when she headed south for ASROC evaluations off Key West, Florida. During this deployment to southern climes, on 31 March and 1 April, the warship helped to rescue five of eleven survivors from a U.S. Air Force KC-97 Stratofreighter(Model F Stratotanker) that had ditched 40 miles off the Florida coast near Cape Canaveral. Following NATO exercises in September, The Sullivans visited Lisbon, Portugal, prior to a quick trip through the Mediterranean, Suez Canal, and Red Sea, to Karachi, West Pakistan. In late October and into November, she participated in Operation "Midlink III," joint operations with Pakistani, Iranian, and British warships. After returning to the Mediterranean, The Sullivans conducted exercises with the French Navy and with the 6th Fleet and reached home in time for Christmas. In January 1961, The Sullivans assisted in the sea trials of the nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarine off Portsmouth, New Hampshire, before steaming south and taking part in Operation Springboard. While in the Caribbean, she visited Martinique. Briefly back at Newport early in March, The Sullivans soon returned to the West Indies to support marine landing exercises at Vieques, Puerto Rico. In April, the ship began intensive training in the waters off Florida to prepare to cover a Project Mercury spaceshot. The Sullivans joined Lake Champlain at Naval Station Mayport, Florida, and took station. On 5 May 1961, Commander Alan Shepard's Mercury space capsule, Freedom 7, passed overhead and splashed down near Lake Champlain and was speedily rescued by helicopters from the carrier. The Sullivans then made a midshipman cruise in June, visiting New York and Halifax, Nova Scotia. From September 1961 to February 1962, The Sullivans underwent a major overhaul in the Boston Naval Shipyard. She proceeded to Guantanamo Bay soon thereafter to train for duty as a school ship. She subsequently served as a model destroyer in which officer students could see and learn the fundamentals of destroyer operation. In May and again in August, The Sullivans made training cruises to the Caribbean for the Destroyer School. In October 1962, after Soviet missiles were discovered in Cuba, The Sullivans joined American naval forces blockading the island during negotiations with the Soviet Union over the issue. When the Soviet Government withdrew the strategic weapons, the destroyer returned to Newport. On 7 January 1963, The Sullivans got underway from Newport bound for the Caribbean and another training cruise. Following her return to Newport, she conducted local operations for the Destroyer School. The tragic loss of nuclear submarine off Boston on 10 April 1963 caused the destroyer to support emergency investigations of the disaster. For the remainder of 1963 and into the first few months of 1964, The Sullivans continued to train officer students. On 1 April 1964, the destroyer was transferred to the Naval Reserve Force, and her homeport was changed to New York City. Departing Newport on 13 April, the warship proceeded to New York and took on her selected reserve crew. Her cruises with the reserves embarked were devoted mostly to ASW exercises and took the ship to Canadian ports such as Halifax, Nova Scotia; Saint John, New Brunswick; and Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, in the north to Palm Beach, Florida, in the south. After the collision of the Australian aircraft carrier and destroyer , which resulted in the sinking of Voyager on 10 February 1964, the United States offered The Sullivans to Australia along with sister ship as a temporary replacement. The Royal Australian Navy instead accepted the British Royal Navy's offer of the Daring-class destroyer , which was of the same class as Voyager. Museum shipThe Sullivans received nine battle stars for World War II service and two for Korean service. On 7 January 1965, The Sullivans was decommissioned at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard and she remained in reserve into the 1970s. In 1977, she and cruiser were processed for donation to the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park in Buffalo, New York. The ship now serves as a memorial and is open for public tours. The ship was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986. On 26 February 2021 it was reported that The Sullivans was taking on water and listing. It was stated that the ships age and possible weather damage were the most likely cause for the leak below the waterline. Donations were being sought for temporary repairs to the hull with more extensive repairs to be carried out in the near future. Three other Fletcher-class ships are preserved as memorials: at Boston, Massachusetts at Baton Rouge, Louisiana former USS Charrette at Athens, Greece Awards The Sullivan earned nine battle stars in World War II and another two more during the Korean War. References Notes Sources External links The Sullivan Brothers: History of USS The Sullivans (DD-537) USS The Sullivans Photos on board the Destroyer USS The Sullivans'' Iowa Veterans Museum Buffalo & Erie County Naval & Military Park Fletcher-class destroyers of the United States Navy World War II destroyers of the United States Cold War destroyers of the United States Korean War destroyers of the United States Museum ships in New York (state) National Historic Landmarks in New York (state) Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state) United States Navy Buffalo, New York-related ships Ships built in San Francisco United States Navy Iowa-related ships 1943 ships Museums in Buffalo, New York Military and war museums in New York (state) National Register of Historic Places in Buffalo, New York

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Sucrose is a type of sugar made up of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose joined together. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced naturally in plants, from which white sugar is refined and crystalized. It has the molecular formula . For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either sugarcane or sugar beet. Sugar mills – typically located in tropical regions near where sugarcane is grown – crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in temperate climates where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The sugar refining process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet. Sugar is often an added ingredient in food production and food recipes. About 185 million tonnes of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017. Sucrose is particularly dangerous from the point of view of tooth decay because Streptococcus mutans bacteria convert it into a sticky, extracellular, dextran-based polysaccharide that allows them to cohere, forming plaque. Sucrose is the only sugar that bacteria can use to form this sticky polysaccharide. Etymology The word sucrose was coined in 1857, by the English chemist William Miller from the French ("sugar") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature. The name saccharose was coined in 1860 by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot. Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose. Physical and chemical properties Structural O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-fructofuranoside In sucrose, the monomers glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage. Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β "pyranose" anomers, but sucrose has only the α form. Fructose exists as a mixture of five tautomers but sucrose has only the β-D-fructofuranose form. Unlike most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the non-reducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units, and prevents sucrose from spontaneously reacting with cellular and circulatory macromolecules in the manner that glucose and other reducing sugars do. Since sucrose contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a = 1.08631 nm, b = 0.87044 nm, c = 0.77624 nm, β = 102.938°. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a sugar solution. The specific rotation at using yellow "sodium-D" light (589 nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions. Thermal and oxidative degradation Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at to form caramel. Like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. This reaction is somewhat simplified though. Some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place. A more accurate theoretical equation is: Sucrose burns with chloric acid, formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate: Sucrose can be dehydrated with sulfuric acid to form a black, carbon-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation: The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon oxidises to with from air. Hydrolysis Hydrolysis breaks the glycosidic bond converting sucrose into glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the enzyme sucrase is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly. Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as cream of tartar or lemon juice, both weak acids. Likewise, gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion, the bond between them being an acetal bond which can be broken by an acid. Given (higher) heats of combustion of 1349.6 kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose, hydrolysis releases about per mole of sucrose, or about 3 small calories per gram of product. Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose The biosynthesis of sucrose proceeds via the precursors UDP-glucose and fructose 6-phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme sucrose-6-phosphate synthase. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of uridine diphosphate (UDP). Sucrose is formed by plants, algae and cyanobacteria but not by other organisms. Sucrose is the end product of photosynthesis and is found naturally in many food plants along with the monosaccharide fructose. In many fruits, such as pineapple and apricot, sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as grapes and pears, fructose is the main sugar. Chemical synthesis After numerous unsuccessful attempts by others, Raymond Lemieux and George Huber succeeded in synthesizing sucrose from acetylated glucose and fructose in 1953. Sources In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and nectars, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from photosynthesis. Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Although honeybees consume sucrose, the honey they produce consists primarily of fructose and glucose, with only trace amounts of sucrose. As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes grapes, cherries, blueberries, blackberries, figs, pomegranates, tomatoes, avocados, lemons and limes. Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar, but with the advent of industrialization, it has been increasingly refined and consumed in all kinds of processed foods. Production History of sucrose refinement The production of table sugar has a long history. Some scholars claim Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the Gupta dynasty, around AD 350. Other scholars point to the ancient manuscripts of China, dated to the 8th century BC, where one of the earliest historical mentions of sugar cane is included along with the fact that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from India. By about 500 BC, residents of modern-day India began making sugar syrup, cooling it in large flat bowls to produce raw sugar crystals that were easier to store and transport. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called (), which is the source of the word candy. The army of Alexander the Great was halted on the banks of river Indus by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making "granulated, salt-like sweet powder", locally called (), pronounced as () in Greek (Modern Greek, , ). On their return journey, the Greek soldiers carried back some of the "honey-bearing reeds". Sugarcane remained a limited crop for over a millennium. Sugar was a rare commodity and traders of sugar became wealthy. Venice, at the height of its financial power, was the chief sugar-distributing center of Europe. Arabs started producing it in Sicily and Spain. Only after the Crusades did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the West Indies in 1506 (Cuba in 1523). The Portuguese first cultivated sugarcane in Brazil in 1532. Sugar remained a luxury in much of the world until the 18th century. Only the wealthy could afford it. In the 18th century, the demand for table sugar boomed in Europe and by the 19th century it had become regarded as a human necessity. The use of sugar grew from use in tea, to cakes, confectionery and chocolates. Suppliers marketed sugar in novel forms, such as solid cones, which required consumers to use a sugar nip, a pliers-like tool, in order to break off pieces. The demand for cheaper table sugar drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and table sugar manufacturing could thrive. Growing sugar cane crop in hot humid climates, and producing table sugar in high temperature sugar mills was harsh, inhumane work. The demand for cheap labor for this work, in part, first drove slave trade from Africa (in particular West Africa), followed by indentured labor trade from South Asia (in particular India). Millions of slaves, followed by millions of indentured laborers were brought into the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, East Africa, Natal, north and eastern parts of South America, and southeast Asia. The modern ethnic mix of many nations, settled in the last two centuries, has been influenced by table sugar. Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and, soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. Andreas Marggraf identified sucrose in beet root and his student Franz Achard built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Prussia). The beet-sugar industry took off during the Napoleonic Wars, when France and the continent were cut off from Caribbean sugar. In 2009, about 20 percent of the world's sugar was produced from beets. Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production. Trends Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and sugar beets (Beta vulgaris), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and the sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water; concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2017, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 185 million tonnes. Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, because sugarcane does not tolerate frost. Sugar beets, on the other hand, grow only in cooler temperate regions and do not tolerate extreme heat. About 80 percent of sucrose is derived from sugarcane, the rest almost all from sugar beets. In mid-2018, India and Brazil had about the same production of sugar – 34 million tonnes – followed by the European Union, Thailand, and China as the major producers. India, the European Union, and China were the leading domestic consumers of sugar in 2018. Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing – the industry can store harvested beets until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable. The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former purchasers of sugar have switched to corn syrup (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candy manufacturers). The low prices of glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn (maize) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with artificial sweeteners, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods. High-fructose corn syrup High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is significantly cheaper as a sweetener for food and beverage manufacturing than refined sucrose. This has led to sucrose being partially displaced in U.S. industrial food production by HFCS and other non-sucrose natural sweeteners. Reports in public media have regarded HFCS as less safe than sucrose. However, the most common forms of HFCS contain either 42 percent fructose, mainly used in processed foods, or 55 percent fructose, mainly used in soft drinks, as compared to sucrose, which is 50 percent fructose. Given approximately equal glucose and fructose content, there does not appear to be a significant difference in safety. That said, clinical dietitians, medical professionals, and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) agree that dietary sugars are a source of empty calories associated with certain health problems, and recommend limiting the overall consumption of sugar-based sweeteners. Types Cane Since the 6th century BC, cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid (often with lime (calcium oxide)) to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. Centrifuges usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the sugar product for use as is, or process it further to produce lighter grades. The later processing may take place in another factory in another country. Sugarcane is a major component of Brazilian agriculture; the country is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and its derivative products, such as crystallized sugar and ethanol (ethanol fuel). Beet Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "diffuser". An alkaline solution ("milk of lime" and carbon dioxide from the lime kiln) then serves to precipitate impurities (see carbonatation). After filtration, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as molasses, or sells it on to producers of animal feed. Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling. Cane versus beet It is difficult to distinguish between fully refined sugar produced from beet and cane. One way is by isotope analysis of carbon. Cane uses C4 carbon fixation, and beet uses C3 carbon fixation, resulting in a different ratio of 13C and 12C isotopes in the sucrose. Tests are used to detect fraudulent abuse of European Union subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated fruit juice. Sugar cane tolerates hot climates better, but the production of sugar cane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet. As a result, some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as Egypt) have built new beet sugar factories since about 2008. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way. The production of sugar leaves residues that differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cane molasses is often used in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beets unpalatable, and it consequently ends up mostly as industrial fermentation feedstock (for example in alcohol distilleries), or as animal feed. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning. Pure beet sugar is difficult to find, so labelled, in the marketplace. Although some makers label their product clearly as "pure cane sugar", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the 5 major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or "private label" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, enabling beet sugar to be identified if the codes are known. Culinary sugars Mill white Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to sulfur dioxide during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption. Blanco directo Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, is produced by precipitating many impurities out of cane juice using phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar refining. Blanco directo is more pure than mill white sugar, but less pure than white refined. White refined White refined is the most common form of sugar in North America and Europe. Refined sugar is made by dissolving and purifying raw sugar using phosphoric acid similar to the method used for blanco directo, a carbonatation process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of activated carbon or bone char. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as granulated sugar, which has been dried to prevent clumping and comes in various crystal sizes for home and industrial use: Coarse-grain, such as sanding sugar (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", nibbed sugar or sugar nibs) is a coarse grain sugar used to add sparkle and flavor atop baked goods and candies. Its large reflective crystals will not dissolve when subjected to heat. Granulated, familiar as table sugar, with a grain size about 0.5 mm across. "Sugar cubes" are lumps for convenient consumption produced by mixing granulated sugar with sugar syrup. Caster (0.35 mm), a very fine sugar in Britain and other Commonwealth countries, so-named because the grains are small enough to fit through a sugar caster which is a small vessel with a perforated top, from which to sprinkle sugar at table. Commonly used in baking and mixed drinks, it is sold as "superfine" sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves faster than regular white sugar and is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. Caster sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a mortar or food processor. Powdered, 10X sugar, confectioner's sugar (0.060 mm), or icing sugar (0.024 mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of anticaking agent to prevent clumping — either cornstarch (1% to 3%) or tri-calcium phosphate. Brown sugar comes either from the late stages of cane sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup (blackstrap molasses). Brown sugar's color and taste becomes stronger with increasing molasses content, as do its moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this. Measurement Dissolved sugar content Scientists and the sugar industry use degrees Brix (symbol °Bx), introduced by Adolf Brix, as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25 grams of sucrose per 100 grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25 grams of sucrose sugar and 75 grams of water exist in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of total dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement. Consumption Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes. Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks. Sucrose forms a major element in confectionery and desserts. Cooks use it for sweetening. It can also act as a food preservative when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "junk foods". Nutritional information Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary nutrient and 390 kilocalories per 100 g serving (USDA data, right table). There are no micronutrients of significance in fully refined sugar (right table). Metabolism of sucrose In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by sucrase or isomaltase glycoside hydrolases, which are located in the membrane of the microvilli lining the duodenum. The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In bacteria and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme invertase. Sucrose is an easily assimilated macronutrient that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in blood glucose upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94 kilocalories per gram (or 17 kilojoules per gram). If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome, including increased risk for type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity in adults and children. Tooth decay Tooth decay (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans live in dental plaque and metabolize any free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, lactose, fructose, and cooked starches) into lactic acid. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay. All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to Streptococcus sanguinis (formerly Streptococcus sanguis) and Streptococcus mutans. Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes. These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable S. mutans, S. sanguinis and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria. Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet, such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS. Glycemic index Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a glycemic index of 65. Sucrose is digested rapidly, but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose. As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme sucrase to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the liver as glycogen. Gout The occurrence of gout is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout. Sucrose intolerance UN dietary recommendation In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries. Religious concerns The sugar refining industry often uses bone char (calcinated animal bones) for decolorizing. About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with activated carbon. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be pareve, meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be kosher. Trade and economics One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market. International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents per pound in the 50 years. About 100 of the world's 180 countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium. Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35 kg per person per year in middle income countries. Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan, and many developing countries subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often exceeded prices on the international market by up to three times; , with world market sugar futures prices strong, such prices typically exceed world prices by two times. Within international trade bodies, especially in the World Trade Organization, the "G20" countries led by Brazil have long argued that, because these sugar markets in essence exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under free trade. While both the European Union and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and less developed countries (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "most favoured nation" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past. In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal. In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22 June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports. The African, Caribbean, Pacific and least developed country sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals. On 25 November 2005, the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007, it seemed that the U.S. Sugar Program could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers. Especially prominent lobbyists include The Fanjul Brothers, so-called "sugar barons" who made the single individual contributions of soft money to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America. Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as 'fair trade' commodities; the fair trade system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the Fairtrade Foundation offers a premium of $60.00 per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade", government schemes such as the U.S. Sugar Program and the ACP Sugar Protocol offer premiums of around $400.00 per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14 September 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU". The US Sugar Association has launched a campaign to promote sugar over artificial substitutes. The Association aggressively challenges many common beliefs regarding negative side-effects of sugar consumption. The campaign aired a high-profile television commercial during the 2007 Primetime Emmy Awards on FOX Television. The Sugar Association uses the trademark tagline "Sugar: sweet by nature". References Further reading External links 3D images of sucrose CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Disaccharides Sugar Sugar substitutes

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Emil Nikolaus Joseph, Freiherr von Reznicek (4 May 1860, in Vienna – 2 August 1945, in Berlin) was an Austrian composer of Romanian-Czech ancestry. Life Reznicek's grandfather, Josef Resnitschek (1787–1848), was a trumpet virtuoso and band leader in the Imperial regiments Nos. 32 (Esterhazy), based in Budapest, and 60 (Gustav Wasa), based in Vienna where he played music with Johann Strauss Sr. and Joseph Lanner. Reznicek's father Josef Resnitschek/Reznicek (1812–1887) entered the army as a cadet and eventually became Feldmarschall-Lieutenant, the second-highest rank in the Austrian army, gaining an ordinary diploma of nobility in 1851 and the rank as a Baron (Freiherr) in 1859. His mother, Clarisse Fürstin Ghika Budești (1837–1864), belonged to the influential Ghika family of Romania. Emil Nikolaus was the half-brother of Ferdinand von Reznicek (1868–1909). His daughter Felicitas (1904–1997) became a journalist, writer, and pioneer of female mountain climbing. During the Nazi era she joined the German resistance movement and informed for MI6. His son Fritz (February 22, 1887 - February 7, 1983) was a lieutenant in the Austrian Army. Reznicek passed his childhood in Vienna, until the family moved to Graz in 1874. He began piano lessons in 1871; his first compositions date from 1876–78, when he was a student in Graz and at the Staatsgymnasium in Marburg an der Drau (Maribor). He studied law and music in Graz from 1878–80. He never finished his law degree, but continued to study music with Wilhelm Mayer (also known as W. A. Rémy). Finally, he went to Leipzig to study with Carl Reinecke and Salomon Jadassohn. He gained his diploma as a composer on 9 June 1882. Subsequently, he apprenticed as a conductor at various theaters in Graz, Zürich, Stettin, Jena, Bochum, Berlin, and Mainz. and then moved to Prague in 1886 Neues Deutsches Landestheater. In 1890 Reznicek became Kapellmeister of the 88th Infantry in Prague, but was dismissed in 1892 after fighting a duel. After that he would see his greatest triumph with the premiere of Donna Diana (16 December 1894). That success opened up his career as conductor; he briefly ran for the succession of Eduard Lassen at Weimar and was Hofkapellmeister at Manheim in 1896–1899. In June 1897 his first wife Milka Thurn-Valsassina (1864–1897) died and two years later he married Berta Juillerat-Chasseur (1874–1939). From 1899 to 1902 the couple settled at Wiesbaden, where Reznicek wrote his fifth opera Till Eulenspiegel, which premiered in 1902 at Karlsruhe under the direction of Felix Mottl. In the autumn of 1902, Reznicek moved to Charlottenburg, then a wealthy suburb of Berlin, where he remained for the remainder of his life. In Berlin, Reznicek enjoyed a good start with the premiere of his first symphony and a revival of Till Eulenspiegel at the Court-opera. But he subsequently distanced himself from the circle of Emperor Wilhelm II. In 1905 he composed some songs with obvious left-wing tendencies. For economic reasons, he was forced to accept the position of chief conductor of the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra (1906–08) and Warsaw Opera (1907/08), where he introduced Salome by Richard Strauss and Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg by Richard Wagner. In 1909–11 Reznicek assumed the position of chief conductor at Hans Gregor's Komische Oper an der Weidendammbrücke at Berlin (not related to the modern Komische Oper of Berlin). Today, Gregor is considered to be the founder of modern Regietheater; Reznicek's experience there registers in his operas beginning with Ritter Blaubart (1915–1917). Gregor closed his enterprise upon becoming Intendant at the Court Opera in Vienna in 1911. 1911 proved to be a decisive year. Reznicek's wife Berta fell seriously ill and was in critical condition for a month, and the composer's autobiography of 1940 indicates that he seriously considered suicide at the time. Instead, he condensed his feelings in the confessional tone poem Schlemihl (1912). Schlemihl met with immediate success and launched a new phase in Reznicek's career as a composer, becoming the first instalment of a trilogy that also included Der Sieger (1913) and Frieden - Eine Vision (1914). In 1914–15 he wrote In memoriam, a requiem for the fallen soldiers of all nations. In 1915/16 came his next opera, Ritter Blaubart, which premiered at Darmstadt in 1920 due to wartime censorship. With the Weimar Republic came public recognition: Reznicek was nominated for a professorship at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin and for a seat in the Prussian Academy of Fine Arts. Reznicek himself responded with a continuous flow of new music until the spring of 1935. When the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, Reznicek (who was not interested in politics) had a problem: his wife Berta was of Jewish origin (although she had been raised as a Calvinist). Soon there were threats to blackmail the family. Berta only in the very last moment was prevented from suicide. She retired completely from public life and died early in 1939 of a heart attack. Reznicek's daughter Felicitas attempted to leave Germany for Switzerland, but received no permit to work there. Therefore, she remained in Berlin, where she entered the German resistance movement as early as 1934. Later, she also collaborated with the British MI6, becoming one of its most important informants. (Winston Churchill bestowed on her British citizenship in 1951). She had a personal relationship with Hitler's Adjudant Fritz Wiedemann and therefore access to the innermost circles of the Nazi regime. On the other hand, Emil-Ludwig (1898–1940), Reznicek's youngest son, was a fervent Nazi sympathiser even before 1933, joining the party and the SS. When he appeared in Nazi uniform in 1933, Reznicek was outraged and a complete split of the family was prevented only with the promise never to discuss politics. In 1934, Reznicek accepted Strauss's invitation to become the German delegate at the ständige Rat für die Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Komponisten. Contrary to the opinion promulgated by Ernst Krenek, this was not a Nazi-organisation but an invention of Richard Strauss tolerated by the Nazi-Propaganda. With some restrictions the Rat operated rather independently (at least up to 1941); organising festivals and concerts with modern music in all its member states. Reznicek organised these concerts in Germany and in due course he was able to present compositions which were not particularly in-line with the Nazi-ideology (e.g. the music of Jewish composers such as Dukas and Wladigeroff or jazz-inspired works like The Rio Grande by Constant Lambert. When the Nazi party tightened the grip on the Rat in 1942, Reznicek tried to resist and eventually resigned. Already in 1940 he had raised some suspicion at the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda with his autobiography, which was destined for publication but prohibited by censorship. During his final years, the performance of his works in Germany diminished considerably. In 1943 he was evacuated from Berlin to Baden (near Vienna). There he suffered a stroke on Christmas Day 1943, from which he never fully recovered. Becoming more and more demented he was allowed to come back to Berlin in February 1945. He died on 2 August 1945 from hunger-typhus. Reznicek was a friend of Richard Strauss, but relations between the two were ambivalent. Reznicek's symphonic poem Schlemihl (1912) has been seen as a parody of Strauss' A Hero's Life, though in his autobiography Reznicek rejected this interpretation. By his own account, his greatest influence was, in fact, Gustav Mahler. Sardonic humour features in much of Reznicek's music, from the prankster Till Eulenspiegel and the jibbering Blaubart of Ritter Blaubart to the Dance around the Golden Calf in Der Sieger and the expressionist Tarantella movement of the Dance Symphony (No. 5, 1925). Reputation Today, Reznicek is mainly remembered for the overture to his opera Donna Diana, composed in 1894. The overture is a popular stand-alone piece at symphonic concerts, and it served as the theme for the American radio (1947–1955) series Challenge of the Yukon, which later migrated to the TV series (1955–1958) Sergeant Preston of the Yukon. It was also used in the 1950s on the BBC's Children's Hour by Stephen King-Hall for his talks on current affairs. Reznicek's break-through as a composer came with Donna Diana in 1894. This opera differs considerably from his first three operas written for Prague. Historically Donna Diana (written exactly at the same time as Humperdinck's Hansel and Gretel opera) marks the decisive step away from Wagner-imitation to Wagner-reception in the way of going beyond Wagner. (Strauss, with his Guntram failed to achieve this aim.) Reznicek's next opera Till Eulenspiegel goes further in exploiting the concept of a Volksoper including older music styles. In the 1908 revision of Donna Diana he eliminated further hints of Wagner. Nevertheless, in the years after Donna Diana he did not fulfill the expectations Donna Diana had raised. It was only with his experience at the Komische Oper Berlin and the illness of his second wife that Reznicek found a new and very personal style, one that can be described as a sort of musical expressionism. In a letter to Ernst Déczy in 1921, he claimed to have modernized his style considerably. He never left the realm of tonal composition, but he often made use of bi-tonal constructions. And in the dramaturgy of his operas he was clearly influenced by silent-movie aesthetics. Reznicek was skeptical about the Schoenberg concept of twelve-tone composition, but not against atonalism per se. He greatly admired Alban Bergs Wozzeck and Lulu. Reznicek also was open to all types of music as possible sources for his own compositions; old music from the pre-Bach era, but also modern dance music and Jazz. (He made use of a Jazz-band in his operas Satuala, Benzin, Das Oper and even the ballet Das goldene Kalb. All this he amalgamated into his own post-Wagnerian style, creating an early example of Polystilistic Composition. The critics of his time did not understand this concept and often accused him of Eulenspiegelei. In the late 1920s, he was respected as one of the most important German composers of the 1860s generation. But even then his fame began to be surpassed by the modern music of younger composers. Like so many composers who had adhered to tonal music in the 20th century, and being still active after WW I, his music fell into oblivion after WW II with the rise of modernism. In the case of Reznicek, the situation was also aggravated by the false accusation that he had been a Nazi sympathizer. In the 1970s, the only conductor who tried to give Reznicek's music some exposure to modern audiences was the late Gordon Wright. Together with Felicitas von Reznicek he founded the Reznicek society with such prominent members as Maurice Abravanel, Max Burle-Marx and Igor Kipnis. But with the passing of Gordon Wright this society stopped all activities. In 2012, Reznicek's great-grandson founded the Reznicek-Archiv at Wedemark which is now the central point for all Reznicek research. The archive also digitized all printed Reznicek scores and inserted them in the International Music Score Library Project. In 2013, the Editio Reznicek also began, with the aim to publish the numerous scores of Reznicek which had remained in manuscript. Works Symphonies Symphony No. 1, "Tragic" in D minor (composed 1902) Symphony No. 2, "Ironic" in B-flat (composed 1904) Symphony No. 3, "Im alten Stil" in D major (composed 1918) Symphony No. 4 in F minor (composed 1919) Symphony No. 5, "Tanz-Symphonie" (composed 1924) Other Orchestral works Studysymphony (Graz 1881, lost) Studysymphony Nr. 1 (Leipzig 1882, lost) Studysymphony Nr. 2 (Leipzig 1882, lost) Eine Lustspielouvertüre (1881/1896; also Piano4hg.) Sinfonische Suite Nr. 1 e-Moll (1883) Sinfonische Suite D-Dur (1884) (fragment only) Grünne-Marsch Band (1890; also Piano4hg) Probszt-Marsch Band (1891) [only Pf-Score extant] Gebet aus der Oper Emerich Fortunat Band (1891) Der rote Sarafan Band (1891) Sinfonische Suite Nr. 2 D-Dur (1896) Wie Till Eulenspiegel lebte, Sinfonisches Zwischenspiel in Form einer Ouvertüre (1900; = Zwischenaktmusik from Till Eulenspiegel) Goldpirol: Idyllische Ouvertüre (1903); (2. Version 1936 as: Frühlingsouvertüre: Im deutschen Wald) Praeludium und chromatische Fuge für großes Orchester cis-Moll (1904; 1. Version; 2. Version; also arr. for Organ 1921) Nachtstück für Violine or Violoncello and small Orchestra (1905) Serenade G-Dur Strings (1905, rev. 1920) Introduktion und Valse-Capriccio for Violin and Orchestra D-Dur (1906; lost) Schlemihl – Ein Lebensbild, Sinfonische Dichtung (with Tenor-Solo; 1912) Praeludium und (Ganzton-)Fuge c-Moll (1913, also arr. for Organ 1920) Der Sieger – Ein symphonisch-satyrisches Zeitbild, Sinfonische Dichtung (with Alt-Solo, mixed Choir; 1913) Der Frieden – A vision for Oragan, Orchestra and mixed Choir (1914) Marsch for Orchestra/Band/Piano (1915) Konzertstück für Violine und Orchester E-Dur (1918) Konzert für Violine und Orchester e-Moll (1918) Thema und Variationen Tragische Geschichte (mit Bariton-Solo; 1921) (also version without Bariton-Solo) Traumspiel-Suite for small orchestra (1921; also Pf.-solo) Potpourri aus Die wunderlichen Geschichten des Kapellmeister Kreisler for Salonorchestra (1922; also for Pf-Solo) Valse pathetique für Orchestra/Salonorchestra/Piano (1923) Valse serieuse (Ernster Walzer) (1924; original 3rd. movement of Tanzsinfonie) Raskolnikoff, Fantasie-Ouvertüre Nr. 1 (1925) Raskolnikoff, Fantasie-Ouvertüre Nr. 2 (1925) (lost) Suite aus Die beste Polizei für Strings (1926) Festouvertüre Dem befreiten Köln (1926) Sinfonische Variationen über Kol Nidrey (1929) [Theme = Vorspiel zur Oper Holofernes] Raskolnikoff, Fantasie-Ouvertüre Nr. 3 (1. Version 1929; 2. Version 1930) Karneval-Suite for small orchestra (1931/43 = Zwischenaktmusik aus Gondoliere des Dogen) Mea culpa Strings (1932; = Vorspiel zu Das Opfer) Stage works Die Jungfrau von Orleans, opera in 3 acts after Friedrich Schiller (composed 1884-86) Andreas Hofer, Singspiel in 1 Akt by Albert Lortzing (Revision by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek [including two numbers composed by Reznicek)] (composed 1887 Satanella, opera in 2 acts on a libretto by Reznicek (composed 1887) Emerich Fortunat, opera in 2 acts on a libretto by Reznick/Dubsky (composed 1888) Donna Diana, opera in 3 acts after Agustín Moreto's El desdén con el desdén (composed 1894, revised 1908 and 1933) Till Eulenspiegel, opera in 2 acts after Johann Fischart's Eulenspiegel Reimensweiss (composed 1900, revised 1933/34) Die verlorene Braut, operetta (composed 1910) (not performed) Der Arzt wider Willen, opera in 2 acts by Charles Gounod (translated and arranged for the German stage by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek) (1910) Die Angst vor der Ehe, operetta after Taufstein and Urban (composed 1912) Ritter Blaubart, opera in 2 acts on a libretto by H. Eulenberg (composed 1915-17) Traumspiel, Stage music to August Strindbergs drama (1915) Nach Damaskus III, Stage music to August Strindbergs drama (1918, not performed) Die wunderlichen Geschichten des Kapellmeister Kreisler, (1922; Stage music to Carl Meinhards drama after E.T.A.Hoffmann) lost Kreislers Eckfenster (1923; Stage music to Carl Meinhards drama after E.T.A.Hoffmann) [lost] Holofernes, opera in 2 acts after Friedrich Hebbel's Judith und Holofernes (composed 1922) Die beste Polizei (1926; Stage music to Herbert Eulenbergs drama) Marionetten des Todes, Ballett in 4 parts Bi (1927; = Tanzsinfonie with choreography by Ellen von Cleve-Petz) Satuala, opera in 3 acts on a libretto by R. Laukner (composed 1927) Benzin, opera in 2 acts on a libretto by Calderón de la Barca (composed 1929) Spiel oder Ernst?, opera in 1 act on a libretto by Poul Knudsen (composed 1930) Der Gondoliere des Dogen, opera in 1 act on a libretto by Poul Knudsen (composed 1931) [The Doge's Gondolier] Das Opfer, opera in 1 act on a libretto by Poul Knudsen (composed 1932) Das goldene Kalb, ballet in 4 parts on a scenario of Viggo Cavling (composed 1934/35) [The Golden Calf] Chamber music Nachtstück Violine or Violoncell and Piano (1905; also arr. for small orchestra) Stringquartet Nr. 1 c-minor (1882) [Altmann Nummer 1] Stringquartet Nr. 2 c-sharp minor (1906) Stringquartet-Fragment c-sharp minor (ca 1920; only Mov. 1.-3) Stringquartet Nr. 3 c-sharp minor (1921) [Altmann Nr. 2] Stringquartet Nr. 4 d-minor (1922) [Movement 1.+ 2. arranged from Stringquartet c-sharp minor 1907; Movement 3.+ 4. new ][Altmann Nr. 3] Allegro alla polacca for Stringquartet (1922; originally new 4th movement for Quartett in d minor) Stringquartet Nr. 5 e-minor (1925/30) Stringquartet Nr. 6 B Major (1932) [2.+3. movement taken from Quartet Nr. 5 e-minor] [Altmann Nr. 4] 2 Movements for Stringquartet(?; Fragments) Vorspiel zu Holofernes (Kol Nidrey) Violin and Piano (1925) Für unsere Kleinen – Movement for Pianotrio (1921) Walzer-Lied für Pianotrio (1924; Excerpt from Valse pathetique; also Piano solo) Piano Hexenszene aus Macbeth (composed Marburg 1876-78) (lost) Zwei Fantasiestücke (composed Marburg 1876–1878; published 1882/1896) Letzte Gedanken des Selbstmörders for piano (composed 1878-81) [Last Thoughts of the Suicide] (lost) Vier Klavierstücke (composed 1880) Eine Lustspiel-Ouvertüre, reduction for four-hands piano (composed 1883, published 1896) Probszt-Marsch (composed 1891) Sinfonische Suite Nr. 2 D maior, reduction for Piano four hands (1896) Marsch (1915; alsoOrchestra, Band) Traumspiel-Suite, reduction for piano (composed 1921) Potpourri from Die wunderlichen Geschichten des Kapellmeister Kreisler (1922; also version for Salonorchestra) Walzer-Lied (1924; Excerpt from Valse pathetique; arr. also for Pianotrio) Ernster Walzer (composed 1924) Valse Pathétique (composed 1924, orchestrated 1924) Vier sinfonische Tänze, (composed 1924, including Ernster Walzer; orchestrated in 1925 with newly added Ländler as 3rd. movement) Menuett, piano reduction from the stage music to Polizei (composed 1926) Liebeserklärung (composed 1943) Organ Präludium und chromatische Fuge in C sharp minor (composed 1907, arr. for Oran in 1921) Präludium und Fuge in C minor (composed 1913, arr. for Organ in 1918) Fantasie "Kommt Menschenkinder, rühmt und preist" (composed 1930) Works for Choir Choir for a choir-concert at the Gymnasium of Marburg (1877) (lost) Requiem (Studywork Graz 1878–1881, lost) Requiem d-minor Josef Schmeykal for Soli, mixed Choir, Organ and Orchestra (1894; lost) Messe F-Maior for Soli, mixed Choir and Orchestra (1898 to commemorate the 50th Year of the ascension to the throne of Emperor Franz Josef 1; lost) In Memoriam, Alt, Bariton, mixed Choir, Organ and Strings (1915, 1929, 1936) Vater unser, Choralfantasie for mixed Choir and Organ (1919) Sieben deutsche Volkslieder from the 16. und 17. Century for mixed Choir/Piano (1924) Der steinerne Psalm for mixed Choir, Orgel and Orchestra (1929; Text: Karl Bröger) Vom ewigen Frieden, Kantate for Soli, mixed Choir and large Orchestra, (1930, Text: Reznicek, not performed) Wiewohl ein armer Narr ich bin: Deutsches Volkslied of the 16. Century for mixed Choir (1930) [1. Version] Von rechter Lieb und Stetigkeit. Deutsches Volkslied of the 16. Century for Voice/Pf or Chor/Organ (1933) [2.+3. Version] Sieben deutsche Volkslieder aus dem 16. und 17. Jahrhundert for mixed Chor/Klavier, 2. Folge (1936) Songs Ruhm und Ewigkeit (Glory and eternity) Tenor or Mezzosopran and Orchestra (1903; Text: Nietzsche) Drei deutsche Volkslieder aus Des Knaben Wunderhorn for small Orchestra/Piano (1905) Zwei Balladen aus Friedericianischer Zeit, Bass and Orchestra/Piano (1912, Text: Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, Georg von Kries) Vier Bet- und Bußgesänge für Alt or Bass and small Orchestra/Piano (1913, Text: Bibble) Drei Stimmungen (1883; Reznicek) Trois Mélodies (1897; ?, Goethe) Drei Gesänge eines Vagabunden (1904; M. Drescher) Drei Gedichte (1904; M. Drescher) Drei Gedichte (1904; Henckell) Drei Lieder (1905; Bierbaum, Forrer, Henckell) Schelmische Abwehr (1905; Henckell) Drei Lieder (1918; Owiglas; Mörike; Eichendorf) Die Schiffbrüchigen (1921; Drescher) Madonna a Rhein. ein deutsches Wiegenlied (1924; H.H.Cramer) Sieben Lieder für mittlere Singstimme und Klavier (1939; Ginzkey, Lilienkron, Höcker) Wächterlied (1939; nach einer Volksweise des 16. Jahrhunderts) Selected discography Theme and Variations after the poem "Tragische Geschichte (Tragic Story)" by Adelbert von Chamisso for large orchestra and baritone. Performed by Barry McDaniel (baritone) and the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Carl Schuricht (Schuricht-Edition Vol. 14, combined with works by Richard Strauss, Hans Pfitzner, and Max Reger) (Hänssler). Symphony No. 1 in D minor "Tragische (Tragic)", Vier Bet- und Bußgesänge (Four Songs of Prayer and Repentance). Performed by Marina Prudenskaya (mezzo-soprano) and the Brandenburgisches Staatsorchester Frankfurt (Oder) conducted by Frank Beermann. CPO 777 223-2 Symphony No. 2 in B flat major "Ironische (Ironic)" and No. 5 "Tanz-Symphonie (Dance Symphony)". Performed by the Bern Symphony Orchestra conducted by Frank Beermann. CPO 777 056-2 Symphony No. 3 in D major "Im alten Stil (In an Old Style)" and No. 4 in F minor. Performed by the Robert Schumann Philharmonic of the Theater Chemnitz. conducted by Frank Beermann. CPO 777 637-2 Symphony No. 3 in D major and Symphony No. 4 in F minor. Performed by the Philharmonia Hungarica conducted by Gordon Wright. Koch Schwann CD11091. (1984/85) Der Sieger (The Victor) for alto and orchestra. Performed by Beate Koepp (alto) and the WDR Symphony Orchestra and Choir (Cologne) conducted by Michail Jurowski. CPO 999 898-2 Schlemihl, Symphonic Life Story for tenor and orchestra and Fantasy Overture No. 2 'Raskolnikoff'. Performed by Nobuaki Yamamasu (tenor) and the WDR Symphony Orchestra conducted by Michail Jurowski. CPO 999 795-2 A Comedy Overture, Theme and Variations after the poem "Tragische Geschichte" by Adelbert von Chamisso for large orchestra and baritone and Symphonic Variations on 'Kol Nidrey'. Performed by Alexander Vassiliev (bass) and the WDR Symphony Orchestra conducted by Michail Jurowski. CPO 999 795-2 Idyllic Overture "Goldpirol (Golden Oreole)", Symphonic Entr'acte in form an overture "Wie Till Eulenspiegel lebte (How Till Eulenspiegel Lived)", Konzertstück for violin and orchestra in E major, Prelude and Fugue in C minor and Nachtstück (Night Piece) for violin, horns, harp and string orchestra. Performed by Sophie Jaffé (violin) and the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Marcus Bosch. CPO 777 983-2 Carnival Suite in an Old Style, Dream Play Suite and Symphonic Suite No. 1 in E minor. Performed by the Staatskapelle Weimar conducted by Stefan Solyom. CPO 555 056-2 Donna Diana (opera, 1894). Performed by Max Wittges (bass), Manuela Uhl (soprano) and others, Kiel Opera Chorus and Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Ulrich Windfuhr. CPO 999 991-2 Ritter Blaubart (opera, 1918). Performed by David Pittman-Jennings (baritone), Arutjun Kotchinian (tenor) and others, Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester Berlin conducted by Michail Jurowski. CPO 999 899-2 Benzin(opera, 1928). Prformed by Kouta Räsänen, Johanna Stojkovic, Guibee Yang, Susanne Thielemann, Matthias Winter, Chor der Oper Chemnitz, Robert-Schumann-Philharmonie, Frank Beermann. CPO 777 653-2 String Quartet No. 3 in C-sharp minor (1921). Performed by the Franz Schubert String Quartet (Combined with Erich Wolfgang Korngold's String Quartet No. 1 in A major, Op. 16). Nimbus 5506-2 References Further reading Sigfrid Karg-Elert: "Freiherr E. N. von Rezniček", Die Musik-Woche, 27 and 28 (1904), pp. 210f. and 218f. Otto Taubmann, "Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek", in: Monographien moderner Musiker II, C. F. Kahnt Nachfolger, Leipzig 1907, . : E. N. v. Reznicek, sein Leben und seine Werke. Eine biographische Studie, Wien u. a.: Universal-Edition o. J. [um 1920]. Richard Specht: E. N. v. Reznicek. Eine vorläufige Studie, Leipzig u. a.: E. P. Tal & Co. Verlag 1923. Wilhelm Altmann, E. N. Von Reznicek, Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 97 (1930) . Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek, Tagebuch (Lebenserinnerungen), Manuskript, 1940. Felicitas von Reznicek/Leopold Nowak: Gegen den Strom. Leben und Werk von E. N. von Reznicek, Zürich among others: Amalthea-Verlag 1960. (Based on Rezniceks unpublished autobiography of 1940). Thomas Leibnitz, Österreichische Spätromantiker: Studien zu Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek, Joseph Marx, Franz Schmidt und Egon Kornauth; mit einer Dokumentation der handschriftlichen Quellen in der Musiksammlung der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Tutzing 1986. Michael Wittmann: "Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek and the Permanent Council for the International Cooperation of Composers", Reznicek Studien 1, Musikverlag H. M. Fehrmann, Wedemark 2015. Michael Wittmann, "Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek. Ein Forschungsbericht", Reznicek-Studien 2, Musikverlag H. M. Fehrmann, Wedemark 2015. Michael Wittmann, "Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek. Bausteine zu seiner Biographie, Reznicek-Studien 3, Musikverlag H. M. Fehrmann, Wedemark 2018. External links Reznicek research, MW-Musikverlag 1860 births 1945 deaths 19th-century Austrian people 19th-century classical composers 19th-century male musicians 20th-century Austrian people 20th-century classical composers 20th-century male musicians Austrian Romantic composers Austrian opera composers Austrian people of Czech descent Austrian people of Romanian descent Barons of Austria Bohemian nobility Male opera composers Musicians from Vienna Pupils of Salomon Jadassohn Pupils of Wilhelm Mayer (composer)

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Alderney (; ; Auregnais: Aoeur'gny) is the northernmost of the inhabited Channel Islands. It is part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, a British Crown dependency. It is long and wide. The island's area is , making it the third-largest island of the Channel Islands, and the second largest in the Bailiwick. It is around to the west of the La Hague on the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, in France, to the northeast of Guernsey and from the south coast of Great Britain. It is the closest of the Channel Islands to France and to the United Kingdom. It is separated from Cap de la Hague by the dangerous Alderney Race (French: Raz Blanchard). As of March 2018, the island had a population of 2,019; natives are traditionally nicknamed vaques after the cows, or else lapins after the many rabbits seen in the island. Formally, they are known as Ridunians, from the Latin Riduna. The only parish of Alderney is the parish of St Anne, which covers the whole island. The main town, St Anne, historically known as La Ville ("The Town"), is often referred to as "St Anne's" by visitors and incomers, but rarely by locals (who, in normal conversation, still most frequently refer to the area centred on Victoria Street simply as "Town"). The town's "High Street", which formerly had a small handful of shops, is now almost entirely residential, forming a T-junction with Victoria Street at its highest point. The town area features an imposing church and an unevenly cobbled main street: Victoria Street (Rue Grosnez – the English name being adopted on the visit of Queen Victoria in 1854). There is one school (providing both primary and secondary education), a post office, and hotels, as well as restaurants, banks and shops. Other settlements include Braye, Crabby, Longis, Mannez, La Banque, and Newtown. History Alderney shares its prehistory with the other islands in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, becoming an island in the Neolithic period as the waters of the Channel rose. Formerly rich in dolmens, like the other Channel Islands, Alderney with its heritage of megaliths has suffered through the large-scale military constructions of the 19th century and also by the Germans during the World War II occupation, who left the remains at Les Pourciaux unrecognisable as dolmens. A cist survives near Fort Tourgis, and Longis Common has remains of an Iron Age site. There are traces of Roman occupation<ref name="ReferenceA">A Visitor's Guide to Guernsey, Alderney and Sark", Victor Coysh, 1983 </ref> including a fort, built in the late 300s, at above the island's only natural harbour.Nicholas Hogben, "ALDERNEY’S ‘SHORE FORT’" : "My best guess is that the outer structure was constructed in the second half of the third century or later by the Roman navy around an existing combined harbour master's and revenue office, perhaps to protect it, and hence the island, from the ‘pirates’ that Carausius hunted." THE ASSOCIATION FOR ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY Newsletter no. 23, not dated. The etymology of the island's name is obscure. It is known in Latin as Riduna but as with the names of all the Channel Islands in the Roman period there is a degree of confusion. Riduna may be the original name of Tatihou, while Alderney is conjectured to be identified with Sarnia. Alderney/Aurigny is variously supposed to be a Germanic or Celtic name. It may be a corruption of Adreni or Alrene, which is probably derived from an Old Norse word meaning "island near the coast". Alternatively it may derive from three Norse elements: alda (swelling wave, roller), renna (strong current, race) and öy or -ey (island). Alderney may be mentioned in Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum (I.6) as 'Evodia' in which he discussed a certain dangerous whirlpool. The name 'Evodia' may in turn originate from the seven 'Haemodae' of uncertain identification in Pliny the Elder's Natural History (IV 16 (30) or Pomponius Mela's Chronographia (III 6,54). Along with the other Channel Islands, Alderney was annexed by the Duchy of Normandy in 933. In 1042, William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy (later William the Conqueror, King of the English) granted Alderney to the Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel. In 1057, the bishop of Coutances took back control of the island. After 1204, when mainland Normandy was incorporated into the kingdom of France, Alderney remained loyal to the English monarch in his dignity of Duke of Normandy. Henry VIII of England undertook fortification works, but these ceased in 1554. Essex Castle perpetuates the name of the Earl of Essex, who purchased the governorship of Alderney in 1591. Prior to the Earl's execution for treason in 1601, he leased the island to William Chamberlain, and Alderney remained in the hands of the Chamberlain family until 1643. From 1612, a Judge was appointed to assist the Governor's administration of Alderney, along with the Jurats. The function of the Judge was similar to that of the Bailiffs of Guernsey and Jersey, and continued until 1949. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Alderney was held by a Parliamentary garrison under Nicholas Ling, Lieutenant-Governor. Ling built Government House (now the Island Hall). The de Carterets of Jersey acquired the governorship, later passing it to Sir Edmund Andros of Guernsey, from whom the Guernsey family of Le Mesurier inherited it, thus establishing a hereditary line of governors that lasted until 1825. Henry Le Mesurier prospered through privateering, and moved the harbour from Longis to Braye, building a jetty there in 1736. Warehouses and dwellings were built at Braye, and the export of cattle generated wealth for the economy. The Court House was built in 1770 and a school in 1790. A Methodist chapel was constructed in 1790, following John Wesley's visit in 1787. An Optical telegraph tower was constructed above La Foulère in 1811, enabling signals to be relayed visually to Le Mât in Sark and on to Guernsey – early warning of attack during the Napoleonic Wars was of strategic importance. With the end of those wars privateering was ended and smuggling suppressed, leading to economic difficulties. The last of the hereditary Governors, John Le Mesurier, resigned his patent to the Crown in 1825, and since then authority has been exercised by the States of Alderney, as amended by the constitutional settlement of 1948. Victorian era The British Government decided to undertake massive fortifications in the 19th century and to create a strategic harbour to deter attacks from France. These fortifications were presciently described by William Ewart Gladstone as "a monument of human folly, useless to us ... but perhaps not absolutely useless to a possible enemy, with whom we may at some period have to deal and who may possibly be able to extract some profit in the way of shelter and accommodation from the ruins." An influx of English and Irish labourers, plus the sizeable British garrison stationed in the island, led to rapid Anglicisation. The harbour was never completed – the remaining breakwater (designed by James Walker) is one of the island's landmarks, and is longer than any breakwater in the UK. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited Alderney on 9 August 1854. The Albert Memorial and the renaming of Rue Grosnez to Victoria Street commemorate this visit. At the same time as the breakwater was being built in the 1850s, the island was fortified by a string of 13 forts, designed to protect the harbour of refuge. The accommodation quarters of several of the forts have been converted into apartments; two are now private homes; and one, Fort Clonque, at the end of a causeway that can be flooded at high tide, belongs to the Landmark Trust and can be rented for holidays. Scenes from the film Seagulls Over Sorrento were shot at Fort Clonque in 1953. Some of the forts are now in varying stages of dereliction, the most ruined being Les Hommeaux Florains, perched on outlying rocks, its access causeway and bridge having been swept away long ago. Houmet Herbé resembles a Crusader castle with its squat round towers. Like many of the forts, it included such apparently anachronistic features as a drawbridge and machicolation, which were still common in military architecture of the period. Second World War In June 1940, the entire population of Alderney, about 1,500 residents, were evacuated. Most went on the official evacuation boats sent from mainland Britain. Some, however, decided to make their own way, mostly via Guernsey, but due to the impending occupation many found themselves unable to leave and were forced to stay on Guernsey for the duration of the war. A few Alderney people elected not to leave Alderney with the general evacuation. However, boats from Guernsey came and collected them before the German Army arrived, on the basis that it was best for their personal safety. During the Second World War, the Channel Islands were the only part of the British Isles that was occupied by Germany, although other parts of the Empire were occupied by the Axis powers. The Germans arrived to a deserted island, and began to follow their orders to fortify Alderney as part of Hitler's Atlantic Wall. In January 1942, they built four camps in Alderney: two work camps, Lager Helgoland and Lager Borkum, and two concentration camps, Lager Sylt and Lager Norderney. The jail behind the main police station was used by the Nazis as a prison. The camps were built by the Nazi Organisation Todt (OT) to house the labour used to build fortifications including bunkers, gun emplacements, tunnels, air-raid shelters and other concrete and field fortifications. Lager Norderney, containing Russian and Polish POWs, and the Lager Sylt camp holding Jewish slave labourers, were transferred to SS administration in March 1943 under the control of Hauptsturmführer Maximilian List. There are 397 graves in Alderney, which when added to the men who died in ships, takes the total to over 700 out of a total inmate population of 6,000 who lost their lives before the camps were closed and the remaining inmates transferred to France in 1944. On the return to their island, Alderney evacuees had little or no knowledge of the crimes committed on their island during the occupation, because by December 1945, the first date civilians could return home, all the slave labourers had been sent away and the majority of the German troops left behind were not senior staff. Evidence, however, was all over the island, with concrete fortifications and graveyards for the prisoners kept there during the occupation. The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation, particularly in the final months when the Germans themselves were close to starvation. The Germans surrendered Alderney on 16 May 1945, eight days after the Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II in Europe, and seven days after the liberation of Guernsey and Jersey. 2,332 German prisoners of war were removed from Alderney on 20 May 1945, leaving 500 Germans to undertake clearing up operations under British military supervision. The people of Alderney could not start returning until December 1945 due to the huge cleanup operation needed simply to make the island safe for civilians. When the islanders returned home they were shocked to see the state of the island, with many houses completely derelict: the Germans had burned anything wooden, including front doors, for fuel. Archival and object evidence of the general evacuation in 1940 and the subsequent occupation of Alderney can be found in the Alderney Society Museum. A series of tunnels also remain in place on Alderney, constructed by forced labour. These are in varying degrees of decay, being left open to the public and the elements. Since 1945 For two years after the end of the war, Alderney was operated as a communal farm. Craftsmen were paid by their employers, while others were paid by the local government out of the profit from the sales of farm produce. Remaining profits were put aside to repay the British Government for repairing and rebuilding the island. The local people resented being unable to control their own land; this led to the United Kingdom Home Office setting up an enquiry that led to the "Government of Alderney Law 1948", which came into force on 1 January 1949. The law organised the construction and election of the States of Alderney and the justice system; and, for the first time in Alderney, the imposition of taxes. The legislature and judiciary were separated. The position of Judge, who had headed the island's government since the resignation of the last Governor in 1825, was abolished, and the Jurats were removed from their legislative function. Because of the island's small population, it was believed that the island could not be self-sufficient in running the airport and the harbour, or providing services that would match those of the UK. Taxes were therefore collected into the general Bailiwick of Guernsey revenue funds at the same rate as in Guernsey, and administered by the States of Guernsey. Guernsey became responsible for providing many government functions and services. The 20th century saw much change in Alderney, from the building of the airport in the late 1930s to the death of the last speakers of the island's Auregnais language, a dialect of the Norman language. The economy has gone from depending largely on agriculture to earning money from the tourism and finance industries. E-commerce has become increasingly important, and the island hosts the domain name registry for both Bailiwicks and dozens of gambling website operators. Alderney has a full regulatory authority in operation. Politics The States of Alderney (French: États d'Aurigny) is the legislature of the island; it sends two representatives to the States of Guernsey as well. The origin of the States is unknown, but it has operated from the Middle Ages. The States of Alderney consists of the President, directly elected every four years, and ten States Members, half elected every two years for a four-year mandate. The whole island is a single constituency. William Tate was elected President in June 2019. While Alderney enjoys full autonomy in law (except in matters of foreign affairs and defence, like the other Channel Islands and the Isle of Man), under the provisions of a formal agreement (known as "the 1948 Agreement") entered into between the Governments of Alderney and of Guernsey, certain matters have been delegated to Guernsey. These are known as 'the transferred services'. Transferred services include policing, customs and excise, airport operations, health, education, social services, childcare and adoption. (The States of Alderney retains policy control of aviation to and from the island). In return for providing the transferred services Guernsey levies various taxes and duties on Alderney. Immigration is the responsibility of the UK (UK law applies), with day-to-day operations carried out by the Guernsey Border Agency. In addition to the transferred services, both the UK and Guernsey may legislate on other matters with the consent of the States of Alderney. Law Legal system The Court of Alderney exercises unlimited original jurisdiction in civil matters and limited jurisdiction in criminal matters. The Court sits with a Chairman (the Judge of Alderney) and at least three of the six Jurats. Appeals are made to the Royal Court of Guernsey, which also exercises some original jurisdiction in criminal matters in Alderney, and thence to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Taxation For a number of taxation purposes, Alderney is treated as if it were part of Guernsey. Income Tax is administered by the Guernsey Revenue Service but there are some differences between Alderney and Guernsey Income Tax, specifically in the matter of the cap on Income Tax (which is set lower in Alderney than in Guernsey). From 2016, Alderney took back control of Tax on Real Property (TRP). From 2021, Alderney will be responsible for setting the rate and collecting the Taxation on Real Property (TRP) with Occupier's Rates (OR) now being included within that bill. Alderney will also receive Motor Fuel Excise Duty and Document Duty on property conveyances. Climate Its climate is temperate, moderated by the sea, and summers are usually warmer than elsewhere in the British Isles. Under the Köppen climate classification, Alderney has an oceanic climate, however it exhibits characteristics of a Warm-summer Mediterranean climate(Csb). Alderney has cool, wet winters and mild summers with moderate rainfall. February is the coldest month with an average high of 8 C (47 F), and a low of 4 C (40 F). July and August are the warmest months, with an average high of 19 C (66 F), and a low of 13-14 C (56-57 F). October is the wettest month with of rain, and April is the driest month with . Snow is very rare. Average Sunshine hours are around 1780 annually. Geography and natural history Alderney is similar to the other Channel Islands in having sheer cliffs broken by stretches of sandy beach and dunes. The highest point is on the central plateau of the island at . Alderney and its surrounding islets support a rich flora and fauna. Trees are rather scarce, as many were cut down in the 17th century to fuel the lighthouses on Alderney and the Casquets. Those trees that remain include cabbage trees, due to the mild climate – often miscalled "palms" but of the asparagus family), and there are some small woods dotted about the island. Puffins on Burhou and gannet on Les Étacs (popularly called Gannet Rock) just off Alderney are a favourite of many visitors to the island. About a quarter of Alderney hedgehogs are of the "white" or "blonde" variety, which does not carry fleas. These are not albinos, but descent of rarely met blonde European hedgehogs, with a blonde pair released on the island in the 1960s. The island had its own breed of cattle, called the Alderney. The pure breed became extinct in 1944, but hybrids remain elsewhere, though no longer on Alderney. In August 2005, the west coast of Alderney and associated islands, including Burhou and Ortac, were designated as Ramsar wetlands of international importance. The Alderney Wildlife Trust helps to manage the two nature reserves, at Longis and Vau du Saou. The island is surrounded by rocks, which have caused hundreds of wrecks. There are treacherous tidal streams on either side of the island: the Swinge between Alderney and Burhou, just outside the harbour, and Le Raz between the island and the Normandy mainland. The Corbet Rock lies in the Swinge. The geology of Alderney is mostly granites from the Precambrian period. Language The language of the island is now English with a few minor variants, forming Channel Island English. For centuries the island had its own dialect of the Norman language called Auregnais, now extinct. It was primarily a spoken language, with only a few known poems and written works using it. French was once widely used on the island, and increasingly replaced Auregnais from the late 19th century onward, but it ceased to be an official language there in 1966. French declined partly because of the many English and Irish workers in the island from 1850 onwards, building fortifications and providing the garrison soldiers; English prevailed in part due to its use as the medium of education, but also because most of the population was evacuated to the United Kingdom during the Second World War. However, there is a strong cultural legacy of both languages in the island: most of the local place-names are in French or Auregnais, as are many local surnames. The pronunciation of various local names is also dialectal, e.g. Dupont as "dip-oh" rather than in the traditional Parisian fashion, and Saye (the name of a beach on the island) as "soy". One or two French/Auregnais words are still in common use, e.g. vraic (seaweed fertiliser), as well as impôt, which is the word used for the island's landfill. Culture Sport Island sports include golf, fishing and water sports, supported by clubs and associations. Alderney competes in the biennial Island Games. Every September, the Alderney Air Races attract a number of aircraft to compete in the deciding and final round for the European Air Racing championship, organised by the Royal Aero Club. This involves high-speed circuits round the airfield, lighthouse, Casquets and then back around. Pubs Partly because of the tourist industry, but mainly to the Ridunians' own drinking culture (there is a common expression elsewhere in the Channel Islands that Alderney is composed of 'two thousand alcoholics, clinging to a rock'), there are restaurants and public houses. It was one of the last places in the British Isles to introduce a smoking ban in pubs, shops, restaurants and other indoor public places (Guernsey, Jersey, the UK, and the Isle of Man all having outlawed this already). The States of Alderney passed the anti-smoking legislation with the President's casting vote on 13 January 2010; the legislation came into force at 4am on 1 June 2010. The island has an ageing population. Notable residents of Alderney include authors T. H. White (The Once and Future King) and Elisabeth Beresford (The Wombles), cricket commentator John Arlott, cricketer Sir Ian Botham, Beatles producer Sir George Martin, actress Dame Julie Andrews, and Olympic swimmer Duncan Goodhew. Broadcasting Alderney has its own radio station, QUAY-FM, which broadcasts on 107.1 and online. Initially it only operated at seasonal highpoints such as the summer Alderney Week festival, but from 2015 it has broadcast 24 hours a day. It features local news and interviews, music, news from Sky News. Alderney Week Alderney Week is the island's annual summer festival, beginning the Saturday before the first Monday of August and lasting eight days, it involves islanders and attracts visitors. Miss Alderney Miss Alderney is chosen during the Easter Holiday weekend each year at a public event held at the Island Hall. Application to the event is online, with the winner chosen by a panel of judges made up by non-residents and holidaymakers Comedy Rocks Comedy Rocks is an annual run of live stand up comedy gigs mid to late July and early August. The shows feature well known and established comedians from the UK comedy circuit and have so far featured BBC Radio 4's Marcus Brigstocke, Zoe Lyons and Celebrity Get Me Outta Here runner up Joel Dommett. Alderney Annual Motor Sprint and Hill Climb Every year in mid-September Alderney hosts a motorsport weekend that is organized by the Guernsey Kart and Motor Club. The event has been held for more than 20 years. The event attracts Guernsey drivers who come to Alderney with high powered cars, motorbikes, sidecars and karts. Race vehicles are shipped to Alderney two days before the event. On the Friday, a sprint is held on the public roads of Fort Corbelets in the east of the island which are closed for the event. The following day a hill climb is held at Fort Tourgis in the west of the island and on a public road which is closed for the event. Spectators travel from Guernsey. Local Alderney people watch as the closed roads have vehicles racing at high speed where normally speed limits of apply. Alderney Performing Arts Festival The annual Alderney Performing Arts Festival began in 2013, and features music, dance and theatre. Alderney Literary Festival The Alderney Literary Festival began in March 2015, with talks and events relating to historical fiction and non-fiction. It is organised by the Alderney Literary Trust. Alderney Stones In April 2011, sculptor Andy Goldsworthy completed a project called "Alderney Stones", commenced in 2008, in which 11 large dried-earth spheres were placed at different sites on the island. The intention is that each stone will gradually erode, at different speeds depending on the location, and in some cases revealing objects buried inside. Goldsworthy has stated that he selected Alderney as "It seems to have a strong sense of layered past and a wide variety of locations in a small area." Education The sole school building is the St. Anne’s School in Newton. It serves ages 4–16. Transport Alderney is served by Alderney Airport. There are several flights each day from Southampton and Guernsey, with links to many parts of the United Kingdom and Europe. Aurigny serves the island with Dornier 228s. Boats sail regularly between the island and France, and to the other Channel Islands. Manche Iles Express operates a high-speed passenger ferry in summer to Diélette in the commune of Flamanville, Manche in France, and to St Peter Port, Guernsey. Two boats offer seasonal service to Guernsey. A 12-passenger boat operates services to Cherbourg, Sark and St Peter Port. Alderney is from St Malo and from Poole. There are boat trips, water-taxi services and water and fuel access to visiting yacht crews. The busiest time is during the peak months of June, July and August as nearly 30,000 yacht crew members visit this harbour every year. Because of the island's size, vehicular transport is often unnecessary, although taxis, cars and bicycles are used. The Alderney Railway is the only remaining railway in the Channel Islands giving a timetabled public service, with scheduled trains to the lighthouse during the summer and special occasions such as Easter and Christmas. There is an occasional bus service around the island. Alderney allows people to ride motorbikes and mopeds without helmets and drive cars without seatbelts, but it is compulsory for under 18s to wear helmets. The international vehicle registration code is GBA. As in the rest of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, mopeds and motorbikes with an engine of 50cc or less can be driven from the age of 14 with a provisional licence. Utilities The Alderney Water Board is responsible for the supply of water on the island. Water is sourced from bore holes and streams and is treated and stored at Corblets Quarry and Battery Quarry. Electricity was first supplied on Alderney in 1934 by Mr. M.P.D. Marshall. The supply concession was transferred to Alderney Light and Power Company in 1939, which came under the control of the States of Guernsey Electricity Department, before reverting to the States of Alderney in 1950. Supplies from a new power station operated by Alderney Electricity Limited started on 1 April 1952. Electricity is generated by fuel oil driven generators. There are 3 × 2,000 kW, 2 × 50 kW and 2 × 450 kW engine generators. , there are currently plans to develop tidal power and to construct a 220 kilometre France-Alderney-Britain cable link. Healthcare and emergency services Fire and Ambulance Service The Alderney Voluntary Fire Brigade has a crew of 11 volunteer firefighters, and operates one Iveco Daily light water tender with a 10.5m ladder, two Iveco water carriers each with a capacity of 4,500litres, one Ford Ranger rapid response unit and two trailer units. A new fire station was officially opened on 20 October 2004 by Lt.-General Sir John Foley, the Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey. The fire station is near Braye Harbour, has four appliance bays, a workshop, kit room, mess and a training room, and achieves an average response time of nine minutes. The Alderney Airport Fire and Rescue Service is sometimes called on to help with larger conflagrations. In 2020, the Ambulance service merged into the Fire service to form the first combined fire and ambulance service in the British Isles outside of Dublin. Until 2020, the St John Alderney Ambulance Service operated the ambulance service on the island, and was staffed by volunteers. It had served Alderney since 1952 and was registered as a private company. Patients are transferred to the Mignot Memorial Hospital in St Anne, and any having major complications are then transferred to Guernsey or Southampton by the Aurigny between 7am and 7pm on an emergency basis. Outside these hours or in the event of bad weather preventing an air evacuation the transfer is achieved with the aid of the RNLI lifeboat service. There was no paramedic service available on the island, but this has now changed Police Because of Alderney's low crime rate, day-to-day policing of Alderney is provided by a team of five locally based officers from the Guernsey Police, consisting of a sergeant in charge, two constables, and two special constables. They are regularly assisted by visiting constables from Guernsey The police station is in QEII Street. Lifeboats The Alderney lifeboat station was established in 1869, was closed in 1884, and was re-established in 1985 by the RNLI. The lifeboat station operates an all-weather Trent class lifeboat Search and rescue Search and rescue services are provided by Channel Islands Air Search, which uses a Britten-Norman Islander to search large areas of water using infrared cameras and a number of other technologies. Formed in 1980, it is staffed entirely by volunteers and is based in Guernsey. When a major search is underway, the French coastguard and the Royal Navy are often involved, co-ordinated by the Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre in Jobourg, France. Coins and stamps Alderney pound and coinage List of postage stamps of Alderney Postal orders of Alderney In popular culture In the 1976 film The Eagle Has Landed, Alderney is the location where the Nazis conduct an initial meeting to begin their plot to kidnap then Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The scenes in the film featuring Alderney were actually shot in Charlestown, Cornwall, England. In the song "Alderney" on her 2013 album The Sea Cabinet, Gwyneth Herbert tells the story of the sudden evacuation of Alderney's inhabitants during the Second World War and the irrevocable changes introduced during the Nazi occupation of the island. The Salvation Army composer Dean Goffin (1916–1984) from New Zealand composed a brass band march entitled Alderney. In former Alderney resident Elisabeth Beresford's fictional children's story The Wombles, one of the later introduced characters was named Alderney. Alderney is the name of a location in the Grand Theft Auto video game franchise. The 2021 crime novel A Line To Kill by Anthony Horowitz takes place at a literary festival on Alderney. Gallery See also Fortifications of Alderney Alderney Steam Packet Company Alderney camps Maritime history of the Channel Islands Archaeology of the Channel Islands Tourism in Alderney References Notes Citations Further reading The Alderney Story: 1939–1949, Michael St John Packe and Maurice Dreyfus (1966?) "The Alderney Society and Museum decided shortly after its inception in 1966 to collect all reliable reminiscences whether written or verbal lest with the passage of time they would be lost."Alderney Place Names, Royston Raymond, 1999 Alderney Noms de lieux de Normandie'', René Lepelley, 1999 Paris Backman, Anders & Forrester, Bob (1981). The Postage Stamps of the Smaller Channel Islands, Channel Islands Publishing. External links Alderney official site Visitor information Alderney language Alderney Gambling Control Commission For further information on Alderney camps, see Guernsey Geography of the Channel Islands Parishes of the Channel Islands Islands of the Channel Islands Ramsar sites in Guernsey

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Public General Acts |- | {{|Civil Aviation Authority (Borrowing Powers) Act 1990|public|2|19-03-1990|maintained=y|An Act to increase the Civil Aviation Authority's statutory borrowing limit with power to make further increases by order; and to extend the Authority's power to borrow in currencies other than sterling so as to include power to borrow in units of account defined by reference to more than one currency.}} |- | {{|Coal Industry Act 1990|public|3|19-03-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make new provision with respect to grants by the Secretary of State to the British Coal Corporation and further provision with respect to grants and loans under existing powers; and to make provision as to the licensing of coal working, searching and boring and the preservation of amenity in connection with opencast coal working.}} |- | {{|Consolidated Fund Act 1990|public|4|28-03-1990|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the years ending on 31st March 1989, 1990 and 1991.}} |- | {{|Criminal Justice (International Co-operation) Act 1990|public|5|05-04-1990|maintained=y|An Act to enable the United Kingdom to co-operate with other countries in criminal proceedings and investigations; to enable the United Kingdom to join with other countries in implementing the Vienna Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances; and to provide for the seizure, detention and forfeiture of drug trafficking money imported or exported in cash.}} |- | {{|Education (Student Loans) Act 1990|public|6|26-04-1990|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the making to students in higher education of loans towards their maintenance.}} |- | {{|Pensions (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1990|public|7|24-05-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to certain public service pension schemes.}} |- | {{|Town and Country Planning Act 1990|public|8|24-05-1990|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to town and country planning (excluding special controls in respect of buildings and areas of special architectural or historic interest and in respect of hazardous substances) with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990|public|9|24-05-1990|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to special controls in respect of buildings and areas of special architectural or historic interest with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Planning (Hazardous Substances) Act 1990|public|10|24-05-1990|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to special controls in respect of hazardous substances with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Planning (Consequential Provisions) Act 1990|public|11|24-05-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for repeals, consequential amendments, transitional and transitory matters and savings in connection with the consolidation of enactments in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and the Planning (Hazardous Substances) Act 1990 (including provisions to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission).}} |- | {{|Property Services Agency and Crown Suppliers Act 1990|public|12|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for the transfer of the Crown services known as the Property Services Agency and the Crown Suppliers; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Greenwich Hospital Act 1990|public|13|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to enable the Royal Hospital School to admit both girls and boys and, in either case, regardless of any seafaring family connection; and for purposes connected therewith.}} |- | {{|Pakistan Act 1990|public|14|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision in connection with the re-admission of Pakistan as a member of the Commonwealth.}} |- | {{|Agricultural Holdings (Amendment) Act 1990|public|15|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend Case B in Part I of Schedule 3 to the Agricultural Holdings Act 1986; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Food Safety Act 1990|public|16|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make new provision in place of the Food Act 1984 (except Parts III and V), the Food and Drugs (Scotland) Act 1956 and certain other enactments relating to food; to amend Parts III and V of the said Act of 1984 and Part I of the Food and Environment Protection Act 1985; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990|public|17|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to exclude one of the record copies of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 from the public records to which the Public Records Act 1958 applies.}} |- | {{|Computer Misuse Act 1990|public|18|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for securing computer material against unauthorised access or modification; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990|public|19|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make further provision about health authorities and other bodies constituted in accordance with the National Health Service Act 1977; to provide for the establishment of National Health Service trusts; to make further provision about the financing of the practices of medical practitioners; to amend Part VII of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 and Part III of the Local Government Finance Act 1982; to amend the National Health Service Act 1977 and the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978; to amend Part VIII of the Mental Health (Scotland) Act 1984; to make further provision concerning the provision of accommodation and other welfare services by local authorities and the powers of the Secretary of State as respects the social services functions of such authorities; to make provision for and in connection with the establishment of a Clinical Standards Advisory Group; to repeal the Health Services Act 1976; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Entertainments (Increased Penalties) Act 1990|public|20|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to increase the penalties for certain offences under enactments relating to the licensing of premises or places used for dancing, music or other entertainments of a like kind.}} |- | {{|Licensing (Low Alcohol Drinks) Act 1990 |public|21|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the definition of "intoxicating liquor" in the Licensing Act 1964 and "alcoholic liquor" in the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1976 with respect to alcohol in low alcohol drinks.}} |- | {{|Term and Quarter Days (Scotland) Act 1990|public|22|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to regulate, in relation to Scotland, the dates of Whitsunday, Martinmas, Candlemas and Lammas; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Access to Health Records Act 1990|public|23|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to establish a right of access to health records by the individuals to whom they relate and other persons; to provide for the correction of inaccurate health records and for the avoidance of certain contractual obligations; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Rights of Way Act 1990|public|24|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to rights of way and the disturbance and restoration of the surface of land over which rights of way pass; to keep the line of rights of way clear of crops; to enable local authorities to act in connection therewith; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Horses (Protective Headgear for Young Riders) Act 1990|public|25|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to secure the wearing of protective headgear by children while horse riding; to prescribe offences and penalties; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Gaming (Amendment) Act 1990|public|26|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the provisions of the Gaming Act 1968 relating to premises licensed or registered under Part II of that Act.}} |- | {{|Social Security Act 1990|public|27|13-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to social security and to occupational and personal pension schemes; to establish and confer functions on a Pensions Ombudsman and a Registrar of Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes; to make provision for the payment of grants for the improvement of energy efficiency in certain dwellings; and for purposes connected therewith.}} |- | {{|Appropriation Act 1990|public|28|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the year ending on 31st March 1991, to appropriate the supplies granted in this Session of Parliament, and to repeal certain Consolidated Fund and Appropriation Acts.}} |- | {{|Finance Act 1990|public|29|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to grant certain duties, to alter other duties, and to amend the law relating to the National Debt and the Public Revenue, and to make further provision in connection with Finance.}} |- | {{|Government Trading Act 1990|public|30|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Government Trading Funds Act 1973 and section 5 of the Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1921 and to repeal the Borrowing (Control and Guarantees) Act 1946.}} |- | {{|Aviation and Maritime Security Act 1990|public|31|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to give effect to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation which supplements the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation; to make further provision with respect to aviation security and civil aviation; to give effect to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation and to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf which supplements that Convention; to make other provision for the protection of ships and harbour areas against acts of violence; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Representation of the People Act 1990|public|32|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to provide for a person no longer resident at his qualifying address or at any other address in the same area to be eligible for an absent vote for an indefinite period at Parliamentary elections in the United Kingdom and local government elections in Great Britain.}} |- | {{|Marriage (Registration of Buildings) Act 1990|public|33|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to allow a building to be registered for the solemnization of marriages under section 41 of the Marriage Act 1949 notwithstanding that it forms part of another building.}} |- | {{|British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1990|public|34|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the acquisition of British citizenship by selected Hong Kong residents, their spouses and minor children.}} |- | {{|Enterprise and New Towns (Scotland) Act 1990|public|35|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to establish public bodies to be known as Scottish Enterprise and Highlands and Islands Enterprise and to make provision as to their functions; to dissolve the Scottish Development Agency and the Highlands and Islands Development Board; to make further provision as regards new towns in Scotland; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Contracts (Applicable Law) Act 1990|public|36|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision as to the law applicable to contractual obligations in the case of conflict of laws.}} |- | {{|Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990|public|37|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision in connection with human embryos and any subsequent development of such embryos; to prohibit certain practices in connection with embryos and gametes; to establish a Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority; to make provision about the persons who in certain circumstances are to be treated in law as the parents of a child; and to amend the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985.}} |- | {{|Employment Act 1990|public|38|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make it unlawful to refuse employment, or any service of an employment agency, on grounds related to trade union membership; to amend the law relating to industrial action and ballots; to make further provision with respect to the Commissioner for the Rights of Trade Union Members; to confer a power to revise or revoke Codes of Practice; to provide for the merger of the Redundancy Fund with the National Insurance Fund; to amend the Education (Work Experience) Act 1973; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Landlord and Tenant (Licensed Premises) Act 1990|public|39|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to repeal section 43(1)(d) of the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland) Act 1990|public|40|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act, as respects Scotland, to make new provision for the regulation of charities; to provide for the establishment of a board having functions in connection with the provision of conveyancing and executry services by persons other than solicitors, advocates and incorporated practices; to provide as to rights of audience in courts of law, legal services and judicial appointments, and for the establishment and functions of an ombudsman in relation to legal services; to amend the law relating to liquor licensing; to make special provision in relation to the giving of evidence by children in criminal trials; to empower a sheriff court to try offences committed in the district of a different sheriff court in the same sheriffdom; to provide as to probation and community service orders and the supervision and care of persons on probation and on release from prison and for supervised attendance as an alternative to imprisonment on default in paying a fine; to amend Part I of the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1987 with respect to the registration and enforcement of confiscation orders in relation to the proceeds of drug trafficking; to amend section 24 of the Housing (Scotland) Act 1987; to provide a system for the settlement by arbitration of international commercial disputes; to amend Part II of the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977; and to make certain other miscellaneous reforms of the law.}} |- | {{|Courts and Legal Services Act 1990|public|41|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision with respect to the procedure in, and allocation of business between, the High Court and other courts; to make provision with respect to legal services; to establish a body to be known as the Lord Chancellor's Advisory Committee on Legal Education and Conduct and a body to be known as the Authorised Conveyancing Practitioners Board; to provide for the appointment of a Legal Services Ombudsman; to make provision for the establishment of a Conveyancing Ombudsman Scheme; to provide for the establishment of Conveyancing Appeal Tribunals; to amend the law relating to judicial and related pensions and judicial and other appointments; to make provision with respect to certain officers of the Supreme Court; to amend the Solicitors Act 1974; to amend the Arbitration Act 1950; to make provision with respect to certain loans in respect of residential property; to make provision with respect to the jurisdiction of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration in connection with the functions of court staff; to amend the Children Act 1989 and make further provision in connection with that Act; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Broadcasting Act 1990|public|42|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make new provision with respect to the provision and regulation of independent television and sound programme services and of other services provided on television or radio frequencies; to make provision with respect to the provision and regulation of local delivery services; to amend in other respects the law relating to broadcasting and the provision of television and sound programme services and to make provision with respect to the supply and use of information about programmes; to make provision with respect to the transfer of the property, rights and liabilities of the Independent Broadcasting Authority and the Cable Authority and the dissolution of those bodies; to make new provision relating to the Broadcasting Complaints Commission; to provide for the establishment and functions of a Broadcasting Standards Council; to amend the Wireless Telegraphy Acts 1949 to 1967 and the Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967; to revoke a class licence granted under the Telecommunications Act 1984 to run broadcast relay systems; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Environmental Protection Act 1990|public|43|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for the improved control of pollution arising from certain industrial and other processes; to re-enact the provisions of the Control of Pollution Act 1974 relating to waste on land with modifications as respects the functions of the regulatory and other authorities concerned in the collection and disposal of waste and to make further provision in relation to such waste; to restate the law defining statutory nuisances and improve the summary procedures for dealing with them, to provide for the termination of the existing controls over offensive trades or businesses and to provide for the extension of the Clean Air Acts to prescribed gases; to amend the law relating to litter and make further provision imposing or conferring powers to impose duties to keep public places clear of litter and clean; to make provision conferring powers in relation to trolleys abandoned on land in the open air; to amend the Radioactive Substances Act 1960; to make provision for the control of genetically modified organisms; to make provision for the abolition of the Nature Conservancy Council and for the creation of councils to replace it and discharge the functions of that Council and, as respects Wales, of the Countryside Commission; to make further provision for the control of the importation, exportation, use, supply or storage of prescribed substances and articles and the importation or exportation of prescribed descriptions of waste; to confer powers to obtain information about potentially hazardous substances; to amend the law relating to the control of hazardous substances on, over or under land; to amend section 107(6) of the Water Act 1989 and sections 31(7)(a), 31A(2)(c)(i) and 32(7)(a) of the Control of Pollution Act 1974; to amend the provisions of the Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 as regards the dumping of waste at sea; to make further provision as respects the prevention of oil pollution from ships; to make provision for and in connection with the identification and control of dogs; to confer powers to control the burning of crop residues; to make provision in relation to financial or other assistance for purposes connected with the environment; to make provision as respects superannuation of employees of the Groundwork Foundation and for remunerating the chairman of the Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council; and for purposes connected with those purposes.}} |- | {{|Caldey Island Act 1990|public|44|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the islands of Caldey and St. Margaret's in the county of Dyfed to be included in the district of South Pembrokeshire for the purposes of local, parliamentary and European elections and for the purposes of local taxation; to include those islands in the districts of the Pembrokeshire coroner and the Pembrokeshire Health Authority; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Import and Export Control Act 1990|public|45|06-12-1990|maintained=y|An Act to repeal section 9(3) of the Import, Export and Customs Powers (Defence) Act 1939.}} |- | {{|Consolidated Fund (No. 2) Act 1990|public|46|20-12-1990|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the years ending on 31st March 1991 and 1992.}} }} Local Acts |- | {{|New Southgate Cemetery and Crematorium Limited Act 1990|local|2|22-02-1990|An Act to confirm an agreement between New Southgate Cemetery and Crematorium Limited and the National Spiritual Assembly of the of the United Kingdom for the transfer to the said assembly of the freehold of certain lands forming part of the cemetery administered by the said company; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Hythe Marina Village (Southampton) Wavescreen Act 1990|local|3|22-02-1990|An Act to authorise Hythe Marina Limited to construct works in Southampton Water; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Isle of Wight Act 1990|local|4|22-02-1990|An Act to amend the Isle of Wight County Council Act 1971.}} |- | {{|Buckinghamshire County Council Act 1990|local|5|22-02-1990|An Act to relieve the Buckinghamshire County Council of their statutory duty to establish a new county secondary school at Shenley Church End in Buckinghamshire.}} |- | {{|United Medical Dental Schools Act 1990|local|6|22-02-1990|An Act to dissolve the First and Second Administration Councils of the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospitals; to transfer to the Council of Governors of the Schools all rights, properties and liabilities of those Administration Councils; to make provision with respect to the administration and management of certain funds relating to the Schools; and for connected and other purposes.}} |- | {{|London Local Authorities Act 1990|local|7|22-02-1990|An Act to confer further powers upon local authorities in London; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Penzance Albert Pier Extension Act 1990|local|8|22-02-1990|An Act to empower the Penwith District Council to construct works at Penzance Harbour; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|City of London (Spitalfields Market) Act 1990|local|9|22-02-1990|An Act to provide for the alteration of the site of Spitalfields Market; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|British Railways Order Confirmation Act 1990|local|10|19-03-1990|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to British Railways.|po1=British Railways Order 1990|Provisional Order to empower the British Railways Board to construct a work and to purchase or use land; to confer further powers on the Board; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Strathclyde Regional Council Order Confirmation Act 1990|local|11|28-03-1990|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to Strathclyde Regional Council.|po1=Strathclyde Regional Council Order 1990|Provisional Order to authorise a motor rally on certain public roads on the Island of Mull; to confer powers on the Strathclyde Regional Council in relation thereto; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|British Film Institute Southbank Act 1990|local|12|28-03-1990|An Act to free certain land on the south bank of the river Thames from any trust which allows the use thereof by the public as an open space.}} |- | {{|Birmingham City Council Act 1990|local|13|28-03-1990|An Act to authorise the control of establishments for massage or special treatment in the city of Birmingham.}} |- | {{|Nottingham Park Estate Act 1990|local|14|05-04-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make revised provision for the funding of The Nottingham Park Estate Limited; to confer certain powers on The Nottingham Park Estate Limited in relation to the Nottingham Park Estate; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Greater Manchester (Light Rapid Transit System) Act 1990|local|15|26-04-1990|maintained=y|An Act to empower the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive to construct additional works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on the Executive; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Happisburgh Lighthouse Act 1990|local|16|26-04-1990|An Act to establish and constitute the Happisburgh Lighthouse Trust; to appoint the Trust to be a local lighthouse authority; to confer on the Trust power to operate and maintain Happisburgh lighthouse in the county of Norfolk; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Bromley London Borough Council (Crystal Palace) Act 1990|local|17|29-06-1990|An Act to provide for the leasing of land at Crystal Palace.}} |- | {{|South Yorkshire Light Rail Transit Act 1990|local|18|29-06-1990|maintained=y|An Act to empower the South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive to construct certain works in substitution for works authorised by the South Yorkshire Light Rail Transit Act 1988 and other enactments; to confer further powers upon the Executive, and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|River Tees Barrage and Crossing Act 1990|local|19|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to empower the Teesside Development Corporation to construct a barrage in and across the river Tees; to construct a road bridge and footbridge over the river Tees; and in connection therewith to execute other works and to acquire lands; to provide for the control and development of part of the river Tees for amenity and recreation; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Hasmonean High School Act 1990|local|20|26-07-1990|An Act to relieve the Governors of the Hasmonean High School of their statutory duties to accommodate the entire school at a single site and to provide only two forms of entry for girls; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Associated British Ports Act 1990|local|21|26-07-1990|An Act to empower Associated British Ports to construct works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on A.B. Ports; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Medway Tunnel Act 1990|local|22|26-07-1990|An Act to authorise the Wardens and Assistants of Rochester Bridge in the county of Kent to construct works and to acquire lands; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Greater Manchester (Light Rapid Transit System) (No. 2) Act 1990|local|23|26-07-1990|An Act to empower the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive to construct further works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on the Executive; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|City of London (Various Powers) Act 1990|local|24|26-07-1990|An Act to empower the Conservators of Epping Forest to grant to the Secretary of State for Transport rights or interests in land for road purposes; to make further provision for the regulation of horse-riding in Epping Forest; to amend provisions relating to Blackfriars Underpass, city walkways, the regulation of highways within the city, traffic in Billingsgate Market, the registration of houseboats and the City of London School; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|British Railways Act 1990|local|25|26-07-1990|An Act to empower the British Railways Board to construct works and to purchase or use land; to extend the time for the compulsory purchase of certain land; to confer further powers on the Board; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Penzance South Pier Extension Act 1990|local|26|26-07-1990|An Act to empower the Penwith District Council to construct works at Penzance Harbour; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Great Yarmouth Port Authority Act 1990|local|27|26-07-1990|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the closure to the public of certain lands in or adjoining the Port of Great Yarmouth; to confer further powers on the Great Yarmouth Port Authority to give directions to vessels; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|City of Dundee District Council Order Confirmation Act 1990|local|28|01-11-1990|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to City of Dundee District Council.|po1=City of Dundee District Council Order 1990|Provisional Order to re-enact with amendments certain local statutory provisions in force within the City of Dundee District; to confer further powers on the City of Dundee District Council; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Zetland Masonic Sick and Widows and Orphans Fund Order Confirmation Act 1990|local|29|01-11-1990|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to Zetland Masonic Sick and Widows and Orphans Fund.|po1=Zetland Masonic Sick and Widows and Orphans Fund Order 1989|po1note1=|Provisional Order to provide for the dissolution of The Masonic Sick and Widows and Orphans Fund of Zetland and for the transfer of its assets to the General Lodge Benevolent Fund of the Masonic Lodge Morton Lerwick No. 89 on the Roll of the Grand Lodge of Scotland; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|London Local Authorities (No. 2) Act 1990|local|30|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to confer further powers upon local authorities in London; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Port of Tyne Act 1990|local|31|01-11-1990|maintained=y|An Act to make fresh provision for the controlling of works within the Port of Tyne; and for connected or other purposes.}} |- | {{|Fraserburgh Harbour Order Confirmation Act 1990|local|32|20-12-1990|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to Fraserburgh Harbour.|po1=Fraserburgh Harbour Order 1990|Provisional Order to amend the Fraserburgh Harbour Order 1985 and make new provision with respect to the constitution, qualification, election and appointment of the Fraserburgh Harbour Commissioners; to authorise the Commissioners to carry out works for the improvement of Fraserburgh Harbour; and for other purposes.}} }} References 1990

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The Upper East Side, sometimes abbreviated UES, is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 96th Street to the north, the East River to the east, 59th Street to the south, and Central Park/Fifth Avenue to the west. The area incorporates several smaller neighborhoods, including Lenox Hill, Carnegie Hill, and Yorkville. Once known as the Silk Stocking District, it has long been the most affluent neighborhood in New York City. The Upper East Side is part of Manhattan Community District 8, and its primary ZIP Codes are 10021, 10028, 10065, 10075, and 10128. It is patrolled by the 19th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Geography Neighborhood boundaries in New York City are not officially set, but according to the Encyclopedia of New York City, the Upper East Side is bounded by 59th Street in the south, 96th Street on the north, Fifth Avenue to the west and the East River to the east. The AIA Guide to New York City extends the northern boundary to 106th Street near Fifth Avenue. The area's north-south avenues are Fifth, Madison, Park, Lexington, Third, Second, First, York, and East End Avenues, with the latter running only from East 79th Street to East 90th Street. The major east-west streets are 59th Street, 72nd Street, 79th Street, 86th Street and 96th Street. Some real estate agents use the term "Upper East Side" instead of "East Harlem" to describe areas that are slightly north of 96th Street and near Fifth Avenue, in order to avoid associating these areas with the negative connotations of the latter, a neighborhood which is generally perceived as less prestigious. Historic districts The Upper East Side Historic District was designated as a city district in 1981 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The city district runs from 59th to 78th Streets along Fifth Avenue, and up to Third Avenue at some points. It is composed of residential structures built after the American Civil War; mansions and townhouses built at the beginning of the 20th century; and apartment buildings erected later on. The city district was slightly expanded in 2010 with 74 additional buildings. The Metropolitan Museum Historic District was designated a city district in 1977. It consists of properties on Fifth Avenue between 79th and 86th Streets, outside the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as properties on several side streets. The Park Avenue Historic District was designated a city district in 2014. It encompasses 64 properties on Park Avenue between 79th and 91st Streets. The Carnegie Hill Historic District was designated a city district in 1974 and expanded in 1993. It covers 400 buildings, primarily along Fifth Avenue from 86th to 98th Street, as well as on side streets extending east to Madison, Park, and Lexington Avenues. There are also two smaller city historic districts. The Henderson Place Historic District, designated in 1969, comprises the town houses on East End Avenue between 86th and 87th Streets, built by John C. Henderson in 1981. The Treadwell Farm Historic District, designated in 1967, includes low-rise apartments on East 61st and 62nd Streets between Second and Third Avenues, on the former farm of Adam Treadwell. History Development Before the arrival of Europeans, the mouths of streams that eroded gullies in the East River bluffs are conjectured to have been the sites of fishing camps used by the Lenape, whose controlled burns once a generation or so kept the dense canopy of oak–hickory forest open at ground level. In the 19th century the farmland and market garden district of what was to be the Upper East Side was still traversed by the Boston Post Road and, from 1837, the New York and Harlem Railroad, which brought straggling commercial development around its one station in the neighborhood, at 86th Street, which became the heart of German Yorkville. The area was defined by the attractions of the bluff overlooking the East River, which ran without interruption from James William Beekman's "Mount Pleasant", north of the marshy squalor of Turtle Bay, to Gracie Mansion, north of which the land sloped steeply to the wetlands that separated this area from the suburban village of Harlem. Among the series of villas a Schermerhorn country house overlooked the river at the foot of present-day 73rd Street and another, Peter Schermerhorn's at 66th Street, and the Riker homestead was similarly sited at the foot of 75th Street. By the mid-19th century the farmland had largely been subdivided, with the exception of the of Jones's Wood, stretching from 66th to 76th Streets and from the Old Post Road (Third Avenue) to the river and the farmland inherited by James Lenox, who divided it into blocks of houselots in the 1870s, built his Lenox Library on a Fifth Avenue lot at the farm's south-west corner, and donated a full square block for the Presbyterian Hospital, between 70th and 71st Streets, and Madison and Park Avenues. At that time, along the Boston Post Road taverns stood at the mile-markers, Five-Mile House at 72nd Street and Six-Mile House at 97th, a New Yorker recalled in 1893. The fashionable future of the narrow strip between Central Park and the railroad cut was established at the outset by the nature of its entrance, in the southwest corner, north of the Vanderbilt family's favored stretch of Fifth Avenue from 50th to 59th Streets. A row of handsome townhouses was built on speculation by Mary Mason Jones, who owned the entire block bounded by 57th and 58th Streets and Fifth and Madison. In 1870 she occupied the prominent corner house at 57th and Fifth, though not in the isolation described by her niece, Edith Wharton, whose picture has been uncritically accepted as history, as Christopher Gray has pointed out. Arrival of famous residents Before the Park Avenue Tunnel was covered (finished in 1910), fashionable New Yorkers shunned the smoky railroad trench up Fourth Avenue (now Park Avenue), to build stylish mansions and townhouses on the large lots along Fifth Avenue, facing Central Park, and on the adjacent side streets. The latest arrivals were the rich Pittsburghers Andrew Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick. The classic phase of Gilded Age Fifth Avenue as a stretch of private mansions was not long-lasting: the first apartment house to replace a private mansion on upper Fifth Avenue was 907 Fifth Avenue (1916), at 72nd Street, the neighborhood's grand carriage entrance to Central Park. Most members of New York's upper-class families have made residences on the Upper East Side, including the oil-rich Rockefellers, political Roosevelts, political dynastic Kennedys, thoroughbred racing moneyed Whitneys, and tobacco and electric power fortuned Dukes. Transportation constructed Construction of the Third Avenue El, opened from 1878 in sections, followed by the Second Avenue El, opened in 1879, linked the Upper East Side's middle class and skilled artisans closely to the heart of the city, and confirmed the modest nature of the area to their east. The ghostly "Hamilton Square", which had appeared as one of the few genteel interruptions of the grid plan on city maps since the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, was intended to straddle what had now become the Harlem Railroad right-of-way between 66th and 69th Streets; it never materialized, though during the Panic of 1857 its unleveled ground was the scene of an open-air mass meeting called in July to agitate for the secession of the city and its neighboring counties from New York State, and the city divided its acreage into house lots and sold them. From the 1880s the neighborhood of Yorkville became a suburb of middle class Germans. Gracie Mansion, the last remaining suburban villa overlooking the East River at Carl Schurz Park, became the home of New York's mayor in 1942. The East River Drive, designed by Robert Moses, was extended south from the first section, from 125th Street to 92nd Street, which was completed in 1934 as a boulevard, an arterial highway running at street level; reconstruction designs from 1948 to 1966 converted FDR Drive, as it was renamed after Franklin Delano Roosevelt, into the full limited-access parkway that is in use today. Demolishing the elevated railways on Third and Second Avenues opened these tenement-lined streets to the construction of high-rise apartment blocks starting in the 1950s. However, it had an adverse effect on transportation, because the IRT Lexington Avenue Line was now the only subway line in the area. The construction of the Second Avenue Subway was originally proposed in 1919. Finally, on January 1, 2017, the first phase of the line was completed with three new stations opened. This brought in new local business to the area and had positive impact on real estate prices in the Upper East Side. Demographics For census purposes, the New York City government classifies the Upper East Side as part of three neighborhood tabulation areas: Upper East Side-Carnegie Hill, Yorkville, and Lenox Hill-Roosevelt Island, divided by Third Avenue and 77th Street. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the combined population of these areas was 219,920, an increase of 2,857 (1.3%) from the 217,063 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhoods had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhoods was 79% (173,711) White, 3.2% (7,098) African American, 0.1% (126) Native American, 8.6% (18,847) Asian, 0% (98) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (609) from other races, and 1.8% (3,868) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race was 7.1% (15,563) of the population. While the White population is a dominating majority in all three census tabulation areas, it is more so in Upper East Side-Carnegie Hill compared to Yorkville and Lenox Hill-Roosevelt Island, being close to 90% of the population. The racial composition of the Upper East Side changed moderately from 2000 to 2010. The most significant changes were the increase in the Asian population by 38% (5,145), the increase in the Hispanic/Latino population by 19% (2,537), and the decrease in the White population by 3% (5,644). The small Black population increased by 3% (191), while the even smaller population of all other races increased by 15% (628). Taking into account the three census tabulation areas, the decrease of the White population was concentrated Yorkville and Upper East Side-Carnegie Hill especially, while the increases of the other racial groups were evenly split across the three areas. The entirety of Manhattan Community District 8, which comprises the Upper East Side and Roosevelt Island, had 225,914 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 85.9 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (37%) are between the ages of 25–44, while 24% are between 45–64, and 20% are 65 or older. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 14% and 5% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 8 was $123,894, though the median income in the Upper East Side individually was $131,492. In 2018, an estimated 7% of Community District 8 residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. One in twenty-five residents (4%) were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 41% in Community District 8, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Community District 8 is not considered to be gentrifying: according to the Community Health Profile, the district was not low-income in 1990. Ethnic and socioeconomic trends As of the 2000 census, twenty-one percent of the population was foreign born; of this, 45.6% came from Europe, 29.5% from Asia, 16.2% from Latin America and 8.7% from other areas. The female-male ratio was very high with 125 females for 100 males. The Upper East Side contains a large and affluent Jewish population estimated at 56,000. Traditionally, the Upper East Side has been dominated by wealthy White Anglo-Saxon Protestant families. Given its very high population density and per capita income ($85,081 in 2000), the neighborhood contains the greatest concentration of individual wealth in Manhattan. As of 2011, the median household income for the Upper East Side was $131,492. The Upper East Side maintains the highest pricing per square foot in the United States. A 2002 report cited the average cost per square meter as $8,856; however, that price has noticed a substantial jump, increasing to almost as much as $11,200 per square meter as of 2006. There are some buildings which cost about $125 per square foot (~$1345/㎡). The only public housing projects for those of low to moderate incomes on the Upper East Side are located just south of the neighborhood's northern limit at 96th Street, the Holmes Towers and Isaacs Houses. It borders East Harlem, which has the highest concentration of public housing in the United States. Politics Politically, the Upper East Side is in New York's 12th congressional district, which has a Cook PVI of D+34 and is currently represented by Democrat Carolyn Maloney. It is in the New York State Senate's 27th, 28th, and 29th districts, the New York State Assembly's 73rd and 76th districts, and the New York City Council's 4th and 5th districts. The Upper East Side is one of few areas of Manhattan where Republicans constitute more than 20% of the electorate. In the southwestern part of the neighborhood, Republican voters equal Democratic voters (the only such area in Manhattan), whereas in the rest of the neighborhood Republicans make up between 20 and 40% of registered voters. Nonetheless, it is still heavily Democratic; in the 2020 presidential election, every single precinct voted for Joe Biden and all but one gave him over 70% of the vote. The Upper East Side is notable as a significant location of political fundraising in the United States. Four of the top five ZIP Codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top ZIP Code, 10021, is on the Upper East Side and generated the most money for the 2004 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and John Kerry. Landmarks and cultural institutions Museums The area is host to some of the most famous museums in the world. The string of museums along Fifth Avenue fronting Central Park has been dubbed "Museum Mile", running between 82nd and 105th Streets. It was once named "Millionaire's Row". The following are among the cultural institutions on the Upper East Side: 92nd Street Y Asia Society Colony Club Andrew Carnegie Mansion, which houses the Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum Henry Clay Frick House, which houses the Frick Collection Frick Madison Goethe-Institut, New York Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum Irish Georgian Society Jewish Museum of New York Manhattan House, the Skidmore, Owings & Merrill-designed mid-century modernist white brick building at 200 E 66th Street, once home to Grace Kelly and Benny Goodman. Landmarked in 2007 Metropolitan Museum of Art El Museo del Barrio Museum of the City of New York National Academy of Design Neue Galerie Park Avenue Armory Society of Illustrators Art galleries Acquavella Galleries Kraushaar Galleries Katharina Rich Perlow Gallery Salon 94 Anita Shapolsky Gallery Hotels Carlyle Hotel Courtyard by Marriott Affinia Gardens NYC The Mark Hotel The Pierre The Lowell Hotel Plaza Athénée, New York The Sherry-Netherland Renaissance New York Hotel 57 voco The Franklin New York IHG Hotels Houses of worship Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Greek Orthodox Church Brick Presbyterian Church Central Presbyterian Church Church of the Epiphany, Episcopal church Church of the Heavenly Rest, Episcopal church Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun, Modern Orthodox synagogue Congregation Or Zarua, Conservative synagogue Edmond J. Safra Synagogue, Orthodox Sephardic synagogue Fifth Avenue Synagogue, Orthodox synagogue First Hungarian Reformed Church of New York Holy Trinity Episcopal Church St. Ignatius Loyola, Catholic Church Jan Hus Presbyterian Church Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses (1499 1st Avenue at East 78th Street) Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church Our Lady of Good Counsel Church Park Avenue Christian Church, Disciples of Christ church Park Avenue Synagogue, Conservative Jewish synagogue Park East Synagogue, Orthodox synagogue Redeemer Presbyterian Church St. Ann's Church, Catholic Church St. James' Episcopal Church St. Jean Baptiste Church, Catholic Church at 76th & Lex St. John the Martyr's Church, Catholic Church St. Thomas More Roman Catholic Church Temple Emanu-El of New York, Reform synagogue Temple Israel, Reform synagogue Temple Shaaray Tefila, Reform synagogue Third Church of Christ, Scientist Islamic Cultural Center of New York, mosque Zion-St. Mark's Evangelical Lutheran Church Diplomatic missions Many diplomatic missions are located in former mansions on the Upper East Side: The Consulate-General of Austria in New York is located at 31 East 69th Street, between Park Avenue and Madison Avenue. The Consulate-General of France in New York is located at 934 Fifth Avenue between 74th Street and 75th Street. The Consulate-General of Greece in New York is located at 69 East 79th Street, occupying the former George L. Rives residence. The Consulate-General of Italy in New York is located at 690 Park Avenue. The Consulate-General of India in New York is located at 3 East 64th Street between Fifth Avenue and Madison Avenue. The Consulate-General of Indonesia in New York is located at 5 East 68th Street between Fifth Avenue and Madison Avenue. The Consulate-General of Lebanon in New York is located at 9 East 76th Street between Fifth Avenue and Madison Avenue. The Consulate-General of Pakistan in New York is located at 12 East 65th Street. The Consulate-General of Russia in New York is located at the John Henry Hammond House at 9 East 91st Street between Fifth Avenue and Madison Avenue. Other missions to the United Nations in the Upper East Side include: Albania Belarus Bulgaria Cameroon Cape Verde Czech Republic Iraq Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) Mali Mongolia Myanmar (Burma) Poland Serbia Historic districts There are several historic districts in the Upper East Side, the districts are: The Carnegie Hill Historic District, a city landmark district, which covers 400 buildings, primarily along Fifth Avenue from 86th to 98th Street, as well as on side streets extending east to Madison, Park, and Lexington Avenues. The Metropolitan Museum Historic District, a city landmark district, which consists of properties on Fifth Avenue between 79th and 86th Streets, outside the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as properties on several side streets. The Upper East Side Historic District, a city and NRHP district. The city district runs from 59th to 78th Streets along Fifth Avenue, and up to Third Avenue at some points. Police and crime The Upper East Side is patrolled by the 19th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 153 East 67th Street. The 19th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 84.5% between 1990 and 2019. The precinct reported 0 murders, 18 rapes, 171 robberies, 138 felony assaults, 223 burglaries, 1,658 grand larcenies, and 65 grand larcenies auto in 2019. , Manhattan Community District 8 has a non-fatal assault hospitalization rate of 15 per 100,000 people, compared to the boroughwide rate of 49 per 100,000 and the citywide rate of 59 per 100,000. Its incarceration rate is 71 per 100,000 people, the lowest in the city, compared to the boroughwide rate of 407 per 100,000 and the citywide rate of 425 per 100,000. Of the five major violent felonies (murder, rape, felony assault, robbery, and burglary), the 19th Precinct had a rate of 264 crimes per 100,000 residents in 2019, compared to the boroughwide average of 632 crimes per 100,000 and the citywide average of 572 crimes per 100,000. In 2019, the highest concentration of felony assaults in the Upper East Side was near the intersection of 93rd Street and First Avenue, where there were 10 felony assaults. The highest concentration of robberies, on the other hand, was near the intersection of 86th Street and Lexington Avenue, where there were 19 robberies. Fire safety The Upper East Side is served by multiple New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations: Engine Company 39/Ladder Company 16 – 157 East 67th Street Engine Company 44 – 221 East 75th Street Engine Company 22/Ladder Company 13/Battalion 10 – 159 East 85th Street Health , preterm births and births to teenage mothers in the Upper East Side are lower than the city average. In the Upper East Side, there were 73 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 3.4 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). The Upper East Side has a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, less than the citywide rate of 12%, though this was based on a small sample size. The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in the Upper East Side is , more than the city average. Eight percent of Upper East Side residents are smokers, which is less than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In the Upper East Side, 11% of residents are obese, 4% are diabetic, and 15% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 6% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Ninety-four percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 89% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in the Upper East Side, there are 5 bodegas. Lenox Hill Hospital and NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical Center are located in the Upper East Side. In addition, Mount Sinai Hospital and Metropolitan Hospital Center are located nearby in East Harlem. Post offices and ZIP Codes The Upper East Side is located in five primary ZIP Codes. From south to north, they are 10065 (south of 69th Street), 10021 (between 69th and 76th Streets), 10075 (between 76th and 80th Streets), 10028 (between 80th and 86th Streets), and 10128 (north of 86th Street). In addition, 500 East 77th Street in Yorkville has its own ZIP Code, 10162. If the AIA Guide's broader definition of the neighborhood (extending up to Fifth Avenue and 106th Streets) is considered, then the neighborhood has an additional ZIP Code of 10029, along Fifth Avenue between 96th and 105th Streets. The United States Postal Service operates four post offices in the Upper East Side: Cherokee Station – 1483 York Avenue Gracie Station – 229 East 85th Street Lenox Hill Station – 221 East 70th Street Yorkville Station – 1617 Third Avenue Education The Upper East Side generally has a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . A majority of residents age 25 and older (83%) have a college education or higher, while 3% have less than a high school education and 14% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of the Upper East Side students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period. The Upper East Side's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In the Upper East Side, 8% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 91% of high school students in the Upper East Side graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%. Primary and secondary schools Public schools The New York City Department of Education operates public schools in the city. Public lower and middle schools PS 6 – Lillie Devereux Blake School PS 77 – The Lower Lab school PS 158 – Bayard Taylor PS 183 – Robert Louis Stevenson School PS 267 – East Side Elementary PS 290 – The New School of Manhattan MS 114 – East Side Middle School JHS 167 – Senator Robert F. Wagner Middle School Public high schools Talent Unlimited High School Eleanor Roosevelt High School Urban Academy Laboratory High School Other schools Hunter College High School Private schools Coeducational schools Birch Wathen Lenox School Caedmon School Dalton School Loyola School Lycée Français de New York La Scuola d'Italia Guglielmo Marconi Park East School Rudolph Steiner School (see Waldorf education) The Town School Trevor Day School Ramaz School Sephardic Academy of Manhattan Islamic Cultural Center School Girls' schools Brearley School Cathedral High School Chapin School Convent of the Sacred Heart Dominican Academy Hewitt School Manhattan High School for Girls Marymount School St. Vincent Ferrer High School Nightingale-Bamford School Spence School St. Jean Baptiste High School Boys' schools Allen-Stevenson School The Browning School The Buckley School Regis High School St. Bernard's School St. David's School Colleges and universities Hunter College Marymount Manhattan College Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai New York Medical College New York School of Interior Design New York University Institute for the Study of the Ancient World New York University Institute of Fine Arts Rockefeller University Weill Cornell Medical College Libraries The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates four branches in the Upper East Side. The 67th Street branch is located at 328 East 67th Street. The branch, a Carnegie library, opened in 1905 and was restored in the 1950s and in 2000. The two-story, structure resembles the Yorkville branch library in design. The Yorkville branch is located at 222 East 79th Street. The branch, a Carnegie library, opened in 1902 and was renovated in 1986–1987. The three-story space is listed on the New York State Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places. The Webster branch is located at 1465 York Avenue. The branch was founded in 1893 as the Webster Free Library, and the current Carnegie library structure opened in 1906. The 96th Street branch is located at 112 East 96th Street. The branch, a Carnegie library, opened in 1905 and was restored in 1991. Transportation The Upper East Side is served by two subway lines, the four-track IRT Lexington Avenue Line () under Lexington Avenue and the two-track Second Avenue Subway () under Second Avenue. The Second Avenue Line serves to relieve congestion on the Lexington Avenue Line. The first phase of the line opened on January 1, 2017, consisting of three stations in the Upper East Side: 96th Street, 86th Street, and 72nd Street. The planned Second Avenue Line includes three additional phases to be built at a later date, which will extend the line north to 125th Street/Park Avenue in Harlem and south to Hanover Square in the Financial District. There are also local and limited MTA Regional Bus Operations routes going uptown and downtown, as well as the crosstown . In popular culture The Upper East Side has been a setting for many films, television shows, and other media. Films Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) Sunday in New York (1963) The Boys in the Band (1970) Live and Let Die (1973) The Great Gatsby (1974) The Prisoner of Second Avenue (1975) Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) Manhattan (1979) The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984) Ghostbusters II (1989) Family Business (1989) The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990) Metropolitan (1990) Juice (1992) Six Degrees of Separation (1993) Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993) Harriet the Spy (1996) Ransom (1996) One Fine Day (1996) The Devil's Advocate (1997) A Perfect Murder (1998) Cruel Intentions (1999) The Thomas Crown Affair (1999) Eyes Wide Shut (1999) Autumn in New York (2000) American Psycho (2000) Cruel Intentions 2 (2001) Tart (2001) 25th Hour (2002) Uptown Girls (2003) Igby Goes Down (2002) Two Weeks Notice (2002) Eloise at the Plaza (2003) The Nanny Diaries (2007) The Devil Wears Prada (2007) Sex and the City (2008) Ghost Town (2008) Made of Honor (2008) The Wackness (2008) The Women (2008) Bride Wars (2009) Confessions of a Shopaholic (2009) The International (2009) The Back-up Plan (2010) Sex and the City 2 (2010) Twelve (2010) Remember Me (2010) Arbitrage (2012) The Goldfinch (2019) The Scary of Sixty-First (2021) Television shows Kourtney and Kim Take New York (2011–2012) The City (2008–2010) Gossip Girl (2007–2012) Gossip Girl (2021–present) Ringer (2011–2012) The Jeffersons (1975–1985) Diff'rent Strokes (1978–1986) That Girl (TV series) (1966–1971) Family Affair (TV series) (1966–1971) The Nanny (1993–1999) Sex and the City (1998–2004) And Just Like That (2021–present) Will & Grace (1998–2006) Lipstick Jungle (2008–2009) Dirty Sexy Money (2007–2008) Gallery Girls (2012) Ugly Betty (2006–2010) The Real Housewives of New York City (2008–) NYC Prep (2009–2010) High Society (1995–1996) Yes! PreCure 5 (2007–2008) Yes! Precure 5 GoGo! (2008–2009) I Love Lucy (1951–1957) Succession (2018–present) Billions (2016–present) White Collar (2009–2014) The Odd Couple (1970–1975) The Undoing (miniseries) (2020) Odd Mom Out (2015–), based on Jill Kargman's novel Momzillas Books Breakfast at Tiffany's by Truman Capote The Ex-Mrs. Hedgefund by Jill Kargman The Princess Diaries by Meg Cabot The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger Franny and Zooey by J. D. Salinger Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters by J. D. Salinger The Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Wolfe Gossip Girl series by Cecily von Ziegesar The Nanny Diaries by Nicola Kraus and Emma McLaughlin The A-List series by Zoey Dean Blue Bloods series by Melissa de la Cruz Harriet the Spy by Louise Fitzhugh The Luxe by Anna Godbersen The Manny by Holly Peterson Momzillas by Jill Kargman Shopaholic Takes Manhattan by Sophie Kinsella Twelve by Nick McDonell Sex and the City by Candace Bushnell The Devil Wears Prada by Lauren Weisberger Primates of Park Avenue by Wednesday Martin Death Wish by Brian Garfield Heartburn by Nora Ephron American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis The 25th Hour by David Benioff Lipstick Jungle by Candace Bushnell My Year of Rest and Relaxation by Ottessa Moshfegh Wolves In Chic Clothing by Jill Kargman Fictional places and characters The X-Men's fictional Hellfire Club mansion is said to be four blocks away from the Avengers Mansion, another fictional building at 70th Street and Fifth Avenue. Both locations would be in the Upper East Side if they were real. Mad Mens Don Draper owned an apartment in a fictional building at 73rd Street and Park Avenue. Constance Billard School for Girls and St. Jude's School for Boys in Gossip Girl The Duchesne School in the vampire novels Blue Bloods by Melissa de la Cruz Percy Jackson, title character of Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians pentalogy Sherman McCoy – The Bonfire of the Vanities Samantha Delmonico and John Surling in Friends from College Jacqueline White (Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt) Notable people The neighborhood has a long tradition of being home to some of the world's most wealthy, powerful and influential families and individuals. Notable residential buildings 834 Fifth Avenue 927 Fifth Avenue 930 Fifth Avenue 960 Fifth Avenue 1040 Fifth Avenue 502 Park Avenue 520 Park Avenue 550 Park Avenue 740 Park Avenue 778 Park Avenue 225 East 86th Street 343 East 74th Street 20 East End Avenue Casa 74 Raymond C. and Mildred Kramer House 1342 Lexington Avenue, the former residence of Andy Warhol from 1960 to 1972. See also East Side (Manhattan) Upper West Side Upper Manhattan Yorkville, Manhattan Carnegie Hill Lenox Hill References Informational notes Citations External links Wikipages: Upper East Side Upper East Side Museums Neighborhoods in Manhattan

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The Ancestral Puebloans, also known as the Anasazi, were an ancient Native American culture that spanned the present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprising southeastern Utah, northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado. They are believed to have developed, at least in part, from the Oshara Tradition, which developed from the Picosa culture. The people and their archaeological culture are often referred to as Anasazi, meaning "ancient enemies", as they were called by Navajo. Contemporary Puebloans object to the use of this term, with some viewing it as derogatory. The Ancestral Puebloans lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger structures to house clans, grand pueblos, and cliff-sited dwellings for defense. They had a complex network linking hundreds of communities and population centers across the Colorado Plateau. They held a distinct knowledge of celestial sciences that found form in their architecture. The kiva, a congregational space that was used mostly for ceremonies, was an integral part of community structure. Archaeologists continue to debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current agreement, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence around the 12th century BC, during the archaeologically designated Early Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers identified Ancestral Puebloans as the forerunners of contemporary Pueblo peoples. Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in the United States are credited to the Pueblos: Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Culture National Historical Park and Taos Pueblo. Etymology Pueblo, which means "village" in Spanish, was a term originating with the Spanish explorers who used it to refer to the people's particular style of dwelling. The Navajo people, who now reside in parts of former Pueblo territory, referred to the ancient people as , an exonym meaning "ancestors of our enemies", referring to their competition with the Pueblo peoples. The Navajo now use the term in the sense of referring to "ancient people" or "ancient ones". Hopi people use the term , meaning "ancient people", to describe the Ancestral Puebloans. Geography The Ancestral Puebloans were one of four major prehistoric archaeological traditions recognized in the American Southwest. This area is sometimes referred to as Oasisamerica in the region defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. The others are the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Patayan. In relation to neighboring cultures, the Ancestral Puebloans occupied the northeast quadrant of the area. The Ancestral Puebloan homeland centers on the Colorado Plateau, but extends from central New Mexico on the east to southern Nevada on the west. Areas of southern Nevada, Utah, and Colorado form a loose northern boundary, while the southern edge is defined by the Colorado and Little Colorado Rivers in Arizona and the Rio Puerco and Rio Grande in New Mexico. Structures and other evidence of Ancestral Puebloan culture have been found extending east onto the American Great Plains, in areas near the Cimarron and Pecos Rivers and in the Galisteo Basin. Terrain and resources within this large region vary greatly. The plateau regions have high elevations ranging from . Extensive horizontal mesas are capped by sedimentary formations and support woodlands of junipers, pinon, and ponderosa pines, each favoring different elevations. Wind and water erosion have created steep-walled canyons, and sculpted windows and bridges out of the sandstone landscape. In areas where resistant strata (sedimentary rock layers), such as sandstone or limestone, overlie more easily eroded strata such as shale, rock overhangs formed. The Ancestral Puebloans favored building under such overhangs for shelters and defensive building sites. All areas of the Ancestral Puebloan homeland suffered from periods of drought, and wind and water erosion. Summer rains could be unreliable and often arrived as destructive thunderstorms. While the amount of winter snowfall varied greatly, the Ancestral Puebloans depended on the snow for most of their water. Snow melt allowed the germination of seeds, both wild and cultivated, in the spring. Where sandstone layers overlay shale, snow melt could accumulate and create seeps and springs, which the Ancestral Puebloans used as water sources. Snow also fed the smaller, more predictable tributaries, such as the Chinle, Animas, Jemez, and Taos Rivers. The larger rivers were less directly important to the ancient culture, as smaller streams were more easily diverted or controlled for irrigation. Cultural characteristics The Ancestral Puebloan culture is perhaps best known for the stone and earth dwellings its people built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras, from about 900 to 1350 AD in total. The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are now protected within United States' national parks, such as Navajo National Monument, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, Mesa Verde National Park, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Aztec Ruins National Monument, Bandelier National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, and Canyon de Chelly National Monument. These villages, called pueblos by Spanish colonists, were accessible only by rope or through rock climbing. These astonishing building achievements had modest beginnings. The first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in the Basketmaker periods. Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their pottery. In general, pottery used for cooking or storage in the region was unpainted gray, either smooth or textured. Pottery used for more formal purposes was often more richly adorned. In the northern or "Anasazi" portion of the Ancestral Pueblo world, from about 500 to 1300 AD, the most common decorated pottery had black-painted designs on white or light gray backgrounds. Decoration is characterized by fine hatching, and contrasting colors are produced by the use of mineral-based paint on a chalky background. South of the Anasazi territory, in Mogollon settlements, pottery was more often hand-coiled, scraped, and polished, with red to brown coloring. Some tall cylinders are considered ceremonial vessels, while narrow-necked jars may have been used for liquids. Ware in the southern portion of the region, particularly after 1150 AD, is characterized by heavier black-line decoration and the use of carbon-based colorants. In northern New Mexico, the local "black on white" tradition, the Rio Grande white wares, continued well after 1300 AD. Changes in pottery composition, structure, and decoration are signals of social change in the archaeological record. This is particularly true as the peoples of the American Southwest began to leave their traditional homes and migrate south. According to archaeologists Patricia Crown and Steadman Upham, the appearance of the bright colors on Salado Polychromes in the 14th century may reflect religious or political alliances on a regional level. Late 14th- and 15th-century pottery from central Arizona, widely traded in the region, has colors and designs which may derive from earlier ware by both Ancestral Pueblo and Mogollon peoples. The Ancestral Puebloans also created many petroglyphs and pictographs. The pictograph style with which they are associated is the called the Barrier Canyon Style. This form of pictograph is painted in areas in which the images would be protected from the sun yet visible to a group of people. The figures are sometimes phantom or alien looking. The Holy Ghost panel in the Horseshoe Canyon is considered to be one of the earliest uses of graphical perspective where the largest figure appears to take on a three dimensional representation. Recent archaeological evidence has established that in at least one great house, Pueblo Bonito, the elite family whose burials associate them with the site practiced matrilineal succession. Room 33 in Pueblo Bonito, the richest burial ever excavated in the Southwest, served as a crypt for one powerful lineage, traced through the female line, for approximately 330 years. While other Ancestral Pueblo burials have not yet been subjected to the same archaeogenomic testing, the survival of matrilineal descent among contemporary Puebloans suggests that this may have been a widespread practice among Ancestral Puebloans. Architecture The Ancestral Pueblo people in the North American Southwest crafted a unique architecture with planned community spaces. Population centers such as Chaco Canyon (outside Crownpoint, New Mexico), Mesa Verde (near Cortez, Colorado), and Bandelier National Monument (near Los Alamos, New Mexico) have brought renown to the Ancestral Pueblo peoples. They consisted of apartment complexes and structures made of stone, adobe mud, and other local material, or were carved into canyon walls. Developed within these cultures, the people also adopted design details from other cultures as far away as contemporary Mexico. These buildings were usually multistoried and multipurposed, and surrounded open plazas and viewsheds. They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of people. These complexes hosted cultural and civic events and infrastructure that supported a vast outlying region hundreds of miles away linked by transportation roadways. Built well before 1492 AD, these towns and villages were located in defensive positions, for example on high, steep mesas such as at Mesa Verde or present-day Acoma Pueblo, called the "Sky City", in New Mexico. Before 900 AD and progressing past the 13th century, the population complexes were major culture centers. In Chaco Canyon, Chacoan developers quarried sandstone blocks and hauled timber from great distances, assembling 15 major complexes. These ranked as the largest buildings in North America until the late 19th century. Evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been proposed, with the Sun Dagger petroglyph at Fajada Butte a popular example. Many Chacoan buildings may have been aligned to capture the solar and lunar cycles, requiring generations of astronomical observations and centuries of skillfully coordinated construction. The Chacoans abandoned the canyon, probably due to climate change beginning with a 50-year drought starting in 1130. Great Houses Immense complexes known as "great houses" embodied worship at Chaco. Archaeologists have found musical instruments, jewelry, ceramics, and ceremonial items, indicating people in Great Houses were elite, wealthier families. They hosted indoor burials, where gifts were interred with the dead, often including bowls of food and turquoise beads. Over centuries, architectural forms evolved but the complexes kept some core traits, such as their size. They averaged more than 200 rooms each, and some had 700 rooms. Rooms were very large, with higher ceilings than Ancestral Pueblo buildings of earlier periods. They were well-planned: vast sections were built in a single stage. Most houses faced south. Plazas were almost always surrounded by buildings of sealed-off rooms or high walls. There were often four or five stories, with single-story rooms facing the plaza; room blocks were terraced to allow the tallest sections to compose the pueblo's rear edifice. Rooms were often organized into suites, with front rooms larger than rear, interior, and storage rooms or areas. Ceremonial structures known as kivas were built in proportion to the number of rooms in a pueblo. A small kiva was built for roughly every 29 rooms. Nine complexes each had a Great Kiva, up to in diameter. T-shaped doorways and stone lintels marked all Chacoan kivas. Although simple and compound walls were often used, great houses usually had core-and-veneer walls: rubble filled the gap between parallel load-bearing walls of dressed, flat sandstone blocks bound in clay mortar. Walls were covered in a veneer of small sandstone pieces, which were pressed into a layer of binding mud. These surfacing stones were often arranged in distinctive patterns. The Chacoan structures together required the wood of 200,000 conifer trees, mostly hauledon footfrom mountain ranges up to away. Ceremonial infrastructure One of the most notable aspects of Ancestral Puebloan infrastructure is the Chaco Road at Chaco Canyon, a system of roads radiating from many great house sites such as Pueblo Bonito, Chetro Ketl, and Una Vida. They led toward small outlier sites and natural features in the canyon and outside. Through satellite images and ground investigations, archaeologists have found eight main roads that together run for more than 180 miles (300 km), and are more than 30 feet (10 m) wide. These were built by excavating into a smooth, leveled surface in the bedrock or removing vegetation and soil. Large ramps and stairways in the cliff rock connect the roads above the canyon to sites at the bottom. The largest roads, built at the same time as many of the great houses (1000 to 1125 AD), are: the Great North Road, the South Road, the Coyote Canyon Road, the Chacra Face Road, Ahshislepah Road, Mexican Springs Road, the West Road, and the shorter Pintado-Chaco Road. Simple structures like berms and walls are sometimes aligned along the roads. Some tracts of the roads lead to natural features such as springs, lakes, mountain tops, and pinnacles. Great North Road The longest and best-known of these roads is the Great North Road, which originates from different routes close to Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl. These roads converge at Pueblo Alto and from there lead north beyond the canyon limits. Along the road there are only small, isolated structures. Archaeological interpretations of the Chaco road system are divided between an economic purpose and a symbolic, ideological or religious role. The system was discovered in the late 19th century and excavated in the 1970s. By the late 20th century, aerial and satellite photographs helped in the study. Archaeologists suggested that the road's main purpose was to transport local and exotic goods to and from the canyon. The economic purpose of the Chaco road system is shown by the presence of luxury items at Pueblo Bonito and elsewhere in the canyon. Items such as macaws, turquoise and seashells, which are not part of this environment, and imported vessels distinguished by design, prove that the Chaco traded with distant regions. The widespread use of timber in Chacoan constructions required a large system of easy transportation, as timber was not locally available. Analysis of strontium isotopes shows that much of the timber came from distant mountain ranges. Cliff communities Throughout the southwest Ancestral Puebloan region are building complexes in shallow caves and under rock overhangs in canyon walls. Unlike earlier structures and villages atop mesas this was a regional 13th-century trend of gathering the growing populations into close, defensible quarters. There were buildings for housing, defense, and storage. These were built mostly of blocks of hard sandstone, held together and plastered with adobe mortar. Constructions had many similarities, but unique forms due to the unique rock topography. The best-known site is at Mesa Verde, with a large number of well-preserved cliff dwellings. This area included common Pueblo architectural forms, such as kivas, towers, and pit-houses, but the space restrictions of these alcoves resulted in far denser populations. Mug House, a typical cliff dwelling of the period, was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas, built right up against each other and sharing many walls. Builders maximized space use and no area was off-limits. Not all the people in the region lived in cliff dwellings; many colonized the canyon rims and slopes in multifamily structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled. Decorative motifs for these sandstone/mortar structures, both cliff dwellings and not, included T-shaped windows and doors. This has been taken by some archaeologists, such as Stephen Lekson (1999), as evidence of the continuation of the Chaco Canyon elite system, which had seemingly collapsed a century earlier. Other researchers instead explain these motifs as part a wider Puebloan style or religion. History Origins During the period from 700 to 1130 AD (Pueblo I and II Eras), the population grew fast due to consistent and regular rainfall which supported agriculture. Studies of skeletal remains show increased fertility rather than decreased mortality. However, this tenfold population increase over a few generations was probably also due to migrations of people from surrounding areas. Innovations such as pottery, food storage, and agriculture enabled this rapid growth. Over several decades, the Ancestral Puebloan culture spread across the landscape. Ancestral Puebloan culture has been divided into three main areas or branches, based on geographical location: Chaco Canyon (northwest New Mexico) Kayenta (northeast Arizona), and Northern San Juan (Mesa Verde and Hovenweep National Monument) (southwest Colorado and southeastern Utah) Modern Pueblo oral traditions hold that the Ancestral Puebloans originated from , where they emerged from the underworld. For unknown ages, they were led by chiefs and guided by spirits as they completed vast migrations throughout the continent of North America. They settled first in the Ancestral Puebloan areas for a few hundred years before moving to their present locations. Migration from the homeland The Ancestral Puebloans left their established homes in the 12th and 13th centuries. The main reason is unclear. Factors discussed include global or regional climate change, prolonged drought, environmental degradation such as cyclical periods of topsoil erosion deforestation, hostility from new arrivals, religious or cultural change, and influence from Mesoamerican cultures. Many of these possibilities are supported by archaeological evidence. Current scholarly consensus is that Ancestral Puebloans responded to pressure from Numic-speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau, as well as climate change that resulted in agricultural failures. The archaeological record indicates that for Ancestral Puebloans to adapt to climatic change by changing residences and locations was not unusual. Early Pueblo I Era sites may have housed up to 600 individuals in a few separate but closely spaced settlement clusters. However, they were generally occupied for 30 years or less. Archaeologist Timothy A. Kohler excavated large Pueblo I sites near Dolores, Colorado, and discovered that they were established during periods of above-average rainfall. This allowed crops to be grown without requiring irrigation. At the same time, nearby areas that suffered significantly drier patterns were abandoned. Ancestral Puebloans attained a cultural "Golden Age" between about 900 and 1150. During this time, generally classed as Pueblo II Era, the climate was relatively warm and rainfall mostly adequate. Communities grew larger and were inhabited for longer. Highly specific local traditions in architecture and pottery emerged, and trade over long distances appears to have been common. Domesticated turkeys appeared. After around 1130, North America had significant climatic change in the form of a 300-year drought called the Great Drought. This also led to the collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization around Lake Titicaca in present-day Bolivia. The contemporary Mississippian culture also collapsed during this period. Confirming evidence dated between 1150 and 1350 has been found in excavations of the western regions of the Mississippi Valley, which show long-lasting patterns of warmer, wetter winters and cooler, drier summers. In this later period, the Pueblo II became more self-contained, decreasing trade and interaction with more distant communities. Southwest farmers developed irrigation techniques appropriate to seasonal rainfall, including soil and water control features such as check dams and terraces. The population of the region continued to be mobile, abandoning settlements and fields under adverse conditions. There was also a drop in water table was due to a different cycle unrelated to rainfall. This forced the abandonment of settlements in the more arid or overfarmed locations. Evidence suggests a profound change in religion in this period. Chacoan and other structures constructed originally along astronomical alignments, and thought to have served important ceremonial purposes to the culture, were systematically dismantled. Doorways were sealed with rock and mortar. Kiva walls show marks from great fires set within them, which probably required removal of the massive roof – a task which would require significant effort. Habitations were abandoned, and tribes divided and resettled far. This evidence suggests that the religious structures were abandoned deliberately over time. Puebloan tradition holds that the ancestors had achieved great spiritual power and control over natural forces. They used their power in ways that caused nature to change, and caused changes that were never meant to occur. Possibly, the dismantling of their religious structures was an effort to symbolically undo the changes they believed they caused due to their abuse of their spiritual power, and thus make amends with nature. Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) assert the Ancestral Puebloans did not "vanish", as is commonly portrayed in media presentations or popular books. They say that the people migrated to areas in the southwest with more favorable rainfall and dependable streams. They merged into the various Pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in Arizona and New Mexico. This perspective was also presented by early 20th-century anthropologists, including Frank Hamilton Cushing, J. Walter Fewkes, and Alfred V. Kidder. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage from specific settlements. For example, the San Ildefonso Pueblo people believe that their ancestors lived in both the Mesa Verde and the Bandelier areas. Evidence also suggests that a profound change took place in the Ancestral Pueblo area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the Mogollon. Historian James W. Loewen agrees with this oral tradition in his book, Lies Across America: What Our Historic Markers and Monuments Get Wrong (1999). No academic consensus exists with the professional archeological and anthropological community on this issue. Warfare Environmental stress may have caused changes in social structure, leading to conflict and warfare. Near Kayenta, Arizona, Jonathan Haas of the Field Museum in Chicago has been studying a group of Ancestral Puebloan villages that relocated from the canyons to the high mesa tops during the late 13th century. Haas believes that the reason to move so far from water and arable land was a defense against enemies. He asserts that isolated communities relied on raiding for food and supplies, and that internal conflict and warfare became common in the 13th century. This conflict may have been aggravated by the influx of less settled peoples, Numic-speakers such as the Utes, Shoshones, and Paiute people, who may have originated in what is today California, and the arrival of the Athabaskan-speaking Diné who migrated from the north during this time and subsequently became the Navajo and Apache tribes most notably. Others suggest that more developed villages, such as that at Chaco Canyon, exhausted their environments, resulting in widespread deforestation and eventually the fall of their civilization through warfare over depleted resources. A 1997 excavation at Cowboy Wash near Dolores, Colorado found remains of at least 24 human skeletons that showed evidence of violence and dismemberment, with strong indications of cannibalism. This modest community appears to have been abandoned during the same time period. Other excavations within the Ancestral Puebloan cultural area have produced varying numbers of unburied, and in some cases dismembered, bodies. In a 2010 paper, Potter and Chuipka argued that evidence at Sacred Ridge site, near Durango, Colorado, is best interpreted as warfare related to competition and ethnic cleansing. This evidence of warfare, conflict, and cannibalism is hotly debated by some scholars and interest groups. Suggested alternatives include: a community suffering the pressure of starvation or extreme social stress, dismemberment and cannibalism as religious ritual or in response to religious conflict, the influx of outsiders seeking to drive out a settled agricultural community via calculated atrocity, or an invasion of a settled region by nomadic raiders who practiced cannibalism. Anasazi as a cultural label The term "Anasazi" was established in archaeological terminology through the Pecos Classification system in 1927. It had been adopted from the Navajo. Archaeologist Linda Cordell discussed the word's etymology and use: Many contemporary Pueblo peoples object to the use of the term Anasazi; controversy exists among them on a native alternative. Some modern descendants of this culture often choose to use the term "Ancestral Pueblo" peoples. Contemporary Hopi use the word in preference to Anasazi. Cultural distinctions Archaeological cultural units such as Ancestral Puebloan, Hohokam, Patayan, or Mogollon are used by archaeologists to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric sociocultural units, equivalent to modern societies or peoples. The names and divisions are classification devices based on theoretical perspectives, analytical methods, and data available at the time of analysis and publication. They are subject to change, not only on the basis of new information and discoveries, but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community. It should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio-political entity such as a tribe. Current terms and conventions have significant limitations: Archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people's activities: fragments of pottery vessels, garbage, human remains, stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings. However, many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible. Their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials, and their languages remain unknown as they had no known writing system. Cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist, and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships which the ancient residents may have recognized. Modern cultures in this region, many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors, express a striking range of diversity in lifestyles, social organization, language and religious beliefs. This suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest. The modern term "style" has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or architecture can be interpreted. Within a people, different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group. For example, in modern Western cultures, there are alternative styles of clothing that characterize older and younger generations. Some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions, on teaching from one generation or "school" to another. Other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture, perhaps defining status, gender, clan or guild affiliation, religious belief or cultural alliances. Variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area. Defining cultural groups, such as the Ancestral Puebloans, tends to create an image of territories separated by clear-cut boundaries, like border boundaries separating modern states. These did not exist. Prehistoric people traded, worshipped, collaborated, and fought most often with other nearby groups. Cultural differences should therefore be understood as clinal: "increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases". Departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers. In the Southwest, mountain ranges, rivers, and most obviously, the Grand Canyon, can be significant barriers for human communities, likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups. Current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the Mogollon and Ancestral Puebloans, and their greater differences from the Hohokam and Patayan, is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the Southwest. See also Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest Anasazi flute Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed Cynthia Irwin-Williams Dinétah Gallina Indian Mesa Kokopelli Matrilocal residence Poqanghoya Prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions Virgin Anasazi Water glyphs Zuni people References Notes Bibliography Childs, Craig House of Rain: Tracking a Vanished Civilization Across the American Southwest. Little, Brown and Company, February 22, 2007. . Cordell, Linda S. Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. . Fagan, Brian M. "Ancient North America: Tha Archaeology of a Continent (part five)." Thames and Hudson, Inc., New York City, 1991. . Jennings, Jesse D. Glen Canyon: An Archaeological Summary. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966, republished 1998. . LeBlanc, Steven A. "Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest." 1999, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. . Plog, Stephen. Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest. Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997. . Roberts, David D. In Search of the Old Ones: Exploring the Anasazi World of the Southwest. Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group, 1996. . Great Drought. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243212/Great-Drought External links Bandelier National Monument Virtual Museum Exhibit and Lesson Plans, from National Park Service Chaco Culture National Historic Park Virtual Museum Exhibit, from National Park Service People of the Colorado Plateau An Early Population Explosion on the Colorado Plateau The People of the Mountains, Mesas and Grasslands Cliff Palace of the Anasazi Photo 1054 Supernova Petrograph The Chaco Meridian Life Lists at SmithsonianMag.com: Mesa Verde Art by the Ancient Pueblo (Anasazi) at the Brooklyn Museum 01 Oasisamerica cultures Pre-Columbian cultures Archaeological cultures of North America Native American history of Arizona Native American history of Nevada Native American history of New Mexico Native American history of Utah Post-Archaic period in North America Prehistoric cultures in Colorado Southwest tribes 12th-century BC establishments 13th-century disestablishments in North America Puebloan architecture Puebloan buildings and structures

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Confidential was a magazine published quarterly from December 1952 to August 1953 and then bi-monthly until it ceased publication in 1978. It was founded by Robert Harrison and is considered a pioneer in scandal, gossip and exposé journalism. Origins New York Graphic Following World War II, Robert Harrison, a New York City publisher of men's magazines, decided to return to investigative journalism. He was previously a reporter on the New York Evening Graphic (1924–1932), an ancestor of the supermarket tabloids that would emerge in the 1960s. Called "Pornographic" by detractors for its emphasis on sex, crime and violence, it provided many of the themes that Harrison would use as publisher of Confidential. When Harrison started as a copyboy at the paper, he met the theater critic, Walter Winchell, who would later promote the future magazine. Motion Picture Herald After the New York Graphic shut down, Harrison moved to the editorial staff of the Motion Picture Herald, a film trade publication whose conservative Catholic owner, Martin Quigley, Sr., helped create the Motion Picture Production Code. Though Harrison was more interested in Broadway and New York social life, his tenure at the Herald would bias the direction of the future Confidential toward Hollywood. Having learned from Quigley what he could get away with legally, Harrison struck out on his own with a series of non-pornographic "cheesecake" magazines. His first was Beauty Parade (1941–1956), started in October 1941. Using the facilities of Quigley Publishing surreptitiously at night, Harrison used publicity photos collected from a visit to the company's Hollywood offices to paste together his galleries. When he was caught and fired on Christmas Eve, 1941, his sisters Edith Tobias and Helen Studin rallied around him and raised several thousand dollars in capital, $400 of it from his favorite niece, Marjorie Tobias, who would later become a central figure in his most famous enterprise. Harrison had great success with Beauty Parade and five sister magazines, but their circulation declined in the post-war years. Harrison had a distaste for full nudity and refused to follow the trend of magazines such as Playboy. By early 1952 his accountant told him that he was broke. Eyewitness In 1947, Harrison "mocked up a 'fact' magazine called Eyewitness," which was never published. It would not be until 1952 that financial pressure forced Harrison to put serious effort in a new magazine. Harrison spent six months reworking the format of another factual magazine. He would later say: "I must have ripped that thing apart three times before I published it, and it still wasn't right." Supposedly inspired by Virginia Hill's testimony to the Kefauver Committee hearings, Harrison finally launched his tabloid-style gossip magazine: Confidential. "The name came from a series of exposé books by Lee Mortimer and Jack Lait." As with the earlier New York Graphic, it concentrated on exposing the substance abuse habits, criminal records and hidden political and sexual preferences of celebrities. Though Harrison would publish non-show business stories involving "racketeering, consumer scams and politicians' peccadilloes," like Quigley Publishing that he previously worked for, the emphasis was Hollywood, but with a twist—"exposés of star secrets" became Confidentials prime focus. Early years Begins publication The first Confidential issue was dated December (released November) 1952 under the caption "The Lid Is Off!" Its circulation was 250,000 copies. But when the breakup of Marilyn Monroe's marriage to Joe DiMaggio was reported in the August 1953 issue ("Why Joe DiMaggio Is Striking Out with Marilyn Monroe!"), the circulation jumped to 800,000. The quarterly magazine then became bimonthly and was the fastest growing magazine in the United States at the time. Harrison would claim its circulation reached four million, and because every copy was estimated to be read by ten persons, it might have reached a fifth of the US population. "The Confidential house style was laden with elaborate, pun-inflected alliteration and allowed stories to suggest, rather than state, the existence of scandal." But if Harrison had sworn affidavits or photographic/audio proof, the story would go beyond innuendo (unlike an earlier Hollywood scandal publisher, Frederic Girnau of the Coast Reporter—who was tried for libeling Clara Bow—Harrison usually protected himself with signed affidavits). Film historian Mary Desjardins described Confidentials editorial style as using "research methods and writing techniques that recycled old stories or created 'composite' facts as the basis of new ones." Robert Harrison himself described it thus: "Once we establish the star in the hay and that's documented, we can say anything we want and I think we make them a hell of a lot more interesting than they really are. What's a guy gonna do, sue us and admit he was in the hay with the dame, but claim he didn't do all the other things we dress the story with?" After the "facts" of an article were assembled, a staff of four (headed by associate editor Jay Breen) would rewrite it several times to achieve Confidentials "toboggan ride" style: "racy and free of embroidery, keeps the reader on the edge of his seat." The final product would be read aloud at a staff meeting for euphony. When Harrison published "Winchell Was Right About Josephine Baker!", he came out in support of his childhood mentor at the Graphic during the Stork Club controversy. Winchell returned the favor by mentioning Confidential in his newspaper column and television and radio broadcasts. Harrison would rent 4,000 square feet of office space at 1697 Broadway in New York City, but never had more than 15 staff members, mostly family relations of whom the most important were his sisters Edith Tobias and Helen Studin. He would also move into an even more luxurious apartment at the Hotel Madison cooperative on East 58th Street. From his two new headquarters, Harrison developed a Hollywood network of informants—prostitutes, hotel employees, down-on-their-luck actors and vengeful celebrities—working with local detective agencies such as the Fred Otash Detective Bureau and H. L. Von Wittenburg's Hollywood Detective Agency. Among the informants were minor actresses such as Francesca De Scaffa (ex-wife of Bruce Cabot) and Ronnie Quillan (ex-wife of screenwriter Joseph Quillan). According to Harrison, Barbara Payton would stop by Confidentials Hollywood office and sell a story whenever she was short of cash. However, the informants could rise to the level of prominent Hollywood columnists such as Florabel Muir and in some cases, all the way up to a producer such as Mike Todd or even a studio head such as Harry Cohn. Money, publicity, revenge or blackmail was the lure. Contrary to the popular legend that the magazine double-checked its facts before publishing its articles, as well as being vetted by Confidentials lawyers as "suit-proof," the later 1957 court case would show otherwise. Despite spending over $100,000 a year having a Manhattan law firm, "Becker, Ross, and Stone to vet each story," Harrison would still ignore the lawyers' warnings, as in the case of the article on Maureen O'Hara. But Harrison had further safeguards in place. In addition to articles being vetted by lawyers and sworn affidavits or photographic/audio proof of claims, Harrison compartmentalized both the printing and distribution channels. Though the editorial content was prepared in the New York offices, the magazine itself was printed in Chicago by an independent contractor (Kable Publishing of Mount Morris, Illinois). The copies were sold before they came off the presses and neither Confidential Inc. nor the printer had any corporate connection to the chain of "distributors, wholesalers and retailers that provided Confidential to all those people who claimed they only read it at the beauty parlor or the barbershop." Success Harrison soon started making approximately $500,000 per issue. By 1955, Confidential had reached a circulation of five million copies per issue with larger sales than Reader's Digest, Ladies' Home Journal, Look, The Saturday Evening Post or Collier's. That year Harrison shut down all his men's magazines except Beauty Parade and Whisper. Beauty Parade would cease the next year and Whisper would continue as Confidentials sister publication, which recycled variants of Confidentials stories. Rushmore A former film reviewer for the communist Daily Worker, Howard Rushmore was fired for a too-favorable review of Gone With The Wind. He moved to the New York Journal-American and became an active anti-communist. He later became director of research for Senator Joseph McCarthy's Subcommittee on Investigations in 1953. After a dispute with the subcommittee's chief counsel, Roy Cohn, Rushmore resigned. At the Journal-American, Rushmore criticized Cohn in print and was fired from the paper.<ref> Jay Maeder (February 26, 2001, accessed December 9, 2014), Turncoat: The Estrangements of Howard Rushmore, January 1958, Chapter 282," New York Daily News (New York City, New York)</ref> Then his mentor, Walter Winchell, gained for him a new editorial job. Under Winchell's sponsorship, Howard Rushmore became the chief editor of Confidential.Rushmore, having earned the enmity of McCarthyite papers like those of the Hearst chain, found himself cut off from his usual employment. Rushmore hoped to use Confidential as a new venue to expose communists, though he often had to settle for suspected Hollywood fellow travellers, who were implied in stories to be sexual "deviates."Kenneth G. McLain (July 1955), "The Untold Story of Marlene Dietrich," Confidential (New York City, New York), pp. 22–25, 56, 58. Dietrich at time was rumored to be married to a Soviet agent, Otto Katz. While his anti-communist hit pieces were bylined under his own name, he used a host of pseudonyms for Hollywood exposés, such as "Juan Morales" for "The Lavender Skeletons in TV's Closet" and "Hollywood—Where Men Are Men, and Women, Too!", or "Brooks Martin" for the Zsa Zsa Gabor story "Don't Be Fooled by the Glamour Pusses." Beside Rushmore-authored pieces unmasking communists and homosexuals in Washington and Hollywood, he also wrote how-to articles on divorce and conducting extra-marital affairs, echoing his past relationships with his two wives. In January 1955, Rushmore flew to Los Angeles to confer with old Harrison informants like De Scaffa and Quillan. He also recruited new ones like Mike Connolly of the Hollywood Reporter and Agnes Underwood of the Los Angeles Herald Express. One of Rushmore's most prolific discoveries was United Press columnist Aline Mosby. James P. O'Connell (September 26, 1958, accessed December 14, 2015), "Subject: Mosby, Aline," Federal Bureau of Investigation, Security Support Division. FBI memo notes that United Press fired Mosby for the Confidential leaks. Despite his high salary, Rushmore was repelled by the informants and Harrison. Rushmore considered his employer a "pornographer," though Rushmore himself was a collector of erotica. Harrison communicated with his West Coast network by telegram and phone. But in the rising face of legal threats from the film industry, Harrison would make his boldest move yet. Hollywood Research Inc. Hollywood Research Inc. was the new intelligence-gathering front of Confidential, run by Marjorie Meade, Robert Harrison's now 26-year-old niece. Despite her youth and red-headed beauty, she was one of the most feared persons in Hollywood after her arrival in January 1955. John Mitchum, the younger brother of Robert Mitchum, tried to infiltrate Hollywood Research under the guidance of attorney Jerry Giesler. John, pretending to have scandalous information on his brother, described a visit to Fred Otash, where he was taken to "a ground floor apartment in a luxury apartment building in Beverley Hills, the offices, it turned out, of Hollywood Research Inc., command central for Confidentials fact-gathering and surveillance agents. The place was filled with big, tough looking guys, and some of them looked like they were packing heat. There were desks around the apartment topped with phones and recording and listening devices and files and photographs. John was taken to the head tough guy and recognized him—it was Fred Otash, a notorious ex-Los Angeles policeman turned private eye, Hollywood fixer, problem solver, leg breaker, a big mean Lebanese, looked like Joe McCarthy with muscle." The Harrison enterprise had evolved into a "quasi-blackmail operation." Once a proposed story was assembled, it could be published outright. Or more typically, either Meade or an agent would visit the subject and present a copy as a "buy-back" proposal, or the story be held back for in exchange for information on other celebrities. But instead of paying the magazine not to publish an article about themselves or implicating others, two actors, Lizabeth Scott and Robert Mitchum, sued. Their attorney was Jerry Giesler, who also represented tobacco heiress Doris Duke. Two hoaxes On July 8, 1955, Rushmore appeared on The Tom Duggan Show in Chicago. He claimed on air that he was on a secret mission to uncover the communist assassins of former Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. Rushmore told the viewers that the leader of the "Chicago Communist Party," whose name was given as "Lazarovich," was in hiding and that Rushmore needed their help in locating him. Rushmore later disappeared from his hotel room, leading to a nationwide manhunt by the FBI. As the nation speculated that Rushmore was either kidnapped or murdered by communists, he was discovered hiding under the name "H. Roberts" at the Hotel Finlen in Butte, Montana. Meanwhile, news reporters found "Lazarovich" living in Manhattan under his real name of William Lazar. Associate Director of the FBI, Clyde Tolson, wrote in the margin of a report on the disappearance: "Rushmore must be a 'nut.' We should have nothing to do with him." J. Edgar Hoover added in the margin: "I certainly agree." Rushmore's second marriage was deteriorating. In addition to Rushmore's amphetamine habit, he became an alcoholic as did his wife. On Monday, September 5, 1955, Frances Rushmore jumped into the East River in a suicide attempt, but was rescued by an air terminal worker. Meanwhile, Rushmore tried to get Harrison to publish a story about former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt having an alleged affair with her African American chauffeur. When Harrison refused, Rushmore quit. By early February 1956, Rushmore was reportedly an editor at the National Police Gazette. The next spring, despite Giesler's reassurances to the press, the legal effort against Confidential would go nowhere. Since the magazine was domiciled in New York State, and the plaintiffs were California residents who initiated the suits in their own state, the suits were stopped. On March 7, 1956, Los Angeles Supreme Court judge Leon T. David quashed Lizabeth Scott's suit on grounds that the magazine was not published in California. Despite this setback, in addition to Scott's suit, "Giesler said he also would refile in New York a $2 million suit by actor Robert Mitchum against the magazine if it also is quashed here." Though Giesler's initial attack failed, lawsuits from other actors continued to pile up—they would eventually total $40 million. In September 1956, Harrison generated front-page headlines around the world when he allegedly was shot in the shoulder during a safari in the Dominican Republic by Richard Weldy, a travel agency owner and former executive for Pan American Grace Airways. Harrison claimed to be searching for Paga Palo (Rhynchosia pyranzidalis)—a vine used to restore virility in males, which was the subject of a January 1957 Confidential article. The shooter, Weldy, variously described as a "jungle trapper and guide" or "a big game hunter," purportedly harbored a grudge over a Confidential story about his ex-wife, Pilar Pallete, a Peruvian actress who was then married to John Wayne. The nonexistent Confidential article depicted Pallete as having an affair with Wayne while married to Weldy. According to newspaper accounts, Weldy fled the scene, leaving Harrison to die alone in the jungle with his blonde girlfriend; the two were eventually rescued by either the Dominican Army or local police and boy scouts. Newspapers reported that Weldy was later arrested by police. But Harrison refused to press charges against Weldy and the two publicly reconciled. Later the whole story was revealed to be a hoax—the shooting never took place. Photos of a wounded Harrison in a hospital were staged, complete with an actor playing a physician. Even the "girlfriend" was an actress that Harrison hired for the publicity stunt. During a television interview with Mike Wallace, Harrison fooled the CBS film crew into thinking that a birthmark on his back was the bullet wound. Decline 1957 mistrial Back in New York, Rushmore used his severance pay from Confidential to buy an air ticket to California, where he contacted Giesler's office. Rushmore offered to become a witness in exchange for a job in Hollywood, but Giesler refused. Then Rushmore became a witness for California Attorney General Pat Brown. On Wednesday, May 15, 1957, a Los Angeles grand jury investigating Confidential indicted 11 individuals—Robert Harrison (publisher and sole owner of Confidential Inc.), Francesca De Scaffa, Harrison's niece Marjorie Meade (president and sole owner of Hollywood Research Inc.) and her husband Fred Meade (secretary-treasurer of Hollywood Research Inc.), Harrison's sister Edith Tobias (Harrison's secretary) and her son Michael Tobias (vice-president of Hollywood Research), Harrison's sister Helen Studin (office manager of Confidential) and her husband Daniel Studin (circulation manager of Confidential), and Confidential managing editor A. P. Govani. In addition, two Illinois publishing executives, Robert Kable and Richard Cox of Kable Publishing, which printed Harrison's magazines under contract, were also indicted. The five corporations listed in the indictments were Confidential Inc., Whisper Inc., Publishers Distributing Corp. of New York, Kable Publishing Inc. of Illinois and Hollywood Research Inc. of Los Angeles. But the magazines and main distributor were ensconced in New York state, and New York refused to let Brown extradite Harrison and the others to California. Illinois also refused to cooperate with the Attorney General. Brown eventually put Marjorie and Fred Meade on trial. The Meades were actually in New York City at the time of the grand jury indictments and originally intended not to participate in the California trial—libel was not an extraditable offense under New York state law. But Harrison, seeing an opportunity of a lifetime for front-page headlines, wanted to avoid a trial in absentia and encouraged the Meades to return to Los Angeles with defense attorney Arthur Crowley to plead their case. Crowley's strategy was simple: put subjects of Confidentials stories on the witness stand and ask them under oath if the stories were true. Film industry executives, who previously tried to convince Pat Brown to charge Robert Harrison with conspiracy to publish criminal libel, now tried to backpedal for fear of adverse publicity from what would be "heralded by the press as the 'Trial of a Hundred Stars'." But Brown would have none of it—on August 7, 1957, The People of the State of California v. Robert Harrison et al. trial began.INS (Wednesday, August 7, 1957), "Lawyer Opens Trial Of Two Magazines," Anderson Daily Bulletin (Anderson, Indiana), p. 3 It would eventually involve over 200 members of the film industry, most of whom fled California to avoid defense subpoenas. Rushmore, now the state's star witness, testified that the magazine knowingly published unverified allegations, despite the magazine's reputation for double-checking facts: "Some of the stories are true and some have nothing to back them up at all. Harrison many times overruled his libel attorneys and went ahead on something." According to Rushmore, Harrison told the attorneys, "I'd go out of business if I printed the kind of stuff you guys want." Rushmore even fingered Aline Mosby, who was in the press galleries covering the trial for the newspaper wire service called United Press. It was revealed that Mosby wrote more than 24 stories for Confidential. United Press replaced the disgraced Mosby with another reporter. During the trial, two witnesses for the defense unexpectedly died. Private detective Polly Gould was found dead in her apartment of disputed causes.Lee Belser (Wednesday, August 21, 1957), "Death Puts Clinker Into Hot Libel Trial," Anderson Daily Bulletin (Anderson, Indiana), p. 14. Fred Otash claimed Gould was "a stool pigeon working both sides." She was a former investigator for Confidential and Whisper. The previous week, Mae West's alleged love interest in Confidentials "Mae West's Open Door Policy", Chalky Wright, was found dead in a bathtub before he could testify that the story was factual. Harrison's attorneys tried to give witnesses (who were also plaintiffs in other lawsuits against Harrison) a face-saving exit with token out-of-court settlements, such as the May 1957 $10,000 settlement with Dorothy Dandridge. After cashing Harrison's check, Dandridge testified for the prosecution anyway. Three of the most prominent witnesses for the prosecution—Liberace, Errol Flynn and Maureen O'Hara—refused to settle out-of-court. O’Hara and Dandridge were the only actors who testified, and a daily newspaper called the Los Angeles Examiner ran a photograph of them shaking hands in a hallway of the courthouse. At the end of the trial the jury was sequestered at the five star Mayflower Hotel. The jury set a new state record in deliberation time while enjoying Mayflower's amenities. After 15 days it was declared that the jury could not reach a verdict. After a mistrial was declared on October 1, 1957, Liberace, Flynn and O'Hara would give up on their own individual lawsuits. But Pat Brown preempted Confidentials win by calling for a retrial. Harrison was rattled. To spare his niece another ordeal—and the danger of three-years' imprisonment—Harrison promised the Attorney General to publish only positive stories. Later years Harrison's publicity stunt backfired. The deal with Brown became the effective end of Confidential and Whisper, as the magazines were no longer able to publish their usual scandalous stories. The magazines' one and only trial cost Harrison over $500,000—in addition to legal fees of $500,000 and a $5,000 fine for each magazine, Maureen O'Hara settled out-of-court for an undisclosed sum on July 1, 1958; Errol Flynn settled on July 8, 1958 for $15,000; and on July 16, 1958, Liberace settled for $40,000, an amount that the pianist might typically exceed with one or two performances. In addition the legal fees and settlements, Harrison gave the Meades $150,000 as a gift. Harrison was still a multimillionaire. But the Hollywood informant network was in a shambles, mainly due to Howard Rushmore's courtroom revelations. Characteristically of Harrison, he bore no ill will toward Rushmore, who by 1957 was reduced to writing occasional articles on hunting for outdoors magazines. In December 1957, Rushmore chased his wife Frances and teenaged step-daughter Lynn out of their Manhattan home with a shotgun. While Frances was under psychiatric care since the East River incident, Howard himself was now under psychiatric care. On January 3, 1958, at 6:15 pm, the Rushmores met in a final attempt at a reconciliation inside the lobby of their apartment building. An argument broke out between the couple and Frances exited the lobby and hailed a taxi. Simultaneously, Howard entered the cab. As the two continued arguing, the cab driver raced to the 23rd Precinct at Third and 104th. Suddenly, the driver heard three gunshots fired inside the cab. Rushmore had shot his wife in the right side of the head and neck then put the pistol to his temple and shot himself. Harrison heard about the murder-suicide when a taxicab picked him up at Idlewild Airport. The driver told Harrison that the publisher of Confidential just killed himself and his wife, momentarily confusing the unmarried Harrison. Later Harrison refused to believe the suicide narrative and thought Howard Rushmore was murdered. He remained loyal to Rushmore even after the California trial and the Rushmores' scandalous deaths. The once biggest-selling magazine in the United States plunged to a circulation of 200,000, smaller than its December 1952 début. The rights to Whisper and Confidential were sold off in May 1958 for $25,000. The buyer, Hy Steirman, further toned down the content of both magazines. But Harrison remained in publishing. In 1963 he started a much smaller magazine called Inside News (in which he authored "Who Really Killed Howard Rushmore?"), as well as one-shot publications like New York Confidential. Harrison continued to live in New York City during the next two decades under an assumed name, while plotting a comeback. But lacking the financial pressures that drove Harrison to create his previous magazines, he was essentially retired, living his remaining years at "the Delmonico Hotel, at 59th Street and Park Avenue." Robert Harrison died in 1978 with his long-time mistress, Regi Ruta, at his side; that same year Confidential was shut down. Legal activity Following a highly-unflattering article about Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista, an attempt was made to ban the magazine from sale in Cuba. In the May 1955 issue of Confidential, "Doris Duke and Her African Prince" appeared. The story alleged that Doris Duke had an affair with a "Negro handyman and chauffeur," whom the article said she once employed. In July 1955, Doris Duke sued the magazine for $3 million, claiming libel. In August 1955, US Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield barred Confidential from the mails. "Post Office officials objected to among other things, a racy description of a stripteaser's gyrations and a 'questionable' cheesecake photograph of Hollywood Starlet Terry Moore," originally appearing in the Istanbul, French-language newspaper, Millyet.Muammer Kaylan (Prometheus Books, 1st edition, April 8, 2005), The Kemalists: Islamic Revival and the Fate of Secular Turkey, p. 111 Frank Sinatra, subject of a May 1956 Confidential story, "Open Letter To General Mills: Here's Why Frank Sinatra Is The Tarzan Of The Boudoir," threatened to sue Confidential for a story about how Wheaties allegedly enhanced his sex life. The July 1957 issue featured a cover story on Liberace headlined "Why Liberace's theme song should be 'Mad About The Boy'." It alleged that the actor had a homosexual dalliance with a press agent in Dallas. Liberace testified before the Los Angeles grand jury but was not called to testify at the actual 1957 trial. Tab Hunter, subject of a September 1955 Confidential story, "The Lowdown On That 'Disorderly Conduct' Charge Against Tab Hunter!" was "on 'two-hour call status' for the duration of the trial," but was not called to testify. Maureen O'Hara, subject of a March 1957 Confidential story, "It was the hottest show in town when Maureen O'Hara Cuddled in Row 35," testified before the Los Angeles grand jury. She and Dorothy Dandridge were the only subjects of Confidential stories who were called to testify at the 1957 trial. Impact Due to Confidentials success, competing magazines soon were created—Exclusive, Exposed, Hush-Hush, Inside, On The Q.T, Rave, Revealed, Side Street, The Lowdown, Uncensored.Tab Hunter (Algonquin Books, September 8, 2006), Tab Hunter Confidential: The Making of a Movie Star, p. 107 All of these magazines had striking slogans in the Confidential "Uncensored And Off The Record" tradition: "All The Facts...All The Names"Anonymous (August, 1962), Uncensored (New York City, New York), front cover (Exposed and Uncensored), "What You Don’t Know About The People You Know" (Hush-Hush), "Stories The Newspapers Won’t Print!" (On The Q.T.), "Great Moments of Passion!" (Side Street), "The Facts They Dare Not Tell You" (The Lowdown). Today, the only Confidential-inspired supermarket tabloids that remain are National Enquirer, Globe, InTouch Weekly, OK!, and Life & Style. Television tabloid shows such as A Current Affair and Hard Copy are also inspired by the tabloid. The celebrity news and gossip website TMZ is also inspired by Confidential Magazine. Portrayal in other media Film historians usually assume that Confidential inspired the name of James Ellroy's novel L.A. Confidential,William Hare (McFarland & Company, January 24, 2008), L.A. Noir: Nine Dark Visions of the City of Angels, p. 213 although the magazine that is portrayed in the story is Hush-Hush. The novel became the basis of the film of the same name. In July 2014, the New York Musical Theatre Festival opened Mr. Confidential'', a musical starring Kevin Spirtas as Robert Harrison. The play's title derived from Samuel Bernstein's Robert Harrison biography of the same name. References External links Bimonthly magazines published in the United States News magazines published in the United States Celebrity magazines published in the United States Defunct magazines published in the United States English-language magazines Magazines disestablished in 1978 Magazines established in 1952 Pulp magazines Magazines published in New York City

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Marakkar: Lion of the Arabian Sea (titled Marakkar: Arabikadalinte Simham in Malayalam and Maraikkayar: Arabikadalin Singam in Tamil) is an Indian epic war film directed by Priyadarshan. Set in the 16th century Calicut, the film is based on the fourth Kunjali Marakkar named Muhammad Ali, the admiral of the fleet of the Zamorin. Priyadarshan scripted the film with Ani Sasi. The film is produced by Antony Perumbavoor's Aashirvad Cinemas. Marakkar features an ensemble cast with Mohanlal in the title role alongside Arjun, Suniel Shetty, Prabhu, Manju Warrier, Keerthy Suresh, Nedumudi Venu, Siddique, Mukesh and Pranav Mohanlal in supporting roles. It is shot simultaneously in Malayalam and Tamil languages. The initial plan for a film based on the admirals Kunjali Marakkar started between Priyadarshan, Mohanlal, and screenwriter T. Damodaran in 1996. Damodaran pitched a plot idea in 1999. However, the film did not materialise in Damodaran's lifetime because of the high budget requirements, which was unaffordable for a Malayalam film at that time. Priyadarshan kept the project in mind for years, until in 2017 he proceeded with the research work. Due to scarce documentation, contradicting accounts, and perspectives, he had to develop his own version of the character and events by synthesizing history, fiction, and folklore. He modelled it after a chapter he had learnt as a child in his grade three textbook and also incorporated input from Damodaran. The final draft was completed by June 2018. Principal photography took place from December 2018 to March 2019, filmed in sets created at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad. It lasted 104 days and post-production took 14 months. Four life-size ship replicas were constructed and were shot inside a water tank. The sea was completely created using visual effects. Sabu Cyril and Siddharth Priyadarshan oversaw the production design and visual effects supervision, respectively. Production began with an budget of ₹85–100 crore, making it the most expensive Malayalam film to date. The original score was composed by Rahul Raj, Ankit Suri and Lyell Evans Roeder; and songs by Ronnie Raphael. The film, originally scheduled to release on 19 March 2020, was delayed by the outbreak of COVID-19. It was then rescheduled and postponed through three more dates in March, May, and August 2021 before settling on release date by the end of the year. Meanwhile, at the 67th National Film Awards, the film won three awards—Best Feature Film, Best Special Effects, and Best Costume Design. The film released theatrically worldwide on 2 December 2021. It received mixed to negative reviews and bombed at the box office. The film was also shortlisted among with 35 other films for the Indian submissions for Best Feature Film category at the 94th Academy Awards. Plot During the late 1500s, the empire of Portugal allies with the kingdom of Kochi in Malabar, Kerala. This is in order to colonize the region by overthrowing the powerful kingdom of Kozhikode, a long time war rival of Kochi. Portuguese military commander Alfonso de Noronho trains Kochi soldiers to use firearms and offers them cannons in exchange for trading crops and spices, however the Malabar natives are displeased with the new Cartaz license system they've established which impedes trade with the Arabs. Kuttiyali Marakkar, an influential merchant finds a way to trade while bypassing Portuguese customs laws, but he's sold out by his brother in law Moidu who is allied with Alfonso. In the past, Kuttiyali and his sons, Kutti Poker Ali and Pattu Marakkar, were commanders of the Kozhikode navy and helped resist Portuguese rule, but they resigned and became merchants after Poker died in battle. In the present, Poker's son Muhammad Ali is newly married to Aisha, his childhood sweetheart, however she, Muhammad's mother, and Kuttiyali are all killed that night by Alfonso in a raid. Kochi's king frames it as a civil massacre and blames Muhammad and Pattu, who have survived and escaped. In retaliation the two assassinate Moidu and manage to flee by raft, but a storm causes them to land in Ponnani, Kozhikode. There they start a new life and meet the kingdom's military commanders, the arrogant and spoiled Achuthan, and compassionate Anandan. Muhammad speaks against Achuthan for disrespecting him, but Anandan stops them from fighting. The king's associate and right hand warrior Mangattachan distributes supplies to the storm's victims, but the corrupt nāduvāzhi Namathu Kurup hoards them to sell in market, and his men assault Pattu for calling him out. In retaliation, Muhammad recruits a bandit named Thangudu and his crew to rob Kurup's goods and distribute them to civilians. They perform many raids against corrupt noblemen and Muhammad takes up the mantle of Kunjali Marakkar, a protector of the people but fugitive to the kingdom. Many years later, Marakkar's gang engage in guerilla warfare against Portuguese vessels, and on one raid they meet Chiang, a Chinese slave. Chiang fights them in defense so gang member Aimutty takes Chiang's mother hostage. Marakkar is against hurting women and children so he saves her but accidentally kills Aimutty, witnessed by Aimutty's brother Mayinkutty. Chiang and his mother are rescued, leading to the former and Marakkar becoming friends, and he calls Chiang "Chinnali". Since Marakkar is a fugitive of Kozhikode, Achuthan instructs Mayinkutty to kill him in revenge, but Chinnali kills him first. Viceroy Francisco de Gama threatens war against Kozhidoke when their monarch, the Samoothiri declines a trading deal proposed by their king. Since Achuthan, their naval commander states defeating them is impossible, Anandan proposes the controversial decision to recruit Marakkar, who is brought to the kingdom and recognized as Poker's son. Samoothiri's judgement of Achutan using Mayinkutty being dishonorable causes him to replace Achutan with Marakkar as naval commander, leading Achutan to jealousy. Marakkar leads the troops to battle and they use traps to sink many Portuguese ships, eventually finding Alfonso and killing him. Marakkar is praised by the court, except by the diplomats of Kolathunadu who ally with the Portuguese. Samoothiri thanks Marakkar by renovating his family's fortress and it grows into a village, in the meantime Chinnali falls in love with Aarcha, minister Dharmoth Panicker's daughter. She reciprocates, but Achuthan also has feelings for her. Their parents decided to get Aarcha married to Achuthan. Unbeknownst to them, Aarcha who is now pregnant with Chinnali's child runs away with him. Achuthan out of jealously frames Chinnali of abducting her, causing tension. Achuthan attempts to force Aarcha to the kingdom, causing a fight between him, Chinnali, and Anandan. Anandan pleads to Chinnali to calm down, but Achuthan kills Chinnali and runs. Aarcha commits suicide, while Marakkar assumes Anandan is the killer after arriving late and slashes his throat. Achuthan also beats up one of the court members to frame Marakkar for it, further painting him as a traitor. A new monarch named Nambyathiri takes Samoothiri's place, and he decides to submit to Portuguese rule. Thus the Portuguese and Kozhikode work together and plot to kill Marakkar. The two armies lay siege to Marakkar's village, and despite resistance they lose due to Kolathunadu's treachery. Marakkar continues to resist them, so De Gama proposes killing handfuls of his people (who were taken prisoner) each day. Nambyathiri is bludgeoned by De Gama for rejecting, and Pattu is one of the first to be executed. Marakkar manages to kidnap De Gama, forcing the release of his people, but he is drawn into a trap orchestrated by Achuthan and Subaida, Aimutty's wife. She regrets it when Marakkar apologizes but it's too late, and De Gama's men arrest him. Marakkar is brought to Velha, Goa and is convicted and sentenced to death by guillotine after refusing to beg for mercy. He is seen joining his mother in the otherworld. Cast Production Development A film based on Kunjali Marakkar was originally planned by Priyadarshan with screenwriter T. Damodaran in 1996, with Mohanlal in the title role. The idea for the film originated and was discussed in length at the sets of Mohanlal-starring Kaalapani (1996) in Kozhikode. Due to budget constraints, it did not progress, "back then, our industry size was very limited and most producers weren't ready to invest hugely in such big ventures", said Priyadarshan. Damodaran pitched a plot idea in 1999, but "it was inconceivable back then to make a film that was extensively set at sea", said Priyadarshan. The project was still on their mind for years. Priyadarshan recalled that it was difficult to shoot with one ship in Kaalapani, let alone a film with multiple ships on turbulent waters of the Arabian Sea. Years later, with the advancement of visual effects and producers willing to fund the film, Priyadarshan revisited the idea. Meanwhile, during 2008 – 2009, director Jayaraj too planned a film on Kunjali Marakkar with Mohanlal in the title role and T. P. Rajeevan hired to write the screenplay. It was ready to begin production and when the screenplay was handed over to Mohanlal, he did not show interest. That screenplay was later bought by August Cinema from Rajeevan for making a separate project with different cast and crew. In 2013, Priyadarshan revealed that in addition to a Hindi film, he was working on a Malayalam period film about a Kunjali Marakkar chieftain with Mohanlal in the title role for which the research work was ongoing. On 1 November 2017, Priyadarshan confirmed to The Times of India that he would start the project after completing a Hindi film first and the ongoing research would require at least 10 more months to complete. They wanted to look deeper into history since what was gathered until then was information already available to the public. It was undecided then on which Kunjali Marakkar would Mohanlal portray out of the four Marakkars. Priyadarshan said the story he would come up with would be a mix of fact and fiction, as the information about many of the incidents that happened during that era are unavailable. Priyadarshan zeroed in on Kunjali Marakkar IV as the protagonist as he "has the most interesting story". Mohanlal said that their idea was to make a patriotic film. Marakkar IV was at the forefront of resistance against the Portuguese invaders and is regarded as the first naval commander in India and was also an expert navigator. That is why they have dubbed him the "lion of the Arabian Sea". The title of the film was officially announced at a press conference held at Kochi on 28 April 2018 by Priyadarshan, Mohanlal, producer Antony Perumbavoor and co-producers Santhosh T. Kuruvilla and Roy C. J. The budget was revealed to be ₹100 crore, making it the most expensive film made in Malayalam cinema—produced under the company Aashirvad Cinemas, with Moonshot Entertainments and Confident Group as co-producers. Production is said to have begun on 1 November 2018 on the day of Kerala Piravi. Priyadarshan said that it took him three years to commence filming from the day he had conceived the film. Writing Priyadarshan co-wrote the screenplay with his disciple Ani Sasi. Ani himself expressed interest in collaborating with Priyadarshan when he learned that the later was working on a film about Kunjali Marakkar. Priyadarshan also incorporating many inputs from late Damodaran from their early discussions. The first draft was completed in April 2018. It was estimated to require seven months for pre-production and eight months for post-production. They completed the final draft by early June 2018. The story spans the period from 1505 to 1601. Marakkar IV was chosen as the protagonist not only because he has the most interesting story, but also they knew more about him than the other Marakkars, and he was the one who brought a lot of strategies, and "everything ended with him". Priyadarshan said that not many reliable sources exist about Marakkar I, and facts about Marakkar II, III, and IV are a mystery, and their available accounts are conflicting with each other. The screenplay was written with a combination of facts, fiction, and folklore. He said that his characters are historical figures but they all may not be contemporaries, cinematic liberty that he has taken. Most of the female characters in the film are imaginary. Due to a lack of sufficient written history and reliable sources, it is difficult to know the facts about Marakkars. There were more unanswered questions and contradicting accounts and perspectives. Priyadarshan relied on commonsense and basic human behavioral patterns to fill the gaps. According to him, the screenplay contains 30 percent history and 70 percent fiction. Marakkar IV is presented as a hero of a fairy tale. Since nothing much is known about Marakkar IV, artistic freedom was to be used to tell his story. Whatever was found about him was completely contradictory, while the Europeans portray him as a villain, the Arabs hail him as a savior. Priyadarshan took the basic structure of the story from a chapter he learned as a child in his grade three textbook and worked on that. According to him, "Marakkar was a patriot whose loyalty to his land came above barriers of caste and religion. That is my message in my film. If Kunjali Marakkar could do it so many years ago, why do we find it so difficult to put our country ahead of caste, religion and region?". A disclaimer is added in the opening of the film that it contains fiction. Casting Mohanlal was attached to the project in the initial discussion itself in 1996. The screenplay was written with Mohanlal in mind as Priyadarshan wanted an actor with an image that fits the larger-than-life stature of Marakkar IV. Priyadarshan said that, "heroic figures like Marakkar or Velu Thampi Dalawa had this aura about them and has that", also Marakkar IV was 53 years old when he died and Mohanlal suits the age too. The team was then on a lookout for a Chinese actor to play the role of Chinali, Marakkar IV's trusted lieutenant. In May 2018, it was reported that Nagarjuna, Suniel Shetty, and Paresh Rawal has been cast alongside Mohanlal in ensemble roles. Shetty was confirmed to have signed the film, while Nagarjuna was in talks for a role. Shetty grew his hair out for his role. In June, Nagarjuna said he has not yet heard the script and will sign only after that. At the end, he did not take the role. Madhu and Prabhu were confirmed in that month, with the former cast as Kunjali Marakkar I / Kuttiyali Marakkar. Prabhu plays a Tamil shipwright who build boats for Marakkar, such a character is mentioned in history. Madhu opted out from the film (and other films) as part of his decision to retire from cinema industry. Fazil took the role in his absence. Akshay Kumar was offered a role, but declined. In July 2018, Durga Krishna was reported to have been cast in a pivotal role. The team was aiming to complete the casting by the end of September 2018, including the actress for female lead role. More cast were revealed in that month. Arjun Sarja was confirmed in a principal role. Both Shetty's and Sarja's roles are based on real-life characters in a "slightly fictionalised" forms as not much about them are known from history. Renji Panicker, Nedumudi Venu and Siddique were confirmed in supporting roles. Priyadarshan revealed that Pranav Mohanlal and Kalyani Priyadarshan will be making "special appearances" in the film, with Pranav enacting a young Marakkar IV. They play a couple. Kalyani said she herself asked her father for a role in the film. Keerthy Suresh plays an important role. She learned veena as part of preparing for her character who is trained in classical music. Her character has a romantic relationship with Chinali / Chiang Juvan, played by Chinese actor Jay J. Jakkrit. Mukesh was confirmed to be in the film. In October 2018, Pooja Kumar was in talks for a role. Manju Warrier was cast as Subaida. Ashok Selvan was cast in an antagonistic role, making his debut in Malayalam cinema. Shiyas Kareem was cast as a sidekick in Marakkar IV's gang; he had 50 days shoot. Filming and production design Principal photography began on 1 December 2018 at Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad. Cinematography was handled by Tirru. Co-writer Ani Sasi also worked as an assistant director in the film. Pranav and Kalyani shot a few scenes early that month. A song sequence between the two was choreographed by Brinda. Prasanna Sujit choreographed another sequence. Mohanlal joined the sets in mid December. Filming was wrapped by late March 2019. Principal photography lasted 104 days. The film was shot simultaneously in Malayalam and Tamil languages. Bulk of filming took place at Ramoji Film City itself, a five-day shoot was also held in Thiruvananthapuram. Meeting scene between the Samoothiri and the Portuguese was shot at Adimalathura. Kazu Neda, Sumret Muangput, and B. Thyagarajan were responsible for the action sequences. Priyadarshan's frequent collaborator Sabu Cyril was the film's production designer. The story is set 500 years ago in what is now Kerala. Even though the events happened during that period are recorded in history, there are no proper documentation about the outfits, ornaments, their colour, weapons or home appliances used. Hence, some of them were made from imagination and referring available material. Ships were not built but bought from Egypt during the period of Kunjali Marakkars. Four life-size ship replicas and a 200×200 metre tank were built at Ramoji Film City. Installed on a one-acre space, the tank was filled with 150,000 litre of water. The film was never shot on sea, the action sequences on the high seas, the storm, and the thundering waves was completely created using visual effects. There are no paintings of Marakkar IV, and it is unknown how he became the admiral of the Samoothiri. There were hardly any pictorial references regarding the costumes or ornaments worn by the warriors and the people, for that they had to depend on their imagination and some books and paintings for reference. Several other sets were also created for the film. Canons were build accurately, but swords, shields, and helmets of Samoothiri's arsenal was made by referring similar armory existed in that century, exact models could not be found. A total of 40 canons and more than 1000 swords were made. Some swords were made from carbon fibers while others were from bamboo. Horses were used in the film because there was recorded history that Samoothiri used to import horses from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. On setting the period, they also considered the temperature of that period, which was only 21 degree Celsius at peak in summer. Priyadarshan said that creating the old mast ships, war galleys of the Portuguese, and the battle sequences on sea were the bigger challenges in making the film. For research, Priyadarshan could not locate the spot or remains of neither Marakkars' fort in Iringal, nor Samoothiri's palace, even Archaeological Survey of India did not had any clue. In the film, elephant is used as the insignia of Samoothiri's kingdom. The idea was taken from the Emblem of Kerala which is presumed to be composed of the elephant insignia of Samoothiri and shanku insignia of Trivandrum kingdom. Since Samoothiri bought the ships from Egypt by bartering spices, his ships are Arabian model. Cyril took only ₹25 lakh as remuneration, which was far less than what he usually charge, for his love for the film. Sujith Sudhakaran and V. Sai was in charge of the costume department. Keerthy's wardrobes, ornaments and character looks were based on three Raja Ravi Varma paintings. Indrakshi Pattanaik was her stylist. Post-production M. S. Aiyappan Nair was the editor, digital intermediate was processed by Prime Focus studio. M. R. Rajakrishnan of Sync Cinema was the sound designer. Around a quarter of the film is set in sea, nonetheless, the film was never shot on sea, except for a shot of sea shore. The sea was completely created using visual effects. Priyadarshan's son Siddharth Priyadarshan worked as the film's visual effects supervisor, he hired his son to reduce the film's cost. Siddharth divided the graphics work among four personnel. The film was shot using storyboard (which is scarcely used in Indian productions) as it is helpful in creating visual effects. In Priyadarshan's view, success of a film like Lion of the Arabian Sea depends largely on the fineness of graphics, "if you don't get your graphics right, the film will look terrible. Which we have seen often in Indian cinema". Priyadarshan said that the most difficult thing to create in VFX is water and fire, for that they bought necessary software from Austria and Hungary. Pune-based Anibrain, and two Chennai-based Knack Studios and Golden Star Studio were employed for the film's visual effects creation. Post-production began in Chennai as soon as they completed filming. It was expected to last 11 months, with eight months consuming for visual effects alone. Post-production took 14 months to complete. The film was reportedly completed with a cost of ₹85 – 100 crore. The film's theatrical cut runs for 181.07 minutes. It underwent censoring in India on 23 December 2019. Music The original score was composed by Rahul Raj, Ankit Suri and Lyell Evans Roeder. Suri and Roeder, composers of Alternative Fidelity, a British-American music production house were hired to compose the score for battle sequences in the film. It was also their debut in Malayalam cinema. A few months later, Rahul Raj, who freshly graduated from Berklee College of Music was hired to independently compose and produce the rest of the score. Raj was chosen by Priyadarshan after being impressed watching a video of him conducting a 52-piece London orchestra as part of his thesis in Berklee. While scoring, Raj avoided giving a regional touch to the music which would have been easier for a film set in Malabar, as Priyadarshan was clear that he was making a film which caters for a global audience and it should resonate in its music too. Deviating from his usual norm, Priyadarshan gave full creative freedom to Rahul Raj for scoring, who is known for giving references and definitive instructions to his composers. His only instruction was to imagine as if he is working for a Hollywood epic and compose with that on mind. Raj wanted a soundscape that could bring an epic feel as in films produced during the golden age of Hollywood. He mentioned Ben-Hur and The Ten Commandments as examples. Beside composing, Rahul Raj also performed programming and production entirely by himself as opposed to have additional programmers in many regular film scores. The Chennai Strings Orchestra played string pieces for some of the significant portions. The original songs in Malayalam were composed by Ronnie Raphael. In the initial stage, Priyadarshan planned only fours songs in the film, with one being instrumental. His plan was to experiment by diving three songs to three composers. However, all songs were finally given to Raphael. Raphael had composed music for Priyadarshan's Hindi film Anamika in the Forbidden Love series, after which he was offered the position in Lion of the Arabian Sea too. He composed five songs for the film. Recording began as early as November 2018 when filming had not begun. The songs were sung by K. S. Chithra, M. G. Sreekumar, Vineeth Sreenivasan, Shweta Mohan, Shreya Ghoshal and Zia Ul Haq, with lyrics by Prabha Varma, B. K. Harinarayanan, Shafi Kollam, and Priyadarshan. Saina Music acquired the music rights in February 2020 for an all time record sum in Malayalam cinema. The first single "Kunju Kunjali", sung by K. S. Chithra was released in all languages on 5 February 2021. A flute cover of "Kunju Kunjali" by Josy Alappuzha, who also played flute in the original track, was released on 13 February 2021. It was released on digital music platforms on 6 March 2021 as a track in the album. A teaser of second track "Kannil Ente" was released on 5 April 2021, coinciding on Kalyani Priyadarshan's birthday, and the full song was released in all languages on 12 April 2021. The third track "Chembinte Chelulla", sung by Vishnu Raj was released in all languages on 21 May 2021, marking Mohanlal's birthday. The fourth track "Ilaveyil" was released on 20 November 2021 in all languages. The fifth track "Neeye En Thaaye" was released on 27 November 2021 in all languages. Release Scheduling and pre-release The film was originally scheduled to be released on 19 March 2020, as announced in October 2019. It was then moved to 26 March by January 2020. However, it was further postponed without a release date after the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic. Priyadarshan said that the postponement was at the behest of exhibitors in the Gulf, particularly those across Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, as the box office collection from these countries are crucial to the film's success. In February 2021, Mohanlal told to Variety that it is a global film with an international release, so they are waiting for the COVID-19 situation to normalise, "when everything settles and people are back to the theaters, only then can we release". The film was then rescheduled and postponed again three times in 2021: 26 March, 13 May, and 12 August. Fans show tickets for more than 100 shows were already sold out when it postponed release in March 2020. There was a surge in COVID-19 cases in India when it was about to release in May 2021 coinciding with Eid al-Fitr. The film could not release in the Onam holidays aimed August 2021 date as the test positivity rate (TPR) in Kerala was the highest in India at that time and theatres remained closed per government order. Theatres were later allowed to run with half its seating capacity. On 6 November 2021, producer Antony Perumbavoor said that they are cancelling theatrical release and the film will have a direct-to-OTT premiere through Amazon Prime Video. Reportedly, they made a ₹90 crore deal with Prime Video for a direct-to-OTT premiere. In early November 2021, a preview show was held for Mohanlal, his wife Suchitra Mohanlal, and producer Antony in Chennai, the theatrical experience from the show changed their decision to opt for a theatrical release. On 11 November, Saji Cheriyan, minister of Kerala State Film Development Corporation announced that the film will be releasing on 2 December 2021 in theatres, which was decided after a meeting with the makers. The government also waived entertainment tax for all films releasing in Kerala until 31 December. The makers renegotiated and relaxed the deal with Prime Video to allow for a theatrical debut prior to OTT. The film's release date coincide with the National Day holiday of the United Arab Emirates, where it premieres a day early, on 1 December 2021. Distribution The film was reported to be releasing in more than 5000 theatres worldwide in March 2020, and in more than 50 countries worldwide, which would make it the largest release for a Malayalam film up until then. Beside original Malayalam and Tamil version, the film also has dubbed versions in Hindi, Telugu, and Kannada. Priyadarshan said that they also plans to dub the film in Arabic. In 2019, they made a deal to release the film in China, dubbed in Chinese, and signed a co-production and distribution agreement with a Chinese company. Kalaipuli S. Thanu of V. Creations bought the distribution right for the film's Tamil version. The Telugu version is distributed by Suresh Productions. The film is releasing in 4100 screens worldwide in five languages, with 16,000 shows on the opening days. Out of the 631 screens in Kerala, 626 screens is playing Lion of the Arabian Sea. Home media Marakkar was released on December 17 through Amazon Prime Video in Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Hindi. Marketing On 22 September 2019, a sneak peak footage of the film was exclusively screened at Aashirvadathode Lalettan, an event held at Gokulam Park, Kochi, organised by Aashirvad Cinemas. The first trailer released in March 2020 was edited by Alphonse Putharen. In November 2021, a promotional event was conducted on the luxury cruise ship Nefertiti Cruise, organised in association with Jain International School of Creative Arts. Reception Box office The film grossed ₹6.92 crore on the opening day in Kerala and around ₹7 crore on the second day. The film was a box-office bomb. Critical response The movie received mixed to negative reviews from critics. In his review for The Hindu, S. R. Praveen wrote, "Kunjali Marakkar certainly deserved a much better tribute. In the end, it is not about the crores that you spend, but about how well you manage to engage and move the audience." The Times of India rated the film 2.5 on a scale of 5 and wrote that the film is "a historical hero's story that isn't rousing." Malayala Manorama praised the visuals, cinematography and production design. They wrote, "Marakkar is undoubtedly the biggest film by the Priyadarshan-Mohanlal combo, but not the best by the two." The Indian Express wrote, "Priyadarshan tells an age-old story without wearing down the viewers, though after a point, you may feel the movie is reluctant to show its inevitable climax. Otherwise, the movie makes for an engaging watch." The News Minute rated the movie 3 out of 5 and wrote that the film is "visually stunning" but "badly written." The New Indian Express wrote that the film "is yet another testament to Priyadarshan's remarkable ability to paint in broad strokes, but it falters when it comes to the emotional stakes." Anna M. M. Vetticad of Firstpost gave the film 1.5 out of 5 writing "Mohanlal-led war drama is remarkably unremarkable." Hindustan Times wrote that the film is "ambitious but underwhelming." Rating the film 2 out of 5, Deccan Herald also wrote that the film is an "underwhelming experience." The Quint gave the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5 and wrote that the film "is an epic disappointment." International Business Times commented that "Marakkar is one such movie that is technically brilliant, but it lacked that powerful script and screenplay." Accolades References External links Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic Film productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic 2021 films Films set in the Indian Ocean Historical epic films Films set in the 16th century Indian historical action films History of Kerala on film Films about naval warfare Films shot at Ramoji Film City Films directed by Priyadarshan 2020s Malayalam-language films Cultural depictions of Indian men Cultural depictions of admirals War films based on actual events Action films based on actual events Best Feature Film National Film Award winners Aashirvad Cinemas films 2020s Tamil-language films Indian multilingual films Films shot in Thiruvananthapuram

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Max Born (; 11 December 1882 – 5 January 1970) was a German physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 1930s. Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function". Born entered the University of Göttingen in 1904, where he met the three renowned mathematicians Felix Klein, David Hilbert, and Hermann Minkowski. He wrote his Ph.D. thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space", winning the university's Philosophy Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching special relativity with Minkowski, and subsequently wrote his habilitation thesis on the Thomson model of the atom. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of how an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle. In World War I, after originally being placed as a radio operator, he was moved to research duties regarding sound ranging due to his specialist knowledge. In 1921, Born returned to Göttingen, arranging another chair for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck. Under Born, Göttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for physics. In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf all received their Ph.D. degrees under Born at Göttingen, and his assistants included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner. In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and Born, who was Jewish, was suspended from his professorship at the University of Göttingen. He emigrated to the United Kingdom, where he took a job at St John's College, Cambridge, and wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, as well as Atomic Physics, which soon became a standard textbook. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, he continued his research into physics. Born became a naturalised British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. He remained in Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany, and died in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970. Early life Max Born was born on 11 December 1882 in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), which at the time of Born's birth was part of the Prussian Province of Silesia in the German Empire, to a family of Jewish descent. He was one of two children born to Gustav Born, an anatomist and embryologist, who was a professor of embryology at the University of Breslau, and his wife Margarethe (Gretchen) née Kauffmann, from a Silesian family of industrialists. She died when Max was four years old, on 29 August 1886. Max had a sister, Käthe, who was born in 1884, and a half-brother, Wolfgang, from his father's second marriage, to Bertha Lipstein. Wolfgang later became Professor of Art History at the City College of New York. Initially educated at the König-Wilhelm-Gymnasium in Breslau, Born entered the University of Breslau in 1901. The German university system allowed students to move easily from one university to another, so he spent summer semesters at Heidelberg University in 1902 and the University of Zurich in 1903. Fellow students at Breslau, Otto Toeplitz and Ernst Hellinger, told Born about the University of Göttingen, and Born went there in April 1904. At Göttingen he found three renowned mathematicians: Felix Klein, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski. Very soon after his arrival, Born formed close ties to the latter two men. From the first class he took with Hilbert, Hilbert identified Born as having exceptional abilities and selected him as the lecture scribe, whose function was to write up the class notes for the students' mathematics reading room at the University of Göttingen. Being class scribe put Born into regular, invaluable contact with Hilbert. Hilbert became Born's mentor after selecting him to be the first to hold the unpaid, semi-official position of assistant. Born's introduction to Minkowski came through Born's stepmother, Bertha, as she knew Minkowski from dancing classes in Königsberg. The introduction netted Born invitations to the Minkowski household for Sunday dinners. In addition, while performing his duties as scribe and assistant, Born often saw Minkowski at Hilbert's house. Born's relationship with Klein was more problematic. Born attended a seminar conducted by Klein and professors of applied mathematics, Carl Runge and Ludwig Prandtl, on the subject of elasticity. Although not particularly interested in the subject, Born was obliged to present a paper. Using Hilbert's calculus of variations, he presented one in which, using a curved configuration of a wire with both ends fixed, he demonstrated would be the most stable. Klein was impressed, and invited Born to submit a thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space" – a subject near and dear to Klein – which Klein had arranged to be the subject for the prestigious annual Philosophy Faculty Prize offered by the university. Entries could also qualify as doctoral dissertations. Born responded by turning down the offer, as applied mathematics was not his preferred area of study. Klein was greatly offended. Klein had the power to make or break academic careers, so Born felt compelled to atone by submitting an entry for the prize. Because Klein refused to supervise him, Born arranged for Carl Runge to be his supervisor. Woldemar Voigt and Karl Schwarzschild became his other examiners. Starting from his paper, Born developed the equations for the stability conditions. As he became more interested in the topic, he had an apparatus constructed that could test his predictions experimentally. On 13 June 1906, the rector announced that Born had won the prize. A month later, he passed his oral examination and was awarded his PhD in mathematics magna cum laude. On graduation, Born was obliged to perform his military service, which he had deferred while a student. He found himself drafted into the German army, and posted to the 2nd Guards Dragoons "Empress Alexandra of Russia", which was stationed in Berlin. His service was brief, as he was discharged early after an asthma attack in January 1907. He then travelled to England, where he was admitted to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and studied physics for six months at the Cavendish Laboratory under J. J. Thomson, George Searle and Joseph Larmor. After Born returned to Germany, the Army re-inducted him, and he served with the elite 1st (Silesian) Life Cuirassiers "Great Elector" until he was again medically discharged after just six weeks' service. He then returned to Breslau, where he worked under the supervision of Otto Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim, hoping to do his habilitation in physics. A minor accident involving Born's black body experiment, a ruptured cooling water hose, and a flooded laboratory, led to Lummer telling him that he would never become a physicist. In 1905, Albert Einstein published his paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies about special relativity. Born was intrigued, and began researching the subject. He was devastated to discover that Minkowski was also researching special relativity along the same lines, but when he wrote to Minkowski about his results, Minkowski asked him to return to Göttingen and do his habilitation there. Born accepted. Toeplitz helped Born brush up on his matrix algebra so he could work with the four-dimensional Minkowski space matrices used in the latter's project to reconcile relativity with electrodynamics. Born and Minkowski got along well, and their work made good progress, but Minkowski died suddenly of appendicitis on 12 January 1909. The mathematics students had Born speak on their behalf at the funeral. A few weeks later, Born attempted to present their results at a meeting of the Göttingen Mathematics Society. He did not get far before he was publicly challenged by Klein and Max Abraham, who rejected relativity, forcing him to terminate the lecture. However, Hilbert and Runge were interested in Born's work, and, after some discussion with Born, they became convinced of the veracity of his results and persuaded him to give the lecture again. This time he was not interrupted, and Voigt offered to sponsor Born's habilitation thesis. Born subsequently published his talk as an article on "The Theory of the Rigid Electron in the Kinematics of the Principle of Relativity" (), which introduced the concept of Born rigidity. On 23 October Born presented his habilitation lecture on the Thomson model of the atom. Career Berlin and Frankfurt Born settled in as a young academic at Göttingen as a privatdozent. In Göttingen, Born stayed at a boarding house run by Sister Annie at Dahlmannstraße 17, known as El BoKaReBo. The name was derived from the first letters of the last names of its boarders: "El" for Ella Philipson (a medical student), "Bo" for Born and Hans Bolza (a physics student), "Ka" for Theodore von Kármán (a Privatdozent), and "Re" for Albrecht Renner (another medical student). A frequent visitor to the boarding house was Paul Peter Ewald, a doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld on loan to Hilbert at Göttingen as a special assistant for physics. Richard Courant, a mathematician and Privatdozent, called these people the "in group." In 1912, Born met Hedwig (Hedi) Ehrenberg, the daughter of a Leipzig University law professor, and a friend of Carl Runge's daughter Iris. She was of Jewish background on her father's side, although he had become a practising Lutheran when he got married, as did Max's sister Käthe. Despite never practising his religion, Born refused to convert, and his wedding on 2 August 1913 was a garden ceremony. However, he was baptised as a Lutheran in March 1914 by the same pastor who had performed his wedding ceremony. Born regarded "religious professions and churches as a matter of no importance". His decision to be baptised was made partly in deference to his wife, and partly due to his desire to assimilate into German society. The marriage produced three children: two daughters, Irene, born in 1914, and Margarethe (Gritli), born in 1915, and a son, Gustav, born in 1921. Through marriage, Born is related to jurists Victor Ehrenberg, his father-in-law, and Rudolf von Jhering, his wife's maternal grandfather, as well as to philosopher and theologian Hans Ehrenberg, and is a great uncle of British comedian Ben Elton. By the end of 1913, Born had published 27 papers, including important work on relativity and the dynamics of crystal lattices (3 with Theodore von Karman), which became a book. In 1914, received a letter from Max Planck explaining that a new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created at the University of Berlin. The chair had been offered to Max von Laue, but he had turned it down. Born accepted. The First World War was now raging. Soon after arriving in Berlin in 1915, he enlisted in an Army signals unit. In October, he joined the Artillerie-Prüfungs-Kommission, the Army's Berlin-based artillery research and development organisation, under Rudolf Ladenburg, who had established a special unit dedicated to the new technology of sound ranging. In Berlin, Born formed a lifelong friendship with Einstein, who became a frequent visitor to Born's home. Within days of the armistice in November 1918, Planck had the Army release Born. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber that month led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle. Even before Born had taken up the chair in Berlin, von Laue had changed his mind, and decided that he wanted it after all. He arranged with Born and the faculties concerned for them to exchange jobs. In April 1919, Born became professor ordinarius and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics on the science faculty at the University of Frankfurt am Main. While there, he was approached by the University of Göttingen, which was looking for a replacement for Peter Debye as Director of the Physical Institute. "Theoretical physics," Einstein advised him, "will flourish wherever you happen to be; there is no other Born to be found in Germany today." In negotiating for the position with the education ministry, Born arranged for another chair, of experimental physics, at Göttingen for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck. In 1919 Elisabeth Bormann joined the Institut für Theoretische Physik as his assistant. She developed the first atomic beams. Working with Born, Bormann was the first to measure the free path of atoms in gases and the size of molecules. Göttingen For the 12 years Born and Franck were at the University of Göttingen (1921 to 1933), Born had a collaborator with shared views on basic scientific concepts—a benefit for teaching and research. Born's collaborative approach with experimental physicists was similar to that of Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich, who was ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics—also a prime mover in the development of quantum theory. Born and Sommerfeld collaborated with experimental physicists to test and advance their theories. In 1922, when lecturing in the United States at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Sommerfeld sent his student Werner Heisenberg to be Born's assistant. Heisenberg returned to Göttingen in 1923, where he completed his habilitation under Born in 1924, and became a privatdozent at Göttingen. In 1919 and 1920, Max Born became displeased about the large number of objections against Einstein's relativity, and gave speeches in the winter of 1919 in support of Einstein. Born received pay for his relativity speeches which helped with expenses through the year of rapid inflation. The speeches in German language became a book published in 1920 of which Einstein received the proofs before publication. A third edition was published in 1922 and an English translation was published in 1924. Born represented light speed as a function of curvature, "the velocity of light is much greater for some directions of the light ray than its ordinary value c, and other bodies can also attain much greater velocities." In 1925, Born and Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. On 9 July, Heisenberg gave Born a paper entitled Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen ("Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations") to review, and submit for publication. In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory, avoiding the concrete, but unobservable, representations of electron orbits by using parameters such as transition probabilities for quantum jumps, which necessitated using two indexes corresponding to the initial and final states. When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices, which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at Breslau University. Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912, and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. With the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, Born began immediately to make a transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper. A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors. The result was a surprising formulation: where p and q were matrices for location and momentum, and I is the identity matrix. Note that the left hand side of the equation is not zero because matrix multiplication is not commutative. This formulation was entirely attributable to Born, who also established that all the elements not on the diagonal of the matrix were zero. Born considered that his paper with Jordan contained "the most important principles of quantum mechanics including its extension to electrodynamics." The paper put Heisenberg's approach on a solid mathematical basis. Born was surprised to discover that Paul Dirac had been thinking along the same lines as Heisenberg. Soon, Wolfgang Pauli used the matrix method to calculate the energy values of the hydrogen atom and found that they agreed with the Bohr model. Another important contribution was made by Erwin Schrödinger, who looked at the problem using wave mechanics. This had a great deal of appeal to many at the time, as it offered the possibility of returning to deterministic classical physics. Born would have none of this, as it ran counter to facts determined by experiment. He formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, which he published in July 1926. In a letter to Born on 4 December 1926, Einstein made his famous remark regarding quantum mechanics: This quotation is often paraphrased as 'God does not play dice'. In 1928, Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics, but Heisenberg alone won the 1932 Prize "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen", while Schrödinger and Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory". On 25 November 1933, Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a "bad conscience" that he alone had received the Prize "for work done in Göttingen in collaboration—you, Jordan and I." Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan's contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by "a wrong decision from the outside." In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honouring Planck for his insight in 1900, in which he credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not "adequately acknowledged in the public eye." Those who received their Ph.D. degrees under Born at Göttingen included Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf. Born's assistants at the University of Göttingen's Institute for Theoretical Physics included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner. Walter Heitler became an assistant to Born in 1928, and completed his habilitation under him in 1929. Born not only recognised talent to work with him, but he "let his superstars stretch past him; to those less gifted, he patiently handed out respectable but doable assignments." Delbrück, and Goeppert-Mayer went on to win Nobel Prizes. Later life In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. In May, Born became one of six Jewish professors at Göttingen who were suspended with pay; Franck had already resigned. In twelve years they had built Göttingen into one of the world's foremost centres for physics. Born began looking for a new job, writing to Maria Göppert-Mayer at Johns Hopkins University and Rudi Ladenburg at Princeton University. He accepted an offer from St John's College, Cambridge. At Cambridge, he wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, and a textbook, Atomic Physics, that soon became a standard text, going through seven editions. His family soon settled into life in England, with his daughters Irene and Gritli becoming engaged to Welshman Brinley (Bryn) Newton-John (Olivia Newton-John's parents; Born is Olivia's grandfather and Irene is her mother) and Englishman Maurice Pryce respectively. Born's position at Cambridge was only a temporary one, and his tenure at Göttingen was terminated in May 1935. He therefore accepted an offer from C. V. Raman to go to Bangalore in 1935. Born considered taking a permanent position there, but the Indian Institute of Science did not create an additional chair for him. In November 1935, the Born family had their German citizenship revoked, rendering them stateless. A few weeks later Göttingen cancelled Born's doctorate. Born considered an offer from Pyotr Kapitsa in Moscow, and started taking Russian lessons from Rudolf Peierls's Russian-born wife Genia. But then Charles Galton Darwin asked Born if he would consider becoming his successor as Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, an offer that Born promptly accepted, assuming the chair in October 1936. In Edinburgh, Born promoted the teaching of mathematical physics. He had two German assistants, E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, and one Scottish assistant, Robert Schlapp, and together they continued to investigate the mysterious behaviour of electrons. Born became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1937, and of the Royal Society of London in March 1939. During 1939, he got as many of his remaining friends and relatives still in Germany as he could out of the country, including his sister Käthe, in-laws Kurt and Marga, and the daughters of his friend Heinrich Rausch von Traubenberg. Hedi ran a domestic bureau, placing young Jewish women in jobs. Born received his certificate of naturalisation as a British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before the Second World War broke out in Europe. Born remained at Edinburgh until he reached the retirement age of 70 in 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany, in 1954. In October, he received word that he was being awarded the Nobel Prize. His fellow physicists had never stopped nominating him. Franck and Fermi had nominated him in 1947 and 1948 for his work on crystal lattices, and over the years, he had also been nominated for his work on solid state physics, quantum mechanics and other topics. In 1954, he received the prize for "fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function"—something that he had worked on alone. In his Nobel lecture he reflected on the philosophical implications of his work: In retirement, he continued scientific work, and produced new editions of his books. In 1955 he became one of signatories to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. He died at age 87 in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970, and is buried in the Stadtfriedhof there, in the same cemetery as Walther Nernst, Wilhelm Weber, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Max Planck, and David Hilbert. Personal life Born's wife Hedwig (Hedi) Martha Ehrenberg (1891–1972) was a daughter of the jurist Victor Ehrenberg and Elise von Jhering (a daughter of the jurist Rudolf von Jhering). Born was survived by his wife Hedi and their children Irene, Gritli and Gustav. Singer Olivia Newton-John is a daughter of Irene (1914-2003), while Gustav is the father of musician and academic Georgina Born and actor Max Born (Fellini Satyricon) who are thus also Max's grandchildren. His great-grandchildren include songwriter Brett Goldsmith, singer Tottie Goldsmith, racing car driver Emerson Newton-John, and singer Chloe Rose Lattanzi. Born helped his nephew, architect, Otto Königsberger (1908–1999) obtain commission in the Mysore State. Awards and honors 1934 – Stokes Medal of Cambridge 1939 – Fellow of the Royal Society 1945 – Makdougall–Brisbane Prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1945 – Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1948 – Max Planck Medaille der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft 1950 – Hughes Medal of the Royal Society of London 1953 – Honorary citizen of the town of Göttingen 1954 – Nobel Prize in Physics The award was for Born's fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction. 1954 – Nobel Prize Banquet Speech 1954 – Born Nobel Prize Lecture 1956 – Hugo Grotius Medal for International Law, Munich 1959 – Grand Cross of Merit with Star of the Order of Merit of the German Federal Republic 1972 – Max Born Medal and Prize was created by the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics. It is awarded annually. 1982 – Ceremony at the University of Göttingen in the 100th Birth Year of Max Born and James Franck, Institute Directors 1921–1933. 1991 – – Institute named in his honor. 2017 – On 11 December 2017, Google showed a Google doodle, designed by Kati Szilagyi, in honouring the 135th birth anniversary of Born. Bibliography During his life, Born wrote several semi-popular and technical books. His volumes on topics like atomic physics and optics were very well received. They are considered classics in their fields, and are still in print. The following is a chronological listing of his major works: Über das Thomson'sche Atommodell Habilitations-Vortrag (FAM, 1909) – The Habilitation was done at the University of Göttingen, on 23 October 1909. Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen (Springer, 1920) – Based on Born's lectures at the University of Frankfurt am Main. Available in English under the title Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Dynamik der Kristallgitter (Teubner, 1915) – After its publication, the physicist Arnold Sommerfeld asked Born to write an article based on it for the 5th volume of the Mathematical Encyclopedia. The First World War delayed the start of work on this article, but it was taken up in 1919 and finished in 1922. It was published as a revised edition under the title Atomic Theory of Solid States. Vorlesungen über Atommechanik (Springer, 1925) Problems of Atomic Dynamics (MIT Press, 1926) – A first account of matrix mechanics being developed in Germany, based on two series of lectures given at MIT, over three months, in late 1925 and early 1926. Mechanics of the Atom (George Bell & Sons, 1927) – Translated by J. W. Fisher and revised by D. R. Hartree. Elementare Quantenmechanik (Zweiter Band der Vorlesungen über Atommechanik), with Pascual Jordan. (Springer, 1930) – This was the first volume of what was intended as a two-volume work. This volume was limited to the work Born did with Jordan on matrix mechanics. The second volume was to deal with Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics. However, the second volume was not even started by Born, as he believed his friend and colleague Hermann Weyl had written it before he could do so. Optik: Ein Lehrbuch der elektromagnetische Lichttheorie (Springer, 1933) – The book was released just as the Borns were emigrating to England. Moderne Physik (1933) – Based on seven lectures given at the Technischen Hochschule Berlin. Atomic Physics (Blackie, London, 1935) – Authorized translation of Moderne Physik by John Dougall, with updates. The Restless Universe (Blackie and Son Limited, 1935) – A popularised rendition of the workshop of nature, translated by Winifred Margaret Deans. Born's nephew, Otto Königsberger, whose successful career as an architect in Berlin was brought to an end when the Nazis took over, was temporarily brought to England to illustrate the book. Experiment and Theory in Physics (Cambridge University Press, 1943) – The address given King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne, at the request of the Durham Philosophical Society and the Pure Science Society. An expanded version of the lecture appeared in a 1956 Dover Publications edition. Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance (Oxford University Press, 1949) – Based on Born's 1948 Waynflete lectures, given at the College of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford University. A later edition (Dover, 1964) included two appendices: "Symbol and Reality" and Born's lecture given at the Nobel laureates 1964 meeting in Landau, Germany. A General Kinetic Theory of Liquids with H. S. Green (Cambridge University Press, 1949) – The six papers in this book were reproduced with permission from the Proceedings of the Royal Society. Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices, with Kun Huang. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1954) Max Born The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Nobel Lecture – 11 December 1954. Physics in My Generation: A Selection of Papers (Pergamon, 1956) Physik im Wandel meiner Zeit (Vieweg, 1957) Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, with Emil Wolf. (Pergamon, 1959) – This book is not an English translation of Optik, but rather a substantially new book. Shortly after World War II, a number of scientists suggested that Born update and translate his work into English. Since there had been many advances in optics in the intervening years, updating was warranted. In 1951, Wolf began as Born's private assistant on the book; it was eventually published in 1959 by Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press. – the delay being due to the lengthy time needed "to resolve all the financial and publishing tricks created by Maxwell." Physik und Politik (VandenHoeck und Ruprecht, 1960) Zur Begründung der Matrizenmechanik, with Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan (Battenberg, 1962) – Published in honor of Max Born's 80th birthday. This edition reprinted the authors' articles on matrix mechanics published in Zeitschrift für Physik, Volumes 26 and 33–35, 1924–1926. My Life and My Views: A Nobel Prize Winner in Physics Writes Provocatively on a Wide Range of Subjects (Scribner, 1968) – Part II (pp. 63–206) is a translation of Von der Verantwortung des Naturwissenschaftlers. Briefwechsel 1916–1955, kommentiert von Max Born with Hedwig Born and Albert Einstein (Nymphenburger, 1969) The Born–Einstein Letters: Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916–1955, with commentaries by Max Born (Macmillan, 1971). Mein Leben: Die Erinnerungen des Nobelpreisträgers (Munich: Nymphenburger, 1975). Born's published memoirs. My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate (Scribner, 1978). Translation of Mein Leben. For a full list of his published papers, see HistCite. For his published works, see Published Works – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften Akademiebibliothek. See also List of things named after Max Born List of refugees Citations General references Reprinted as chapter 7 in Bernstein, Jeremy (2014). A Chorus of Bells and Other Scientific Inquiries. Also published in Germany: Max Born – Baumeister der Quantenwelt. Eine Biographie Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2005, . External links American Institute of Physics History Search: Max Born Encyclopædia Britannica, Max Born – full article Annotated bibliography for Max Born from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Freeview video of Gustav Born (son of Max) with conversation and film on Gustav's memories of his father by the Vega Science Trust Max Born information from Nobel Winners site including his Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1954 The Statistical Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics Papers of Professor Max Born (1882–1970) Held at the Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections Division The Papers of Professor Max Born held at Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge Recollections of Max Born, by Emil Wolf, in Astrophysics and Space Science, Volume 227, Numbers 1–2. (Biographical tribute) Kuhn, Thomas S., John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman, and Lini Allen Sources for History of Quantum Physics (American Philosophical Society, 1967) Oral History interview transcript with Max Born June 1960, 17 & 18 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives 1882 births 1970 deaths 20th-century German physicists Academics of the University of Cambridge Academics of the University of Edinburgh Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge 20th-century British physicists Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Fellows of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences German emigrants to Scotland German Nobel laureates Goethe University Frankfurt faculty Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Heidelberg University alumni Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom Jewish German scientists Jewish physicists Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Nobel laureates in Physics Optical physicists People associated with the University of Zurich People from the Province of Silesia Scientists from Wrocław Quantum physicists Scientists from Frankfurt Silesian Jews Theoretical physicists University of Breslau alumni University of Göttingen alumni University of Göttingen faculty Winners of the Max Planck Medal Family of Max Born

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The Ratel is a South African infantry fighting vehicle. It was the first wheeled infantry fighting vehicle to enter service worldwide and was built on a modified MAN truck chassis. The Ratel was designed in response to a South African Army specification for a light armoured vehicle suited to the demands of rapid offensives combining maximum firepower and strategic mobility. Unlike most contemporary IFVs, Ratels were not intended to fight in concert with tanks in a major conventional war, but provide strategic mobility to mechanised infantry units accustomed to operating independently across the vast distances of Southern Africa. The Ratel was a simple, economical design which helped reduce the significant logistical commitment necessary to keep heavier combat vehicles operational in undeveloped regions. It was generally regarded as an influential concept which incorporated a number of novel features, such as a mine-protected hull, an extended operating range of 1,000 kilometres, and a 20mm autocannon fitted with what was then a unique twin-linked ammunition feed, allowing turret gunners to rapidly swap between ammunition types during combat. The first Ratel prototype appeared in March 1972, and serial production commenced in 1976. Rights to the original prototype were also sold to Belgium, which produced an amphibious derivative known as the SIBMAS. The Ratel was produced in three distinct marks between 1976 and 1987, when production ceased. All three marks were modified for a number of diverse battlefield roles. Specialised variants of the Ratel carried mortars, anti-tank guided missiles, or a turret-mounted 90mm rifled gun. Development history During the 1950s, the South African Defence Force (SADF) had been primarily organised to operate alongside the British Armed Forces in the event of a military crisis affecting the British Empire's African or Middle Eastern dependencies. This reflected South Africa's longstanding defence ties to the United Kingdom and the other member states in the Commonwealth of Nations. As a result of its strategic priorities, the SADF adopted equipment which was either British in origin or otherwise compatible with Commonwealth doctrine. South African infantry units were equipped primarily with Alvis Saracen armoured personnel carriers. This reflected traditional British infantry doctrine, which placed a disproportionate emphasis on dismounted infantry; the role of armoured vehicles like the Saracen was to function as general transporters conveying infantrymen to a battlefield. Afterwards, the infantry was expected to debark and fight on foot rather than remaining mounted. The deterioration of relations between South Africa and the United Kingdom in the wake of the Sharpeville Massacre marked a shift in the SADF's doctrine and strategic priorities. The SADF became more focused on the threat of domestic insurgency or limited bush conflicts rather than a major conventional war overseas. Additionally, the British government's refusal to supply the SADF with new armoured vehicles forced it to turn to alternative suppliers, namely France and West Germany. Both nations cooperated closely with South African firms like Sandock-Austral to set up the country's first armoured vehicle factory at Boksburg. West Germany was especially instrumental in the transfer of defence technology; in exchange it received a higher import quota for its automotive products to South Africa. One result was that German companies came to dominate several sectors of the South African civilian and military vehicle market, including achieving a virtual monopoly on the sale of trucks to the SADF. Much of this business was conducted through local subsidiaries such as Springfield-Büssing SA, an East Rand company which was the franchise holder for all Büssing products in South Africa. Springfield-Büssing assembled its vehicles with locally manufactured bodies and engine and chassis components imported from its German parent firm. In 1968, the SADF began formulating a new mobile warfare doctrine which centered around the independent deployment of mechanised infantry to defend the vast borders of South West Africa (Namibia), which were deemed vulnerable to the threat of insurgency and external infiltration. Mechanised infantry mounted in their own infantry fighting vehicle (IFV)s could arrive sooner at contact points, with greater firepower to engage and destroy the enemy where contact was made, as well as greater protection and convenience for troops. During wargaming exercises designed to simulate a foreign invasion of South West Africa, the SADF found none of its preexisting armoured vehicles suitable to fill this role, so development of a new dedicated IFV was undertaken. Any South African IFV had to be a simple, economical design which helped ease the significant logistical commitment to maintain armoured vehicles in border regions otherwise lacking in advanced support or transport infrastructure. Excessive track wear inflicted by the abrasive, sandy terrain of the South West African border prompted South African officials to specify a wheeled vehicle. Wheeled IFVs were also favoured because they possessed a much greater operating range than tracked vehicles, and did not require the use of transporters on South West Africa's limited road and rail network. This marked a significant departure from Soviet and Western IFV doctrine, which had rejected wheeled IFVs for their inferior cross-country capability and weight-carrying capacity, as well as the vulnerable nature of their tyres to small arms fire and artillery fragments. However, improvements in power train, suspension, and run-flat tyre technology during the late 1960s helped make the concept of wheeled IFVs more viable. The SADF initially had no other requirements other than a chassis and hull combination capable of supporting a two-man turret. Springfield-Büssing proposed a six-wheeled IFV built on a modified MAN truck chassis; the first prototype appeared as the Springfield-Büssing Buffel in March 1972. After the SADF had evaluated and rejected a number of other designs, including the Thyssen Henschel UR-416, Berliet VXB-170, Panhard M3, and the EE-11 Urutu, the Springfield-Büssing prototype was accepted for service as the Ratel. Production was undertaken by Sandock-Austral, which produced the vehicle hulls at its shipyard in Durban before having them transported by rail to its Boksburg facility for integration with the chassis and drive train. Each Ratel was powered by a Büssing D 3256 six-cylinder diesel engine fitted in a compartment at the left rear of its hull with access panels in the roof for ease of maintenance; it could be changed by two technicians with a crane in thirty minutes. It was armed with a 20mm autocannon, which was standard armament for most Western IFVs at the time and suitable for engaging low-flying aircraft, light armour, and dismounted personnel. The SADF had selected the Hispano-Suiza HS.820 for the Ratel's primary armament due to its prior success during trials with Eland armoured cars; however, at the time of production this was superseded by a variant of the Modèle F2 produced under licence as the Denel GI-2. The Ratel was first tested in combat during Operation Reindeer, a major South African raid on People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) insurgents based out of neighbouring Angola. For the purposes of Operation Reindeer, the SADF experimented with an integrated combat team consisting of mechanised infantry mounted in the new Ratels, backed by attached Eland armoured cars. This caused a number of delays and complications, since the four-wheeled Elands lacked sufficient mobility to keep pace with the Ratels and had to be frequently towed out of thick sand or mud. Operation Reindeer was also complicated by the fact that the Elands utilised petrol engines, which necessitated a separate logistics tail from that of the diesel-powered Ratels. Although PLAN possessed little conventional warfare capabilities, it was frequently backed by its allies in the Cuban and Angolan armed forces, which were skilled at constructing well-fortified defensive positions and had access to heavy armour. The addition of attached Eland squadrons to mechanised infantry units was considered necessary because they carried 60mm breech-loading mortars or large 90mm guns, which were more useful than the Ratel's 20mm autocannon for engaging fixed fortifications, dug-in troops, and enemy armour as needed. However, the Eland's shortcomings in terms of mobility and logistics prompted the SADF to replace it with new variants of the Ratel carrying the same armament. The Ratel-90 fire support vehicle utilised an Eland turret with a 90mm rifled cannon firing conventional high explosive and high explosive anti-tank shells, while the Ratel-60 mortar carrier was fitted with an Eland turret mounting a 60mm mortar. A third variant, the Ratel Command, was introduced shortly thereafter and functioned as a mobile command post. The Ratel Command was fitted with additional radio equipment, a public address system, and map tables; it carried a 12.7mm machine gun as its main armament. The Ratel-81 was a turretless variant with an 81mm mortar installed in the passenger compartment. The Ratel ZT3 was the final variant to be produced and was armed with a bank of ZT3 Ingwe anti-tank guided missiles. In 1979, Sandock-Austral introduced the Ratel Mk II, which included a number of functional modifications designed to optimise the vehicle for southern African conditions and improve mechanical reliability. In 1985, the Ratel Mk II was superseded by the Ratel Mk III, which incorporated a new cooling system and an automatic cocking mechanism for the 20mm autocannon. Production ceased in 1987, at which point 1,381 Ratels had been manufactured. Service history At the time of the Ratel's introduction, South African military officials were attempting to bring combined arms integration to the lowest tactical level, using brigade or even battalion-sized units as the standard all-arms unit rather than divisions. In these theoretical combat battle groups, armoured squadrons and mechanised infantry, transported in Ratels, would be integrated at the company level, giving them sufficient flexibility to operate in concert. The SADF's first integrated battle group was Combat Group Juliet, which was envisaged as a conventional strike unit to be activated for raids on guerrilla sanctuaries and infiltration routes along the borders of South West Africa and neighbouring Angola. Combat Group Juliet consisted of two companies of mechanised infantry and a squadron of Eland armoured cars. Later combat groups replaced the Eland squadron with Ratel-90s, which essentially functioned in the same role. Ratels formed the mainstay of the SADF's ad hoc battle groups for most of the South African Border War. As the Ratel and most of the SADF's other combat vehicles were lightly armoured, South African mechanised doctrine came to revolve around such tactics as rapid movement, striking from the flank, and confusing the enemy with continuous manoeuvring. In this regard the SADF differed greatly from Western IFV doctrine–which confined the IFV's role to assisting the forward momentum of tanks–as well as Soviet IFV doctrine, which dictated that IFVs must occupy and hold terrain as needed. Although capable of operating independently, Ratel-based battle groups were not expected to occupy and hold static positions; their primary task was to outmanoeuvre an enemy unit before destroying it with a concentrated fire and movement tactic known as a firebelt action. This doctrine was suited for the wide, densely wooded expanses of southern Angola which enabled the South African forces to carry out evasive manoeuvres and strike quickly from unexpected directions without being prematurely detected. Manoeuvre-oriented warfare depended on the Ratel's speed and mobility, which were used to maximum effect to compensate for its relatively light armour. A notable feature of the South African Border War was a cyclical pattern of increasing cross-border infiltration and raids by PLAN guerrillas, primarily from Angola, during the annual rainy season. The SADF's Ratels and other wheeled combat vehicles were hampered by thick mud, and the increased foliage cover provided PLAN with concealment from patrols. The rainy season in South West Africa and southern Angola lasted from February to April. At the end of April or early May, when the heaviest rains ceased, South African mechanised battle groups launched retaliatory raids to capture or kill the insurgents in their external sanctuaries. While carrying out an attack, Ratels interspersed into arrowhead-shaped formations, with a platoon of Ratel-20s and a troop of Ratel-90s on each flank, the command Ratels located in the centre, and the remaining Ratels following in reserve. If the mechanised battle group was integrated with tanks—as during Operation Hooper and Operation Packer—the tanks spearheaded the formation to engage hostile armour, while the Ratel-20s and Ratel-90s followed closely on the flanks to suppress any accompanying infantry. Ratel-81s, if present, occupied a place in the centre of the formation, directly behind the command Ratels. One of the primary threats to the Ratels were hidden bunkers and the maze of trench complexes constructed around PLAN and Angolan military camps. It was not uncommon for a Ratel crew to unwittingly drive atop an insurgent bunker, which collapsed under the weight of their vehicle and rendered it immobile. More frequently, Ratels were surrounded and cut off by PLAN defenders after bogging down in trenches. This necessitated their being towed out with recovery vehicles or other Ratels, often under heavy fire. PLAN training camps were defended by a number of ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft guns, and these were used in the ground support role with deadly results for immobilised Ratel crews. During the early 1980s, PLAN carefully re-sited its training camps near Angolan military installations so it could take advantage of the security provided by the attached Angolan armoured and mechanised brigades. This gave PLAN ready access to the logistical and communications infrastructure of its local allies and increased the risk to SADF raids targeting those camps exponentially. The SADF remained conscious of this fact and established a number of improvised anti-tank platoons composed of Ratel-90s to engage Angolan armour if necessary. During Operation Protea and Operation Askari, Ratel-90s were to face Angolan T-34-85, PT-76, and T-54/55 tanks, with mixed results. While the Ratel-90s were for the most part adequate in countering Angola's largely obsolete and second-line Soviet tanks, they remained hindered by mediocre standoff ranges, inferior fire control, and a lack of stabilised main armament. Ratel crews often had to manoeuvre behind the tanks and fire on them from the rear to destroy them. This required intense coordination between the vehicle commanders, who directed each other by radio until they were in a position to concentrate volleys on a tank's exposed side or rear. As the Angolan tank crews were in no position to out-manoeuvre the Ratels, they prioritised mobility kills. A common tactic was to fire a round beneath the Ratel, destroying the differentials on its axles and rendering it immobile. This stripped the Ratel of its most crucial advantage and made it an easy target for the other tanks. In the wake of Operation Askari, South African field commanders began complaining that Ratel-90s were being expected to fulfill the role of light tanks rather than serving in their intended role of infantry support. This was a violation of SADF mechanised and armoured doctrine. Consequently, the SADF introduced the Ratel ZT-3, a Ratel variant designed as a dedicated tank destroyer, in 1987. It was first deployed with marked success against Angolan T-54s during Operation Moduler. The Ratel ZT-3 also saw limited action against Cuban T-55s during Operation Excite/Hilti. The cessation of hostilities with Angola in 1989 and the amalgamation of the SADF into the new South African National Defence Force (SANDF) in 1995 ushered in consistent budget cuts to defence spending, resulting in a reduction of personnel and equipment. At least 354 Ratels were declared surplus to requirements and sold beginning in 2005. Much of the remaining Ratels have been handicapped by the SANDF's limited maintenance budget and inadequate numbers of trained maintenance personnel. The Ratel is scheduled to be at least partly superseded in SANDF service by a new eight-wheeled infantry fighting vehicle, the Patria AMV, also designated as the Badger. Foreign service After 1977, the domestic South African arms industry was driven by the economic realities of a universal arms embargo imposed on the SADF as a result of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418. The embargo deprived the SADF of many new weapons systems available to other major arms importers, curtailed its attempts to obtain defence technology on the open market, and raised the cost of obtaining spare parts and components for its preexisting equipment. While South Africa was able to partly compensate by developing its local arms industry, the SADF's requirements were too small to make the manufacture of a wide range of armaments economically profitable. Defence contractors were compelled to tool up for uneconomical and short production runs of sophisticated hardware, including military vehicles. Furthermore, the domestic manufacture of obsolete equipment items had to be sustained long after their basic technology had become quite dated, simply because no alternatives were available. These unprofitable practices threatened to result in stagnation for the defence sector; firms like Sandock-Austral looked for new ways to gain badly needed funds for future research and development efforts and counter their own rapidly rising production costs. In the early 1980s, South Africa's defence contractors turned to export orders to help create the economy of scale necessary to keep their operations viable. They embarked on a massive international marketing drive which included extensive advertising campaigns and exhibits at arms fairs. As a result, public information on vehicles like the Ratel became more readily available in connection with their manufacturers' marketing efforts. The Royal Moroccan Army became the first prospective client to show an interest in the Ratel; it was then purchasing arms from a vast array of sources for use in the Western Sahara War. This was pursued as part of a massive re-armament programme being funded through generous military subsidies from Saudi Arabia. Morocco initially made contact with Sandock-Austral after soliciting a French firm, Panhard, for new AML armoured cars. As Panhard was closing its AML production line, it declined the order but referred the Moroccan government to South Africa, where Sandock-Austral was still producing an AML derivative under licence as the Eland. Though extensively modified, the Eland was still familiar to Moroccan crews and maintenance personnel who had been trained by French instructors on the AML. Morocco received the first Elands in 1976 and obligingly placed orders for more vehicles, including a few dozen Ratels, from Sandock-Austral. These were delivered between 1978 and 1980. The Royal Moroccan Army ordered another 80 Ratels in 1979, which were delivered between 1980 and 1981. They were deployed in counter-insurgency operations against the Polisario Front, which captured several Ratel-20s and pressed them into service. In 2016, Morocco was still operating 30 Ratel-20s and 30 Ratel-90s. All of these were the Ratel Mk III variant. Sandock-Austral's attempts to secure new export customers for the Ratel were somewhat curtailed by the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 558, which amended the arms embargo to prohibit all member states from importing South African military equipment. At the time production of the Ratel ceased in 1987, no new export orders had been placed. Export of the Ratel only resumed again in the early 2000s, when the SANDF declared hundreds of its own IFVs surplus to requirements and offered them for sale. The chief recipient of these vehicles was the Royal Jordanian Army, which ordered 100 in 2002 and subsequently, another 221 in 2004. The Jordanian government worked closely with a number of South African contractors, such as the Mechanology Design Bureau and Paramount Group, to maintain and refurbish its Ratel fleet. Some Jordanian Ratel-20s have been retrofitted with a new Cummins QSM11-C330 diesel engine developing 329 hp (246 kW). This improved mechanical performance and extended the Ratels' maximum road speed to 110 km/h. The new engine necessitated a relocated engine compartment in the centre of the hull. A number of Jordanian Ratels were retrofitted with a BAU-23 turret carrying twin 23mm autocannon. Others may have also been retrofitted with a turret carrying both the original 20mm autocannon in addition to a bank of ZT-3 Ingwe missiles. In addition to service with the Royal Jordanian Army, these modified Ratels were exported in small numbers to Yemen between 2008 and 2011. In Yemeni service, the Ratel was utilised for reconnaissance purposes and essentially fulfilled the role of an armoured car. During the Yemeni Revolution, photographs of Ratels seized by defecting army personnel were circulated in the international press, evoking considerable controversy. The South African government acknowledged that it was notified of Jordan's intention to deliver the vehicles to Yemen, but had not formally consented to their transfer or amended the original end-user agreement, which made no provision for the re-export of Jordanian Ratels to third parties. A similar controversy erupted when Ratels began appearing in Libyan service in 2013, prompting Democratic Alliance defence spokesman David Maynier to call for a formal inquiry into how Libya could have acquired the vehicles without the knowledge of South Africa's National Conventional Arms Control Committee (NCACC). Maynier suggested that Libya, like Yemen, had likely obtained the Ratels from another country in violation of an end-user agreement. Ratels are currently operated by the Libyan National Army, as well as a number of unaffiliated militias such as the Zintan Brigades and the February 17th Martyrs Brigade. Small quantities of second-hand Ratels have been delivered by the SANDF to a number of other African states, including Ghana, which received 15 Ratel-20s and 24 Ratel-90s in 2004, and Rwanda, which received 15 Ratel-90s and 20 Ratel-60s in 2007. Senegal ordered 26 Ratel-20s in 2008 and had received them by 2010. Zambia also received 20 refurbished ex-SANDF Ratel-20s in 2012. Djibouti purchased 12 Ratel-90s in 2004 from an unknown source. Cameroon's Rapid Intervention Battalion acquired 12 Ratel-20s between 2015 and 2016 for demining operations in areas affected by the Boko Haram insurgency. In 2007, the SANDF committed to donate up to 18 Ratel-90s to the Central African Republic (CAR) under the auspices of Operation Vimbezela. This effort collapsed due to a variety of unforeseen problems: the SANDF was only willing to supply previously decommissioned Ratel-90s and insisted that the donation was contingent on the Central African government making its own arrangements to have them shipped to Bangui. The latter possessed insufficient funds to restore all the Ratel-90s to serviceable condition or cover the shipping cost. Only 2 were delivered while the remainder were reclaimed by the South African contractor responsible for their refurbishment, citing unpaid shipping fees. Both Ratels arrived without adequate parts, maintenance equipment, or ammunition; nevertheless, they were utilised for training purposes by the SANDF mission in the CAR. At least three local crews were trained between 2010 and 2013, after which the vehicles were formally adopted by the Central African Army. The Ratel-90s were deployed without success against Séléka militants during the country's 2012–2014 civil war. Their inexperienced crews failed to use them effectively in an offensive role, and ammunition shortages became so acute that President François Bozizé made personal appeals to South African officials for additional stocks of 90mm shells. After the end of the civil war, it was not clear whether the army retained the Ratel-90s or if either was operational. An arms control panel appointed by the UN Security Council reported that they were still in the CAR in July 2014. The SANDF has also donated Ratels to multinational peacekeeping forces, namely the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO). Description The Ratel was based on a commercial MAN truck chassis, from which many mechanical parts were utilised. Its use of parts otherwise ubiquitous to the civilian automotive industry proved to be an advantage in circumventing the universal arms embargo imposed on South Africa, which extended only to purpose-built military products. The vehicle is not amphibious and is not fitted with an NBC overpressure system. Most production model Ratels did not have any specialised night vision equipment. As an interim measure, the SADF occasionally issued Ratel crews with night vision goggles, which aided navigation in the Angolan bush where the use of headlamps was precluded due to proximity to enemy positions. This was impractical for night fighting as muzzle flashes could blind the crew and the bulky goggles hampered movement and reaction speed in the turret. In the 1990s, Denel Land Systems developed night sights which could be fitted on new Ratel-20 turrets or retrofitted on older turrets. The Ratel possesses rear-mounted engine and fighting compartments, while its turret ring and driving compartment are located towards the front of the vehicle. It has a long, box-shaped hull with slightly sloped vertical sides and rear. The hull is of all-welded construction, with a maximum armour thickness of 20mm on the hull front. Each Ratel hull is protected against 7.62×39mm armour-piercing ammunition at any angle; it is also capable of stopping 12.7×108mm armour-piercing ammunition on the frontal arc. The bottom of the hull structure is blastproof and vee-shaped to deflect mine explosions away from the passengers and crew. Ratels frequently detonated stacked anti-tank mines during the South African Border War with little injury to their occupants and minimal drive train damage. On many occasions they were able to keep moving after basic field repairs. Anti-tank mines common in Angola, such as the TMA-3, could destroy a Ratel's axles and occasionally damage its gearbox, but almost never penetrated its hull. The Ratel's crew consists of a section commander, driver, turret gunner, and rear gunner. In addition to the crew, an attached infantry section of nine is carried in the fighting compartment of the vehicle. There are three firing ports with vision blocks on either side of the fighting compartment. Passenger capacity may be reduced to six or seven if additional ammunition racks or radio equipment is carried. The infantry section debarks from three large, pneumatically sealed doors on either side of the hull and at the rear; it is also provided with five forward access hatches on the hull roof. The driver is seated at the front centre of the Ratel and provided with three bulletproof windscreens for use in a combat environment. This design feature was adopted directly from the Berliet VXB-170 and favoured for its enhanced situational awareness. The windscreens are fitted with armoured shutters which could be closed down as needed. Three vision periscopes are provided for the driver. The Ratel's steering system is mechanical, with hydraulic assistance. Ratel turrets are located towards the front of the vehicle, directly behind the driving compartment, and house two crew members: the section commander to the left and the turret gunner to the right. Both crew members are provided with roof hatches; the commander is also afforded a domed cupola with vision blocks. The commander and gunner have nine day periscopes for all-round observation. The Ratel's standard armament is a 20mm F2 M693 automatic cannon manufactured under licence as the Denel GI-2. The autocannon may be elevated to a maximum of +38° for use against low-flying, fixed wing aircraft and helicopters. It has a selector switch used to alternate between three rates of fire—semi-automatic, limited burst, or fully automatic—and is belt fed from two ammunition chutes in the turret. The dual-feed system allows the gunner to swap between different projectile types fed from either chute as needed. Two types of ammunition can be selected: a high-explosive (HE) round with a range of 2,000 metres, or an armour-piercing tungsten carbide (APTC) round with a range of 1,000 metres. The HE rounds have a muzzle velocity of 1,050 m/s, while the armour-piercing round has an initial muzzle velocity of 1,300 m/s and penetration of 20mm of rolled homogeneous armour at an incidence of 60°. The GI-2 can achieve a cyclic rate of fire of 700 to 750 rounds per minute and 1,200 rounds of 20mm ammunition are carried on board. It provides the Ratel with a close support and anti-armour capability which proved sufficient to engage Angolan BTR-60 APCs and light armoured cars such as the BRDM-2 at long range. While the autocannon is generally impotent against heavier armour, well-directed fire or exceptional shots are capable of damaging a tank's external features, especially its sights. During Operation Moduler, one Ratel commander directed a stream of 20mm APTC rounds at an Angolan T-55 at close range, which apparently penetrated a vulnerable margin in its armour and caused a catastrophic kill after igniting the on-board ammunition. A co-axial 7.62mm Browning M1919 machine gun is mounted to the left of the main armament on nearly all variants of the Ratel. Aside from the co-axial machine gun, a second 7.62mm Browning M1919 is carried at the rear of the vehicle's hull for anti-aircraft purposes. Both the Ratel-60 and Ratel-90 are also armed with a third 7.62mm M1919 on their turret roofs. A maximum of 6,000 rounds of 7.62mm ammunition are carried within the vehicle. The Ratel is powered by a six-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged D 3256 BTXF diesel engine. This is housed in an engine compartment at the rear left of the hull and coupled to a fully automatic RENK HSU 106 automatic gearbox with six forward and two reverse gear ratios. The gearbox can be operated manually and has a mechanical emergency gearshift. Drive is transmitted to the Ratel's three axles in two stages, with final reduction being achieved by epicyclic gearing in the wheel hubs. The three axles have their own locking differentials and longitudinal differential locks. There are hydropneumatic shock dampers at each wheel station. Variants Derivatives Iklwa - A prototype built by BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa that is based on the Ratel but with the hull and drive train upgraded and the engine moved from the rear to the front Operators : 12 : 18 : 16-20 : 39 : 321 : 60 : 35 : 26 : 534 : 14 See also Vehicles of comparable role, performance, and era SIBMAS Berliet VXB-170 EE-11 Urutu References External links Ratel at GlobalSecurity.org. Wheeled infantry fighting vehicles Military vehicles introduced in the 1970s Cold War military equipment of South Africa Infantry fighting vehicles of the Cold War Armoured fighting vehicles of South Africa Six-wheeled vehicles

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Battlefield 2142 is a 2006 first-person shooter video game developed by DICE and published by Electronic Arts. It is the fourth game in the Battlefield series. Battlefield 2142 is set in 2142, depicting a war known as "The Cold War of the 22nd Century", in which two military superpowers – the European Union (EU) and Pan Asian Coalition (PAC) – battle for the remaining unfrozen land during a new ice age. The game was designed primarily for multiplayer gameplay and allows for a maximum of 64 players on a server or a maximum of 16 players in single player mode against bots on Conquest mode. It has its own ranking system to keep track of the user's statistics similar to the one used in its predecessor, Battlefield 2. It opens up new categories of vehicles and weapons not seen in Battlefield 2. Battlefield 2142 has an unlock system that allows the player to choose a new unlock every time they achieve a new rank instead of forcing the player to purchase items. A booster pack called Northern Strike contains new maps, unlocks, and vehicles; a deluxe edition was released that contains Battlefield 2142 and Northern Strike. In July 2014, all online components of the game were deactivated following the shutdown of GameSpy. The game's online multiplayer was revived by the Project Revive community in 2016. However, the project was shut down in 2017 following a legal notice from Electronic Arts. The game's online multiplayer is currently only playable with the community 2142 Reclamation Project formed after the shutdown of Project Revive. Gameplay Battlefield includes two gameplay modes, Conquest and Titan, the latter of which can only be played online in multiplayer maps (without using modifications ("mods")). Both modes support varying numbers of players, up to 64, depending upon the server a player chooses to join online. The single player mode consists of a maximum of 16 players, which includes 15 AI bots. Commander Mode from Battlefield 2 returns, as one player from each team can apply and either accept or turn down the role of becoming commander. The player in the commander position has vital roles in the game, such as deploying UAV's, artillery strikes, airdropping supplies or vehicles for their team. Classes Battlefield 2142 features four different playable kits. These kits can be selected at any time during gameplay. The kits are a combination of the kits in Battlefield 2, which had seven playable kits, but were less customizable and upgradeable in comparison. Each kit has different weapons and equipment that are unique. Each contains a basic weapon, a secondary weapon, and a knife. The knife differs in this game from Battlefield 2 because when a player is killed with a knife, the killer acquires the player's dogtag. The player is able to gain rank, options, and equipment by acquiring points in the game. Battlefield 2142 has customization, allowing the player to gain more unlocks for one kit, which makes it more effective. Each class has two unlockable weapons and one passive unlock which upgrades the soldier's helmet, each helmet upgrade having different functions. The benefits of one soldier's helmet upgrade will be shared with their squadmates. Assault: The Assault and Medic classes from Battlefield 2 are combined as the Assault kit in Battlefield 2142. The main weapons are assault rifles with unlockable rocket or shotgun add-ons. Other unlocks include advanced first-aid kits which can be deployed to restore the health of anyone standing close to it, smoke grenades for screening, and a defibrillator for reviving fallen comrades. Engineer: The Engineer class works the same way it was intended since Battlefield 1942. Engineer can still repair vehicles and have the access to heavy weapons that can damage and destroy enemy vehicles, such as rocket launchers and mines. Support: The Support class provides ammunition with ammo boxes and can deploy turret guns and electric shields to help the team in the close quarters combat. Recon: The Recon kit is aimed to provide perimeter support for the team with high velocity sniper rifles. In the other hand the Lambert-carbine is a full-automatic carbine weapon suitable for the assault gameplay style and combined with RDX explosives and the cloaking device recon turns into special ops class. Conquest Conquest mode, similar to its predecessors, involves two teams of players fighting each other while working to capture and defend spawn points. Spawn points are represented by flags and display the color of the controlling faction. To hold a simple majority of flags will initiate a ticket drain on the opposing faction, which will only speed up if one faction controls all the flags. Both teams begin the match with a preset number of tickets. Each time a soldier dies, a ticket is removed from their team. Players have the opportunity to reduce their number of lost tickets by reviving their "critically wounded" teammates with the Assault class' defibrillator. By reviving a teammate within 15 seconds (or the amount of time the server has been set to), no ticket will be lost and the player will not need to respawn (the player who killed the now revived player will keep their kill point). The team that has no tickets, or no places to spawn with no one alive, loses the match. There are several types of Conquest modes: Head-on, Assault, Assault Lines, and Double Assault Lines, Conquest Assault, No Vehicles. In Head-on, both teams start with one flag that cannot be captured. The rest of the flags are neutral. In Assault, play in either of the Assault Lines modes. In Conquest Assault, which is identical to normal Assault in both its coding and function, the PAC starts with one uncapturable flag (an immobile Titan), while the EU starts off with the rest of the flags and an immobile Titan which can be captured by the PAC. In No Vehicles, infantry are the only option, which will stack with the conquest mode that the map uses. No vehicles will spawn, including static ground turrets. Titan The Titan mode involves players from opposing teams whose objective is to destroy the other team's Titan, while trying to defend their own. Titans are massive, heavily armored, flying warships that have powerful force fields protecting them from enemy intrusion or conventional weapons fire. As the force fields are up during the first part of a battle, players must fight to control the anti-Titan missile silos scattered about the battlefield on the ground. Titans can be moved around the battlefield, but only by the team's Commander. Each Titan can defend itself and contribute to the fight on the ground with 4 anti-ground guns and 2 anti-aircraft guns. Titan movement can cause latency issues, so some players prefer not to move them at all. Some servers even disable the commander's ability to move the Titan. After the shields are down, there are two methods to destroy the enemy Titan. One way is to simply remain on the ground and hold the anti-Titan missiles until they wear down the hull. A quicker alternative is to board the Titan using "assault pods" launched from an APC (Armored Personnel Carrier), air transport, Titan, or spawn beacon, spawn on your squad leader, or land an air transport on a Titan as a mobile spawn point. Once inside, the players must destroy 4 reactor consoles to gain access to the reactor room. There, they can blow up the reactor, and have 30 seconds to flee the Titan before it is destroyed. During the beta release of the game, players who managed to escape the destroyed Titan before the 30-second timer ended received an award. In the retail game, the round ends when the Titan is destroyed, and because player deaths triggered by the end of a round do not count, the evacuation of the Titan had little significance aside from inciting a rush in the player. In patch 1.05, DICE reinstated the award for those attacking players who escaped the destruction in the "Titan Survival Pin." However, receiving the pin requires very precise timing to land on the ground, causing confusion amongst players initially. Vehicles The vehicles of Battlefield 2142 are similar to those in Battlefield 2 except for a more futuristic design. For example, the PAC team tank, the Type 32 Nekomata, has a hovercraft driving system. The air vehicles are more futuristic, propelled by turbines instead of rotors. Almost all vehicles have a short duration protective shield called active defense. The active defense protects the vehicle from all attacks (except for electromagnetic attacks) for about five seconds. Statistics tracking The ranking and points system of Battlefield 2142 is similar to Battlefield 2, however, different ranks are featured. As with Battlefield 2, a key feature of the game is "Character Persistence", which saves and tracks almost every aspect of gameplay for players. Unlike Battlefield 2, however, the user is given the option to create up to four soldiers, as opposed to Battlefield 2s limitation of one per account. When playing the game in online multiplayer mode on specified servers, a master server tracks player points, ranks, equipment, and other statistics. Ranks The Battlefield 2142 rank system consists of a number of partially fictitious, partially realistic military ranks, and are (for the most part) each divided by a silver/gold format, with players attaining the silver version of the rank (e.g. Corporal Silver) before reaching the gold rank (e.g. Corporal Gold). New ranks are earned by attaining experience points, which can be earned for actions on a ranked server such as killing an enemy soldier/vehicle, healing/resupplying teammates, repairing ally vehicles/strategic objects (SAT Track, UAV, Orbital Strike, and EMP Strike which are located at the main base), capturing/neutralizing control points/missile silos, assisting in kills (such as piloting a gunship) or carrying out orders given by the Squad Leader/Commander (negative points may be earned by actions such as teamkilling). The rank system is designed to be progressive so ranks are earned faster when a player begins (for example, 40 points are needed to climb from the lowest to the 2nd lowest rank while 3600 points are needed to advance from the 2nd highest to the highest rank). This provides new players with a number of unlocks straight away to give them an edge (as well as ambition). Later ranks require more effort, time, and skill from the player as the extremely high number of points can usually be attained only through awards (which may give up to 2000 points apiece). The final three ranks of the game are only given to a certain number of players at a time, with Major General given to 50 players, Lieutenant General given to 25 players, and the highest rank, Supreme Commander, given to only one player at a time. These top three are brevet ranks; players retain those ranks until other players surpass them. Awards Awards can be earned only in multiplayer mode, with each award having its own specific criteria. Most awards typically have two to five criteria, composed of In A Round (IAR) criteria and Global criteria. IAR criteria must be accomplished within a single round, not through multiple rounds. Global criteria are accumulated by playing on a ranked server. For example, the Titan Commander badge (silver) requires a player to be the commander in Titan mode for twenty minutes in one round after accumulating 1000 commander points in Titan mode globally. Each award (with the exception of medals, which are more for prestige, since they are the hardest to obtain) delivers a certain number of experience points, which go towards attaining a new rank. Badges, which have three levels of achievement (bronze, silver, and gold), and ribbons deliver the most points, while pins offer very few points since they are relatively easy to get, and may be obtained more than once. Unlocks In Battlefield 2142, every time a player earns a new rank, they are able to choose a new unlock. Players with the Northern Strike Booster Pack are also able to earn unlocks by earning the badge or ribbon awards associated with Northern Strike. There are a total of 50 unlocks (40 Battlefield 2142 Core Game, 10 Northern Strike) and there are different categories of unlocks including class unlocks, squad unlocks, and ability unlocks. Class unlocks are specific to the class type which is being used. Ability unlocks are universal for all the classes. Squad unlocks can be equipped by anybody but they may only be used by squad leaders who have the required number of members in their squad. Unlocks are in tiers and require the player to progress up through the tree to unlock higher-level equipment. The player can test the other unlocks by picking up a dead soldier's equipment who is higher rank and contain more unlocks than the player. A "Field Upgrade" is a temporary unlock which can be awarded to all members of a squad when they either kill, resupply, heal or revive a teammate while they are following an attack or defend order. The Field Upgrade is a sort of 'try before you buy' feature (while the player has their own customizable inventory), allowing players to experience certain unlocks before they use one of their hard earned unlock credits to unlock it. They only allow players to test the equipment one level higher on their original unlock tree. Field Upgrades will be available to the player until the player disconnects from the server. If a player unlocks a new item which they have already Field Upgraded on their current server, the next unlock will not become available to them for a Field Upgrade until they leave the server. Certain unlocks are only available after purchasing the Northern Strike booster pack, and they are on top of all the other unlocks in the unlock trees of the core game. Field Upgrades also allow players without Northern Strike to have temporary access to the upgrades that are only available in Northern Strike. Field Upgrades are only applicable on ranked servers. Synopsis In the year 2106, a new ice age began. As the ice expanded, millions of people all over the world were displaced, particularly in Russia and Japan. Combined with their increasing inability to find sufficient natural resources, the Pan Asian Coalition grows desperate. Meanwhile, the European Union is able to withstand the displacements and find sufficient resources, mostly from North Africa due to their relationship with the Union of African States (Africa remaining mostly ice-free). Seeing this, the PAC launches a full-scale invasion of Europe and North Africa in 2139, beginning the Cold War of the 22nd century, a war for the world's last remaining land and resources. The Final Stand multiplayer expansion pack for Battlefield 4 gives new insight about the cold war, revealing that the PAC was formed as early as 2020 (the year Battlefield 4 takes place) as early versions of the coalition's symbol can be seen. Furthermore, early prototypes of Titans and other vehicles and futuristic technology were already in development in 2020 by the PAC in remote regions of Russia. Development Battlefield 2142 was rumored to be in development ever since a 30-second video was leaked to the Internet in January 2006. The video described itself as an "internal test." The proof of concept depicts the game's various vehicles storming through a futuristic city. A screenshot depicting the walker was taken from this video and subsequently used in marketing for the game. The rumors began in earnest following a February 2006 interview with Dan Blackstone, a senior producer from Electronic Arts, in which he mentioned "We're about to announce something very big, so stay tuned. One other interviewer asked this and I gave him a hint, so it's only fair that I do the same for you: 3213/3*2. Or said another way: S.R. 4588164." The square root ("S.R.") of 4588164 is 2142 (3213÷3×2 equals 2142 as well), hence the rumors. The only proof of existence was the cover story of the PC Gamer magazine and the trailer, published on the very same magazine, until March 21, 2006, when Electronic Arts and DICE announced that the next game in the Battlefield series would be Battlefield 2142, in their March 21, 2006 Community Update. Several pieces of early concept art were released onto the internet. However, during a hacking attack on the board where the images were posted, most of the images were lost. Early in the development process, the game was set on a different planet, as hinted by three moons in the sky in one piece of concept art. Additionally, it was to be the United States, rather than the European Union, versus the Pan-Asian Coalition, and several files within the game indicate the U.S. (most notably the texture files used by the EU and PAC, with the EU folder being labeled 'US' rather than 'EU'). In the Battlefield 2 Armored Fury Booster Pack map Midnight Sun, there was a drivable muscle car with license plate number 2142. Additionally in Armored Fury, there was a billboard advertising a digital wrist watch, which displays '21:42' as the time, and a Mushroom cloud with the caption message, "Watch For The Future." Additionally in Armored Fury, the drivable semi-truck had a magazine on the passenger seat that reads "Ice Age Approaches." Battlefield 2142 was officially announced and playable at E3 2006." The Battlefield 2142 beta was released in the third week of August. However, it was revealed that the beta was not a complete "open" beta upon its release. At first, the general belief was that it was to be a FilePlanet subscriber-only beta, but it was later revealed to additionally have an invite system. At that time the beta was only available to certain FilePlanet subscribers (keys were given out on a first-come, first-served basis) and those who were invited. Some fan-sites had been holding contests giving out invitations to the BF2142 beta as prizes. On August 31, a large number of keys were given out by FilePlanet for free, and the beta client was upgraded. The FilePlanet beta ended on September 12, 2006. It was noted by many users that at the beginning of the beta the game worked great, but by the end it was horribly broken, with players getting stuck in walls and titans disappearing into thin air. It was decided to ship it anyway. At the 2007 WWDC, it was announced that Battlefield 2142 would be released for Macintosh computers in July 2007. It was released in 2007, for Mac OS X. Since the game uses Cedega it will only work with Intel based Macintosh systems and not PowerPC. Advertising components Battlefield 2142 shipped with dynamic in-game advertising provided by IGA Worldwide. A similar system is featured in games such as Battlefield 2, Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory, and PlanetSide. The system changes advertisements on objects such as billboards in-game. These in-game advertisements have been dubbed adware by some, and there has been a vocal backlash against this element of the game. Additionally, much of the recent "advertising space" has been used to show propaganda for new in game features and helping to feed rumors of a new game type in the works. Intel has advertised in the game, and recently the Discovery Channel has placed advertising in the game for their Future Weapons series. More recently advertisements for the DVD release of the movie Ghost Rider have appeared. An in-house advertisement for Battlefield: Bad Company have appeared recently, stating such things as "Celebrating the 134th anniversary of the Battlefield: Bad Company demo." Another current one is advertising the DVD and Blu-ray release of I Am Legend. Billboards without paid advertisements generally have recruitment posters for the factions, and ads for "DICE Travel." These travel ads sell the reader into going to the various maps, such as Verdun or Berlin, for £2142, with taglines such as "Gun not included" and "One-way." Some billboard ads recently added after the new year can be found during the gameplay saying "Happy 2143 EU Soldiers!" Additionally there is a reference to the sci-fi film Starship Troopers, and by extension, World War II recruitment posters, on billboards featuring the slogan – "He's Doing His Part. Are You?" Ads have also recently appeared for the Northern Strike booster pack, displaying pictures like those of the Goliath, with a tag line of "A soldier's best friend", and PAC propaganda posters with the faction flag and a line reading "Европа завоёвана!" ("Europe is conquered!"), in Russian. In the UK, ads consist almost entirely of ads for Intel Core 2 Duo which states "Battle-Tested" and EA's own Northern Strike. More recently in Britain (August 2007), the bank Lloyds TSB placed adverts in-game showing various accounts and products available from them. Also recently, billboards sporting ads for Battlefield: Bad Company have been popping up. The most recent of which being advertisements for Bad Company's free Conquest mode addition. Updates EA Games released five updates for Battlefield 2142. These addressed various issues in-game, some of which are causes of minor imbalance (for example, a bug causing the missiles of one faction's gunships to be homing while the other faction's gunship had "dumb" missiles). However some players complained that minor issues (such as small bullet deviation adjustments to guns) were repeatedly tweaked while major issues (exploits which allowed sentry guns to locate players behind walls, allowed critically wounded players to "see through" the whole Titan, and "Pod Surfing" which would allow players who altered their controls to extend the APCs' and Squad Leader Beacons' drop pod range almost infinitely) remained unaddressed. Certain fixes have also created more problems. For instance, an exploit that allows players to reach normally inaccessible locations such as high rooftops was remedied in the 1.25 update. However, the fix had repercussions in the form of equipment that can kill the player or become stuck on map geometry. Patch 1.4 fixed many of these exploits and enhanced certain features of the game. Three major additions (in 1.40) are the new map Highway Tampa, and an auto save feature that saves the last kit layout used for each class (although there have been noted problems with certain weapons and gadgets randomly being saved incorrectly). The 1.40 update allows a second gunship to spawn on each titan after the first one has taken off. In the Highway Tampa map, there are a total of three gunships per faction. Patch 1.50 was released for Windows-based systems on May 30, 2008 and includes 2 new maps – Wake Island and Operation Shingle – as well as numerous bug fixes and game enhancements; a mid-June 2008 announcement on the Battlefield website indicated that Patch 1.50 would eventually also be released for the Mac OS; the Mac patch became available. The latest patch to date, Version 1.51, featured the 4 new maps of Molokai, Yellowknife, Operation Blue Pearl, and Strike at Karkand as well as a Northern Strike booster pack. Music An official soundtrack has been released, containing 14 songs, including a new version of the classic Battlefield: 1942 theme. Each song (excluding tracks 1, 6, 7, and 14) corresponds with a map from the game. All tracks were composed by Gregor Narholz. Release Demo EA released an online-only standalone demo of the retail game, featuring the Sidi Power Plant map, with either conquest or Titan modes. Demo versions were limited to demo-only servers, of which a few were initially run by EA, but were quickly supplanted by player run servers. Ranked points or unlocks could not be earned in the demo, though several demo servers ran their own ranking system. The demo was not updated in parallel with the complete game, and so several exploitable glitches and bugs existed, though most were patched or policed by the demo modding community and server admins. Unlike in the full game, a modding community thrived within the demo servers, primarily because of the static frozen environment untouched by patches, and the desire and competition between server administrators, to create fresh and diverse features to add to an otherwise limited gaming environment. EA discontinued support for the demo August 11, 2011; it is no longer possible to create a player character in the demo game client, or login with an existing demo account to an EA player database server, which essentially renders the demo game no longer functional. Retail bonuses Collector's Edition: A Collector's Edition of the game was released on DVD, which came in a numbered metal box. This edition came with a Battlefield 2142 chain and handphone strap, as well as a free rank. Best Buy: Players who pre-ordered Battlefield 2142 from Best Buy were not only given a free 64MB dog tag styled flash drive, but also a free "downloadable assault weapon", which replaced the existing standard EU assault rifle (Scar 11), with the "Bofors Defense Machine Gun", which was a cosmetically changed version of the same weapon. The Bofors Defense Machine Gun causes many players to reinstall the game and sell the code for the price difference because of the massive size of the weapon compared to the SCAR 11. GameStop: Players who pre-ordered Battlefield 2142 from GameStop received a free in-game rank. This rank was stackable with the Battlefield 2 Veteran's Program promotion, allowing players to begin halfway through the second rank upon release of the retail game. BF2 Veterans Program:''' People that played Battlefield 2 could participate in a "Veterans Program" that let them reserve their name for Battlefield 2142 before launch, get an immediate in-game rank-up, placed the red '2' from the Battlefield 2 logo next to their in-game BF2142 username during play, and receive exclusive verbal taunts to use against other players in Battlefield 2. ReceptionBattlefield 2142 received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.Battlefield 2142 generally received positive reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic. Hyper's Kosta Andreadis commended the game for its "Titan Mode, refined reward and promotion system [and] well designed maps". However, he criticized it for "lag issues when boarding Titans". Months after the buggy initial release, EA released a patch which resolved most of the game's bugs; official widescreen support didn't come until the 1.5 patch was released for the PC version of the game on May 30, 2008. The Mac version of the patch was released two months later, on August 1, 2008. Northern Strike On March 8, 2007, Electronic Arts released the Northern Strike booster pack for the Battlefield 2142 game. However, in the UK, retailers are selling empty Northern Strike game boxes containing a download code for those who wish to purchase the booster pack in the digital form. In Northern Strike, the battle moves to northern and central Europe and is set in 2145. The PAC has set up strongholds in the urban areas left abandoned due to their constant assault, and the advancing ice sheets. The EU launches an offensive to take back its land from the PAC. This fictional invasion greatly resembles the 1944 invasion of Normandy, whereas Europe was finally reclaimed by Allied Forces after an invasion expedition had arrived. The booster pack contains ten new unlocks, three new maps, two new vehicles, and a new game mode called Assault Lines. The booster pack was exclusively available through the EA Link for $9.95 US$; Since January 2008, Battlefield 2142 Deluxe Edition contains Northern Strike. It is now available from retailers outside the U.S. Awards and unlocksNorthern Strike contains eleven new awards: Four new ribbons, two new badges (with three ranks each), and a new pin. Each new award in Northern Strike is worth one equipment unlock credit including each level of the badges for a total of ten unlock credits (except the pin, which is worth 10 career points toward a player's in-game rank). While these unlocks can be used to unlock Northern Strike items, they can also be used to unlock items from the core game. While it is not possible to permanently acquire Northern Strike unlocks without purchasing the expansion, they can be chosen as Field Upgrades if the unlocks preceding them are unlocked, or can be used by picking up the equipment of a fallen soldier if that soldier had a Northern Strike unlock equipped when they died. MapsNorthern Strike offers three new maps, Bridge at Remagen, Liberation of Leipzig, and Port Bavaria. The new maps, which are the only available maps for Assault Lines (excepting the Highway Tampa map, obtained through the 1.40 patch), are the only maps that spawn either of the new vehicles, and feature relatively large numbers of Battlewalkers but no tanks and little air support outside of Titan Mode, which is also available on the Port Bavaria and Bridge at Remagen maps. They also feature a new "Horizontal Pod Launcher" structure that functions similarly to the Pod Launchers found on the Titans (but with reduced range and a maximum time after the player gets in until the pod is automatically launched). Assault Lines Assault Lines mode is similar to Conquest, but with a couple of major differences. Most asymmetrical Conquest maps feature the PAC as the attacking force with the EU defending, whereas Assault Lines reverses the roles. In Assault Lines, the APCs on Port Bavaria and the Goliath are spawn points for troops, much like they are in Titan mode, however the Goliath may not be stolen by the other team. Finally, the PAC home base cannot be captured until every other base on the map belongs to the EU team before they can begin claiming the base as their own. Completion of this awards a pin to those playing as EU at the time, players who switch teams after the home base has been captured do not receive the pin. If the PAC successfully recaptures the base and controls at least one other point on the map then it becomes locked again while the EU can not lock this point even through controlling all other points on the map. ReceptionNorthern Strike received "generally favorable reviews", albeit slightly less than the original Battlefield 2142'', according to Metacritic. References External links Official Battlefield 2142 website via Internet Archive Official Northern Strike website via Internet Archive 2006 video games 04 Dystopian video games Electronic Arts games Futuristic shooting games Military science fiction video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Multiplayer online games MacOS games Post-apocalyptic video games Science fiction video games Video games about mecha Video games developed in Sweden Video games set in the 22nd century Fiction set in the 2140s Video games set in Belarus Video games set in Egypt Video games set in France Video games set in Germany Video games set in Gibraltar Video games set in Hawaii Video games set in Italy Video games set in Kuwait Video games set in Russia Video games set in Serbia Video games set in Tunisia Video games set in Belgrade War video games set in the United States Video games set in the future Video games with expansion packs Windows games

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The Tower House, 29 Melbury Road, is a late-Victorian townhouse in the Holland Park district of Kensington and Chelsea, London, built by the architect and designer William Burges as his home. Designed between 1875 and 1881, in the French Gothic Revival style, it was described by the architectural historian J. Mordaunt Crook as "the most complete example of a medieval secular interior produced by the Gothic Revival, and the last". The house is built of red brick, with Bath stone dressings and green roof slates from Cumbria, and has a distinctive cylindrical tower and conical roof. The ground floor contains a drawing room, a dining room and a library, while the first floor has two bedrooms and an armoury. Its exterior and the interior echo elements of Burges's earlier work, particularly the McConnochie House in Cardiff and Castell Coch. It was designated a Grade I listed building in 1949. Burges bought the lease on the plot of land in 1875. The house was built by the Ashby Brothers, with interior decoration by members of Burges's long-standing team of craftsmen such as Thomas Nicholls and Henry Stacy Marks. By 1878 the house was largely complete, although interior decoration and the designing of numerous items of furniture and metalwork continued until Burges's death in 1881. The house was inherited by his brother-in-law, Richard Popplewell Pullan. It was later sold to Colonel T. H. Minshall and then, in 1933, to Colonel E. R. B. Graham. The poet John Betjeman inherited the remaining lease in 1962 but did not extend it. Following a period when the house stood empty and suffered vandalism, it was purchased and restored, first by Lady Jane Turnbull, later by the actor Richard Harris and then by the musician Jimmy Page. The house retains most of its internal structural decoration, but much of the furniture, fittings and contents that Burges designed has been dispersed. Many items, including the Great Bookcase, the Zodiac settle, the Golden Bed and the Red Bed, are now in institutions such as The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum, while others are in private collections. Location and setting The Tower House is on a corner of Melbury Road, just north of Kensington High Street, in the district of Holland Park. It stands opposite Stavordvale Lodge and next to Woodland House, built for the artist Luke Fildes. The development of Melbury Road in the grounds of Little Holland House created an art colony in Holland Park, the Holland Park Circle. Its most prominent member, Frederic, Lord Leighton, lived at Leighton House, 12 Holland Park Road, and at the time of Leighton's death in 1896 six Royal Academicians, as well as one associate member, were living in Holland Park Road and Melbury Road. History Design, construction and craftsmanship, 1875–78 In 1863, William Burges gained his first major architectural commission, Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral, Cork, at the age of 35. In the following twelve years, his architecture, metalwork, jewellery, furniture and stained glass led Crook to claim that Burges rivaled Pugin as "the greatest art-architect of the Gothic Revival". But by 1875, his short career was largely over. Although he worked to finalise earlier projects, he received no further major commissions, and the design, construction, decoration and furnishing of the Tower House occupied much of the last six years of his life. In December 1875, after rejecting plots in Victoria Road, Kensington and Bayswater, Burges purchased the leasehold of the plot in Melbury Road from the Earl of Ilchester, the owner of the Holland Estate. The ground rent was £100 per annum. Initial drawings for the house had been undertaken in July 1875 and the final form was decided upon by the end of the year. Building began in 1876, contracted to the Ashby Brothers of Kingsland Road at a cost of £6,000. At the Tower House Burges drew on his own "experience of twenty years learning, travelling and building", and used many of the artists and craftsmen who had worked with him on earlier buildings. An estimate book compiled by him, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, contains the names of the individuals and companies that worked at the house. Thomas Nicholls was responsible for the stone carving, including the capitals, corbels and the chimneypieces. The mosaic and marble work was contracted to Burke and Company of Regent Street, while the decorative tiles were supplied by W. B. Simpson and Sons Ltd of the Strand. John Ayres Hatfield crafted the bronze decorations on the doors, while the woodwork was the responsibility of John Walden of Covent Garden. Henry Stacy Marks and Frederick Weekes were employed to decorate the walls with murals, and Campbell and Smith of Southampton Row had responsibility for most of the painted decoration. Marks painted birds above the frieze in the library, and the illustrations of famous lovers in the drawing-room were by Weekes. They also painted the figures on the bookcases in the library. The stained glass was by Saunders and Company of Long Acre, with initial designs by Horatio Walter Lonsdale. Burges to Graham, 1878–1962 Burges spent his first night at the house on 5 March 1878. It provided a suitable backdrop for entertaining his range of friends, "the whole gamut of Pre-Raphaelite London." His dogs, Dandie, Bogie and Pinkie, are immortalised in paintings on various pieces of furniture such as the Dog Cabinet and the foot of The Red Bed. Burges displayed his extensive collection of armour in the armoury. The decoration of his bedroom hints at another of his passions: a fondness for opium. Stylised poppies cover the panels of a cupboard which was set next to his bed. In 1881, after catching a chill while overseeing work at Cardiff, Burges returned, half paralysed, to the house where he lay dying for some three weeks. Among his last visitors were Oscar Wilde and James Whistler. Burges died in the Red Bed on 20 April 1881, just over three years after moving into the Tower House; he was 53 years old. He was buried in West Norwood Cemetery. The lease on the house was inherited by Burges's brother-in-law, Richard Popplewell Pullan. Pullan completed some of Burges's unfinished projects and wrote two studies of his work. The lease was then purchased by Colonel T. H. Minshall, author of What to Do with Germany and Future Germany, and father of Merlin Minshall. Minshall sold his lease to Colonel E. R. B. and Mrs. Graham in 1933. The Tower House was designated a Grade I listed building on 29 July 1949. Betjeman to Turnbull, 1962–69 John Betjeman was a friend of the Grahams and was given the remaining two-year lease on the house, together with some of the furniture, on Mrs. Graham's death in 1962. Betjeman, a champion of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture, was an early admirer of Burges. In 1957 the Tower House had featured in the fifth episode of his BBC television series, An Englishman's Castle. In a radio interview of 1952 about Cardiff Castle Betjeman spoke of the architect and his foremost work: "a great brain has made this place. I don't see how anyone can fail to be impressed by its weird beauty ... awed into silence from the force of this Victorian dream of the Middle Ages." Because of a potential liability for £10,000 of renovation work upon the expiry of the lease, Betjeman considered the house too costly to maintain, and subsequently vacated it. From 1962 to 1966, the house stood empty and suffered vandalism and neglect. A survey undertaken in January 1965 revealed that the exterior stonework was badly decayed, dry rot had eaten through the roof and the structural floor timbers, and the attics were infested with pigeons. Vandals had stripped the lead from the water tanks and had damaged the mirrors, fireplaces and carving work. The most notable loss was the theft of the carved figure of Fame from the Dining Room chimneypiece. Betjeman suggested that the owner's agents had deliberately refused to let the house, and allowed it to decline, intending to demolish it and redevelop the site. Writing in Country Life in 1966, Charles Handley-Read took a different view saying that "the Ilchester Estate, upon which the house is situated, are anxious that it should be preserved and [have] entered into a long lease conditional upon the house being put into a state of good repair." In March 1965, the Historic Buildings Council obtained a preservation order on the house, enabling the purchaser of the lease, Lady Jane Turnbull, daughter of William Grey, 9th Earl of Stamford, to initiate a programme of restoration the following July. These renovations were supported by grants of £4,000 from the Historic Buildings Council and £3,000 from the Greater London Council. The lease was sold in 1969. Harris and Page, 1969 onwards The actor Richard Harris bought the lease for £75,000 in 1969 after discovering that the American entertainer Liberace had made an offer but had not put down a deposit. Reading of the intended sale in the Evening Standard, Harris bought it the following day, describing his purchase as the biggest gift he had ever given himself. In his autobiography, the entertainer Danny La Rue recalled visiting the house with Liberace, writing, "It was a strange building and had eerie murals painted on the ceiling ... I sensed evil". Meeting La Rue later, Harris said he had found the house haunted by the ghosts of children from an orphanage that had previously occupied the site and that he had placated them by buying them toys. Harris employed the original decorators, Campbell Smith & Company Ltd., to carry out restoration, using Burges's drawings from the Victoria and Albert Museum. Jimmy Page, the Led Zeppelin guitarist, bought the house from Harris in 1972 for £350,000, outbidding the musician David Bowie. Page, an enthusiast of Burges and for the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, commented in an interview in 2012: "I was still finding things 20 years after being there – a little beetle on the wall or something like that; it's Burges's attention to detail that is so fascinating." In 2015 Page successfully challenged a planning application lodged by the pop star Robbie Williams, who had purchased the adjacent Woodland House in 2013 and planned extensive renovations. Page argued that the alterations, particularly the intended underground excavations, would threaten the structure of the Tower House. Ongoing disagreements between Williams and Page over the former's development plans continue to feature in Britain's press. Architecture Exterior and design The cultural historian Caroline Dakers wrote that the Tower House was a "pledge to the spirit of Gothic in an area given over to Queen Anne". Burges loathed the Queen Anne style prevalent in Holland Park, writing that it: "like other fashions ... will have its day, I do not call it Queen Anne art, for, unfortunately I see no art in it at all". His inspirations were French Gothic domestic architecture of the thirteenth century and more recent models drawn from the work of the nineteenth-century French architect Viollet-le-Duc. Architectural historians Gavin Stamp and Colin Amery considered that the building "sums up Burges in miniature. Although clearly a redbrick suburban house, it is massive, picturesquely composed, with a prominent tourelle for the staircase which is surmounted by a conical roofed turret." Burges's neighbour Luke Fildes described the house as a "model modern house of moderately large size in the 13th-century style built to show what may be done for 19th-century everyday wants". The house has an L-shaped plan, and the exterior is plain, of red brick, with Bath stone dressings and green roof slates from Cumberland. With a floor plan of 50 feet by square, , Burges went about its construction on a grand scale. The architect R. Norman Shaw remarked that the concrete foundations were suitable "for a fortress". This approach, combined with Burges's architectural skills and the minimum of exterior decoration, created a building that Crook described as "simple and massive". Following his usual pattern, Burges re-worked many elements of earlier designs, adapting them as appropriate. The frontages come from the other townhouse he designed, the McConnochie House in Cardiff, although they have been reversed, with the arcaded, street front from the McConnochie House forming the garden front of the Tower House. The staircase is consigned to the conical tower, avoiding the error Burges made at the earlier house, where he placed the staircase in the middle of the hall. The cylindrical tower and conical roof derive from Castell Coch, and the interiors are inspired from examples at Cardiff Castle. The house has two main floors, with a basement below and a garret above. The ground floor contains a drawing room, a dining room and a library, while the first floor has two bedrooms and an armoury. Plan Interior The architectural writer Bridget Cherry wrote that "the sturdy exterior gives little hint of the fantasy [Burges] created inside", interiors which the art historian and Burges scholar Charles Handley-Read described as "at once opulent, aggressive, obsessional, enchanting, their grandeur border[ing] on grandiloquence". Each room has a complex iconographic scheme of decoration: in the hall it is Time; in the drawing room, Love; in Burges's bedroom, the Sea. Massive fireplaces with elaborate overmantels were carved and installed, described by Crook as "veritable altars of art ... some of the most amazing pieces of decoration Burges ever designed". Handley-Read considered that Burges's decorations were "unique, almost magical [and] quite unlike anything designed by his contemporaries". Ground floor A bronze-covered door, with relief panels depicting figures, opens onto the entrance hall. In Burges's time the door had a letterbox, in the form of Mercury, the messenger of the gods. The letterbox is now lost, but a contemporary copy is in the collection of The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum. The porch contains a white marble seat and column, and on the floor is a mosaic of Pinkie, a favourite poodle of Burges. Cartooned by H. W. Lonsdale, it resembles the cave canem floor at Pompei. The interior centres on the double-height entrance hall, with the theme of Time. The painted ceiling depicts the astrological signs of the constellations, arranged in the positions they held when the house was first occupied. A large stained glass window contains four female figures representing Dawn, Noon, Twilight and Night. A mosaic floor in the entrance hall contains a labyrinth design, with the centre depicting the myth of Theseus slaying the Minotaur. The garden's entrance door, also covered in bronze, is decorated with a relief of the Madonna and Child. As elsewhere, Burges incorporated earlier designs, the bronze doors echoing those at Cork Cathedral, and the maze floor recalling an earlier ceiling at Burges's office at 15 Buckingham Street. Emblems adorn the five doors on the ground floor, each one relevant to their respective room. A flower marked the door to the garden, with the front door marked by a key. The library is indicated by an open book, the drawing or music room by musical instruments, and the dining room by a bowl and flask of wine. The library, its walls lined with bookcases, features a sculptured mantelpiece resembling the Tower of Babel. The hooded chimneypiece represents the "dispersion of languages", with figures depicting Nimrod ruling over the elements of speech. Two trumpeters represent the pronouns, a queen embodies the verb, a porter the noun, and numerous other gilded and painted figures are displayed. The ceiling is divided into eight compartments, with depictions of the six founders of law and philosophy, Moses, St. Paul, Luther, Mahomet, Aristotle and Justinian. An illuminated alphabet frieze of architecture and the visual arts running around the bookcases completes the scheme, with the letters of the alphabet incorporated, including a letter "H" falling below the cornice. Due to H-dropping being a social taboo in Victorian times, Handley-Read described it as the "most celebrated of all Burges's jokes". Artists and craftsmen are featured at work on each lettered door of the bookcases that surround the room. In a panel in one of the glazed doors which open onto the garden, Burges is shown standing in front of a model of the Tower House. He features as Architect, the A forming the first letter of the alphabet frieze. Both the Architecture Cabinet and the Great Bookcase stood in this room. The stained glass windows in the room represent painting, architecture and sculpture, and were painted by Weekes. On the wall opposite the library fireplace is an opening into the drawing room. Inside there are three stained glass windows which are set in ornamented marble linings. Opposite the windows stood the Zodiac Settle, which Burges moved from Buckingham Street. Love is the central decorative scheme to the room, with the ceiling painted with medieval cupids, and the walls covered with mythical lovers. Carved figures from the Roman de la Rose decorate the chimneypiece, which Crook considered "one of the most glorious that Burges and Nicholls ever produced". Echoing Crook, Charles Handley-Read wrote, "Working together, Burges and Nicholls had transposed a poem into sculpture with a delicacy that is very nearly musical. The Roman de la Rose has come to life." The dining room is devoted to Geoffrey Chaucer's The House of Fame and the art of story-telling, Crook explaining that "tall stories are part of the dining room rite". The hooded chimneypiece, of Devonshire marble, contained a bronze figure above the fireplace representing the Goddess of Fame; its hands and face were made of ivory, with sapphires for eyes. It was later stolen. The tiles on the walls depict fairy stories, including Reynard the Fox, Jack and the Beanstalk and Little Red Riding Hood. The room also shows Burges's innovative use of materials: Handley-Read observed that the Victorians had "a horror of food smells" and therefore the room was constructed using materials that did not absorb odours and could be washed. The walls are covered with Devonshire marble, surmounted by glazed picture tiles, while the ceiling is of sheet metal. The ceiling is divided into coffered compartments by square beams, and features symbols of the Sun, the planets and the signs of the Zodiac. Burges designed most of the cutlery and plate used in this room, which display his skills as a designer of metalwork, including the claret jug and Cat Cup chosen by Lord and Lady Bute as mementos from Burges's collection after his death. The panels of the wine cupboard were decorated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. First floor and garret The windows of the stair turret represent "the Storming of the Castle of Love". On the first floor are two bedrooms and an armoury. Burges's bedroom, with a theme of sea creatures, overlooks the garden. Its elaborate ceiling is segmented into panels by gilded and painted beams, studded with miniature convex mirrors set in to gilt stars. Fish and eels swim in a frieze of waves painted under the ceiling, and fish are also carved in relief on the chimneypiece. On the fire-hood, a sculpted mermaid gazes into a looking-glass, with seashells, coral, seaweed and a baby mermaid also represented. Charles Handley-Read described the frieze around the Mermaid fireplace as "proto-Art Nouveau" and noted "the debt of international art nouveau to Victorian Gothic designers, Burges included". In this room, Burges placed two of his most personal pieces of furniture, the Red Bed, in which he died, and the Narcissus washstand, both of which originally came from Buckingham Street. The bed is painted blood red and features a panel depicting Sleeping Beauty. The washstand is red and gold; its tip-up basin of marble inlaid with fishes is silver and gold. "The Earth and its productions" is the theme of the guest room facing the street. Its ceiling is adorned with butterflies and fleurs-de-lis, and at the crossing of the main beams is a convex mirror in a gilded surround. Along the length of the beams are paintings of frogs and mice. A frieze of flowers, once painted over, has since been restored. The Golden Bed and the Vita Nuova Washstand designed for this room are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Burges designated the final room on the first floor an armoury and used it to display his large collection of armour. The collection was bequeathed to the British Museum upon his death. A carved chimneypiece in the armoury has three roundels carved with the goddesses Minerva, Venus and Juno in medieval attire. The garret originally contained day and night nurseries, which the author James Stourton considers a surprising choice of arrangement for the "childless bachelor Burges". They contain a pair of decorated chimneypieces featuring the tale of Jack and the Beanstalk and three monkeys at play. Garden The garden at the rear of the house featured raised flowerbeds which Dakers described as being "planned according to those pleasances depicted in medieval romances; beds of scarlet tulips, bordered with stone fencing". On a mosaic terrace, around a statue of a boy holding a hawk, sculpted by Thomas Nicholls, Burges and his guests would sit on "marble seats or on Persian rugs and embroidered cushions." The garden, and that of the adjacent Woodland House, contain trees from the former Little Holland House. Furniture In creating the interior of the house, Burges demonstrated his skill as a jeweller, metalworker and designer. He included some of his best pieces of furniture such as the Zodiac Settle, the Dog Cabinet and the Great Bookcase, the last of which Charles Handley-Read described as "occupying a unique position in the history of Victorian painted furniture". The fittings were as elaborate as the furniture: the tap for one of the guest washstands was in the form of a bronze bull from whose throat water poured into a sink inlaid with silver fish. Within the Tower House Burges placed some of his finest metalwork; the artist Henry Stacy Marks wrote, "he could design a chalice as well as a cathedral ... His decanters, cups, jugs, forks and spoons were designed with an equal ability to that with which he would design a castle." Burges's furniture did not receive universal acclaim. In his major study of English domestic architecture, Das englische Haus, published some twenty years after Burges's death, Hermann Muthesius wrote of The Tower House, "Worst of all, perhaps, is the furniture. Some of it is in the earlier manner, some of it box-like and painted all over. This style had now become fashionable, though with what historical justification it is not easy to say". Many of the early pieces of furniture, such as the Narcissus Washstand, the Zodiac Settle and the Great Bookcase, were originally made for Burges's office at Buckingham Street and were later moved to the Tower House. The Great Bookcase was also part of Burges's contribution to the Medieval Court at the 1862 International Exhibition. Later pieces, such as the Crocker Dressing Table and the Golden Bed, and its accompanying Vita Nuova Washstand, were made specifically for the house. John Betjeman located the Narcissus Washstand in a junk shop in Lincoln and gave it to Evelyn Waugh, a fellow enthusiast for Victorian art and architecture, who featured it in his 1957 novel, The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold. Betjeman later gave Waugh both the Zodiac Settle and the Philosophy Cabinet. Many of the decorative items Burges designed for the Tower House were dispersed following his death. Several pieces purchased by Charles Handley-Read, who was instrumental in reviving interest in Burges, were acquired by The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum, Bedford. The museum also bought the Zodiac Settle from the Waugh family in 2011. Dispersed furniture and locations The table below lists the known pieces of furniture originally in situ, with their dates of construction and their current location where known. Architectural coverage Richard Popplewell Pullan described the house in detail in the second of two works he wrote about his brother-in-law, The House of William Burges, A.R.A., published in 1886. The book contains photographs of the interior of the house by Francis Bedford. In 1893, the building was the only private house to be recorded in an article in The Builder, which gave an overview of the architecture of the previous fifty years. It was referenced again a decade latter by Muthesius, who described it as, "The most highly developed Gothic house to have been built in the 19th century (and) the last to be built in England". It was then largely ignored, James Stourton describing its early twentieth-century decline as "a paradigm of the reputation of the Gothic Revival". A renewed understanding and appreciation of the building, and of Burges himself, began with Charles Handley-Read's essay on Burges in Peter Ferriday's collection Victorian Architecture, published in 1963. In 1966 Handley-Read followed this with a substantial article on the house for Country Life, "Aladdin's Palace in Kensington". His notes on Burges formed the basis of Mordaunt Crook's centenary volume, William Burges and the High Victorian Dream, published in 1981 and revised and reissued in 2013, in which Crook wrote at length on both the Tower House and its contents. More recent coverage was given in London 3: North West, the revision to the Buildings of England guide to London written by Nikolaus Pevsner and Bridget Cherry, published in 1991 (revised 2002). The house is referenced in Matthew Williams's William Burges (2004), and in Panoramas of Lost London by Philip Davies, published in 2011, which includes some of Francis Bedford's photographs of the house from 1885. In a chapter on the building in Great Houses of London (2012), the author James Stourton called The Tower House "the most singular of London houses, even including the Soane Museum." References Notes Citations Sources External links 1880s photographs of the exterior and interior of The Tower House from the Royal Institute of British Architects Elevation and sections of The Tower House from the Survey of London Photographs of The Tower House from the Survey of London A photo comparison of Tower House and the St. Anthony Hall chapter house of Trinity College, Connecticut The Arts & Crafts Home website – Colour photographs of The Tower House Gothic Revival architecture in London Grade I listed houses in London Houses completed in 1881 Houses in Holland Park William Burges buildings

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The Oklahoma State Cowboys football program represents Oklahoma State University–Stillwater in college football. The team is a member of the Big 12 Conference and competes at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision level. The Cowboys are led by Mike Gundy, who is in his 17th year as head coach. Oklahoma State plays its home games at Boone Pickens Stadium in Stillwater, Oklahoma. History Early history (1900–1938) The Oklahoma A&M Aggies (also referred to as the Tigers) played their first season of football in 1900 and joined their first conference for the start of the 1915 season, the Southwest Conference. In 1925, the Oklahoma A&M program joined the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association. In 1928, the MVIAA split into the Big Six Conference and the Missouri Valley Conference. A&M was the only large school that joined the smaller MVC. Jim Lookabaugh era (1939–1949) Jim Lookabaugh led the Aggies for eleven seasons, which included a 9–0 campaign and a national championship in 1945 which followed an 8–1 season the year before. Lookabaugh was an OSU alum who lettered in multiple sports. In October 2016, Oklahoma State was retroactively awarded the 1945 national championship by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA). Lookabaugh stepped down after the 1949 season, finishing his tenure with a mark of 58–41–6. Jennings Whitworth era (1950–1954) From 1950 to 1954, Jennings B. Whitworth coached at Oklahoma A&M, and compiled a 22–27–1 record, which included only one winning season, a 7–3 campaign in 1953. Whitworth departed A&M to accept the head coaching position at Alabama following the 1954 season. In 1951, Oklahoma A&M players and coaches caused the Johnny Bright incident, a violent on-field assault against an African American player from Drake University, Johnny Bright; Oklahoma A&M administration would attempt to cover up and deny the incident for over half a century. Cliff Speegle era (1955–1962) Cliff Speegle took the reins of the Oklahoma A&M Cowboys. Under Speegle's tutelage, the Cowboys compiled a record of 36–42–3, which included three winning seasons from 1957 to 1959. The losing record, combined with an 0–8 mark against rival Oklahoma, resulted in Speegle's firing following the 1962 season. In 1956, A&M announced it was joining (or rejoining, depending on one's view) what had become the Big Seven for the 1958–59 academic year. As part of a transition period, the Cowboys went independent for two years. On May 15, 1957, Oklahoma A&M changed its name to Oklahoma State University. They officially became a part of the renamed Big Eight Conference in 1958. Phil Cutchin era (1963–1968) Longtime Bear Bryant assistant Phil Cutchin led Oklahoma State to its first win over Oklahoma in 20 years, but failed to bring success to Stillwater, compiling a mark of 19–38–2. Cutchin was replaced by the OSU administration eager to see a winning product on the field. Floyd Gass era (1969–1971) Oklahoma State continued to struggle under head coach Floyd Gass, an OSU alum, who led the Cowboy football program for three seasons. During his tenure, he led the team to three straight losing seasons. Fan and administration support became increasingly hard to come by as the on-field production slipped. Despite the lack of football success, Gass would serve in multiple capacities at OSU, including athletics director for several years after his resignation as football coach. Dave Smith era (1972) The Cowboys were finally able to enjoy a winning season —their first in nine years—in 1974 under the leadership of head coach Dave Smith. However, Smith wouldn't stick around, as he departed for the head coaching position at SMU after just one season in Stillwater. Jim Stanley era (1973–1978) Jim Stanley, a two-time defensive coordinator at OSU, returned to Stillwater to become the head coach of the Cowboys in 1973. He coached them from 1973 to 1978, amassing a career record of 35–31–2. Stanley's Cowboys earned a Fiesta Bowl victory in 1974 and his 1976 team ended the season 9–3 finishing as a Big Eight co-champions on their way to a Tangerine Bowl victory. His success at Oklahoma State earned him many accolades, including being invited to coach three collegiate all-star games: the 1973 East–West Shrine Game, the 1977 Hula Bowl, and the 1977 Japan Bowl. In 1978, the Big Eight Conference initiated an investigation into the OSU football program in response to allegations of violations of several NCAA rules and regulations while Stanley was head coach. Stanley successfully filed suit against the conference to require them to provide various due process protections in their final hearing on the charges. Jimmy Johnson era (1979–1983) In 1979, Jimmy Johnson got the head coaching job at Oklahoma State. Johnson's successful rebuilding of the inconsistent Cowboys football program is a hallmark in the long history of Cowboy football. In his final season, he led the Cowboys to an 8–4 record and a 24–14 victory over 20th-ranked Baylor in the Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl. The season included a season opening romp over then No. 12 ranked Arizona State in Tempe, and a Bedlam matchup between the No. 2 ranked Oklahoma Sooners and the No. 3-ranked Cowboys on November 24, 1984. A game in which the Cowboys ultimately lost, 24–14. In 1984, when he was offered the head coaching job at Miami, Jimmy Johnson was unsure if he wanted to leave Stillwater. His good friend Larry Lacewell told Johnson that if he wanted to win a national championship and eventually coach in the NFL he had to take the Miami job. Johnson soon after accepted the head coaching job at Miami. Jimmy Johnson left OSU with an overall record of 29–25–3. Pat Jones era (1984–1994) Pat Jones was promoted from assistant coach to head coach following Johnson's departure. He served as head coach of the Oklahoma State Cowboys from 1984 to 1994 after five years as an assistant under Jimmy Johnson. During his 11 years at Oklahoma State, he compiled a 62–60–3 record, including a 3–1 bowl game record. Jones was named Big Eight Coach of the Year in both 1984 and 1992. From 1984 to 1988, Jones led the Cowboys to the most successful period in school history at the time. With a talented roster that included running backs Barry Sanders and Thurman Thomas, wide receiver Hart Lee Dykes and quarterback Mike Gundy, they went 44–15 over this five-year stretch, including the school's first three-year stretch of ten-win seasons. Running back Barry Sanders played for the Cowboys from 1986 to 1988. During his first two seasons at Oklahoma State, he backed up All-American Thurman Thomas. In 1987, Sanders led the nation in yards per kickoff return (31.6), while also rushing for over 600 yards and scoring 8 touchdowns. Thomas moved on to the NFL, and Sanders became the starter for his junior year. In 1988, in what has been called the greatest individual season in college football history, Sanders led the nation by averaging 7.6 yards per carry and over 200 yards per game, including rushing for over 300 yards in four games. Despite his massive workload of 344 carries, Sanders was still used as the team's punt and kickoff returner, adding another 516 yards on special teams. He set college football season records with 2,628 yards rushing, 3,248 total yards, 234 points, 39 touchdowns, 37 rushing touchdowns, 5 consecutive 200 yard games, scored at least 2 touchdowns in 11 consecutive games, and 9 times he scored at least 3 touchdowns. Sanders also ran for 222 yards and scored 5 touchdowns in his three quarters of action in the 1988 Holiday Bowl, a game that is not included in the official NCAA season statistics. Sanders learned of his Heisman Trophy win while he was with the team in Tokyo, Japan, preparing to face Texas Tech in the Coca-Cola Classic. He chose to leave Oklahoma State before his senior season to enter the NFL draft. Days after the 1988 season, Oklahoma State and the NCAA released the results of an unusual joint investigation into the football program. The investigation revealed several major violations dating prior to Johnson's tenure, principally involvement in a "bidding war" for Dykes out of high school. The Cowboys were banned from bowl games for three years and from live television for two years, and they were also limited to 20 scholarships from 1989 to 1992. Jones was not directly implicated in any wrongdoing; indeed, the investigation found that no violations had taken place in two years. He was unable to put together another winning team due to the sanctions, and left OSU after the 1994 season. In Jones' last six years, the Cowboys won only seven games in Big Eight play, including three seasons of winless conference records. Oklahoma State would need almost the entire decade of the 1990s to recover; with only one winning season coming between 1989 and 2001. Bob Simmons era (1995–2000) Bob Simmons came to OSU from his post as defensive line coach at Colorado to replace Jones. Simmons' teams were largely unsuccessful, and Simmons resigned under pressure following the 2000 season. His final record in Stillwater was 30–38 with just one winning campaign, an 8–4 season in 1997 that culminated in a loss in the Alamo Bowl. In 1996, OSU joined with the other Big Eight schools and four schools from the old Southwest Conference to form the Big 12 Conference. Les Miles era (2001–2004) After Simmons' resignation, a coaching search produced Dirk Koetter as the new head coach. Hours after accepting the job, Koetter reneged on his offer in order to coach at Arizona State. The next two candidates were Les Miles, a former OSU offensive coordinator, and Mike Gundy, a former OSU player and coach. Miles was hired as head coach while Gundy was brought on as offensive coordinator. In his first year as head coach, Miles would achieve a 4–7 record. In the 2001 regular season finale, the underdog Cowboys would defeat the reigning National Champion Oklahoma Sooners in Norman 16–13. In 2002, Miles would post a 7–5 regular season record. The Cowboys again defeated the Oklahoma Sooners, this time in Stillwater. The team would go on to three straight bowl games in Miles's last three years as head coach ('02,'03,'04). Miles left after the 2004 season to take the head coaching position at LSU. Mike Gundy era (2005–present) Mike Gundy was promoted from offensive coordinator and named immediately as Miles' successor and the 22nd head coach at Oklahoma State. Gundy is one of three head football coaches at Oklahoma State to have played for Oklahoma State, along with Jim Lookabaugh and Floyd Gass. His first season saw the expulsion of 11 players from the team and the Cowboys struggled to a 4–7 record winning only one Big 12 conference game. In his second season, the Cowboy offense began to click and the Cowboys would finish 7–6 including a victory over the Alabama Crimson Tide in the Independence Bowl. In 2007, the Cowboys again posted a 6–6 regular season record and a bowl win over the Indiana Hoosiers in the Insight Bowl. After their second straight bowl appearance, Gundy was rewarded with a contract extension through the 2013 season. After posting a 9–3 regular season record in 2008, Coach Gundy received a new seven-year contract worth $15.7 million. The contract, which extends through the 2015 season, was taken into effect on January 1, 2009. Gundy's tenure as head coach of the Cowboys has seen the rise and expansion of not only his football program, but the football facilities as well. The Cowboys began the 2009 season ranked No. 9 in the country in the AP Top 25, but the dreams of a miracle season were crushed when the Pokes lost 45–35 to the unranked Houston Cougars at home the following week, and later finding out that star wide receiver Dez Bryant was ruled ineligible for the remainder of the season, for lying to the NCAA about having contact with 8-time pro bowler Deion Sanders, which wasn't an NCAA violation in the first place. The following year, Oklahoma State hired Offensive Coordinator Dana Holgorsen from the University of Houston. In 2010 coach Gundy recorded the first ever 11-win season in Oklahoma State history. What was supposed to be a rebuilding year turned into the best in school history. Under Gundy there have been a series of NFL quality wide receivers to come through Boone Pickens Stadium. These include Adarius Bowman, Dez Bryant, Justin Blackmon and James Washington. On December 3, 2011, the Cowboys won their first Big 12 Championship in school history with a 44–10 victory over rival Oklahoma in the Bedlam Series. The nationally third-ranked Cowboys eventually went on to win the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl by beating fourth-ranked Stanford in overtime, 41–38, on January 2, 2012. Early in the 2012 season, he notched his 63rd win as head coach, passing Jones as the winningest coach in school history. On October 29, 2016, Mike Gundy recorded his 100th victory as a head coach with a 37–20 win over # 10 West Virginia. In the process, notching his sixth victory over a top 10 ranked school. Gundy is the only Oklahoma State football coach to record 100 victories, and only the 6th coach to reach such a milestone with his current school. Oklahoma State beat Oklahoma in Bedlam on November 27, 2021 to reach 5th place in the AP poll coming into championship weekend where they were defeated by Baylor, 21-16, in the Big 12 Championship. Conference affiliations Independent (1901–1914, 1957–1959) Southwest Conference (1915–1924) MVIAA (1925–1927) Missouri Valley Conference (1928–1956) Big Eight Conference (1960–1995) Big 12 Conference (1996–present) Championships National championships OSU has two national championships. The 2011 team was selected by NCAA-designated major selector Colley Matrix, though the Cowboys do not claim this title. In 2016, the AFCA committee (which conducts the Coaches Poll) retroactively selected the 1945 team. Oklahoma State claims the 1945 championship. Conference championships The Cowboys have won ten conference championships, six outright and four shared. † Co-champions Division championships The Cowboys have won one division championship. † Co-champions Head coaches Oklahoma State has had 22 head coaches since the 1901 inaugural season. Bowl games The Cowboys have played in 31 bowl games, garnering a record of 20–11. They are 5–4 in the six major bowl games (Rose, Peach, Cotton Bowl Classic, Sugar, Fiesta & Orange), with their biggest win being over Stanford in the 2012 Fiesta Bowl, with the win making them finish 3rd in the final poll, the highest ever finish for a Cowboy team. Rivalries Oklahoma The first Bedlam game was held at Island Park in Guthrie, Oklahoma. It was a cold, and very windy day with the temperatures well below the freezing mark. At one moment in the game when the Oklahoma A&M Aggies were punting, the wind carried the ball backwards behind the kicker. If the Oklahoma A&M squad recovered the ball it would be a touchback and if the University of Oklahoma squad recovered it, it would be a touchdown. The ball kept going backwards and rolled down a hill into the half-frozen creek. Since a touchdown was at stake, members of both teams dove into the icy waters to recover the ball. A member of the OU team came out with the ball and downed it for a touchdown, eventually winning the game 75–0.[2] Thus was the beginning of Bedlam. Author Steve Budin, whose father was a New York bookie, has recently publicized the claim that the 1954 "Bedlam" game against rival OU was fixed by mobsters in his book Bets, Drugs, and Rock & Roll (). Allegedly, the mobsters threatened and paid off a cook to slip laxatives into a soup eaten by many OU Sooner starting players, causing them to fall violently ill in the days leading up to the game. OU was victorious in the end, but their 14–0 win did not cover the 20-point spread they had in their favor. However, many people involved in the 1954 contest do not recall any incident like the one purported by Budin to have occurred. The University of Oklahoma leads the Bedlam Series in football 90-19-7. Tulsa The Cowboys also have a rivalry with Tulsa. Oklahoma State leads Tulsa in the all-time series 43–28–5, winning the most recent match up in 2020, 16-7. Since 1990 Tulsa is 3–10 versus Oklahoma State with the Cowboys scoring at least 36 points in four of the last five contests. The Cowboys have a twenty-game home winning streak against Tulsa. The last time Tulsa won in Stillwater was 1951. Facilities Oklahoma State plays in Boone Pickens Stadium in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The original football field was inaugurated in 1913, and the first stand was built in 1920. At that time the field was repositioned from a north-south to an east-west configuration to avoid the strong prevailing winds of Northern Oklahoma. From 1914 until 2004, the stadium was named Lewis Field, named after popular professor and dean Laymon Lowery Lewis. Even though a stadium would not be built for six years after the field's inception, the students felt obliged to name their alma mater's field after their beloved "Dr. Lew". By 1930 the capacity had risen to 13,000 and increased again in 1947. Major additions, including the first press box, brought the capacity to 30,000. In 1950 again seats were added and the total capacity increased to 39,000. The next renovations came in 1972 and for the next three decades the capacity hovered around 50,000. In 2003, alumnus T. Boone Pickens made a historic donation to the university for improvements to its athletic facilities, and it was announced that the stadium would be renamed in his honor. The announcement of the renovation came after two consecutive victories over the Oklahoma Sooners in the Bedlam Series. To this day, Boone Pickens Stadium is one of a very few major college football stadiums with an east-west configuration. The latest renovation of the football stadium was completed in 2009, with the capacity at 60,218. In 2017, Oklahoma State renumbered and expanded the current seats, leaving the new capacity at 56,790 in an effort to increase seat width and improve the fan experience. In 2018, Oklahoma State installed a 6,160 square foot video board on the façade of Gallagher-Iba Arena in the stadium's east end zone. The jumbotron will be one of the ten largest in the country, placing it ahead of USC's jumbotron at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. In 2007, plans to build the Sherman E. Smith Training Center were unveiled. The 92,000 square foot indoor practice facility was completed in 2013. Allegations of misconduct by Sports Illustrated On September 10, 2013, Sports Illustrated published the first of 5 stories alleging misconduct during Les Miles tenure and extending into the Mike Gundy era. Writers Thayer Evans and George Dohrmann reportedly engaged in a 10-month-long investigation into wrongdoing throughout the early-mid 2000s of the Oklahoma State football program. The first installment "The Money" made allegations of illicit gifts, overzealous boosters, no-show jobs, and a bounty system in place. The second installment, "The Academics" alleged academic fraud, steering athletes into easy pass or no-show classes, and grade tampering. The third installment, "The Drugs" painted a picture of a drug culture, in which the players were selling drugs, and the school did little to curtail drug usage. The fourth installment, "The Sex" was heavily edited by all accounts, considering its late online release time. This installment revealed a hostess program where the head coaches oversaw the application process, and writers implied the hostesses were expected to have sex with recruits. The final installment "The Fallout" told the tale of Artrell Woods, who had left school after a horrific accident from which he had recovered. While at first shocking to fans and media, Oklahoma State immediately pledged transparency. Athletic Director Mike Holder held a press conference the day before the release and apologized for the bad publicity, and promised to investigate the claims. OSU then hired independent investigator, Charles Smrt to conduct a thorough investigation into the allegations. ESPN later debunked several of the claims in the story by simply calling OSU's registrar and obtaining a transcript from Tatum Bell that proved he was not in school during stated timelines. Further controversy began to surround the Sports Illustrated article when Jason Whitlock, a former colleague of Evans, claimed that he was a huge fan of the University of Oklahoma. Dohrmann went on national syndicated radio with Doug Gottlieb and stated that Fath' Carter had two degrees from OSU. When questioned by ESPN's Brett McMurphy, the registrars' office later stated that Fath' Carter had never graduated. Brandon Weeden also was able to point to unprofessional behavior from Evans displayed during a press conference. DeadSpin also found out that many crucial professors and tutors never were interviewed for the story. In June 2014, John Talley, a spokesperson for the FCA chapter at Oklahoma State had filed a lawsuit against Dohrmann, Time Inc., and Evans for false-light accusations which painted him as an overzealous booster. In his lawsuit, Talley is seeking damages of $75,000. In July 2014, OSU confirmed that the NCAA had been investigating the allegations. On October 21, 2014, the NCAA and The Compliance Group, an independent investigation firm led by Charles Smrt, jointly released a statement that the allegations contained in the Sports Illustrated story were "fundamentally unfounded". The NCAA and the investigator had pored over 50,000 emails and had unfettered access to all areas of the compliance department and re-interviewed those who were quoted in the story. The report stated "Overall, several interviewees indicated that they reported to SI general information or incidents about college football but that the SI reporter indicated that the incident occurred at OSU." During the joint investigation, however, three lesser allegations – not related to the Sports Illustrated claims, and labeled as Level II violations – were uncovered: "During the period of fall 2007 through the spring of 2013, approximately 1,572 drug tests occurred of football players. There were 94 positives involving approximately 60 student-athletes per the policy. (According to the company used by the University to conduct its drug testing program, this positive rate per total number of tests is slightly less than the national average). The institution examined the application of the policy in those 94 situations and believes that on four occasions, the applicable penalty per the policy was not applied and reported this information to the Enforcement Staff." Also, it was deemed that the Orange Pride spirit program was chartered under the football program, but a recent NCAA policy change in 2007 required spirit clubs to form under the admissions department. Because of these two minor violations, OSU was cited for a failure to monitor in these two instances. The total cost for the independent investigation amounted to $221,055.18. On January 22, 2015, Burns Hargis and other OSU officials visited the NCAA offices in Indianapolis to appeal to the NCAA. Even as Level II allegations, OSU officials considered them harsh and sought to have them reduced further. Hargis stated OSU's intent on having those Level II allegations reconsidered, possibly as Level III. On April 24, 2015, the NCAA announced the sanctions against Oklahoma State would include an $8,500 fine and one-year probation to avoid further citings. The University self-imposed limits on the number of recruiting visits, off-campus evaluations, and the number of evaluation days in the fall and spring recruiting periods all of which will expire in 2016. The University is also not allowed to use the Orange Pride program to assist with recruiting visits for four years (2019–2020 season). No scholarships were reduced and no postseason bans were put into place. Logos and uniforms Throughout the 2000s, the Cowboys had four main uniform combinations. For the 2011 football season, it was revealed that Nike had created new uniforms for the Cowboys, offering three different helmet options in either gray, black, or white. New jerseys and pants consisting of black, orange, grey and white also came aboard, allowing for up to 48 different variations. The Cowboys debuted their new gray uniforms for the first game of the 2011 season. In a 2012 home game against Iowa State, the Cowboys debuted the new orange helmets, along with a new Pistol Pete decal. This would bring the different uniform combinations up to 64. The uniform combinations are chosen before the season by a committee of players and the Cowboys equipment manager, Wes Edwards. A few patterns have evolved since the origination of the multiple uniform era. Thursday night games during 2009, 2010, 2011, and in 2014 have involved black uniforms. Another trend has the Cowboys reverting to the traditional White Helmet/Traditional Brand Logo/Orange Jersey/White Pants for the home opener in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Bowl games for the 2012 Fiesta Bowl, the 2013 Heart of Dallas Bowl, and the high-profile 2014 season opener in the Cowboys Classic featured Oklahoma State wearing all black. During the 2012 season, fans saw the addition of the orange helmet, and the addition of new decals. For the first time since 1979, the Cowboys took the field in "All Orange" against Iowa State for Homecoming. Also during the 2012 season, new carbon fiber gray helmets replaced the matte gray that had been used in 2011. The Cowboys helmet logos include a Pistol Pete logo, as well as what fans refer to as "Phantom Pete". The "OSU" Branded logo was now featured in different variants, to reflect the helmet being worn. During 2013, OSU began incorporating a stripe down the center of their helmets for different variations. In 2014, OSU revealed two new helmet choices- a "classic Aggie" which paid homage to the bucking Aggie logo used in the 1940s and 1950s when the school was still called Oklahoma A&M Aggies. The other helmet was an Orange-Chrome with an oversized, off-center Pistol Pete. This was worn in a Thursday night victory over Texas Tech. Past uniforms Paddle people The student section has a tradition of hitting orange paddles on the sideline wall at home games. This tradition apparently started in the early 1990s, and has since become an official group within the university. The orange paddles have the word "pokes" in bold letters written on them. Individual honors Barry Sanders Heisman Trophy, 1988 Maxwell Award, 1988 Walter Camp Award, 1988 Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award Mason Rudolph, 2017 Bobby Bowden FCA Award Mason Rudolph, 2017 Ray Guy Award Matt Fodge, 2008 Fred Biletnikoff Award Justin Blackmon, 2010 & 2011 James Washington, 2017 Lou Groza Award Dan Bailey, 2010 Cowboys in the NFL As of November 7, 2020. Future non-conference opponents Announced schedules as of November 13, 2019. References External links American football teams established in 1901 1901 establishments in Oklahoma Territory

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Andrew Salter (May 9, 1914 to October 6, 1996) was an American clinical psychologist who introduced behavior therapy, developed many of its conceptual foundations, and created numerous techniques still used today across its varied descendants, including cognitive behavioral therapy. His work in the early 1940s demystified hypnosis, interpreting it as a form of conditioning, now the widely accepted view. He was one of the founders of the Association for the Advancement of Behavioral Therapies, now the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. He maintained an active clinical practice in Manhattan until shortly before his death.His key ideas are documented in his book, Conditioned Reflex Therapy, (hereafter CRT), originally published in 1949 and reprinted many times, with a new edition published by Watkins Press in 2019.  All citations from CRT refer to this edition. Family life Salter's parents were Russian Jews.  His father, Morris, was a Social Democrat, sent into internal exile to the same penal village as Trotsky’s first wife, after which the family emigrated to the U.S. after the 1905 Revolution.  In the U.S., Morris worked as a watchmaker in the factories of Waterbury, Connecticut, where Andrew was born on May 9, 1914.  After his union organizing got Morris blacklisted, the family moved to the Bronx where Morris opened a small watch repair shop.  Salter’s mother, Fanny was a home-maker.  Andrew had a brother who died before he was born and a younger sister, Bertha, who died in 2001. In 1943 Salter married Rhoda Kazan, who had a B.A. from Queens College and an M.A. in sociology from the University of Minnesota.  She managed Salter’s clinical practice, handled his finances, and was an essential contributor to his success.  They had two sons: William, born in 1947, and Robert, born in 1952. Salter lived in Manhattan for fifty years and very much enjoyed its museums, theaters, movies and music.  He had many friends who were active in the arts, especially writers.  On a deeper level, he believed it was a person’s responsibility to help others when possible, and so his colleagues—and even some of his professional antagonists—came to him when they or their family members needed help, because they appreciated his therapeutic insights and deep commitment to his work.As Gerald Davison wrote, "Those of us who knew Salter personally appreciated his sheer brilliance, his wit, his warmth, decency and consideration for others, his supportiveness, his keen intuitive grasp of human nature, his infectious zest for life, his love of art and literature, and his devotion to family and friends." (p. 32) Salter always gave great credit to his wife, Rhoda, for her help, intelligence and insight.  Indeed, he took pride in the fact that quite a few of his patients came to sessions early so they could get “free time” with his wife before their official session began. (CRT, p. 260) Verbally quick, he loved puns, vivid expressions, clever turns of phrase and especially jokes. His office became an informal joke exchange, and some patients strived to bring a new joke to each session, confident that they would be rewarded by new ones to take away.  Occasionally, a patient reported that they had told a joke at a party and was then approached by a stranger who asked if they were seeing Andrew Salter. (CRT, p. 246) Early life and education Salter's intellectual gifts were recognized in elementary school: researchers from the Gesell Institute at Yale interviewed and tested him repeatedly as a child, and his parents fostered his intellectual interests. The family moved from Waterbury to New York City when Andrew was fourteen, first living in two rooms behind his father's store, then moving to an apartment. (CRT, p. 238) As a boy he was fascinated by magic tricks and cryptography and frequented a magic shop in Manhattan, listening to older magicians and learning tricks. He was fascinated by the ways in which they manipulated attention in their work. He wrote a (paid) weekly column on codes and cryptography for the New York World in his early teens. His interest in conditioning arose in part from these youthful observations of the ways magicians manipulated attention and suggestion to achieve some of their effects.(CRT, p. 238) Salter graduated from Morris High school in the Bronx, New York, and entered the uptown campus of NYU in 1931, majoring in physics. He found physics unsatisfying and dropped out of college for two years to spend most of his time at the New York Public Library. He read deeply in hypnosis and psychology, preferring Pavlov, Bechterev and the Russians to Freud and his followers.(CRT, p. 238) He read widely about yogis and mystics, about popular ideas on hypnosis through the years, and about the mastery of suggestibility practiced by the stage and parlor magicians he had encountered as an adolescent. In his time out of college during the height of the Great Depression, he also spent time as a union organizer and enjoyed debating Communists on the street corners of the Bronx from his youthful perspective as a Socialist. (He retained his dislike of Communism as he grew older, though not his beliefs as a democratic socialist.) (CRT, p. 238) Upon returning to NYU he switched his major to psychology and graduated in 1937 with a B.S., ending his formal involvement with an academic institution. Professional career Salter was determined to do something important in psychology building on learning theory and behaviorist psychology, but “had no desire to spend the rest of my life studying the reactions of rats lost in labyrinths”. With only his B.S. from NYU, he started his clinical practice in Manhattan in 1941—which he continued for 55 years until a few months before his death in 1996. He had been interested in hypnosis for years. (CRT, p. 239) He became convinced that hypnosis was deeply linked with the phenomena of conditioning being investigated in laboratory animals by the behaviorists of that era, and began to use hypnosis with stutterers, nail-biters, and some phobics. Within a few years he had developed his ideas sufficiently to write the article Three Techniques of Autohypnosis, eventually accepted by Clark Hull for the Journal of General Psychology after he “Americanized” his name from Saltzman. This article clarified the concept of self-hypnosis, introduced the idea of using it in therapy, and presented three practical methods for self-hypnosis. This brief article in a professional journal by an unknown 27-year-old was discussed approvingly in the New York Times, Time magazine, and in an extensive article in Life magazine, after which he always had a waiting list. The Time article was titled “Everyman His Own Svengali,” complete with a photograph of Salter. The publicity from major publications, and Salter's own diligent work, helped him develop a clinical practiced that thrived from the time he moved his office from the Waldorf Astoria to 1000 Park Avenue in 1943 until he stopped seeing patients shortly before he died in 1996. By 1944 he had expanded his ideas on hypnosis into a small volume titled What Is Hypnosis, which also vigorously attacked the dominant Freudian thinking of the day as unscientific and useless to patients. This little book (less than 100 pages) made a strong impact, with reviews pro and con in specialist and general interest publications. The book remained in print for thirty years and was eventually used in many college psychology courses. Its most important feature was Salter's strong argument that hypnosis was a form of verbal conditioning. This early work can be seen as a major step toward cognitive behavior therapy, since it fundamentally involves patients telling themselves things to change how they feel. (CRT, p. 241) He treated hundreds of patients, honing his methods for brief therapy and constructing an overarching intellectual framework based firmly on the Pavlovian paradigm. As his clinical experience accumulated, his techniques expanded beyond hypnosis to conditioning more broadly, specifically conditioning focused on making people more “excitatory” and less “inhibitory,” ideas explicitly credited to Pavlov when he documented them later in his most important book, Conditioned Reflex Therapy in 1949. When the book was published, Freud had died just a few years before, Joseph Wolpe was still conducting his early research in South Africa, and psychoanalysis was the dominant approach to treating psychological issues. “The American century” was well underway—World War II had just ended, the power of modern science had been demonstrated at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the U.S. economy had doubled in size since 1939. Salter's most important work was very much an example of the optimism of his time. Conditioned Reflex Therapy is largely composed of chapters of case studies, each beginning with explanatory prose documenting Salter's approach to the problems the cases illustrate—shyness, the addictions, problems of the creative, and the like. It introduced many of the key techniques that have become standard in modern psychotherapy: brief therapy; the use of relaxation, imagery, and self-talk to achieve behavior modification, training in assertiveness—an essential application of his key Pavlovian idea of “excitation”—and the use of “homework” in which the patient applies the lessons of therapy to the real world. See below, Professional Contributions. Like virtually all of Salter's writings, Conditioned Reflex Therapy made its case in clear, lively prose that is still enjoyable today. Salter was extremely proud of the fact that his writing was praised by some of the authors he admired most including Aldous Huxley, Vladimir Nabokov and H.G. Wells. In 1952 Salter published The Case Against Psychoanalysis, in which he explained why, as he had stated earlier in Conditioned Reflex Therapy, “It is high time that psychoanalysis, like the elephant of fable, dragged itself off to some distant jungle graveyard and died. Psychoanalysis has outlived its usefulness. Its methods are vague, its treatment is long drawn out and more often than not, its results are insipid and unimpressive. (CRT, p7.) The book combined methodological critiques, a review of therapy outcome studies, and what might be called commonsense arguments, as Salter and many others saw them. Since psychoanalysis was by far the dominant method of psychotherapy in the U.S. at the time, the book was quite controversial; as an example, the New York Times published a review by Rollo May that was quite dismissive. The Case Against Psychoanalysis led Salter to many interviews and television appearances, mostly debates with Freudians. Salter did well in these contests, due in part to his quick wit and excitatory personality as well as the rigor of his arguments. This book led Vladimir Nabokov's wife to send Salter a letter which stated, “My husband asked me to tell you that he read your book with glee.” Gradually, Salter's ideas about behavior therapy began to spread. Joseph Wolpe first came to America from South Africa in 1956, on a fellowship at Stanford; he had contacted Salter earlier, encouraged by Leo Reyna, then also in South Africa. Wolpe's most famous contribution to psychotherapy, “systematic desensitization by reciprocal inhibition,” is largely based on techniques that Salter introduce in Conditioned Reflex Therapy. (See below, Relaxation via Imagery and Systematic Desensitization). Arnold Lazarus, a student of Wolpe's, first came from South Africa to the U.S. in 1963 on a fellowship to Stanford, permanently relocating in 1966, when he began his influential American career and life-long friendship with Salter. In 1962 the first conference on behavior therapy was convened at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, followed two years later by the volume of edited conference papers, The Conditioning Therapies. Salter conceived of this conference, helped to invite speakers and attendees, and funded it with money from a foundation he had established a few years earlier to support various research projects. In 1966 he was one of the founders of the American Association for Behavior Therapy, or AABT—now the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). The AABT had its first meeting in Salter's living room. Other founders include Reyna, Wolpe, Joseph Cautela, Edward Dengrove, Herbert Fensterheim, Cyril Franks, Leonard Krasner, Arnold Lazarus, Robert Leiberman, John E. Peters and Dorothy Susskind. It is now the leading professional organization of a scientifically validated approach to psychotherapy that is used all over the world. Behavior therapy was on its way to becoming legitimized as a central component of clinical psychology. Salter was quite involved in the AABT during its early years, serving on the board and in various official and unofficial capacities, attending the national meetings and often giving presentations which were always well-attended. Gradually, as behavior therapy became more mainstream, Salter's involvement diminished and he began to be cited less frequently, in part because his ideas had been incorporated into the zeitgeist and in part because he had no academic affiliation and essentially stopped publishing in 1964. However, just a few months after his death, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. In the realm of mass culture, Salter became friendly with the novelist Richard Condon in the mid-fifties. They had many conversations about conditioning and hypnosis and their potential applicability in brainwashing. Condon transmuted those ideas into The Manchurian Candidate (1959). Salter's father's work is discussed at length in the book, and he is mentioned in the movie by the chief North Korean brainwasher, Yen Lo. In the copy of the book he inscribed to Salter, Condon wrote that all those pages about Yen Lo “could not have been written” without him. (CRT, p.244) Some friends and patients even saw aspects of Salter's personality in Yen Lo's cheerful extroversion and conversational breadth. Salter was glad that his ideas about “feeling-talk"(CRT, p.67) became transmuted by others into “assertiveness training” and especially pleased that the growing women's movement found value in his ideas. He cherished the letters and inscribed books he was sent by first-wave feminists thanking him as the women's movement advanced. (CRT, p. 253) Salter maintained his clinical practice in Manhattan until a few months before his death, working earnestly to help them achieve what he always believed was the essential goal of psychotherapy: becoming happy. Salter died on October 6, 1996, at home, of complications from abdominal surgery. Major Publications Three techniques of autohypnosis. Journal of General Psychology, 24(2), 423–438, 1941 What is Hypnosis New York, NY: Richard R. Smith, 1944 Conditioned Reflex Therapy London, England: Watkins, 2019 The Case Against Psychoanalysis New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1952 Professional Contributions Excitation and Inhibition As his clinical experience accumulated, his techniques expanded beyond hypnosis to conditioning more broadly, specifically conditioning that was focused on making people more “excitatory” and less “inhibitory,” ideas explicitly credited to Pavlov.  These ideas and techniques are the focus of Conditioned Reflex Therapy, formed the basis of his practice until his death, and widely influenced the work of many others to the present day.   Salter’s therapy was driven by one essential goal: enabling people to be happier. They came to him because they were unhappy or unsatisfied, sometimes with an identified problem, sometimes with more general malaise. He believed that the path to greater happiness, whatever the problem, required action rather than focusing on insight. “The history of the individual is stored in his protoplasm, and in his actions his history repeats itself. Through psychotherapy we manufacture new history, which repeats itself in his new actions.” (CRT, p. 232) His recommended action was of a particular kind: being more excitatory (“assertive” in today’s language) in their daily lives. “Inhibition becomes excitation only through action.”(CRT, p. 142) This would provide positive feedback and in turn help to form new, healthy habits. These ideas were revolutionary in 1 949. His emphasis on excitatory behavior pervades Conditioned Reflex Therapy.  Although his therapeutic strategy was the same for virtually all his patients, his tactics were widely varied and tailored to the personality and life circumstances of the patient,  as he discusses in “The Constructive Use of Past Conditionings” in therapy. (CRT, pp. 48-57) He provides a number of examples of how he used elements from his subjects’ prior lives and relationships and their relationships with him – in a possibly unconscious echo of the Freudian idea of transference – to encourage excitatory behavior. Once they became excitatory in their lives outside the office, they would get positive reinforcement from their actions and interactions. “People are faithful to the grooves in their emotional phonograph records,” he posited, “and rather than bemoaning this, it means that with a masochist we must be stern, with a club man type we must be amusing, and with a scholarly person we must be as analytical as possible.” (CRT, p. 48) The quote concludes: “As I have stressed, there is no communication except in terms of the person being treated.” Or, as he says in the prior paragraph, “We must talk to people in their private, personally conditioned language. Anything else is gibberish.” While Salter documented his firm belief that all of his therapeutic techniques were derived directly from the theoretical framework he built on Pavlovian principles, even those who admired his work and practices did not fully share this conviction.  Goldfried and Davison (1976) note that “While many would disagree with [Salter’s characterization] of the relationship between his theory and his practice, he nonetheless occupies a central role in the development of behavior therapy.” (p. 5). Kazdin (1978) agrees that Salter’s professed linkages between theory and practice were unconvincing but affirms the importance of its contributions: “Although the specific Pavlovian notions of inhibition and excitation that were posed as the theoretical base of conditioned reflex therapy have been refuted, fuller versions of techniques initiated by Salter are still being employed.” (p. 174) This remains true today. Hypnosis In Three Techniques of Autohypnosis, Salter clarified the concept of self-hypnosis, made the case that hypnosis was a form of word association and therefore of conditioning, introduced the idea of using it in therapy, and described three practical methods for self-hypnosis he had developed. Essentially, Salter taught “subjects” (as he called them) how to rapidly induce a hypnotic trance in themselves, using procedures quite similar to those he used when hypnotizing them. They were to invoke these brief self-induced hypnotic states to reinforce in their everyday lives the learning and changes made in his office via hypnosis. This allows subjects to maintain the desirable effects of hypnosis (such as eliminating nail-biting, overeating, procrastination, and so on), overcoming the common problem of hypnotic therapy that its effects quickly fade. As Salter put it, “Autohypnosis completely surmounts this diminution of hypnotic suggestion.” (p. 435) Second, through this ability to voluntarily reinforce the effects of hypnosis, the subject learns to feel—and actually to be—in control. This increases feelings of self-efficacy (not that Salter used the term) and rapidly “weakens the feeling of dependency upon the psychologist held by most cases under treatment.” (p. 435) Salter expanded his ideas on hypnosis into a small volume titled What Is Hypnosis, in which he also vigorously attacked the dominant Freudian thinking of the day as unscientific and at best generally useless to patients—a theme he returned to. General Contributions to Behavior Therapy Salter was a founder of behavior therapy. He was the first to base his overall clinical approach firmly in conditioning and learning theory, and he also created associated therapeutic approaches and used them clinically. (p. 173) Conditioned Reflex Therapy is widely considered a landmark in the history of behavior therapy. (pp. 202–203) As Kazdin wrote in his review of the 2002 edition of Conditioned Reflex Therapy, “[Salter’s] leap from learning theory and research to treatments for clinical practice was novel and groundbreaking.” (p. 408) And yet, as Gerald Davison put it in his obituary, “Ironically, being an innovator often makes a given contribution less visible. Just as references to psychoanalysis seldom cite Freud, one often encounters ‘assertion training’ and the origins of behavior therapy with no citation to Salter.” (p. 31) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Some methods now used in cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) are also present in Conditioned Reflex Therapy. Indeed, Albert Ellis, widely considered the founder of CBT, thought so: “I was not the first therapist to use what became known as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), since a few practitioners—such as Herzber (1945) and Salter (CRT, p. 255)—had employed aspects of it previously.” (p. 91) Assertiveness Salter’s goal of enabling patients be more excitatory in their lives outside the office is the now ubiquitous idea of assertion, stressed in many self-help books. The chapter “Conditioning Excitatory Reflexes” in Conditioned Reflex Therapy is the first concrete description and explanation of how “assertiveness” works, and why it is important for a patient to practice. “Early recognition of the problem of unassertive behavior was provided by Salter,” according to Goldfried and Davison. (p. 153) The “patient was given training in assertive behavior.(CRT, pp. 67-72) in order to substitute a more adaptive behavior for the ‘escape’ and ‘denial’ afforded by ‘hysterical symptoms.’” (p. 262) Similarly, Kazdin says that: “The use of assertive responses had been advocated by Andrew Salter, whose therapy technique was based upon Pavlovian concepts. Salter claimed successful treatment of several disorders by having individuals behave assertively in everyday interpersonal situations. Wolpe was impressed with Salter’s results although he rejected the theoretical basis of the technique. Wolpe used assertive responses for inhibiting anxiety in interpersonal situations but interpreted the technique according to the principle of reciprocal inhibition.” (p. 156) “Pavlov’s theory inspired a number of applied behavior therapists, most notably Andrew Salter who developed his conditioned-reflex therapy.... Wolpe’s ‘assertive’ response approach represents a very similar technique and conceptualization.” As part of his excitatory training, Salter encouraged patients to use the word “I” intentionally; indeed, his discussion of General Eisenhower’s healthy emotions in CRT. (CRT, pp. 18-22) makes much of his use of that word. One of his “six techniques for increasing excitation” is “the deliberate use of the word I as much as possible.” (CRT, p. 68) Fritz Perls’s emphasis on “I-Talk” illustrates the importance of this insight. Brief Therapy The idea of brief therapy, and specific approaches to it, originated in Salter’s work years before managed care and the strictures of insurance coverage (which, like virtually all individual health care providers, he loathed). As early as 1941, Salter was committed to the idea of brief therapy. He was convinced that successful therapy—“successful” defined as the patient’s being happier—could often be accomplished much more rapidly, building on the work of the behaviorists and applying his approach to hypnosis. In the article in Life, the author reports that “The majority of Salter’s cases learn the [autohypnosis] routine after five or six interviews, and rarely see him afterwards”—as opposed to the hundreds of sessions commonly required by psychoanalysis. On the first page of CRT Salter stakes out a typically strong position: “I say flatly that psychotherapy can be quite rapid and extremely efficacious. I know so because I have done so. And if the reader will bear with me, I will show him how…we can…help ten persons in the time that the Freudians are getting ready to ‘help’ one.” (CRT, pp. 7-8) Relaxation via Imagery and Systematic Desensitization CRT introduced the idea of using relaxation via imagery linked to positive affect for reducing phobias and anxieties and for changing behavior such as nail-biting, insomnia, smoking, stuttering, and more complex social problems. It also introduced a number of specific techniques for inducing relaxation and employing imagery. The method of systematic desensitization, later named and elaborated by Joseph Wolpe (who had just finished training as a psychiatrist in South Africa when Conditioned Reflex Therapy appeared) is a detailed application of Salter’s approach to phobias and related disorders, though Salter used relaxation and imagery much more broadly, Kazdin observed, “Salter (1949) may have been the first to employ imagery in behavior modification. He manipulated imagery to alter the client’s mood and feelings in the therapy sessions as well as in his everyday experience to overcome maladaptive reactions such as anxiety. In therapy, Salter’s use of imagery paralleled desensitization very closely.” (p. 222) The core of “systematic desensitization” is the association of a positive response, typically relaxation, with aversive stimuli. This concept pervades the case studies in Conditioned Reflex Therapy. Various academic psychologists support Salter’s primacy. Two quotations above from Kazdin (pp. 156 and 222) and one from Franks (p. 262) say this explicitly, as do Hazlett-Stevens and Craske: “One of the most influential exposure techniques is the procedure of systematic desensitization developed by Salter and by Wolpe” (p. 223). His obituary in The New York Times also noted his contribution to systematic desensitization: “The therapy Mr. Salter employed encouraged patients to express their emotions and used visual imagery to reduce anxiety. It also moved people past their fears by gradually getting them accustomed to being around the things they feared.” Therapeutic “Homework” Salter emphasized the importance of patients being excitatory in their real life outside the office, with spouses, colleagues, friends, and strangers. These interactions would provide positive feedback, thereby producing healthy new habits. This emphasis on homework, rehearsal, or in vivo exposure has become another central feature of behavior therapy as well as cognitive behavioral therapy. Franks (1969) calls it “instigation therapy,” and defines it as “the systematic use of specific suggestions and assigned tasks in the patient’s daily environment….The patient is taught to modify his extratheraputic environment and to apply learning techniques to his own behavior. The approach is best characterized as one in which the patient learns to become his own therapist” (p. 552). He reports that “Salter has applied instigation techniques to a host of neurotic problems” (p. 457). Hallam (p. 63) puts it well: “Salter’s aim was to arrange for new emotional experiences through what the person did. What was new about this at the time was his emphasis on action…. His objective was to get the person to do the correct thing by himself.” Cognitive Neuroscience Salter was greatly intrigued by what has come to be termed cognitive neuroscience. Of course Pavlov was a physiologist, but Salter’s interest in neurology went beyond Pavlov and lasted his entire life. In typically vigorous phrasing, he wrote: “Psychological events are physiological events, and conditioning is the modification of tissue by experience” (CRT p. 232) His basic theoretical framework – that learning consists of strengthening cortical pathways and that such pathways can be either reinforced or inhibited – has become a commonplace in contemporary neuroscience. His interest in neurology was so great that he and a colleague developed a digital electroencephalograph that was awarded U.S. patent number for “a method of analyzing bioelectric outputs of living things by sensing, amplifying and comparing such outputs with selected predetermined values and providing indications of each occurrence of the departure of a discrete value of such outputs from such predetermined values.” And he anticipated, in general terms, that progress in electronics might revolutionize investigation of mental processes: “[B]y the end of the century…[p]rogress in electronic miniaturization will allow us to check, in our offices, how the patient ‘really’ felt when he visited his mother last Sunday, or got up before an audience, or had an argument with his wife.” (p. 23) References American psychologists American hypnotists 1914 births 1996 deaths 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century psychologists

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Punjabi (; sometimes spelled Panjabi; Shahmukhi: , Gurmukhi: , ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Punjabi people and native to the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. Punjabi is the 9th most widely spoken language in the world. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan and the 11th most widely spoken language in India, and the third most-spoken native language in the Indian subcontinent. Punjabi is the 3rd most spoken language in England and the fifth most spoken native language in Canada. It also has a significant presence in the United Arab Emirates, the United States, France, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and the Netherlands. It has approximately 113 million native speakers. Punjabi is spoken by 80.05 million people in Pakistan. Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab province in Pakistan and it has not given official status at national level. In India, Punjabi is spoken by 31.1 million people (as of 2011) and has official status in the state of Punjab. The language is spoken among a significant overseas diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In Pakistan, Punjabi is written using the Shahmukhi script, while Gurmukhi is used in India. Punjabi is unusual among Indo-Aryan languages (and Indo-European languages more generally) in its use of lexical tone. History Etymology The word Punjabi (sometimes spelled Panjabi) has been derived from the word Panj-āb, Persian for 'Five Waters', referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. The name of the region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and was a translation of the Sanskrit name for the region, Panchanada, which means 'Land of the Five Rivers'. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit (), Greek pénte (), and Lithuanian Penki, all of which meaning 'five'; āb is cognate with Sanskrit áp () and with the of . The historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, the Sutlej. Origin Punjabi developed from Prakrit languages and later (, 'deviated' or 'non-grammatical speech') From 600 BCE, Sanskrit was advocated as official language and Prakrit gave birth to many regional languages in different parts of India. All these languages are called Prakrit (Sanskrit: ) collectively. Paishachi Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Paishachi Prakrit gave rise to Paishachi Aparbhsha, a descendant of Prakrit. Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century CE and became stable by the 10th century. The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to Nath Yogi era from 9th to 14th century CE. The language of these compositions is morphologically closer to Shauraseni Apbhramsa, though vocabulary and rhythm is surcharged with extreme colloquialism and folklore. Arabic and Persian influences The Arabic and modern-Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. Many Persian and Arabic words were incorporated in Punjabi. So Punjabi relies heavily on Persian and Arabic words which are used with a liberal approach to language. Most important words in Punjabi, like and , and common words, like , etc., have all come out of Persian. After the fall of the Sikh empire, Urdu was made the official language of Punjab (in Pakistani Punjab, it is still the primary official language), and influenced the language as well. In fact, the sounds of , and have been borrowed from Persian. Later, it was lexically influenced by Portuguese (words like ), Greek (words like ), Chagatai (words like ), Japanese (words like ), Chinese (words like ) and English (words like ), though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. Note: In more formal contexts, hypercorrect Sanskritized versions of these words (ਪ੍ਰਧਾਨ pradhān for ਪਰਧਾਨ pardhān and ਪਰਿਵਾਰ parivār for ਪਰਵਾਰ parvār) may be used. Modern times Punjabi is spoken in many dialects in an area from Delhi to Islamabad. The Majhi dialect has been adopted as standard Punjabi in India and Pakistan for education, media etc. The Majhi dialect originated in the Majha region of the Punjab. The Majha region consists of several eastern districts of Pakistani Punjab and in India around Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Pathankot and Tarn Taran districts. The two most important cities in this area are Lahore and Amritsar. In India, Punjabi is written in the Gurmukhī script in offices, schools, and media. Gurmukhi is the official standard script for Punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the Latin scripts due to influence from English, India's two primary official languages at the Union-level. In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, which in literary standards, is identical to the Urdu alphabet, however various attempts have been made to create certain, distinct characters from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq characters to represent Punjabi phonology, not already found in the Urdu alphabet. In Pakistan, Punjabi loans technical words from Persian and Arabic languages, just like Urdu does. Geographic distribution Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the eleventh-most widely spoken in India, and also present in the Punjabi diaspora in various countries. Pakistan Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, being the native language of 80.5 million people, or approximately 39% of the country's population. Beginning with the 1981 census, speakers of Saraiki and Hindko were no longer included in the total numbers for Punjabi, which explains the apparent decrease. India Punjabi is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab, and has the status of an additional official language in Haryana and Delhi. Some of its major urban centres in northern India are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Jalandhar, Ambala, Patiala, Bathinda, Hoshiarpur and Delhi. In the 2011 census of India, million reported their language as Punjabi. The census publications group this with speakers of related "mother tongues" like Bagri and Bhateali to arrive at the figure of million. Punjabi diaspora Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada. There were 0.5 million native Punjabi speakers in Canada in 2016, 0.3 million in the United Kingdom in 2011, 0.28 million in the United States and smaller numbers in other countries. Major dialects Standard Punjabi Standard Punjabi sometimes referred to as Majhi in India or simply Punjabi, is the most widespread and largest dialect of Punjabi. It first developed in the 12th century and gained prominence when Sufi poets such as Shah Hussain, Bulleh Shah among others began to use the Lahore/Amritsar spoken dialect with infused Persian vocabulary in their works in the Shahmukhi script. Later the Gurmukhi script was developed based on Standard Punjabi by the Sikh Gurus. Standard Punjabi is spoken by the majority of the people in Faisalabad, Lahore, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Kasur, Sialkot, Narowal, Gujrat, Okara, Pakpattan, Sahiwal, Hafizabad, Nankana Sahib and Mandi Bahauddin districts of Pakistan's Punjab Province. It also has a large presence in every district in the rest of Pakistani Punjab, and in all large cities in Pakistan's other provinces. In India it is spoken in Amritsar, Tarn Taran Sahib, Pathankot and Gurdaspur Districts of the State of Punjab and sizable population also in major cities of the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Mumbai India. In Pakistan, the Standard Punjabi dialect is not referred to as the 'Majhi dialect', which may be considered as 'Indian terminology', rather simply as 'Standard Punjabi'. This dialect is widely used in the TV and entertainment industry, which is mainly produced in Lahore. Phonology While a vowel length distinction between short and long vowels exists, reflected in modern Gurmukhi orthographical conventions, it is secondary to the vowel quality contrast between centralised vowels and peripheral vowels in terms of phonetic significance. The peripheral vowels have nasal analogues. Note: for the tonal stops, refer to the next section about Tone. The three retroflex consonants do not occur initially, and the nasals occur only as allophones of in clusters with velars and palatals. The well-established phoneme may be realised allophonically as the voiceless retroflex fricative in learned clusters with retroflexes. The phonemic status of the fricatives varies with familiarity with Hindustani norms, more so with the Gurmukhi script, with the pairs , , , and systematically distinguished in educated speech. The retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap. Tone Unusually for an Indo-Aryan language, Punjabi distinguishes lexical tones. In many words there is a choice of up to three tones, high-falling, low-rising, and level (neutral): Level tone is found in about 75% of words and is described by some as absence of tone. There are also some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second. (Some writers describe this as a fourth tone.) However, a recent acoustic study of six Punjabi speakers in the United States found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant. / , móḍà (rising-falling), "shoulder" It is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants () lost their aspiration. At the beginning of a word they became voiceless unaspirated consonants () followed by a high-falling tone; medially or finally they became voiced unaspirated consonants (), preceded by a low-rising tone. (The development of a high-falling tone apparently did not take place in every word, but only in those which historically had a long vowel.) The presence of an [h] (although the [h] is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word-initially) word-finally (and sometimes medially) also often causes a rising tone before it, for example "tea". The Gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds, so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time. Some other languages in Pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions, including Burushaski, Gujari, Hindko, Kalami, Shina, and Torwali. Grammar Punjabi has a canonical word order of SOV (subject–object–verb). It has postpositions rather than prepositions. Punjabi distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and five cases of direct, oblique, vocative, ablative, and locative/instrumental. The ablative occurs only in the singular, in free variation with oblique case plus ablative postposition, and the locative/instrumental is usually confined to set adverbial expressions. Adjectives, when declinable, are marked for the gender, number, and case of the nouns they qualify. There is also a T-V distinction. Upon the inflectional case is built a system of particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. It is their use with a noun or verb that is what necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case, and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies. The Punjabi verbal system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense/mood. Like the nominal system, the Punjabi verb takes a single inflectional suffix, and is often followed by successive layers of elements like auxiliary verbs and postpositions to the right of the lexical base. Vocabulary Being an Indo-Aryan language, the core vocabulary of Punjabi consists of tadbhav words inherited from Sanskrit. It contains many loanwords from Persian and Arabic. Writing systems The Punjabi language is written in multiple scripts (a phenomenon known as synchronic digraphia). Each of the major scripts currently in use is typically associated with a particular religious group, although the association is not absolute or exclusive. In India, Punjabi Sikhs use Gurmukhi, a script of the Brahmic family, which has official status in the state of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi Muslims use Shahmukhi, a variant of the Perso-Arabic script and closely related to the Urdu alphabet. The Punjabi Hindus in India had a preference for Devanagari, another Brahmic script also used for Hindi, and in the first decades since independence raised objections to the uniform adoption of Gurmukhi in the state of Punjab, but most have now switched to Gurmukhi and so the use of Devanagari is rare. Often in literature, Pakistani Punjabi (written in Shahmukhi) is referred as Western-Punjabi (or West-Punjabi) and Indian Punjabi (written in Gurmukhi) is referred as Eastern-Punjabi (or East-Punjabi), although the underlying language is the same with a very slight shift in vocabulary towards Islamic and Sikh words respectively. Historically, various local Brahmic scripts including Laṇḍā and its descendants were also in use. The Punjabi Braille is used by the visually impaired. Sample text This sample text was taken from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Lahore. Gurmukhi ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨੀ ਪੰਜਾਬ ਦੀ ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ ਹੈ। ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਦੇ ਨਾਲ ਕਰਾਚੀ ਤੋਂ ਬਾਅਦ ਲਹੌਰ ਦੂਜਾ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਵੱਡਾ ਸ਼ਹਿਰ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਆਸੀ, ਰਹਤਲੀ ਅਤੇ ਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਦਾ ਗੜ੍ਹ ਹੈ ਅਤੇ ਇਸੇ ਲਈ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਦਿਲ ਵੀ ਕਿਹਾ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਰਾਵੀ ਦਰਿਆ ਦੇ ਕੰਢੇ 'ਤੇ ਵਸਦਾ ਹੈ। ਇਸਦੀ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਇੱਕ ਕਰੋੜ ਦੇ ਨੇੜੇ ਹੈ| Shahmukhi Transliteration Lahaur Pākistānī Panjāb dī rājtā̀ni/dā dārul hakūmat ài. Lok giṇtī de nāḷ Karācī tõ bāad Lahaur dūjā sáb tõ vaḍḍā šáir ài. Lahaur Pākistān dā siāsī, rátalī ate paṛā̀ī dā gáṛ ài te ise laī ínū̃ Pākistān dā dil vī kihā jāndā ài. Lahaur Rāvī dariā de káṇḍè te vasdā ài. Isdī lok giṇtī ikk karoṛ de neṛe ài. IPA Translation Lahore is the capital city of Pakistani Punjab. After Karachi, Lahore is the second largest city. Lahore is Pakistan's political, cultural, and educational hub, and so it is also said to be the heart of Pakistan. Lahore lies on the bank of the Ravi River. Its population is close to ten million people. Literature development Medieval era, Mughal and Sikh period Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179-1266) is generally recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language. Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent being Bulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1630–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Waris Shah (1722–1798), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747-1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830-1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845-1901). The Sikh religion originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region and Punjabi is the predominant language spoken by Sikhs. Most portions of the Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi language written in Gurmukhi, though Punjabi is not the only language used in Sikh scriptures. The Janamsakhis, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi prose literature. The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892). Heroic ballads known as Vaar enjoy a rich oral tradition in Punjabi. Famous Vaars are Chandi di Var (1666–1708), Nadir Shah Di Vaar by Najabat and the Jangnama of Shah Mohammad (1780–1862). British Raj era and post-independence period The Victorian novel, Elizabethan drama, free verse and Modernism entered Punjabi literature through the introduction of British education during the Raj. Nanak Singh (1897–1971), Vir Singh, Ishwar Nanda, Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Puran Singh (1881–1931), Dhani Ram Chatrik (1876–1957), Diwan Singh (1897–1944) and Ustad Daman (1911–1984), Mohan Singh (1905–78) and Shareef Kunjahi are some legendary Punjabi writers of this period. After independence of Pakistan and India Najm Hossein Syed, Fakhar Zaman and Afzal Ahsan Randhawa, Shafqat Tanvir Mirza, Ahmad Salim, and Najm Hosain Syed, Munir Niazi, Ali Arshad Mir, Pir Hadi Abdul Mannan enriched Punjabi literature in Pakistan, whereas Jaswant Singh Kanwal (1919–2020), Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Jaswant Singh Rahi (1930–1996), Shiv Kumar Batalvi (1936–1973), Surjit Patar (1944–) and Pash (1950–1988) are some of the more prominent poets and writers from India. Status Despite Punjabi's rich literary history, it was not until 1947 that it would be recognised as an official language. Previous governments in the area of the Punjab had favoured Persian, Hindustani, or even earlier standardised versions of local registers as the language of the court or government. After the annexation of the Sikh Empire by the British East India Company following the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British policy of establishing a uniform language for administration was expanded into the Punjab. The British Empire employed Urdu in its administration of North-Central and Northwestern India, while in the North-East of India, Bengali language was used as the language of administration. Despite its lack of official sanction, the Punjabi language continued to flourish as an instrument of cultural production, with rich literary traditions continuing until modern times. The Sikh religion, with its Gurmukhi script, played a special role in standardising and providing education in the language via Gurdwaras, while writers of all religions continued to produce poetry, prose, and literature in the language. In India, Punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It is the first official language of the Indian State of Punjab. Punjabi also has second language official status in Delhi along with Urdu, and in Haryana. In Pakistan, no regional ethnic language has been granted official status at the national level, and as such Punjabi is not an official language at the national level, even though it is the most spoken language in Pakistan. It is, however, the official provincial language of Punjab, Pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan as well as in Islamabad Capital Territory. The only two official languages in Pakistan are Urdu and English. In Pakistan When Pakistan was created in 1947, despite Punjabi being the majority language in West Pakistan and Bengali the majority in East Pakistan and Pakistan as whole, English and Urdu were chosen as the national languages. The selection of Urdu was due to its association with South Asian Muslim nationalism and because the leaders of the new nation wanted a unifying national language instead of promoting one ethnic group's language over another. Broadcasting in Punjabi language by Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation decreased on TV and radio after 1947. Article 251 of the Constitution of Pakistan declares that these two languages would be the only official languages at the national level, while provincial governments would be allowed to make provisions for the use of other languages. However, in the 1950s the constitution was amended to include the Bengali language. Eventually, Punjabi was granted status as a provincial language in Punjab Province, while the Sindhi language was given official status in 1972 after 1972 Language violence in Sindh. Despite gaining official recognition at the provincial level, Punjabi is not a language of instruction for primary or secondary school students in Punjab Province (unlike Sindhi and Pashto in other provinces). Pupils in secondary schools can choose the language as an elective, while Punjabi instruction or study remains rare in higher education. One notable example is the teaching of Punjabi language and literature by the University of the Punjab in Lahore which began in 1970 with the establishment of its Punjabi Department. In the cultural sphere, there are many books, plays, and songs being written or produced in the Punjabi-language in Pakistan. Until the 1970s, there were a large number of Punjabi-language films being produced by the Lollywood film industry, however since then Urdu has become a much more dominant language in film production. Additionally, television channels in Punjab Province (centred on the Lahore area) are broadcast in Urdu. The preeminence of Urdu in both broadcasting and the Lollywood film industry is seen by critics as being detrimental to the health of the language. The use of Urdu and English as the near exclusive languages of broadcasting, the public sector, and formal education have led some to fear that Punjabi in Pakistan is being relegated to a low-status language and that it is being denied an environment where it can flourish. Several prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have echoed the opinion that the intentional promotion of Urdu and the continued denial of any official sanction or recognition of the Punjabi language amounts to a process of "Urdu-isation" that is detrimental to the health of the Punjabi language In August 2015, the Pakistan Academy of Letters, International Writer's Council (IWC) and World Punjabi Congress (WPC) organised the Khawaja Farid Conference and demanded that a Punjabi-language university should be established in Lahore and that Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level. In September 2015, a case was filed in Supreme Court of Pakistan against Government of Punjab, Pakistan as it did not take any step to implement the Punjabi language in the province. Additionally, several thousand Punjabis gather in Lahore every year on International Mother Language Day. Thinktanks, political organisations, cultural projects, and individuals also demand authorities at the national and provincial level to promote the use of the language in the public and official spheres. In India At the federal level, Punjabi has official status via the Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution, earned after the Punjabi Suba movement of the 1950s. At the state level, Punjabi is the sole official language of the state of Punjab, while it has secondary official status in the states of Haryana and Delhi. In 2012, it was also made additional official language of West Bengal in areas where the population exceeds 10% of a particular block, sub-division or district. Both union and state laws specify the use of Punjabi in the field of education. The state of Punjab uses the Three Language Formula, and Punjabi is required to be either the medium of instruction, or one of the three languages learnt in all schools in Punjab. Punjabi is also a compulsory language in Haryana, and other states with a significant Punjabi speaking minority are required to offer Punjabi medium education. There are vibrant Punjabi language movie and news industries in India, however Punjabi serials have had a much smaller presence within the last few decades in television due to market forces. Despite Punjabi having far greater official recognition in India, where the Punjabi language is officially admitted in all necessary social functions, while in Pakistan it is used only in a few radio and TV programs, attitudes of the English-educated elite towards the language are ambivalent as they are in neighbouring Pakistan. There are also claims of state apathy towards the language in non-Punjabi majority areas like Haryana and Delhi. Advocacy Punjabi University was established on 30 April 1962, and is only the second university in the world to be named after a language, after Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The Research Centre for Punjabi Language Technology, Punjabi University, Patiala is working for development of core technologies for Punjabi, Digitisation of basic materials, online Punjabi teaching, developing software for office use in Punjabi, providing common platform to Punjabi cyber community. Punjabipedia, an online encyclopaedia was also launched by Patiala university in 2014. The Dhahan Prize was created award literary works produced in Punjabi around the world. The Prize encourages new writing by awarding $25,000 CDN annually to one "best book of fiction" published in either of the two Punjabi scripts, Gurmukhi or Shahmukhi. Two second prizes of $5,000 CDN are also awarded, with the provision that both scripts are represented among the three winners. The Dhahan Prize is awarded by Canada India Education Society (CIES). Governmental academies and institutes The Punjabi Sahit academy, Ludhiana, established in 1954 is supported by the Punjab state government and works exclusively for promotion of the Punjabi language, as does the Punjabi academy in Delhi. The Jammu and Kashmir academy of art, culture and literature in Jammu and Kashmir UT, India works for Punjabi and other regional languages like Urdu, Dogri, Gojri etc. Institutions in neighbouring states as well as in Lahore, Pakistan also advocate for the language. Software Software is available for the Punjabi language on almost all platforms. This software is mainly in the Gurmukhi script. Nowadays, nearly all Punjabi newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals are composed on computers via various Punjabi software programmes, the most widespread of which is InPage Desktop Publishing package. Microsoft has included Punjabi language support in all the new versions of Windows and both Windows Vista, Microsoft Office 2007, 2010 and 2013, are available in Punjabi through the Language Interface Pack support. Most Linux Desktop distributions allow the easy installation of Punjabi support and translations as well. Apple implemented the Punjabi language keyboard across Mobile devices. Google also provides many applications in Punjabi, like Google Search, Google Translate and Google Punjabi Input Tools. Gallery See also Punjabi Language Movement Languages of Pakistan Languages of India List of Indian languages by total speakers List of Punjabi-language newspapers Hindi-to-Punjabi Machine Translation System Punjabi cinema References Citations Sources . . . . . . Further reading Bhatia, Tej. 1993 and 2010. Punjabi : a cognitive-descriptive grammar. London: Routledge. Series: Descriptive grammars. Gill H.S. [Harjit Singh] and Gleason, H.A. 1969. A reference grammar of Punjabi. Revised edition. Patiala, Punjab, India: Languages Department, Punjab University. Chopra, R. M., Perso-Arabic Words in Punjabi, in: Indo-Iranica Vol.53 (1–4). Chopra, R. M.., The Legacy of The Punjab, 1997, Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta. Singh, Chander Shekhar (2004). Punjabi Prosody: The Old Tradition and The New Paradigm. Sri Lanka: Polgasowita: Sikuru Prakasakayo. Singh, Chander Shekhar (2014). Punjabi Intonation: An Experimental Study. Muenchen: LINCOM EUROPA. External links English to Punjabi Dictionary Fusional languages Official languages of India Languages of Pakistan Punjabi culture Subject–object–verb languages Tonal languages in non-tonal families Indo-Aryan languages

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The King's Gambit is a chess opening that begins with the moves: 1. e4 e5 2. f4 White offers a pawn to divert the black e-pawn. If Black accepts the gambit, White has two main plans. The first is to play d4 and Bxf4, regaining the gambit pawn with domination. The alternative plan is to play Nf3 and Bc4 followed by 0-0, when the semi-open f-file created after a pawn push to g3 allows White to attack the weakest point in Black's position, the pawn on f7. Theory has shown that, in order to maintain the gambit pawn, Black may well be forced to weaken the with moves such as ...g5 or odd piece placement (e.g. ). A downside to the King's Gambit is that it weakens White's king's position, exposing it to the latent threat of ...Qh4+ (or ). With a black pawn on f4, White cannot usually respond to the check with g3, but if the king is forced to move then it also loses the right to castle. The King's Gambit is one of the oldest documented openings, appearing in one of the earliest chess books, Luis Ramírez de Lucena's Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (1497). It was examined by the 17th-century Italian chess player Giulio Cesare Polerio. The King's Gambit was one of the most popular openings until the late 19th century, when improvements in defensive technique led to its decline in popularity. It is infrequently seen at master level today, as Black has several methods to gain , but is still popular at amateur level. History The King's Gambit was one of the most popular openings for over 300 years, and has been played by many of the strongest players in many of the greatest , including the Immortal Game. Nevertheless, players have held widely divergent views on it. François-André Danican Philidor (1726–1795), the greatest player and theorist of his day, wrote that the King's Gambit should end in a draw with best play by both sides, stating that "a gambit equally well attacked and defended is never a decisive [game], either on one side or the other." Writing over 150 years later, Siegbert Tarrasch, one of the world's strongest players in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, pronounced the opening "a decisive mistake" and wrote that "it is almost madness to play the King's Gambit." Similarly, future world champion Bobby Fischer wrote a famous article, "A Bust to the King's Gambit", in which he stated, "In my opinion the King's Gambit is busted. It loses by force" and offered his Fischer Defense (3...d6) as a refutation. FM Graham Burgess, in his book The Mammoth Book of Chess, noted the discrepancy between the King's Gambit and Wilhelm Steinitz's accumulation theory. Steinitz had argued that an attack is only justified when a player has an advantage, and an advantage is only obtainable after the opponent makes a mistake. Since 1...e5 does not look like a blunder, White should therefore not be launching an attack. While the King's Gambit Accepted was a staple of Romantic era chess, the opening began to decline with the development of opening theory and improvements in defensive technique in the late 19th century. By the 1920s, 1.e4 openings declined in popularity with the rise of the hypermodern school, with many players switching to 1.d4 and 1.c4 openings and . After World War II, 1.e4 openings became more popular again, with David Bronstein being the first grandmaster in decades to use the King's Gambit in serious play. He inspired Boris Spassky to also take up the King's Gambit, although Spassky was not willing to risk using the opening in any of his World Championship matches. However, Spassky did beat many strong players with it, including Bobby Fischer, Zsuzsa Polgar, and a famous brilliancy against Bronstein himself. In 2012, an April Fools' Day prank by Chessbase in association with Vasik Rajlich—inventor of chess engine Rybka—claimed to have proven to a 99.99999999% certainty that the King's Gambit is at best a draw for White. Revealing the prank, Rajlich admitted that current computer technology is nowhere near solving such a task. The King's Gambit is rare in modern high-level play. A handful of grandmasters have continued to use it, including Joseph Gallagher, Hikaru Nakamura, Baskaran Adhiban, Nigel Short, and Alexei Fedorov. King's Gambit Accepted: 2...exf4 Although Black usually accepts the gambit pawn, two methods of declining the gambit—the Classical Defense (2...Bc5) and the Falkbeer Countergambit (2...d5)—are also popular. After 2...exf4, the two main continuations for White are 3.Nf3 (King's Knight's Gambit) and 3.Bc4 (Bishop's Gambit). King's Knight's Gambit: 3.Nf3 This is the most popular move. It develops the knight and prevents 3...Qh4+. Black's two main approaches are to attempt to hold on to the pawn with ...g5, or to return the pawn in order to facilitate . Classical Variation: 3...g5 The Classical Variation arises after 3.Nf3 g5. Black defends the f4-pawn, and threatens to kick the f3-knight with ...g4, or else to consolidate with ...Bg7 and ...h6. The main continuations traditionally have been 4.h4 and 4.Bc4. More recently, 4.Nc3 (the Quaade Gambit or Quaade Attack) has been recommended by Scottish grandmaster John Shaw as a less explored alternative to 4.h4 and superior to 4.Bc4. 4.h4: Kieseritzky Gambit and Allgaier Gambit With 4.h4 White practically forces 4...g4, thereby undermining any attempt by Black to set up a stable pawn chain with ...h6 and ...Bg7. The Kieseritzky Gambit, 4.h4 g4 5.Ne5, is considered by modern writers such as Shaw and Gallagher to be the main line after 3...g5. It was popularized by Lionel Kieseritzky in the 1840s and used successfully by Wilhelm Steinitz. Boris Spassky used it to beat Bobby Fischer in a famous game at Mar del Plata in 1960. The main line of the Kieseritzky Gambit is considered to be 5...Nf6 6.Bc4 d5 7.exd5 Bd6 8.d4 with an unclear position. The Long Whip Variation, 5...h5?! 6.Bc4 Rh7 (or 6...Nh6) is considered old-fashioned and risky, as Black loses a lot of time attempting to hold on to the pawn. 4.h4 g4 5.Ng5 is the Allgaier Gambit, intending 5...h6 6.Nxf7. This knight sacrifice is considered unsound. 4.Bc4 g4: Muzio Gambit and others The extremely Muzio Gambit arises after 4.Bc4 g4 5.0-0 gxf3 6.Qxf3, where White has sacrificed a knight but has three pieces bearing down on f7. Such wild play is rare in modern chess, but Black must defend accurately. Perhaps the sharpest continuation is the Double Muzio after 6...Qf6 7.e5 Qxe5 8.Bxf7+, leaving White two pieces down in eight moves, but with a position that some masters consider to be equal. In practice White's play seems to be easier, especially when the opponent is surprised by such daring tactics. Similar lines are the Ghulam Kassim Gambit, 4.Bc4 g4 5.d4, and the McDonnell Gambit, 4.Bc4 g4 5.Nc3. These are generally considered inferior to the Muzio, which has the advantage of reinforcing White's attack along the f-file. Also inferior is the Lolli Gambit 4.Bc4 g4 5.Bxf7+, which leaves White with insufficient compensation for the piece after 5...Kxf7 6.Ne5+ Ke8 7.Qxg4 Nf6 8.Qxf4 d6. The Salvio Gambit, 4.Bc4 g4 5.Ne5 Qh4+ 6.Kf1, is considered better for Black due to the insecurity of White's king. Black may play safely with 6...Nh6, or counter-sacrifice with 6...f3 or 6...Nc6. 4.Bc4 Bg7: Hanstein Gambit and Philidor Gambit A safer alternative to 4...g4 is 4...Bg7, which usually leads to the Hanstein Gambit after 5.d4 d6 6.0-0 h6 or the Philidor Gambit after 5.h4 h6 6.d4 d6 (other move orders are possible in both cases). 4.Nc3: Quaade Gambit The Quaade Gambit (3.Nf3 g5 4.Nc3) is named after a Danish amateur who discussed it in correspondence with the Deutsche Schachzeitung in the 1880s. The move has received renewed attention following its recommendation by John Shaw in his 2013 book on the King's Gambit. A well-known trap here is 4...g4 5.Ne5 Qh4+ 6.g3 fxg3 7.Qxg4 g2+? (7...Qxg4 8.Nxg4 d5 is about equal) 8.Qxh4 gxh1=Q 9.Qh5! and White is close to winning. (Black's best defense is considered to be 9...Nh6 10.d4 d6 11.Bxh6 dxe5 12.Qxe5+ Be6 13.Qxh8 Nd7 14.Bxf8 0-0-0 and White will emerge a clear pawn ahead.) Instead, 4...Bg7 has been recommended. 4...d6 and 4...h6 transpose to Fischer's Defense and Becker's Defense, respectively. Also possible is 4...Nc6, recommended by Konstantin Sakaev. After 4...Bg7 5.d4 g4, Simon Williams advocates 6.Bxf4 gxf3 in his DVD and Chess.com video series. White is down a knight, but has a strong attack. The Quaade Gambit has recently been advocated by Daniel King in his PowerPlay series for Chessbase. 4.d4: Rosentreter Gambit This is likely to lead to similar positions to the Quaade Gambit, however 4...g4 5.Ne5 Qh4+ 6.g3 fxg3 7.Qxg4 g2+!? (7...Qxg4=) is now viable due to the threat against the pawn on e4. After 8.Qxh4 gxh1=Q Shaw recommends 9.Nc3 for White, with a complicated position. Becker Defense: 3...h6 The Becker Defense (3.Nf3 h6), has the idea of creating a on h6, g5, f4 to defend the f4 pawn while avoiding the Kieseritzky Gambit, so Black will not be forced to play ...g4 when White plays to undermine the chain with h4. White has the option of 4.b3, although the main line continues with 4.d4 g5 (ECO C37) and usually transposes to lines of the Classical Variation after 5.Bc4 Bg7 6.0-0 (ECO C38). Bonch-Osmolovsky Defense: 3...Ne7 The rarely seen Bonch-Osmolovsky Defense (3.Nf3 Ne7) aims to defend the f4-pawn with ...Ng6, a relatively safe square for the knight compared to the Schallopp Defense. It was played by Mark Bluvshtein to defeat former world title finalist Nigel Short at Montreal 2007, even though it has never been highly regarded by theory. Cunningham Defense: 3...Be7 The Cunningham Defense (3.Nf3 Be7) threatens a check on h4 that can permanently prevent White from castling; furthermore, if White does not immediately develop the king's bishop, Ke2 would be forced, which hems the bishop in. A sample line is 4.Nc3 Bh4+ 5.Ke2 d5 6.Nxd5 Nf6 7.Nxf6+ Qxf6 8.d4 Bg4 9.Qd2 (diagram). White has strong central control with pawns on d4 and e4, while Black is relying on the white king's discomfort to compensate. To avoid having to play Ke2, 4.Bc4 is White's most popular response. Black can play 4...Bh4+ anyway, forcing 5.Kf1 (or else the wild Bertin Gambit or Three Pawns' Gambit, 5.g3 fxg3 6.0-0 gxh2+ 7.Kh1, played in the nineteenth century). In modern practice, it is more common for Black to simply develop instead with 4...Nf6 5.e5 Ng4, known as the Modern Cunningham. Schallopp Defense: 3...Nf6 The Schallopp Defense (3.Nf3 Nf6) is usually played with the intention of holding on to the pawn after 4.e5 Nh5. While it is not Black's most popular option, it attracted some attention in 2020 when Ding Liren used it to beat Magnus Carlsen in the online Magnus Carlsen Invitational tournament. The undefended knight on h5 means Black must be careful: for example 4.e5 Nh5 5.d4 d6 6.Qe2 Be7? (correct is 6...d5! =) 7.exd6 Qxd6 8.Qb5+ wins the h5-knight. Modern Defense: 3...d5 The Modern Defense, or Abbazia Defense, (3.Nf3 d5) has much the same idea as the Falkbeer Countergambit, and can in fact be reached by transposition, e.g. 2.f4 d5 3.exd5 exf4. Black concentrates on gaining piece play and fighting for the initiative rather than keeping the extra pawn. It has been recommended by several publications as an easy way to equalize, although White's extra central pawn and piece activity gives a slight advantage. If White captures (4.exd5) then Black may play 4...Nf6 or recapture with 4...Qxd5, at which point it becomes the Scandinavian Variation of KGA. This variation was considered most critical in the past, but recent trends seem to indicate a slight advantage for White. Fischer Defense: 3...d6 "The refutation of any gambit begins with accepting it. In my opinion the King's Gambit is busted. It loses by force." — R. Fischer, "A Bust to the King's Gambit" The Fischer Defense (3.Nf3 d6), although previously known, was advocated by Bobby Fischer after he was defeated by Boris Spassky in a Kieseritzky Gambit at the 1960 Mar del Plata tournament. Fischer then decided to refute the King's Gambit, and the next year the American Chess Quarterly published Fischer's analysis of 3...d6, which he called "a high-class waiting move". The point is that after 4.d4 g5 5.h4 g4 White cannot continue with 6.Ne5 as in the Kieseritzky Gambit, 6.Ng5 is unsound because of 6...f6! trapping the knight, and 6.Nfd2 blocks the bishop on c1. This leaves the move 6.Ng1 as the only option, when after six moves neither side has developed a piece. The resulting slightly odd position (diagram) offers White good attacking chances. A typical continuation is 6.Ng1 Bh6 7.Ne2 Qf6 8.Nbc3 c6 9.g3 f3 10.Nf4 Qe7 with an unclear position. (Korchnoi/Zak) The main alternative to 4.d4 is 4.Bc4. Play usually continues 4...h6 5.d4 g5 6.0-0 Bg7, transposing into the Hanstein Gambit, which can also be reached via 3...g5 or 3...h6. Today the Fischer's Defense is no longer considered a critical attempt to refute the King's Gambit, and his dream of killing the most romantic opening in chess history remains unfinished. MacLeod Defense: 3...Nc6 Joe Gallagher writes that 3.Nf3 Nc6 "has never really caught on, probably because it does nothing to address Black's immediate problems." Like Fischer's Defense, it is a waiting move. An obvious drawback is that the Nc6 may prove a target for the d-pawn later in the opening. Wagenbach Defense: 3...h5 An invention of the Hungarian/English player, János Wagenbach. John Shaw writes: "If given the time, Black intends to seal up the kingside with ...h4 followed by ...g5, securing the extra pawn on f4 without allowing an undermining h2–h4. The drawback is of course the amount of time required". Bishop's Gambit: 3.Bc4 Of the alternatives to 3.Nf3, the most important is the Bishop's Gambit, 3.Bc4. White allows 3...Qh4+ 4.Kf1, losing the right to castle, but this loses time for Black after the inevitable Nf3 and White will develop rapidly. White also has the option of delaying Nf3, however, and can instead play g3, after which the game becomes quite sharp, with White having the option of Qf3 with an attack on f7, or Kg2 threatening hxg3. This idea is advocated, among others, by GM Simon Williams. Korchnoi and Zak recommend as best for Black 3...Nf6 4.Nc3 c6, or the alternative move order 3...c6 4.Nc3 Nf6. After 5.Bb3 d5 6.exd5 cxd5 7.d4 Bd6 8.Nge2 0-0 9.0-0 g5 10.Nxd5 Nc6, Black was somewhat better in Spielmann–Bogoljubow, Märisch Ostrau 1923. Black's other main option is 3...d5, returning the pawn immediately. Play might continue 3...d5 4.Bxd5 Nf6 5.Nc3 Bb4 6.Nf3 Bxc3 7.dxc3 c6 8.Bc4 Qxd1+ 9.Kxd1 0-0 10.Bxf4 Nxe4 with an equal position (Bilguer Handbuch, Korchnoi/Zak). 3...Nc6!? is relatively untested, but if White plays 4.Nf3 Black can transpose into the Hanstein Gambit after 4...g5 5.d4 Bg7 6.c3 d6 7.0-0 h6 (Neil McDonald, 1998). John Shaw wrote that 3...Nc6 is a "refutation" of the Bishop's Gambit, as he says that Black is better in all variations. Steinitz's 3...Ne7 and the 3...f5 (best met by 4.Qe2!) are generally considered inferior. Other 3rd moves for White Other 3rd moves for White are rarely played. Some of these are: 3.Nc3 (Mason Gambit or Keres Gambit) 3.d4 (Villemson Gambit or Steinitz Gambit) 3.Be2 (Lesser Bishop's Gambit or Tartakower Gambit) 3.Qf3 (Breyer Gambit or Hungarian Gambit) 3.g3 (Gama Gambit) 3.h4 (Stamma Gambit) 3.Nh3 (Eisenberg Gambit) 3.Kf2?! (The Tumbleweed) King's Gambit Declined Black can decline the offered pawn, or offer a . Falkbeer Countergambit: 2...d5 The Falkbeer Countergambit is named after the 19th-century Austrian master Ernst Falkbeer. It runs 1.e4 e5 2.f4 d5 3.exd5 e4, in which Black sacrifices a pawn in return for quick and easy development. It was once considered good for Black and scored well, but White obtains some advantage with the response 4.d3!, and the line fell out of favour during thge 1930s, as World Champion of that time, Alekhin prooved Falkbeer to have been correct. A more modern interpretation of the Falkbeer is 2...d5 3.exd5 c6!?, as advocated by Aron Nimzowitsch. Black is not concerned about pawns and aims for early piece activity. White has a better pawn structure and prospects of a better endgame. The main line continues 4.Nc3 exf4 5.Nf3 Bd6 6.d4 Ne7 7.dxc6 Nbxc6, giving positions analogous to the Modern Variation of the gambit accepted. Classical Defense: 2...Bc5 A common way to decline the gambit is with 2...Bc5, the "classical" KGD. The bishop prevents White from castling and is such a nuisance that White often expends two tempi to eliminate it by means of Nc3–a4, to exchange on c5 or b6, after which White may castle without worry. It also contains an opening trap for novices: if White continues with 3.fxe5 Black continues 3...Qh4+, in which either the rook is lost (4.g3 Qxe4+, forking the rook and king) or White is checkmated (4.Ke2 Qxe4#). This line often comes about by transposition from lines of the Vienna Game or Bishop's Opening, when White plays f2–f4 before Nf3. One rarely seen line is the Rotlewi Countergambit: 3. Nf3 d6 4. b4. The idea of the gambit is similar to that seen in the Evans Gambit of the Italian Game. White sacrifices a pawn to try and build a strong centre with 4...Bxb4 5. c3 Bc5 (or 5...Ba5) 6. fxe5 dxe5 7. d4. However, this line is considered slightly dubious. Other 2nd moves for Black Other options in the KGD are possible, though unusual, such as the Adelaide Countergambit 2...Nc6 3.Nf3 f5, advocated by Tony Miles; 2...d6, when after 3.Nf3, best is 3...exf4 transposing to the Fischer Defense (though 2...d6 invites White to play 3.d4 instead); and 2...Nf6 3.fxe5 Nxe4 4.Nf3 Ng5! 5.d4 Nxf3+ 6.Qxf3 Qh4+ 7.Qf2 Qxf2+ 8.Kxf2 with a small endgame advantage, as played in the 1968 game between Bobby Fischer and Bob Wade in Vinkovci. The greedy 2...Qf6 (known as the Nordwalde Variation), intending 3...Qxf4, is considered dubious. Also dubious are the Keene Defense: 2...Qh4+ 3.g3 Qe7 and the Mafia Defense: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 c5. 2...f5?! is among the oldest countergambits in KGD, known from a game published in 1625 by Gioachino Greco. Vincenz Hruby also played it against Mikhail Chigorin in 1882. It is nonetheless considered dubious because 3.exf5 with the threat of Qh5+ gives White a good game. The variation is sometimes named the Pantelidakis Countergambit because GM Larry Evans answered a question from Peter Pantelidakis of Chicago about it in one of his columns in Chess Life and Review. Related lines In several lines of the Vienna Game White offers a sort of delayed King's Gambit. In the Vienna Gambit (1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.f4), Black should reply 3...d5, since 3....exf4 4.e5 forces the knight to retreat. 1.e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.f4 exf4 may lead to the Hamppe–Muzio Gambit after 4.Nf3 g5 5.Bc4 g4 6.0-0 gxf3 7.Qxf3, or to the Steinitz Gambit after 4.d4 Qh4+ 5.Ke2. Both of these lines may be reached via the King's Gambit proper, but the Vienna move order is more common. White may also offer the gambit in the Bishop's Opening, e.g. 1.e4 e5 2.Bc4 Nc6 3.f4, though this is uncommon. ECO The Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings () has ten codes for the King's Gambit, C30 through C39. C30: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 (King's Gambit) C31: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 d5 (Falkbeer Countergambit) C32: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 d5 3.exd5 e4 4.d3 Nf6 (Morphy, Charousek, etc.) C33: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 (King's Gambit Accepted) C34: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 (King's Knight's Gambit) C35: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 Be7 (Cunningham Defense) C36: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 d5 (Abbazia Defense) C37: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 g5 4.Nc3 /4.Bc4 g4 5.0-0 (Muzio Gambit) C38: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 g5 4.Bc4 Bg7 (Philidor, Hanstein, etc.) C39: 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 g5 4.h4 (Allgaier, Kieseritzky, etc.) References Further reading External links The Bishop's Gambit Not quite winning with the Allgaier Gambit The Double Muzio 17th century in chess Chess openings

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Slough () is a large town in Berkshire, England (within the historic county of Buckinghamshire), west of central London (Charing Cross) and north-east of Reading. It is in the Thames Valley and within the London metropolitan area at the intersection of the M4, M40 and M25 motorways. Slough had a population of 164,000 in 2018. The A4 and the Great Western Main Line pass through the town. Crossrail provides connection to central London. Slough's population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the United Kingdom, attracting people from across the country and the world for labour since the 1920s, which has helped shape it into a major trading centre. In 2017, unemployment stood at 1.4%, one-third the UK average of 4.5%. Slough has the highest concentration of UK HQs of global companies outside London. Slough Trading Estate is the largest industrial estate in single private ownership in Europe with over 17,000 jobs in 400 businesses. Blackberry, McAfee, Burger King, DHL, Telefonica and Lego have head offices in the town. History The name was first recorded in 1195 as Slo. It first seems to have applied to a hamlet between Upton to the east and Chalvey to the west, roughly around the "Crown Crossroads" where the road to Windsor (now the A332) met the Great West Road. The Domesday Survey of 1086 refers to Upton, and a wood for 200 pigs, worth £15. During the 13th century, King Henry III had a palace at Cippenham. Parts of Upton Court were built in 1325, while St Mary the Virgin Church in Langley was probably built in the late 11th or early 12th century, though it has been rebuilt and enlarged several times. From the mid-17th century, stagecoaches began to pass through Slough and Salt Hill (later absorbed into Slough), which became locations for the second stage to change horses on the journey out from London. By 1838 and the opening of the Great Western Railway, Upton-cum-Chalvey's parish population had reached 1,502. In 1849, a branch line was completed from Slough to Windsor & Eton Central, opposite Windsor Castle, for Queen Victoria's convenience. Slough has 96 listed buildings. There are Four Grade I: St Laurence's Church (Upton), St Mary the Virgin Church, Langley, Baylis House and Godolphin Court Seven Grade II*: St Mary's Church (Upton-cum-Chalvey), Upton Court, the Kederminster and Seymour Almshouses in Langley, St Peter's Church (Chalvey), Ostrich Inn (Colnbrook) and King John's Palace (Colnbrook) Grade II listed structures include four milestones, Beech, Oak and Linden Houses at Upton Hospital, and Slough railway station 1918 saw a large area of agricultural land to the west of Slough developed as an army motor repair depot, used to store and repair huge numbers of motor vehicles coming back from the battlefields of the First World War in Flanders. In April 1920, the Government sold the site and its contents to the Slough Trading Co. Ltd. Repair of ex-army vehicles continued until 1925, when the Slough Trading Company Act was passed allowing the company (renamed Slough Estates Ltd) to establish an industrial estate. Spectacular growth and employment ensued, with Slough attracting workers from many parts of the UK and abroad. Slough Town Hall, which was designed by Charles Holloway James and Stephen Rowland Pierce, was completed in 1937. During the Second World War, Slough experienced a series of air raids, mostly in October 1940 (the largest number of people, five, dying as a result of one on the 13th), and an emergency hospital treating casualties from London was set up in Slough. Local air raid deaths and deaths at the hospital account for the 23 civilian lives recorded lost in the borough area. After the war, several further large housing developments arose to take large numbers of people migrating from war-damaged London. Between 1955 and 1957 the town was the site of the Slough experiment, a large-scale road safety trial. Redevelopment In the 21st century, Slough has seen major redevelopment of the town centre. Old buildings are being replaced with new offices and shopping complexes. Tesco has replaced an existing superstore with a larger Tesco Extra. The Heart of Slough Project is a plan for the large-scale redevelopment of the town centre as a focus and cultural quarter for the creative media, information and communications industries. It will create a mixed-use complex, multi-functional buildings, visual landmarks and a public space in the Thames Valley. Recommendations for the £400 million project have been approved, and planning approval was given by Slough Borough Council's planning committee on 9 July 2009. Work began in 2010 for completion in 2018. In December 2009, two key components of the project were signed: the Homes and Communities Agency (HCA) signed its agreement to provide £11m of funding for infrastructure and Thames Valley University (TVU) courses which are due to remain in the town have found a new home at the Centre in Farnham Road, Slough. In parallel to the town centre redevelopment plan, Segro (owner of the Slough Trading Estate) plans to spend £600 million over the next 20 years on the trading estate. This is intended to create environmentally sustainable buildings, open green spaces, two hotels, a conference centre, cafés, restaurants and better transport facilities to improve links to Slough town centre and the surrounding residential areas. It is claimed that the plan will create more than 4,100 new jobs and contribute around £100m a year to Slough's economy. If both plans go ahead in their current forms, nearly £1 billion will be spent on redeveloping Slough over the next 20 years. Herschel Park (known as Upton Park until 1949), named for astronomer William Herschel, is currently being relandscaped in a multimillion-pound effort to bring it back to its former Victorian era glory. The park was featured in an episode of the documentary programme Who Do You Think You Are? focusing on the TV presenter Davina McCall. In 2010, £2 million was set aside to improve disabled access to Slough railway station in preparation for an expected increase in use during the 2012 London Olympics. Preparations were under way for the regeneration of the Britwell suburb of Slough, involving tearing down a dilapidated block of flats and the closing of the public house the Jolly Londoner in Wentworth Avenue and replacing them with new homes, as well as relocating the shopping parade in the street to nearby Kennedy Park. As part of the Heart of Slough project, construction work on a new bus station began in March 2010 following weeks of demolition work to half of the existing bus station and the removal of Compair House near the railway station; it was expected to be completed by January 2011 and was opened in May 2011, 5 months behind schedule. Redevelopment on this scale has been strongly criticised by conservation groups. The Twentieth Century Society has stated that [A] tragically high quantity of good buildings have been demolished in Slough in recent years, including grand Art-Deco-styled factories by the likes of Wallis Gilbert and high-quality post-war offices. More are to come down as the town tries to erase its past and reinvent itself from scratch. Despite famously heckling Slough, John Betjeman's praise for the town hall's architecture as 'a striving for unity out of chaos' in 1948 has never been so relevant as today. C20 believes that the redevelopment of the town hall would be an act of vandalism to the civic centre and is supporting the Campaign to Save Slough's Heritage in their request for a review of the decision. During November 2016, the Slough Queensmere and Observatory shopping centres were sold to Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) in a deal worth £130 million. Geography Slough is west of Charing Cross, central London, north of Windsor, east of Maidenhead, south-east of High Wycombe and north-east of the county town of Reading. Slough is within the Greater London Urban Area and on the border with London Borough of Hillingdon and London Borough of Hounslow. Heathrow Airport is 5 miles away. Nearby towns are Uxbridge to the northeast and Beaconsfield to the north. Most of the area that now makes up Slough was anciently part of Buckinghamshire. The town developed by the expansion and amalgamation of villages along the Great West Road. Over the years Slough has expanded greatly, incorporating a number of different villages. Original villages that are now suburbs of Slough include Chalvey, Cippenham, Colnbrook, Langley, Poyle, Upton, and Wexham. Named neighbourhoods include Brands Hill, Britwell, Huntercombe, Manor Park, Salt Hill, Upton Lea and Windsor Meadows. The urban area merges into the neighbouring parishes of Burnham, a small area of Taplow near Cippenham, Farnham Royal and Stoke Poges which remain in the county of Buckinghamshire and Datchet which is also in Berkshire. Eton is narrowly buffered by the Jubilee River and by green space (mainly the college playing fields) from part of Slough, and the two areas formerly formed the Eton birth, marriages and deaths registration district. Nearest places Climate The nearest Met Office weather observing station to Slough is Heathrow Airport, about east of Slough town centre. This part of the Thames Valley is notable for generally having the warmest daytime summer temperatures on average in the British Isles. Typically, according to 1981–2010 normals, the average high temperature in July is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F.) Rainfall is low compared to most of the British Isles, with under annually, and 105 days reporting over 1 mm of rain. Demography During the Great Depression of the 1930s, many unemployed Welsh people who walked up the Great West Road looking for employment settled in Slough. According to the 2011 census, 45.7% of the population was white (34.5% white British, 1.1% white Irish, 0.2% gypsy or Irish Traveller, 9.9% other white), 3.4% of mixed race (1.2% white and black Caribbean, 0.4% white and black African, 1.0% white and Asian, 0.8% other mixed), 39.7% Asian (17.7% Pakistani, 15.6% Indian, 0.4% Bangladeshi, 0.6% Chinese, 5.4% other Asian), 8.6% black (5.4% African, 2.2% Caribbean, 1.0% other black), 0.7% Arab and 1.9% of other ethnic heritage. In the post-war years, immigrants from the Commonwealth, notably Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, India and Pakistan came to the town. In the early 1950s, there were a number of Polish refugee camps scattered around the Slough area. As returning to Poland (then in the Soviet Bloc) was not considered an option by many of the wartime refugees, many Polish families decided to settle in Slough. In time, a Polish-speaking Roman Catholic parish was established with its own church building. A new wave of Polish migration to Slough has followed since Poland became part of the European Union. Slough Council elected the country's first black female mayor, Lydia Simmons, in 1984. Figures from the 2011 census showed that 41.2% of Slough's population identified as Christian, 23.3% as Muslim, 10.6% as Sikh, 6.2% as Hindu, 0.5% as Buddhist, 0.1% as Jewish, 0.3% as having other religions, 12.1% as having no religion and 5.7% did not answer the question. Slough has the highest percentage of Sikh residents in the country according to the census figures. Slough also has the highest percentage of Muslim and Hindu residents in the South East region. {|class="wikitable sortable" |+ Immigrants in Slough (2011 census) ! Country of birth ! Number resident |- | |11,544 |- | |11,244 |- | |8,341 |- | |2,183 |- | |1,364 |- | |1,352 |- | |1,247 |- | |1,219 |- | |828 |- | |759 |- |} In July 2007 Slough was the subject of a documentary by the BBC's Panorama series, entitled "Immigration – how we lost count". The programme highlighted Slough and other affordable towns close to London had a much greater rise in the EU immigrant population than had been nationally predicted and for which resources had been allocated. The programme found certain public services failing to deliver to expected standards and with large groups selecting a small area in which to live, an increase in overcrowding. Governance Boundaries In 1863, Slough became a local government area when a Slough Local Board of Health was elected to represent what is now the central part of the modern Borough. This part of Upton-cum-Chalvey Civil Parish became Slough Urban Sanitary District in 1875. The functions of these two bodies were strengthened in 1894, when Slough Urban District was created, Buckinghamshire County Council having been created in the previous decade. In 1930, there was a major extension westward of the Urban District, and the area was divided into electoral wards for the first time (the new areas of Burnham (Beeches), Farnham (Royal) and Stoke (Poges) (commonly used suffixes) as well as the divisions of the old district Central, Chalvey, Langley and Upton). In 1938, the town became a Municipal Borough by Royal Charter. Slough was transferred to Berkshire in the 1974 local government reorganisation. The old Municipal Borough was abolished and not deemed part of an urban conglomeration, replaced by a non-city type second-tier authority (Non-metropolitan district), which was however made a Borough by the town's second Royal Charter. Britwell and Wexham Court became part of Slough at this time, with their civil parish councils. On 1 April 1995, the Borough of Slough expanded slightly into Buckinghamshire and Surrey, to take in Colnbrook and Poyle and merged their civil parish councils. Slough became a unitary authority, on 1 April 1998. This coincided with the abolition of Berkshire County Council and the dissolution of its Borough Status received under its second Royal Charter. However, to enable the continued use of the word Borough, as in some other parts of Berkshire, Slough received its third Royal Charter in 1998. Since 2015, Slough has had a Youth Parliament to represent the views of younger people. Town twinning Slough is twinned with: Montreuil, France (since 1988) Economy Before the 19th century, the main businesses of Slough were brickfields and agriculture. The bricks for the building of Eton College were made in Slough. Later, as the Great West Road traffic increased, inns and pubs sprang up along the road to service the passing trade. Until the town developed as an industrial area, nurseries were prominent in the local economy; the Cox's Orange Pippin apple was first raised in Colnbrook (not then within Slough) around 1825, and the dianthus "Mrs Sinkins Pink" was first raised at some point between 1868 and 1883 by John Sinkins, the master of the Eton Union Workhouse, which lay in Slough. In the mid-19th century, the only major employer apart from the brickfields was James Elliman, who started as a draper in Chandos Street. In 1847, he changed business and manufactured his Elliman's Embrocation and Royal Embrocation horse liniment at factories in Wellington Street and Chandos Street. Elliman became a major benefactor to the town, and is remembered today in the names of local roads and schools. In September 1851, William Thomas Buckland, an auctioneer and surveyor from nearby Wraysbury, began livestock sales in a field near the Great Western Road Railway Station belonging to the North Star Inn. Originally held on the first Tuesday of every month, the Cattle Market's popularity soon saw this increased to every Tuesday. A move to Wexham Street was necessitated by the postwar redevelopment of the town. The Slough Cattle Market was run by Messrs Buckland and Sons until its final closure in 1988. In 1906, James Horlick, one of the founders of the eponymous malted milk company, opened a purpose-built red-brick factory near Slough Railway Station to manufacture his malted milk product. In 2015, the business was sold by Glaxo Smith Kline and in 2017, manufacturing at the site ceased altogether. The site is currently proposed to become residential making use of the original buildings as much as possible. Starting in the 1920s, Slough Estates Ltd, the operator of the original Slough Trading Estate, created and operated many more estates in the UK and abroad. The Slough Trading Estate meant that the town was largely insulated from many of the effects of recession. For many years, Slough's economy was mainly manufacturing-based. In the last 20 or so years, there has been a major shift from a manufacturing to an information-based economy, with the closure of many factories (some of which had been in Slough for many decades). The factories are rapidly being replaced by office buildings. Hundreds of major companies have sited in Slough Trading Estate over the years, with its proximity to London Heathrow Airport and good motorway connections being attractive. In the 1960s, Gerry Anderson's film company was based in Slough, and his Supermarionation series, including Thunderbirds, were filmed there. The UK headquarters of Mars, Incorporated is in Slough, the main factory having been established in 1932 by Forrest Mars Sr. and Frank C. Mars. It produced the Mars Bar in Slough over 70 years ago. One of the Mars factories has been demolished and some production has moved to the Czech Republic. The European head offices of major IT companies such as BlackBerry, McAfee, Computer Associates, PictureTel and Compusys (among others) are all in the town. O2 is headquartered in the town across four buildings. The town is also home to the business support organisation Thames Valley Chamber of Commerce Group and National Foundation for Educational Research, which is housed in the Mere. Recent new offices include those of Nintendo, Black and Decker and Abbey business centres. The registered office of Furniture Village lies in the town. The motor trade has long been represented in Slough. Until 1966, Citroën assembled cars in a Liverpool Road factory (later used by Mars Confectionery), and it retains its UK headquarters in the town. Ford built D Series and Cargo lorries at its factory in Langley (a former Hawker Aircraft site) from 1936 to the 1950s until the site was redeveloped for housing in the 1990s. Ferrari, Mercedes, Fiat and Maserati now have offices in the town. Transport Road transport Slough is near London, Heathrow Airport, Uxbridge, Maidenhead and Staines and the town is a travel hub. Many people from Slough work in nearby towns and cities such as Windsor, Reading, London and Bracknell, and there are large passenger movements in the morning and evening rush hours. Road transport in Slough includes: Within Slough: Buses (First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, Arriva Shires & Essex, Redline & Carousel Buses (only Sundays)), taxis, minicabs and private cars on roads are also used. To Heathrow Airport: First Berkshire & The Thames Valley bus routes 75, 76, 77 and 78 serve Slough town centre, Langley and Heathrow Airport. First also run bus routes 71 (via Windsor, Egham & Staines-upon-Thames) and 60/61 (via Datchet, Horton & Wraysbury) to Heathrow Terminal 5. Taxis and minicabs are also available at a higher cost. To London: Buses and Greenline coaches are available, but rail is more generally used as express trains connect Slough to London Paddington in 14 minutes. To Birmingham: Bharat Coaches provide services from Southall to Birmingham/Wolverhampton/Coventry/Leeds/Bradford and Leicester via Slough. Slough is near the M4 junctions 5,6, and 7; and the A4, A355, and A412. Rail transport Slough is served by Great Western Railway stations at Burnham, Slough and Langley. Slough station is a junction between the Great Western Main Line and the Slough to Windsor & Eton Line to allow passengers to connect for Windsor & Eton Central. Reading: Great Western Railway operate fast services to Reading every half an hour which takes about 15 minutes, as well as slow services every fifteen minutes which take 30 minutes. London Paddington: Great Western Railway operate express services to London every half an hour which take 14 minutes, as well as slow services every fifteen minutes taking 26 minutes. Slough will have services on the Elizabeth line, a new railway line across central London due to open in 2022 The Western Rail Approach to Heathrow is a £500m rail project announced by the Department for Transport; Network Rail announced the route in 2014. It will directly serve Slough with four trains every hour, reducing travel times to Heathrow to six minutes. It is expected to be operational in the early 2020s. Cycling National Cycle Network route 61 runs through central Slough. A Smoove bike sharing system was launched in October 2013, targeting commuters travelling between the trading estate and nearby railway stations. Canal Slough is connected by the Slough Arm to the main line of the Grand Union Canal which runs between the Thames at Brentford and Birmingham. It travels from the terminus basin at Stoke Road to the junction with the main line at Cowley Peachey; it was restored to navigability in 1975 having been disused since 1960. Sports Slough has a senior non-League football team, Slough Town F.C., who currently play in the National League South. Slough also host the ice hockey team, the Slough Jets. They play in NIHL south 1 division. Reading F.C. Womens and Republic of Ireland Womens goalkeeper Grace Moloney was born and lives in the town. Education There are numerous primary and secondary schools serving Slough. In addition, East Berkshire College has a campus in the area. Slough schools are in the top 10 best performers in the country at GCSE level. In 2011, 68.1% of pupils left school with a minimum of 5 A*-C grades (with English and maths). The national average is 58.9%. Thames Valley University (Slough Campus) is currently closed due to the Heart of Slough project. The new campus was scheduled to be opened in 2013 as part of the University of West London. However, as of March 2022 there has been no progress. In fact the former site of the university has been sold for housing. Cultural references 1597: In Act IV, Scene 5 of Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, Bardolph is mugged: "so soon as I came beyond Eton, (cozenors) threw me off, from behind one of them, in a slough of mire". This could be a reference to Slough. In the same scene Cole-brooke (Colnbrook) is referenced along with Reading and Maidenhead. 1872: Edward Lear made reference to Slough in More Nonsense Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc: There was an old person of Slough, Who danced at the end of a bough; But they said, 'If you sneeze, You might damage the trees, You imprudent old person of Slough.''' 1932: (but set in the 26th century) In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, the chimneys of Slough Crematorium, around which Bernard Marx flies, are used to demonstrate the physio-chemical equality of all people. (Slough's actual crematorium, in the cemetery in Stoke Road, was opened in 1963, coincidentally the year of Huxley's death. Princess Margaret was cremated there in 2002.) 1937: The poet John Betjeman wrote his poem Slough as a protest against the new town and 850 factories that had arisen in what had been formerly a rural area, which he considered an onslaught on the rural lifestyle:Come, friendly bombs and fall on SloughIt isn't fit for humans nowThere isn't grass to graze a cow.Swarm over, death!The poem was published two years before the outbreak of the Second World War, in which Britain (including Slough itself) experienced bombing from enemy air raids. On the centenary of his birth, his daughter said her father "regretted having ever written it", presenting the then Mayor David MacIsaac with a book of his poems in which she had written: "We love Slough". 1979: Slough is mentioned by name in the hit single "The Eton Rifles" by The Jam from the album Setting Sons: "There's a row going on down near Slough" 1991: Film Buddy's Song with externals filmed mainly on the Britwell Estate and the Farnham Road (A355) released. 1996: The Tiger Lillies' album The Brothel to the Cemetery includes a track called "Slough", probably inspired by Betjeman's poem. The lyrics to the chorus are:Drop a bomb on Slough, Drop a bomb on SloughDrop a bomb on Slough, Drop a bomb on Slough 1998: The song "Costa del Slough" by the rock band Marillion posits the town as a post-global warming coastal resort, possibly in a reference to the comedian Spike Milligan having presented Slough on TV as a holiday resort. 2001: The BBC comedy series The Office was set in the sales office of a paper company in Slough, presenting it as a depressing post-industrial wasteland. The character David Brent comments on Betjeman's poem in the series, which also appears on the inside sleeve of the video and DVD of Series 1. In the US version, the office is located on "Slough Avenue" in Scranton, Pennsylvania. 2004: Slough is mentioned on the ABC series Lost in the episode "Homecoming" of Season 1. In a flashback of Charlie's life, a woman he knows says her father is away purchasing a paper company in Slough. It is possible that this is a reference to The Office. 2009: In episode 8, Series 1 of The Legend of Dick and Dom, a CBBC show, the characters find themselves in modern-day Slough. 2015: Sky One comedy drama series You, Me and the Apocalypse is set in Slough where a nuclear bunker is located underneath the Slough Trading Estate. Aerial views are seen of Slough throughout the series. 2016: Ricky Gervais, in his role as David Brent, released the song Slough on his album Life on the Road, the soundtrack to the film by the same title. The chorus runs:Oh oh oh Slough (echo: Slough)My kind of townI don't know howAnyone could put you down'' Crime Slough has a relatively high crime rate; figures for all crime categories are annually above the English average and figures for a few categories are at more than double the frequency. According to British Crime Survey statistics, as of September 2013, Slough had the second worst rate of crime among local authority areas in the Thames Valley Police counties (87 recorded crimes per 1,000 population vs Oxford's 104). However the borough's crime rate reduced by 29% in the ten years to 2013. In the year ending September 2017, the crime rate in Slough was the third highest in the Thames Valley force area, behind Reading (96.42 police recorded crimes per 1000 population) and Oxford (100.71 for the same metric). See also List of people from Slough Notes References External links Slough Borough Council Slough History Online Towns in Berkshire Districts of Berkshire Unitary authority districts of England

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Ting-Chao Chou (born 1938 in Taiwan, Chinese name: 周廷潮) is a Chinese American theoretical biologist, pharmacologist, cancer researcher and inventor. His 457 scientific articles have been cited in 30,929 papers in over 754 biomedical journals as of February 10, 2019. He derived the median-effect equation (MEE) from the physico-chemical principle of the mass-action law, and introduced the median-effect plot in 1976. With Paul Talalay of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, he derived the combination index equation (CIE) for multiple drug effect interactions, and introduced the concept of combination index (CI) for quantitative definition of synergism (CI<1), additive effect (CI=1), and antagonism (CI>1) using computerized simulations. One original article in Advances in Enzyme Regulation 22:27-55, 1984 by Chou-Talalay on CI has been cited 3,637 times internationally in a broad spectrum of journals. Integration of MEE and CIE resulted in Econo-Green bioresearch and new drug development. This integrated theory and algorithms allow conducting small number of data points, conservation of laboratory animals and reducing the number of patients in clinical trials. Consequently, this allows saving time and cost and resources as well as increasing efficiency an effectiveness in medical, pharmaceutical research and new drug development. With colleagues, T.C. Chou is inventor/co-inventor of 40 U.S. Patents, mainly for anticancer agents. Biography Chou was born in Changgangling Village, Hukou Township, Hsinchu County, Taiwan on September 9, 1938 to Chao-Yun Chou and Sheng-Mei Chen. Ancestry His birthplace in Taiwan is Chou family's ancestral hall with a large insignia on the center “濓溪第:” (The Lianxi Place), “汝南堂” (Rue-nan Tarn), listing the family tree for 293 years. “Chou (Zhou) Lianxi” is Chou Tun-i's posthumous name. Chou Tun-i (1017-1073) (周敦頤) was a Neo-Confucian philosopher and cosmologist of the Northern Song Dynasty. His brief essay On Praising Lotus Flower (愛蓮說) was recited by many hundred millions of school children since it was selected in the standard high school textbook in both mainland China and Taiwan. T.C. Chou is an eighth-generation descendant of the Hakka Stream moving from Zhaozhou in Guangdong to Taiwan during the first year of Yongzheng Emperor of Ching Dynasty in 1723. Education Under Japan's rule of Taiwan 1895-1945, the Chou family established a private family school teaching Chinese characters and classics. His father was the teacher. After his father died, the widowed mother sent him to Hsin-Chu Normal School affiliated primary school with three-hour round-trip daily commute in the sixth grade. After the Taiwan Provincial Hsinchu High School, he entered Kaohsiung Medical University School of Pharmacy where he graduated summa cum laude. He was accepted by the Pharmacological Institute of National Taiwan University College of Medicine and received the master's degree under the mentorship of Chen-Yuan Lee, Director of the Institute, and Dean of the Medical School. In 1965, he received the Gibbs Scholarship from Yale University where he devoted to the mathematical aspects of quantitative biology. He received a Ph.D. degree with high honors under the mentorship of Professor Robert E. Hanschumacher. He did a postdoctoral fellowship at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine under Chairman of the Pharmacology Department, Paul Talalay, for two years, 1970-1972. In 1972 he joined the Laboratory of Pharmacology at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) in New York City as an Assistant Professor, affiliated to Cornell University Graduate School of Medical Sciences. He became a Member and Professor in 1988. After 40 years of service at MSKCC, he retired on June 1, 2013 from the Directorship of Preclinical Pharmacology Core Laboratory, Molecular Pharmacology & Chemistry Program of MSKCC. Publication and Citation Metrics T.C. Chou's 273 publications are listed in Thomson Reuters Web of Science, which includes citation numbers, trends, along with the top 20 citing scientists, institutions, and collaboration scientists, institutions, research fields and global distribution maps, as well as total citations each year in the past 20 years). Peer Reviewed Articles The 326 peer reviewed articles have been cited 18,946 scientific papers published in over 800 bio-medical journals as of May 5, 2017. These include original articles, reviews, perspectives, commentaries and editorials. Other publications These include books, book chapters, encyclopedia and handbook chapters, meeting abstracts, computer software, and patents. These publications are not included in the Thomson Reuters Web of Science. Also published are 7 reviews, 10 perspectives, 5 commentaries, 2 editorials, 15 book chapters, 4 encyclopedia and handbook chapter, 4 sets of computer software, 224 international continence/symposium abstracts, and inventor/ co-inventor of 40 US patents. Based on "Ting-Chao Chou-Google Scholar Citations", Mr. Chou has a total citation of 26,292 with H-index of 68 and i10-index of 253. Theory, Algorithm and Definition The Median-Effect Equation The median-effect equation (MEE) of the mass-action law was delivered by Chou in 1974 through the derivation of over 300 rate equations of enzyme dynamics, followed by mathematical induction and deduction. The ratio of the fraction affected (fa) vs the fraction unaffected (fu) is equal to the dose (D) vs the median-effect dose (Dm) to the mth power, where Dm signifies potency and m signifies the sigmodicity (shape) of the dose-effect curve. This median-effect equation, i.e. where fa + fu = 1, is the unified form for the Michaelis-Menten equation for enzyme substrate saturation, the Hill equation for ligand occupancy at high order, the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for pH ionization, and the Scatchard equation for the receptor binding. Thus, the half-affected (Dm) is equivalent to half-saturated (Km), the half-occupied (K), half-ionized (pK) and half-bound and half-free (Kd). MEE is the simplest possible form for all the above equations in biochemistry and biophysics. The “median” is the common-link for single and multiple ligand interactions, and the universal reference point for the first-order and higher order dynamics. The Median-Effect Plot Also introduced by Chou in 1976 was the median-effect plot which is a plot of log (D) vs log [(fa)/(1-fa)] or log [(fa)/(fu)] yields a straight line with slope (m) and the x-intercept of log (Dm), where Dm equals to the anti-log of the x-intercept. This unique theory holds true for all dose-effect curves that follows the physico-chemical principle of the mass-action law, for all entities regardless of the first-order or higher-order dynamics, and regardless of unit or mechanism of actions. MEE is derived by system analysis using enzyme kinetics and mathematical inductions and deductions where hundreds of mechanism specific individual equations are reduced to a single general equation. Both left and right sides of the MEE are dimensionless quantities. When the m and Dm are determined, the full dose-effect curve is defined. Since the median-effect plot yields straight lines, the theoretical minimum of only two data points allow the drawing of the full dose-effect curve, when the effect is accurately determined. This fundamental revelation defies the common held belief that two data points cannot draw a defined does-effect curve. The main significance of MEE is the mediation that "Dose" and "Effect" or "Mass" and "Function" are interchangeable. The "Mass" vs "Energy" was defined E=MC2 for subatomic fission and fusion; Now "Mass" vs "Action" is defined by MEE for supramolecular dynamics. The Combination Index Theorem The combination index (CI) concept was introduced by Chou T.C. and Talalay P. during 1983-84[3] The derived combination index equation for two drugs is: Where (Dx)1 is for (D)1 “alone” that inhibits a system x%, and (Dx)2 is for (D)2 “alone” that inhibits a system x% whereas in the numerator, (D)1 + (D)2, “in combination” also inhibit x%. Note that the denominators of the last two terms are the expression of MEE. The CI Value quantitatively defines synergism (CI<1), additive effect (CI=1) and antagonism (CI>1). The Combination Index Plot Based on the above MEE and CI algorithms, a plot of CI values at different effect levels (fa's) can be determined by computer simulation (e.g. CompuSyn or CalcuSyn software, www. Combosyn.com, free download). Entering a series of "dose (D) and effect (fa)" into computer for each drug alone and their combinations, the software will automatically simulate the CI values at different fa levels in seconds, based on the CI algorithm. This plot is also called the Fa-CI plot or the Chou-Talalay plot. Depending on the experimental design, the combination mixtures can be at constant ratio or at non-constant ratios. The CI equations for three or more drug combinations have also been derived and can be subjected to computer simulation. The CI theorem is developed for drugs (or effectors) regardless of mechanism of actions, and regardless of dynamic orders and or the units of each drug in the combination. The method has been applied in the combination of anti-cancer drugs, anti-HIV agents, drug-radiation, and traditional Chinese herbal medicines. On March 16, 2016 the publisher/global website, Elsevier had a news release indicated "Chou & Talalay paper from 1984 makes history" The Isobolograms The idea of isobologram, i.e. the equi-effective curve at various concentrations or doses of two drugs, has been around for a century. However, only until 1984 the formal derivation of its equation in the general form was introduced by Chou and Talalay. The isobol equation is just a special case of the CI equation. Thus automated computerized construction of either the classic isobologram (at constant ratio combinations) or the normalized isobologram (at non-constant ratio combination) can be performed in seconds using CompuSyn software. In addition, the isobol method is now amendable for three or more drug combinations. Both Fa-CI plot and isobologram yield identical conclusion of synergism or antagonism. The Fa-CI plot is effect-oriented whereas isobol is dose-oriented. Both graphics can be considered two-sides of the same coin. However, Fa-CI plot is visually more convenient to use than isobologram since data point over crowding in isobologram at various effect levels can be avoided. The Dose-Reduction Index (DRI) The DRI is a measure of how many folds the dose of each drug in a synergistic combination may be reduced, at a given effect level, compared with the doses of each drug alone. The inverted terms in the CI equation, are the DRIs for the corresponding individual drugs in the combination. The reduced dose which will reduce toxicity at the increased effect would lead to beneficial clinical consequences. The algorithm and computerized simulation of the DRI plot at different effect levels (i.e. the Fa-DRI plot or Chou-Martin plot) has been available using the CompuSyn software. DRI=1 indicates no dose reduction, whereas DRI>1 and <1 indicate favorable and unfavorable dose-reduction, respectively. The Polygonogram Taking the advantage of facile CI determination, a new simple graphic representation of three or more drug combinations has been introduced by T.C. Chou and J. Chou in 1998. This method allows visual inspection of two-to-n drug combinations in the same circular frame which can be used to project the plausible semi-quantitative projection of what would happen at the higher numbers of drug combinations, form the low numbers of drug combinations. Using heavy red solid lines representing strong synergism and heavy blue broken lines representing strong antagonism, and thinner solid or broken lines for weaker interactions, a grading system can be established. It is easy to obtain the overall perspectives for planning the cocktail design of multiple drug combinations. The polygonogram graphics for five anticancer drugs with different mechanism of actions has been featured on the front-cover of May 2011 issue of Integrative Biology,[3] published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge UK (see the External Link). Applications of the Theory With the median-effect equation as the unified theory of the mass-action law and its combination index theorem for multiple effector interactions, these algorithms can be applied to virtually all aspects of quantitative biology and medical sciences as shown in over 754 different bio-medical journals. The conventional approach of dose-effect analysis in the past centuries has used numerous data points to draw the empirical dose-effect curve to best fit the available data by least square regression or other statistical means. This old approach is under the premises of assuming dose and effect relationships are random events. By contrast, the MEE theory is to use small number (usually 3-7) of data points to fit the mass-action law to yield its parameters (i.e. m, Dm and r), and to lineage all dose-effect curves with the automated median-effect plot. This led to "the theory of minimum of two data points" for easily defining the dose-effect curve with the m and Dm parameters. Econo-Green Bio-Research Two Data Points Theory The revelation that all mass-action law based dose-effect curves can be transformed into straight lines with the median-effect plot leads to the theory that the theoretical minimum of two data points are required to define the entire dose-effect curve. In conjunction with the median-effect principle of the mass-action law, the referred “two data” points actually has the third data point at dose zero. In addition, the median-effect dose (Dm) is the fourth point which serves as the universal reference point and the common link to all dynamic orders. T.C. Chou has not contemplated to use only two data points for experimentation due to the fact that it requires highly accurate measurement and low variability for the high r values. However, this mass-action theory leads to a green revolution in bio-medical research and effective and efficient drug development, as manifested in Chou's laboratory and elsewhere. Computer Software and Utilities The major applications of the drug combinations are against the most dreadful diseases such as cancer and AIDS as indicated in the citation metrics.Broad application includes drug-radiation combination, combination of insecticides and combinations of different modalities of effectors at different combination ratios, schedules and regimens. For single entity or drug, it calculate mass-action law parameters such as Dm values (IC50, ED50, LD50, ICx, EDx and LDx, etc.), m values (shape of dose-effect curves and dynamic orders) with computerized automation. Other applications include: (i) Low-dose risk assessment of carcinogens, toxic substances and radiation, singly or in combination for environmental protection; (ii) Agricultural utilization of insecticides, and interaction of environmental factors; (iii) Topological analysis of receptor binding site for exclusivity and competitiveness; (iv) Calculation of Ki from IC50; (v) conservation of laboratory animals in research; and (vi) Efficient design of drug combination clinical trials using small number of patients, and thereby reducing time and cost. Patents U.S. Patents: Collaboration of pharmacologists with organic chemists and the employment of the mass-action law principle resulted in 40 U.S. patents, of which one is for the solo inventor. These are accomplished with small number of personnel and limited financial support. Some invented compounds have been in clinical trials in cancer patients. International Patents Some patents with promising utilities are selected for international patent applications. These include synthetic microtubule targeting epothilone compounds against solid tumors and leukemias, such as Fludelone and Iso-Oxazole-Fludelone; Immunosuppressants for organ transplantation, such as Ardeemins and Ningalins; and synthetic cyto-protective Panaxytriols (inspired by Chinese/Korea ginseng) for reducing chemotherapy-induced toxicities such as body weight loss, peripheral neuropathy, alopecia, and death, and alleviation of radiation-induced toxicities. Illustration of Ancient Philosophy The algorithms of the median-effect equation and the combination index theorem of the physico-chemical principle of the mass-action law and their computer simulation offer the new interpretation/illustration of the ancient Chinese philosophy. This revelation of correspondence and complementarity have been presented or published at the following major national or international philosophical congress, conference, forum, or symposium: (i) American Philosophical Association East Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD 12/28/2007; (ii) World Congress of Philosophy, Seoul, Korea 8/3/2008; (iii) Peking University School of Life Science and Department of Philosophy, Beijing, China 10/24/2008; (iv) 16th International Conference of Chinese Philosophy sponsored by International Society of Chinese Philosophy, Taipei, Taiwan 7/8-15/2009; (v) 13th Yijing World Congress, Wuxi, China 6/14/2010; (vi) 7th International Forum on the Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China 9/21-23/2011; (vii) Bio-IT World Europe Bio Informatics 2011, Hanover, Germany 10/11-13/2011. • Confucian Doctrine of the Mean (i-iii, vii): Median is the universal link • Harmony and Daoism (v, vi, vii): Harmony is pure non-competitiveness • Wuji er Taiji and Wu-Hsin (i, ii, v, vi): Material dynamics and equilibrium • Fu Xi Ba Gua (ii, iii, v): Entity, time, space, vector, order and dynamics Publications 1. Web of Science, Google Scholar, ResearchGate and All Publications http://www.researcherid.com/rid/B-4111-2009, by Thomson Reuters Web of Science for "Ting-Chao_Chou" [Citation Metrics, Collaborations, Institutions, Disciplines & Map] (273 articles been cited 18,975 times in 754 journals, as of 5/5/2017) https://scholar.google.de/citations?user=xjcodA8AAAAJ&hl=en [Google Scholar Citations - Ting-Chao Chou] All Publications [Cited 26,324 times with h-index of 68, as of 5/5/2017] https://synapse.mskcc.org/synapse/people/7144-TingChao_Chou [MSKCC Chou Web Site] https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ting_Chao_Chou [Chou's Bibliometrics by ResearchGate] 2. Topics Listing http://www.labome.org/expert/usa/memorial/chou/ting-chao-chou-833059.html [Topics, Collaborations] http://www.gbv.de/dms/bs/toc/016060059.pdf [Book, Academic Press, 1991 by Chou & Rideout] http://patent.ipexl.com/inventor/Ting-Chao_Chou_1.html [Patents Full Listing] 3. The Unified Theory (Cited 5,133 times by 754 bio-medical journals as of 5/5/2017) (Cited 2,036 times in 505 bio-medical journals between 2007–5/5/2017) (Cited 452 times) (Cited 1360 times in 321 journals) (Cited 310 times) (Cited 230 times) (Chou - Talalay Theory, 1977). http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v6/n2/full/nm0200_200.html [Nature Medicine 6:200-206, 2000] [Cited 890 times as of 5/5/2017] (Journal Inauguration First Article) http://regulatoryaffairs.pharmaceuticalconferences.com/speaker/2015/ting-chao-chou-pd-science-llc-usa [Pharmaceutical Regulatory Affairs -Keynote Speech, Orlando, FL Aug..3 2015] http://www.worldjournal.com/3369299/article-《人物》科學家周廷潮-理論引用世界第一/ [World Journal Weekly Article about Chou's Theoretical Work, August 9, 2015] (in Chinese) https://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=0&q=%22author:Chou+author:Ting-Chao.%22&hl=en&as_sdt=0,31 [Chou TC, 457 Publications & Their Citations] 4. Econo-Green Bio-Research and Computer Software http://blogs.rsc.org/ib/2011/05/05/hot-one-equation-to-lead-the-way-to-greener-biomedical-sciences/ [Integrative Biology journal blogs] http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/86/20/1517 [Theory in Clinical Trials & Applications, 1994, Cited 479 times] http://www.bio-itworldexpoeurope.com/bio-it_europe_content.aspx?id=106874&libID=106831 [Bio-It World 2012, Featured Speaker for Drug Discovery Informatics, Hanover, Germany] http://www.worldcat.org/title/dose-effect-analysis-with-microcomputers/oclc/20772177 [Software by J.Chou & TC Chou, Biosoft, Cambridge, UK, 1985] http://www.biosoft.com/w/calcusyn.htm [CalcuSyn Software by Chou & Hayball, 1998, Biosoft, Cambridge, UK] http://www.combosyn.com/ [CompuSyn Software by Chou & Martin, 2005, Combosyn, Inc., Paramus, NJ. Free download. 2012- ] 5. The 40 U.S. Patents http://patent.ipexl.com/inventor/Ting-Chao_Chou_1.html [Full Listing] http://patents.justia.com/search?q=Ting-Chao+Chou&page=3 [Listing] http://radaris.com/p/Ting-Chao/Chou/ [Partial Listing] http://www.faqs.org/patents/inventor/ting-chao-chou-paramus-us-1/ [Statistics] https://archive.today/20130923161420/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/8513429/description.html [US Patent on Epothilones, Issued 8/20/2013] http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/WO2008103916 [Panaxytriols Patent] 6. Philosophy http://www.pdcnet.org/wcp22/content/wcp22_2008_0002_0021_0039 [World Congress of Philosophy, 2008, Seoul] http://philpapers.org/rec/CHOANL [Philpapers online blogs] http://core.ac.uk/download/files/77/287932.pdf [(Nature Precedings, npre.2008.2031.1 ] [GPS Bio-Informatics by Chou] http://www.yijing.co.uk/conferences/2010-china/talks.html [Yijing World Conference- 2010. Wuxi, China. Press Release]. (Honorary Guest/Speaker) http://tingchaochou.blogspot.com/ [Chou's M-theory] http://pkunews.pku.edu.cn/zdlm/2008-10/21/content_130609.htm [Peking University Speech, 10/24/2008] References External links https://www.journals.elsevier.com/advances-in-biological-regulation/news/-chou-talalay-paper-from-1984-makes-history [Chou & Talalay paper from 1984 makes history. Elservier Press Release 3.16.2016] http://precedings.nature.com/documents/2064/version/2 [T.C. Chou, The Mass-Action Law for Bio-Informatics. Nature Precedings, 7/22/2008] http://laoyouji000.blog.sohu.com/102704065.html [Comments on Chou's Speech in Beijing by Muyu in Sohu Blog, in Chinese] http://libgallery.cshl.edu/items/show/32731 [Chou's letter to Prof. James D. Watson. 10/6/1974, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives Repository] https://www.mskcc.org/blog/finding-treatments-nature [MSKCC News] http://blogs.rsc.org/ib/2011/05/05/hot-one-equation-to-lead-the-way-to-greener-biomedical-sciences/ [Integrative Biology Blogs, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK] http://grisham.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/CenterNews-Dec-2005b.pdf (MSKCC Center News 2005) http://www.bio-itworldexpo.com/Bio-It_Europe_Content.aspx?id=106874&libID=106831 [Featured Speech BioIT World 2012. Hanover, Germany, on Drug Discovery Informatics] http://www.pubfacts.com/author/Ting-Chao+Chou [Chou Publication Links] http://www.journals.elsevier.com/synergy/editorial-board/ http://regulatoryaffairs.pharmaceuticalconferences.com/speaker/2015/ting-chao-chou-pd-science-llc-usa [ Chou Opening Keynote Speech] http://en.wikitally.com/wiki/Ting-Chao_Chou.html [WikiTally Statistics] 周廷潮 [Chou TC Chinese Wikipedia 2017] http://sp.mc.ntu.edu.tw/sopPage.php?malangue=&myrub=news&flanum=72884116445NWstLUUDpXSM6 [Natl. Taiwan Univ-P Seminar Announcement 11/14/2016] http://www.nibs.ac.cn/newsshow.php?cid=0&sid=14&id=408 [China Natl. Inst. Biol. Sci., Beijing Seminar announcement 10/23/2008] 1938 births Cancer researchers Living people American people of Chinese descent Taiwanese people of Hakka descent People from Hsinchu Kaohsiung Medical University alumni National Taiwan University alumni Hakka scientists Yale University alumni

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The 2018 Berlin ePrix (formally the 2018 BMW i Berlin E-Prix) was a Formula E electric car race held at the Tempelhof Airport Street Circuit at Tempelhof Airport in the outskirts of Berlin on 19 May 2018. It was the ninth round of the 2017–18 Formula E Championship and the fourth edition of the event as part of the championship. The 45-lap race was won by Audi driver Daniel Abt after starting from the pole position. Defending champion Lucas di Grassi finished second in the other Audi, thus recording the second one-two finish in Formula E history. Jean-Éric Vergne, the championship leader going into Berlin, took third for Techeetah. Daniel Abt won the pole position by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and he maintained his start line advantage for virtually the entire race, with teammate di Grassi in second at Audi's home ePrix despite Abt having a slow mandatory mid-event pit stop to switch into a second car as he had to let e.Dams-Renault's Sébastien Buemi enter his pitbox. Abt also set the fastest lap of the race, meaning he left Berlin with the full complement of 29 points from a single ePrix, and he achieved the first Grand Chelem in the history of Formula E. The consequence of the final positions increased Vergne's Drivers' Championship lead to 40 points over Virgin's Sam Bird, who came seventh. In the Teams' Championship, Audi scored a maximum 47 points because of their one-two finish and with Abt scoring pole and fastest lap. They advanced to second in the points standings behind the dominant Techeetah squad, with 45 points separating the two teams with three races left in the season. Background The 2018 Berlin ePrix was confirmed as part of Formula E's 2017–18 series schedule in September 2017 by the FIA World Motor Sport Council. It was the ninth of twelve scheduled single-seater electric car races of the 2017–18 Championship, and the fourth Berlin ePrix. The ePrix was held at the clockwise ten-turn Tempelhof Airport Street Circuit at Berlin Tempelhof Airport on 19 May 2018. The track was described as "very technical" and it was anticipated by the press that most of the overtaking manoeuvres during the race would occur at the braking areas for turns one, six and the turn nine hairpin. Three changes were made to the Tempelhof circuit from the year before: the first involved the re-positioning pit lane entry from turn ten to after the final corner. The second was that the 180 degree turn six right-hander was moved away from the center of a braking zone slightly to allow for a straighter approach to the turn nine hairpin and to provide more overtaking opportunities. The last change saw the length of the straight increase by . These alterations increased the track's overall length by . Entering the race, Techeetah driver Jean-Éric Vergne was leading the Drivers' Championship with 147 points. His nearest rival Sam Bird of Virgin was thirty-one points behind in second place and third-placed Felix Rosenqvist for Mahindra was another thirty points adrift. e.Dams-Renault's Sébastien Buemi was fourth with 70 points and Lucas di Grassi of Audi completed the top five with 58 points. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah led the standings with 186 points accrued throughout the season; Virgin were 42 points behind in second and Audi were a further 21 points in arrears in third place. Mahindra placed fourth with 107 points and Jaguar stood in fifth position with 88 points. After winning the Paris ePrix three weeks ago, Vergne focused on trying to finish ahead of Bird in the battle for the Drivers' Championship in the closing four races of the season but entered the Berlin race with a poor record from the previous year and Techeetah had limited testing opportunities because of its status as a customer team, "At this stage in the season, it's all about keeping it clean and scoring points.” Vergne received support from his teammate André Lotterer, one of four German drivers competing in Berlin, who declared he would help Vergne win the championship and pledged not to crash into anybody, "If I can help, I'll help. JEV has been a great team-mate to help me get up to speed anyhow – we play this card for the team [and] everything in a reasonable [way]." Daniel Abt of Audi meanwhile came second in the 2016 race and was confident about his chances, "A victory in Berlin would be the highlight of my Formula E career. I had a second place in the penultimate season and even that was very emotional for me." A total of 20 drivers representing ten teams of two participants each raced in the event. There were three driver changes entering the race. Having been in one of the Venturi cars since the season-opening Hong Kong race, Edoardo Mortara was replaced by the team's reserve and test driver Tom Dillmann, who had previously competed in the final seven races of the previous season. The change was necessitated because Mortara was mandated to prioritise the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM) round at the EuroSpeedway Lausitz over the Berlin Formula E race by Mercedes-Benz per the requirements of his DTM contract. Tom Blomqvist was released from his contract by Andretti after his poor performance in comparison to teammate António Félix da Costa since he debuted in Marrakesh and was set to focus on BMW's GT programme. Blomqvist was replaced by series veteran and SMP Racing driver Stéphane Sarrazin for the rest of the season. After being stood down for NIO reserve driver Ma Qinghua in Paris to exercise a contractual arrangement and for promotional reasons, Luca Filippi returned to partner Oliver Turvey at the team. Practice Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second lasted half an hour. A half an hour untimed shakedown session was held on Friday afternoon to enable teams to check the reliability of their cars and their electronic systems. A post-shakedown fine of €1000 was issued to Filippi because he was observed speeding in the pit lane. Nick Heidfeld (Mahindra) was fastest in the first practice session with a lap of one minute and 9.667 seconds at the close of the session. His closest challenger was Buemi who was 0.474 seconds off Heidfeld's pace in second with Vergne in third and Rosenqvist fourth. Turvey, Alex Lynn (Virgin), Félix da Costa, di Grassi, Mitch Evans (Jaguar), Nico Prost (e.Dams-Renault) and Abt placed fifth through tenth. Sarrazin caused the session to be stopped for fifteen minutes when he understeered straight into the turn one barrier due to his throttle being partially engaged under braking. This necessitated officials to extract his damaged car from the track via a crane and one of the TecPro barriers needed repairing. Competitors lost valuable practice time and the session restarted with fifteen minutes remaining. Drivers familiarised themselves with their car-setups in second practice and got into a rhythm during their laps despite encountering slower traffic and discarded tyre rubber at the side of the circuit was problematic for all. Vergne set the fastest lap of the weekend so far with a time of one minute and 9.438 seconds despite narrowly avoiding grazing the turn seven wall. Rosenqvist was second and Lotterer was the fastest of the German drivers in third. Di Grassi and Abt were fourth and sixth and the Audis were separated by Buemi in fifth. Jérôme d'Ambrosio (Dragon) was seventh-quickest, Lynn eighth, Evans ninth and Bird completed the top ten ahead of qualifying. Qualifying Saturday's afternoon qualifying session ran for an hour and was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. All drivers were limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. Traditionally the first qualifying group would have competitors struggle to reach super pole but the Templehof Airport Street Circuit has been known to produce unexpected results since its concrete surface absorbs heat generated by a car's tyres and this posed a risk those who had little to no grip in their vehicles. Abt paced the first group, followed by Turvey and the Jaguar duo of Evans (who made a driving error) and Nelson Piquet Jr. Super pole favourite Lotterer was one of the first drivers to venture onto the circuit and attempt a maximum power lap. He slid luridly through the sixth turn, and then glanced the outside barrier leaving the high-speed turn seven left-hander on his timed lap, sustaining possible car damage given he was eight-tenths of a second slower than Abt. In the second group, Lynn set the fastest first sector time of anyone at the time to go third overall and was fastest despite losing time through car correction in the second sector. José María López (Dragon) eliminated Piquet and Lotterer from super pole with the second quickest group time. Maro Engel (Venturi) placed third and Heidfeld managed fourth after glancing the wall. Félix da Costa locked his brakes and was slowest in the second group. D'Ambrosio set the fastest group three lap to go second overall, which was deemed "a major improvement" considering his poor performance earlier in the season. Dillmann was second-quickest, Sarrazin out-qualified teammate Félix da Costa on his Formula E return in third, and Filippi took fourth. Prost had an untidy exit coming out of turn five and was the slowest overall driver in group qualifying. Di Grassi was fastest overall in the fourth group with a 1-minute and 9.620 seconds lap, which was one-tenth of a second slower than Engel's 2017 fastest race lap despite the track's increased length. Vergne was one-tenth of a second slower than di Grassi in second and Rosenqvist could not reach super pole with a lap that was one hundredths of a second outside the limit and it placed him third in the group. Buemi was the first driver to record a lap time in the group and briefly moved into the top five before di Grassi and Vergne demoted him. Bird was the fourth group's slowest competitor. At the end of group qualifying, di Grassi, Vergne, Turvey, d'Ambrosio and Abt's lap times advanced them to super pole. Abt was fastest in all three sectors by making no errors and secured his and Audi's first pole position of his season and the second of his career since the 2015 Long Beach ePrix with a time of one minute and 9.472 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by Turvey (the first to drive onto the track) who recorded a lap 0.263 seconds slower and had the pole until Abt's lap despite locking his brakes on the approach to turn six. Vergne could not match Abt's pace as he went close to hitting the wall exiting the turn nine hairpin and took third. D'Ambrosio picked up some oversteer going through the first corner and slowed for fourth. Fifth-placed di Grassi ran close to the turn three exit barrier and carried too much speed entering the turn nine hairpin, understeered, and corrected a slide which lost him eight-tenths of a second. Post-qualifying Abt was investigated by the stewards for a potential infraction of Article 33.3 of Formula E's sporting regulations because data received by the technical delegate of Formula E from his car was in the mode approximately before the beginning of the circuit's final sector. Though Audi and Abt could not explain why the infraction occurred, he was reprimanded not penalised as the stewards deemed he had gained no performance advantage. Lotterer was demoted ten places on the grid because he was adjudged to have caused an crash with Bird on the final lap of the Paris ePrix. However, he could not take the full penalty because he began from 20th after setting the 18th quickest lap time and had to serve a mandatory ten-second time penalty at his pit stop to switch into a second car. After Lotterer's penalty, the rest of the grid lined up as Rosenqvist, Buemi, Lynn, Evans, Bird, López, Dillmann, Engel, Heidfeld, Piquet, Sarrazin, Félix da Costa, Filippi, Prost and Lotterer. Qualifying classification Notes: — André Lotterer was demoted ten places on the grid because was deemed to have an accident at the preceding Paris ePrix. Race Weather conditions at the start of the race were dry and sunny. The air temperature throughout the race was between and the track temperature ranged from . A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kilowatts (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. Abt, Rosenqvist and Buemi were awarded the extra power for the Berlin race. The ePrix's start time was moved from 16:03 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) to 18:03 by German national broadcaster ARD to enable a live telecast between the women's DFB-Pokal and the men's DFB-Pokal finals. On the grid, Abt held his lead approaching the first corner, while Turvey aggressively held off an attack by Vergne. D'Ambrosio then executed a late manoeuvre around the outside of Vergne for third at the first turn having moved past di Grassi shortly beforehand. Behind them, Rosenqvist tried to copy this move but ran wide onto the dusty turn one run-off area. He kept his car out of the barriers but fell out of the top ten. At the end of the first lap, Abt led Turvey by seven-tenths of a second with d'Ambrosio nearly a further second behind in third. D'Ambrosio fended off Vergne and di Grassi until Vergne moved ahead of him on the inside line at turn six on the second lap with di Grassi getting past d'Ambrosio entering the turn nine hairpin the lap after. Buemi then demoted d'Ambrosio to sixth with an overtake at the turn nine hairpin on lap four. Further down the order, Heidfeld passed Piquet around the outside at the first corner on the fifth lap while Rosenqvist waited until the following lap to get by the latter. Meanwhile, Evans overtook Bird to claim seventh into turn six. Bird considered challenging him around the outside before slowing. On lap seven, Heidfeld dived down the inside of López driving into the first turn to take over twelfth. Upfront, Abt established a healthy advantage over Turvey who held off Vergne and di Grassi. The ninth lap had Heidfeld overtake Dillmann approaching the turn nine hairpin to move into the top ten while Lynn fell behind Piquet, Rosenqvist, Sarrazin and Félix da Costa because an electrical glitch affected his power usage. Then on lap 11, di Grassi passed Vergne around the outside of turn six to move into third. This disrupted Vergne's momentum enough to enable Buemi to demote him to fifth around the inside of the turn nine hairpin on that lap. Starting lap 12, Di Grassi attacked the electrical energy saving Turvey entering turn one but his manoeuvre was unsuccessful. That did not prevent di Grassi from attempting again and was successful next time round; getting past Turvey to claim second around the inside on the straight heading into turn six. Elsewhere, Heidfeld's move up the field temporarily stopped as he was delayed by Engel and defended from López. Similarly, d'Ambrosio lost positions to Evans and Bird while Lotterer was now in fifteenth position by lap 15. Abt's lead had stabilised to three and a half seconds over teammate di Grassi by lap 20. That lap, Vergne lunged at Buemi on the run to the first corner as both drivers went wide and minor contact was made when Vergne took fourth from Buemi at the next turn. The first pit stops for the switch into a second car was made by Turvey at the end of lap 22 with the rest of the field following on the next lap with no incidents occurring in contrast to previous rounds of the season. After the pit stops, Abt retained his lead over teammate di Grassi but it was lowered to six-tenths of a second because he waited for Buemi to pass by but it prevented him from having an unsafe release. Buemi meanwhile got back past Vergne due to a faster pit stop. Abt soon began increasing his lead over teammate di Grassi who reportedly carried a steering problem. He earned one point for setting the race's fastest lap at lap 26, a 1-minute and 12,409 seconds lap. Audi also instructed their drivers via pit boards not to take any risks. Attention then focused on d'Ambrosio who delayed the quartet of López, Heidfeld, Engel and Rosenqvist. Heidfeld was so distracted on attempting to pass López, that it allowed Engel to overtake him for ninth at the first turn. Upfront, Buemi and Vergne got close enough to challenge Turvey who had electrical energy management problems. Buemi passed Turvey when the latter ran wide at turn ten on lap 33 and Vergne saw an opportunity to get past Turvey leaving the same corner. Vergne later found himself in a position to overtake Buemi entering turn one upon starting the next lap but decided against doing so. He instead waited until turn six when he decided late on to steer to the left and pass a surprised Buemi for third as he was intent on maintaining his championship lead. Buemi tried to cutback on Vergne leaving the corner but nudged his nose cone into Vergne's rear wing. Elsewhere, D'Ambrosio fell behind López. He fell further back when Dillmann passed him before turn one. Heidfeld moved past d'Ambrosio approaching turn two and Rosenqvist overtook the latter heading towards turn six. Engel and López fought amongst themselves but got close to Bird and formed a close queue of cars from seventh to thirteenth. Piquet moved ahead of Rosenqvist around the outside entering turn ten to claim twelfth. Rosenqvist used his FanBoost the lap after on the straight entering turn six to try and retake twelfth from Piquet but the latter fended off his manoeuvre. Piquet carried enough momentum to pass Heidfeld and Dillmann to move into the top ten. Piquet tried to pass López on the inside line heading into the final corner but was unsuccessful. Piquet then tried again on the same line into the first corner but locked his front brakes; he and López ran wide into the turn's dusty run-off area. Both Mahindras moved past and López was tapped from behind by Rosenqvist on the apex of turn three and spun. These events allowed Lotterer to get into the top ten. Vergne tried to set the fastest lap in the final laps but could not do so. Lotterer had conserved enough electrical energy and used it to overtake Heidfeld for ninth on the final lap. Meanwhile, Abt found a rhythm he liked and extended his advantage at the front of the field to 6.7 seconds to cross the start/finish line after 45 laps to claim his second career victory after his Mexico City ePrix win two months prior. Abt achieved the first "Grand Slam" in Formula E history (pole position, fastest lap, led every lap and the win). Di Grassi followed 6.758 seconds later in second and Audi secured the second one-two finish in Formula E history after Techeetah achieved the feat in the Santiago ePrix. Vergne completed the podium in third. Off the podium, Buemi took fourth, Turvey claimed fifth, Evans finished sixth, Bird placed seventh, Engel was eighth and Lotterer came ninth. Heidfeld completed the top ten and earned his first point since the Marrakesh ePrix. The last of the finishers were Rosenqvist, Piquet, Dillmann, Prost, Félix da Costa, Lynn, Filippi, López, d'Ambrosio and Sarrazin. This race had all twenty starters finish for the first time in the season. Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Abt spoke of his delight over taking the victory the one-two finish and stated he was feeling confident on the day, "It’s super special. I keep saying I have these weeks where I just feel like good stuff is going to happen and I had this feeling here in my home round." Di Grassi took his fourth successive second-place finish and congratulated his teammate Abt on taking the win. He stated his feeling that it was a deserved victory for Abt, "The one-two is a dream come true for Audi after we started the year so badly and now we’ve recovered and are second in the team championship, and it was my fourth straight podium in a row – I can only be happy!" Third-placed Vergne joined in the congratulations to Abt and Audi for their achievements and said he was happy with the job his team undertook after their poor performance at Templehof the previous year, "The race went very well, I took it easy, I knew from this morning the Audi guys were out of reach. When Lucas was behind I didn’t even look, I let him by. Then I passed Buemi and he was quite aggressive in closing the door sometimes. The pit stop wasn’t bad, I lost a position to Buemi so I had to pass him again.” Turvey was convinced that the strategy his team made was the correct one, saying the decision to make a pit stop one lap earlier than everyone else was because of him saving too much electrical energy but believed a podium would have been difficult to maintain due to Buemi and Vergne's fast pace, "When we changed strategy, I felt I could stay with the Audis but not be any quicker. They were super quick, both of them. When I saw them carry on and I pitted a lap earlier, that was it. They had a big advantage today in the race." Rosenqvist spoke of his belief that he had to risk his first lap overtaking manoeuvre so he could get back into championship contention and suspected his car's handling was the reason he struggled during the ePrix because he anticipated an eighth or ninth-place finish, "I don't think it's a powertrain matter, it's more [that] I don't feel the car underneath me and I think that's costing a lot of energy and a lot of lap time, [at] every corner. It's just been a different car compared to last year." Sarrazin said that energy management hindered his race because he had used too much but sought to improve for the Zürich ePrix. Buemi warned Vergne to expect an alternative response if he decided to battle with him in the future but said he believed if he attempted the same action as Vergne he would have crashed, "He’s been a bit tough I felt in some of the contacts but I was just a bit on the back foot because I was slower. I’m looking forward to the next time because next time I’ll go a bit harder, I won’t care as much so we’ll see. He won the battle, but next time he should not expect it to be like that." Bird told the press that he was still hopeful that he could catch Vergne in the Drivers' Championship battle as he expected to improve his results in the season's closing three races but stated his feeling a repeat of his 2017 New York City ePrix double header success would be more difficult next time round, "Like normal, I have to do a miracle at the last race! But stranger things have happened. Looking back at New York last year, that wasn’t so bad for me. 53 out of 58 points came my way. To do that again will take some doing though." The consequence of the race meant Vergne increased his lead at the top of the Drivers' Championship to 40 points over his nearest rival Bird. Rosenqvist was a further 36 points adrift in third place and race winner Abt moved from sixth to fourth. Buemi's fourth-place finish meant he fell to fifth position. Techeetah maintained their lead in the Teams' Championship but their advantage had been reduced to 44 points by Audi whose one-two result moved them to second. Virgin's solitary points result from Bird meant the team fell to third and Mahindra and Jaguar kept fourth and fifth places respectively with three races left in the season. Ivan Yim the managing director for Techeetah, cautioned the team over their battle against Audi as he was aware of the German marque's strengths and urged his team to score as many points as possible. Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Notes: — One point for fastest lap, three points for pole position. Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings. References External links |- style="text-align:center" |width="35%"|Previous race:2018 Paris ePrix |width="30%"|FIA Formula E Championship2017–18 season |width="35%"|Next race:2018 Zürich ePrix |- style="text-align:center" |width="35%"|Previous race:2017 Berlin ePrix |width="30%"|Berlin ePrix |width="35%"|Next race:2019 Berlin ePrix |- style="text-align:center" 2018 Berlin ePrix ePrix May 2018 events in Germany Berlin ePrix

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Navi Mumbai (, is a planned city situated on the west coast of the Indian subcontinent, lies in Konkan division of Maharashtra state, on the mainland of India. Navi Mumbai is part of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR). The city is divided into two, North Navi Mumbai and South Navi Mumbai, for the individual development of Panvel Mega City, which includes the area from Kharghar to Uran, including Taloja node. Navi Mumbai has a population of 1,119,477 as per the 2011 provisional census. It has an average city elevation of 14 meters, excluding forest area. The area was proposed in 1971 as a new urban township of Mumbai by the Government of Maharashtra. A new public sector undertaking, CIDCO, was established for this purpose. Navi Mumbai is situated across two districts, Thane and Raigad. The city has been ranked 4th among 73 cities surveyed for cleanliness and hygiene by the Union Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) and Quality Council of India (QCI) as a part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan..Majority of Infrastructure and buildings are made & owned by Government of India. Navi Mumbai is home to various educational institutions offering courses in several streams including engineering, medical sciences, interior designing, and hotel management. Various multinational corporations like ACG Group, Aplab, Siemens, McDonald's, Morningstar, Inc., Baker Hughes, Bureau Veritas, Bizerba, CRISIL, Reliance, Mastek, Accenture, Selcore Technology, Hexaware Technologies, firstsource, Hinduja Group, Larsen & Toubro, VENUS Safety and cyber security multinational Velox have their head offices/branches across the city, making it an active business hub. Navi Mumbai also has various recreational facilities such as a Golf Course, Central Park and Pandavkada Water Falls in Kharghar, Parsik Hill near CBD Belapur, Wonders Park and Jewel of Navi Mumbai in Nerul and Seawoods, Mini Seashore Juhu Chowpatty in Juhu Nagar (Juhu Gaon), Sagar Vihar in Vashi, Pirwad, Nagav, and Mankeshwar Beaches in Uran, Belapur Fort in CBD Belapur, Karnala Bird Sanctuary near Panvel, and several other public places like gardens and jogging tracks. Navi Mumbai also has many quality restaurants and luxury hotels for accommodation. There are many shopping malls, such as Seawoods Grand Central Mall in Seawoods, Little World Mall, Glomax Mall and Prime Mall in Kharghar, Orion Mall and K-Mall in Panvel, Centre One Mall, Inorbit Mall, Raghuleela Mall, Citi Centre and Palm Beach Galleria in Vashi. Navi Mumbai is also a host to many best health care centres and hospitals like MITR Hospital in Sector 05, Kharghar, Fortis Hiranandani Hospital near Juhu Village, Juhu Nagar (Vashi), Apollo Hospital in Belapur and SRL diagnostic centres in Kharghar, Panvel, Kamothe, Kalamboli, Koper Khairane, Juhu Gaon to name a few. History India experienced a phenomenal rate of urban growth during the 25 years following independence and Mumbai always has had its due share in it. The population of Greater Mumbai rose from 2.966 million in 1951 to 4.152 million in 1961 and to 5.970 million in 1971, registering 40.0 and 43.80 percent growths during the first and second decades respectively. The rapid rate of growth of population, made possible by the increasing industrial and commercial importance of the city, resulted in a fast deterioration in the quality of life for the majority of people living in the city. Development inputs could not keep pace with the rapidly growing population, industry, trade and commerce. Besides, there are physical limitations to the growth of a city built on a long and narrow peninsula, which has very few connections with the mainland. The Government of Maharashtra has been alive to the emerging problems of this metropolis. Responsible public opinion was equally vigilant and several constructive suggestions appeared from time to time in the press and elsewhere. All this helped in keeping the problems of Bombay in the forefront of public awareness. In 1958, the Govt. of Bombay appointed a study group under the Chairmanship of Shri S.G. Barve, Secretary to Government, Public Works Department, to consider the problems relating to congestion of traffic, deficiency of open spaces and playfields, shortage of housing and over-concentration of industry in the metropolitan and suburban areas of Bombay, and to recommend specific measures to deal with these. The Barve Group reported in February 1959. One of its major recommendations was that a rail-cum-road bridge is built across the Thane Creek to connect peninsular Mumbai with the mainland. The group felt that the bridge would accelerate development across the Creek, relieve pressure on the city's railways and roadways, and draw away industrial and residential concentrations eastward to the mainland. The Group hoped that the eastward development would be orderly and would take place in a planned manner. The Government of Maharashtra accepted the Barve Group recommendation. Another Committee under the Chairmanship of Prof. D.R. Gadgil, then Director of the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona was formed and asked: “to formulate broad principles of regional planning for the metropolitan regions of Mumbai Panvel and Pune and to make recommendations for the establishment of Metropolitan Authorities for preparation and execution of such plans”. The Gadgil Committee inter-alia made two important recommendations which have influenced the planning for Navi Mumbai. One, a planned decentralisation of industries with severe restrictions on further industrial growth in the Bombay region. Two, development of the mainland area as a multi-nucleated settlement, each settlement smaller in size than 250,000 population. These multi-nucleated settlements are called nodes in the plan, where the entire development is proposed as a series of nodes strung out along the mass transit area. The nodes proposed by us are, however, more closely spaced than the multi-nucleated settlements envisaged by Dr. Gadgil. But the principle remains of individual settlements, self-contained in respect of schools and shopping and other essential services and separated from each other by green spaces. The Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act was passed in 1966 and brought into force in January 1967. The Bombay Metropolitan Region was notified in June 1967 and a Regional Planning Board constituted under the Chairmanship of Shri L.G. Rajwade, I.C.S. The Draft Regional Plan of the Board was finalised in January 1970. It proposed the development of a twin city across the harbour, on the mainland to the east, as a counter-magnet to the office concentration taking place at the southern tip of Bombay. The alternative growth pole was to siphon off the over-concentration of jobs and population which further growth would cause in the city and reallocate these on the mainland. In making this recommendation, the Board was influenced by various factors such as the existing industrial sites in the Than-Belapur area and Taloja, the imminent completion of the Thana Creek Bridge and the proposal of the Bombay Port Trust to establish a new port at Nhava Sheva. The Board recommended that the new metro-centre or Navi Mumbai as it is now called, be developed to accommodate a population of 2.1 million. Implementation, development and issues The planning of Navi Mumbai began in 1971 and involved leading architects and urban planner like Charles Correa (Chief Architect), Shirish Patel, Pravina Mehta and R. K. Jha (Chief Planner), The City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) was established on 17 March 1971, under the Indian Companies Act, 1956 for this purpose. The area covered of the total of the Konkan coast. Privately owned land consisting of 86 villages covering within the present limits of Navi Mumbai and further villages measuring an additional were acquired by the government of Maharashtra. The major part of Navi Mumbai covers the southern part of Thane taluka (from Thane District) and part of Panvel and Uran taluka (from Raigad District). CIDCO carved out 19 small nodes with a view towards facilitating comprehensive development. These nodes were named Airoli, Ghansoli, Kopar Khairane, Juhu Nagar, Vashi, Turbhe, Sanpada, Juinagar, Nerul, Darave, Karave Nagar, CBD Belapur, Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel, Kalamboli, Ulwe, Dronagiri and Taloja. CIDCO planned and constructed all the railway stations, roads and public spaces in Navi Mumbai and developed nearby areas commercially. In 1973, the Vashi bridge was opened to the public for residents of Vashi, CBD Belapur and Nerul. The Sion-Panvel Highway was built to reduce the time taken to travel from Sion to Panvel. Initially, there was not much response to the new city. Major changes took place only after 1990, with the commissioning of a wholesale agricultural produce market at Turbhe and the construction of a commuter railway line from Mankhurd to Vashi in May 1992. These developments caused a sudden growth in economic activities and population in Navi Mumbai. The city was originally planned to create affordable housing for people who could not afford living in Mumbai. It was decided not to let any slum pockets pop up across the city. But it failed. as, according to the 2001 census, a fifth to a third of the population of municipalised Navi Mumbai lives in slums and gaothans (urban villages), with thousands of buildings violating planning norms. By the end of the 1990s, the planning authority of Navi Mumbai initiated private participation in the developmental activity of Navi Mumbai. A new railway link between Nerul and Uran was inaugurated on 11 November 2018. Southern Navi Mumbai is being developed rapidly with its class infrastructure and modern nodes of Kharghar, Kamothe, Panvel and Kalamboli. These nodes are experiencing major infrastructural developments due to their proximity to the proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport. Also, the latest development known as 'One Time Planning' with an estimated budget of ₹12,821 crores is underway to transform the municipalised Navi Mumbai on the lines of the Mega Cities of the world. Administration CIDCO When Navi Mumbai was created in the 1970s, CIDCO was the only authority that looked after the development and maintenance of the city. CIDCO prepared a developmental plan for Navi Mumbai covering 95 villages all over the city. For the first ten years of the project CIDCO acted as the planning and administrative body and as the developer and builder for the project. Taxes on property, land, commercial and water were payable to CIDCO. CIDCO planned 14 nodes divided into the North and the South part. The 7 nodes in the North part are Airoli node, Ghansoli node, Kopar Khairane node, Vashi node, Sanpada node, Nerul node and Belapur node. The 7 nodes in the South part are Kharghar node, Kamothe node, Kalamboli, Pushpak node, Panvel node, Ulwe node and Dronagiri node. Also, two municipal bodies have been established, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC) in the North and Panvel Municipal Corporation in the South.Each of the nodes is divided into smaller groups called sectors. Initially only Juhu Vashi, Nerul and CBD Belapur were developed by CIDCO with housing, schools and community centre roads. But after the arrival of the harbour railway line extension in the 1990s, there was an increase in population. CIDCO shifted its development plan to nodes like Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel and Kopar Khairane. In its new development plan, CIDCO land was allocated to builders for housing. CIDCO only provided basic infrastructure like roads, water and electricity, these nodes were developed mostly by private builders according to the CIDCO plan. The newly developed nodes of Navi Mumbai on the south side like Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel and Kalamboli are maintained by CIDCO. These nodes, which are all beyond CBD Belapur, come under the Raigad district. NMMC On 17 December 1991, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC) was constituted by the state government for maintaining some of the developed nodes of Navi Mumbai. Local self-government started on 1 January 1992. NMMC was handed nine of the 14 nodes of the Navi Mumbai project area for its jurisdiction. However, CIDCO, as a planning authority, has rights on the open plots in these five nodes. The NMMC jurisdiction starts at Digha in the North and ends at Belapur in the South. The NMMC area is planned into nine nodes (zones). The nine nodes are Belapur node, Nerul node, Turbhe node, Vashi node, Kopar Khairane node, Ghansoli node, Airoli node, Digha node and Dahisar node. With annual budget exceeding Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation, it is rated amongst the richest corporations in Maharashtra. The municipal corporation is headed by a municipal commissioner and an elected mayor. Currently, the Mayor of Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation is Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) member Mr. J.D.Sutar. There are 111 electoral wards in Navi Mumbai. A corporator is elected in each of the wards. PMC Recently a resolution has been passed by the general body of the Panvel Municipal Council (PMC), which previously administered the city of Old Panvel spread across an area of 12.11 sq. km. with a population of 1.8 lakh (0.18 mn), lead to upgrade the Municipal Council to a Municipal Corporation. But the minimum requirement for the formation of a Municipal Corporation is having a population of at least 300,000 which the Council falls short of. Hence, a decision has been made by the PMC to incorporate the adjacent nodes of Navi Mumbai under CIDCO's jurisdiction and surrounding villages in the proposed Panvel Municipal Corporation. This would add another 593,000 people under its administration. thereby clearing the first hurdle. The decision propounds that instead of merging the administration of newly developed nodes of Navi Mumbai including New Panvel, Kamothe, Kalamboli, Kharghar, parts of Uran and developing nodes of Ulwe and Dronagiri, which are currently overseen by CIDCO, with NMMC, they should be incorporated under the proposed Panvel Municipal Corporation. This opinion is the result of a political agenda. The fact is, of the total 16 nodes of Navi Mumbai 10 are under NMMC and the rest are under CIDCO. NMMC's jurisdiction is limited within the boundaries of the Thane district, which is a foothold of the Nationalist Congress Party, while the remaining nodes are in the Raigad district, where parties like Bharatiya Janata Party, Shiv Sena and Peasants and Workers Party of India are most active. Hence, the local politicians, especially Panvel MLA Prashant Thakur, oppose the merger of all the nodes under one Municipal Corporation citing political conspiracy. In Panvel Municipal Corporation BJP is in power and Peasants and Workers Party of India leading the opposition represent by Pritam Mhatre. The proposal is to be tabled before the Maharashtra State government which has appointed an expert committee to study the feasibility of the demand to upgrade the Panvel Municipal Council to a Municipal Corporation. But there is some discontent among the residents of the Kharghar node. The residents and some NGOs from Kharghar have voiced their demand for Kharghar to be inducted under NMMC as it would provide them with better civic amenities and would make Kharghar eligible to be a part of the proposed plan of making Navi Mumbai a Smart City which includes only the area under NMMC's jurisdiction. But, in actual, CIDCO South Navi Mumbai will be MMR's second smart city. The other one being the North Navi Mumbai, which is under NMMC's jurisdiction. State government has asked CIDCO to develop South Navi Mumbai as a smart city as it will be a role model for other states in the country. Smart City project includes, Navi Mumbai International Airport, Mumbai Trans Harbour Link connecting Ulwe with Sewri, a long coastal link from Dronagiri, extension of the Palm Beach Road from Kopar Khairane to Airoli, extension of national highway, local train railway from Panvel to Ulwe and Uran, new metro projects, including CBD Belapur, Taloja, Khandeshwar and Navi Mumbai airport metro project, development of fourth container terminal in JNPT, new greenfield cities, one near Uran, affordable housing schemes for low income groups and Project Affected Peoples (PAPs), new parks, playgrounds, auditoriums, bhavans, noise and air quality index checkers using advanced technologies, modern sewage treatment plants. CIDCO has its own plan of developing the area under its jurisdiction (informally called as Navi Mumbai South) as a smart city. Everything will be completed 2022, except the airport. Demographics As per provisional reports of Census India, population of Navi Mumbai in 2011 is 1,119,477; out of which males and females are 611,501 and 507,976 respectively. Although, Navi Mumbai city has population of 1,119,477; its urban / metropolitan population is 18,414,288 of which 9,894,088 are males and 8,520,200 are females. At least 65.5% of population speaks Marathi language in Navi Mumbai. In education section, the total number of literate individuals in Navi Mumbai city is 911,542. Out of this number, 519,257 are males while 392,285 are females. Average literacy rate of Navi Mumbai city is 91.57 percent of which male and female literacy was 95.05 and 87.33 percent. The sex ratio of Navi Mumbai city is 831 females per 1000 males. Child sex ratio of girls is 901 per 1000 boys. Transport Navi Mumbai has a robust infrastructure, is well connected to other parts of the state and country and is relatively less polluted compared to Mumbai. The city has a good public transportation system with NMMT, the transport wing of NMMC, serving the bus commuters, the Mumbai suburban railway serving the train commuters and a large fleet of auto rickshaws for intra-nodal commute. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway starts at Kalamboli in Navi Mumbai. The Mumbai Trans Harbour Link (MTHL), also known as the Sewri-Nhava Sheva Trans Harbour Link, is an under construction long freeway grade road bridge connecting South Mumbai with Navi Mumbai. The Mumbai suburban railway network covers most of the populated region of the city. The most important suburban stations are Vashi, Nerul, Belapur and Panvel. The stations are planned as major railway junctions. Panvel is the only mainline station and also the busiest railway station of Navi Mumbai. All outstation trains halt here for time periods varying from 5 to 20 minutes. It is an important junction, railway lines come and meet here and it is connected to almost all parts of India. A new broad gauge line is functional between Karjat & Panvel. Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST) buses run from various area of Mumbai to Navi Mumbai & Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport (NMMT) buses run all over Navi Mumbai and various area in Mumbai, Thane, Bhiwandi, Kalyan-Dombivli-Badlapur, Panvel-Khopoli-Taloja, Uran-Ulwe etc. NMMT runs AC Volvo buses from Navi Mumbai to Mumbai, Thane and Kalyan-Dombivli. The Palm Beach Marg, a long six lane road connects Vashi to CBD Belapur running parallel to the Thane creek. NMMT Routes in Navi Mumbai BEST Routes in Navi Mumbai Auto rickshaws provide inter as well as intra nodal public transport across the city. Taxis operating from designated taxi stands provide the means to travel to further destinations. Taxis charge a fixed rate approved by the R.T.O. details of which can be found on popular local transit apps of the city. Navi Mumbai has the largest container terminal in India, Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva near Uran. It is well connected by road and rail, and handles approximately 56.13% of India's container traffic. The Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, 30 km away, is the nearest airport to the city. International Airport The Navi Mumbai International Airport is being constructed in southern Panvel area near Ulwe. It is being built through Public Private Partnership (PPP), with private sector partners having 74% equity and the Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Government of Maharashtra (through CIDCO) each holding 13%. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has already given techno-feasibility clearance to the airport. The central government provided cabinet approval for the construction on 31 May 2007. While an opening date of 2020 has been mooted, as of March 2018, construction has yet to start. Metro Rail The Navi Mumbai Metro is an under construction rapid transit system in Navi Mumbai. A network of as many as six lines have been planned of which four lines will be constructed by CIDCO in the Navi Mumbai south region, the second and third line of the metro system will be constructed by NMMC and MMRDA respectively. The first line of the metro system is being constructed by CIDCO. This line includes three phases. In the first phase, the line will join the CBD Belapur station on the Mumbai suburban railway and Pendhar village. In the second phase, the line will join Taloja MIDC and Khandeshwar node (which will be extended to the Navi Mumbai International Airport in Ulwe node of the city), and in the third phase, the line will link the Pendhar and Taloja MIDC metro stations. The first phase of the line 1 is slated to become operational by 2020 and CIDCO has claimed to make the network of its four lines fully operational by 2022-2023 along with operationalisation of the city's International Airport in Ulwe node. The cost of the metro project has risen from 4,163 crore for 21.45 km in 2011 to 8,904 crore for 26.26 km in 2018. Infrastructure Basic infrastructure worth is already in place. The city boasts a reliable supply of electricity from various sources, and excellent motoring conditions, with numerous flyovers, broad roads, and parking lots. The main problem which the residents face is poor connectivity with Mumbai, with only two road links between the two cities and a single rail line. A hovercraft service from Vashi to Colaba and the CBD to Colaba did not succeed due to the high cost of tickets and maintenance. Cidco is planning to relaunch its hovercraft service from Vashi, Belapur, Nerul and Airoli to Gateway of India. Services There are adequate utility services, banks, restaurants, malls, multiplexes and other shops in Navi Mumbai. The City boasts several shopping malls such as Little World Mall, Glomax Mall, Prime mall and Pacific Mall in the most developed node of Navi Mumbai, Kharghar; K-Mall and the Orion mall in Panvel node of the city; Center One, Palm Beach Galleria, Citi Center, Raghuleela Mall and Inorbit Mall in Vashi, along with the Seawoods Grand Central Mall in Seawoods. Throughout Navi Mumbai, supermarkets and hypermarkets like Big Bazaar, Reliance Smart, Reliance Smart points, Apna Bazaar, More, Spencer's, Reliance Fresh, Spinach, Daily Bazar and Fairprice cater to the shopping needs of the residents. DMart has launched eight hypermarkets in Navi Mumbai. Leading banks such as Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, South Indian Bank, State Bank of India, Union Bank, Saraswat Bank, Bank of Baroda, AXIS Bank, Canara Bank, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Central Bank of India, Bank of Maharashtra, State Bank of Hyderabad, Citibank India, ICICI Bank, Jammu & Kashmir Bank and HDFC Bank have their branches and ATMs around Navi Mumbai. The Reserve Bank of India has served the people of Navi Mumbai since 2001. Cultural centres include the Navi Mumbai Tamil Sangam. Navi Mumbai has some three-star and five-star hotels; namely Royal Tulip (five-star hotel in Kharghar), The Hotel Three Star (In Kharghar), The Park (Belapur CBD), Fortune Select Exotica-Member ITC Hotel Group (Vashi), to name a few. Commerce The Navi Mumbai Special Economic Zone (SEZ) located in the nodes of Dronagiri and Kalamboli are planned to provide commercial growth and employment to the city. Positioned en route the proposed Navi Mumbai Airport, this megaproject has attracted investments of close to 40,000 crores. Navi Mumbai is a new hub for newly incorporated companies & start ups to establish their base in Mumbai. As per the list of newly incorporated companies in Navi Mumbai around 500 new & startups companies were registered in and around the region every month. Sports Cricket is the prevalent sport in the city. Navi Mumbai has its own International Cricket Ground in Shiravne (Nerul) called the DY Patil Stadium which hosts IPL T-20 matches, including hosting the 2008 and 2010 IPL finals. It is also the home ground for the Indian Super League football club Mumbai City FC. The Fr. Agnel Stadium in Vashi is the training ground of the team. Navi Mumbai has an Olympic-size swimming pool at Nerul. CIDCO has proposed two 18-hole golf course academies at Nerul and Kharghar. There are plans to have sports facilities in the proposed 80 hectare Central Park being developed in Kharghar. The CIDCO has also constructed a 11-hole golf course in Kharghar near Central Park. Education Provision of schools and colleges was priority in the planning of Navi Mumbai. The nodes (townships) were designed to provide one primary school per 5,000 populations, one high school for 12,500 populations and one college for 50,000 population. Each of the nodes is self-sufficient in terms of providing quality education. Students are given access to various syllabi, including the State Education Board, CBSE, IGCSE, IB and ICSE patterns. Other than this, CIDCO encouraged private institutions as well. About 22.5% of the total population is considered to be school-going children. Most students attend school and college within their node (township). 76% of the students walk to their school or college, 12% use public transport, 10% use bicycles and only 2% travel by school bus. A number of premier schools and colleges have been set up in Navi Mumbai. And not just local students, but students from Mumbai and even outside come to Navi Mumbai in their quest for quality education. As such, Navi Mumbai is quickly acquiring the title of educational hub. Colleges DY Patil University IIM Indore (Mumbai Campus) National Institute of Fashion Technology Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology CDAC Kharghar. Indian Maritime University, Navi Mumbai Campus Schools Apeejay School, Nerul Apeejay School, Kharghar Avalon Heights International School D.A.V Public School, Nerul Dayanand Anglo Vedic Public School, Airoli Delhi Public School, Nerul Fr. Agnel Multipurpose School and Junior College, Vashi Goldcrest High International School New Horizon Scholars School, Airoli Ryan International Schools, Sanpada, Kharghar, Vashi, Kalamboli Seventh-Day Adventist Higher Secondary School (ICSE&ISC) Sacred Heart High School, Vashi VIBGYOR Group of Schools, Airoli VIBGYOR Group of Schools, Kharghar Vishwajyot High School, Kharghar Presentation Convent School, Nerul Reliance Foundation School, KoparKhairne St. Lawrence High School, Vashi St Mary's ICSE School, KoparKhairne St.Mary's Multipurpose High School, Vashi St. Xavier's High School & Junior College, Nerul References External links Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation Accessed 11 October 2012. Navi Mumbai Special Economic Zone CIDCO – City and Industrial Development Corporation Accessed 29 June 2013. navi Mumbai metro train trial 1970s establishments in Maharashtra Mumbai Smart cities in India Planned cities in India Port cities in India Cities in Maharashtra

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The 2014–15 Denver Nuggets season was the franchise's 39th season in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Preseason Draft picks Regular season Standings Game log |- style="background:#cfc;" | 1 | October 29 | Detroit | | Kenneth Faried (22) | Kenneth Faried (17) | Ty Lawson (5) | Pepsi Center17,136 | 1–0 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 2 | November 1 | @ Oklahoma City | | Ty Lawson (25) | Wilson Chandler (7) | Ty Lawson (5) | Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203 | 1–1 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 3 | November 3 | Sacramento | | Arron Afflalo (16) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (12) | Pepsi Center12,516 | 1–2 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 4 | November 5 | @ Sacramento | | Randy Foye (19) | K. Faried & J. Nurkić (5) | Ty Lawson (9) | Sleep Train Arena14,539 | 1–3 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 5 | November 7 | Cleveland | | Randy Foye (28) | Wilson Chandler (10) | Randy Foye (9) | Pepsi Center19,623 | 1–4 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 6 | November 9 | @ Portland | | Kenneth Faried (19) | Timofey Mozgov (16) | Ty Lawson (8) | Moda Center19,411 | 1–5 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 7 | November 12 | Portland | | Ty Lawson (32) | J.J. Hickson (11) | Ty Lawson (6) | Pepsi Center12,611 | 1–6 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 8 | November 14 | @ Indiana | | Arron Afflalo (17) | K. Faried & T. Mozgov (6) | Ty Lawson (10) | Bankers Life Fieldhouse16,286 | 2–6 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 9 | November 16 | @ New York | | Arron Afflalo (18) | Kenneth Faried (9) | Ty Lawson (9) | Madison Square Garden19,812 | 2–7 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 10 | November 17 | @ Cleveland | | Ty Lawson (24) | D. Arthur & T. Mozgov (11) | Ty Lawson (12) | Quicken Loans Arena20,562 | 3–7 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 11 | November 19 | Oklahoma City | | Wilson Chandler (21) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (15) | Pepsi Center14,140 | 4–7 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 12 | November 21 | New Orleans | | K. Faried & A. Afflalo (19) | K. Faried & J. McGee (8) | Ty Lawson (15) | Pepsi Center15,232 | 5–7 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 13 | November 23 | @ LA Lakers | | Wilson Chandler (19) | Timofey Mozgov (13) | Ty Lawson (16) | Staples Center18,997 | 6–7 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 14 | November 25 | Chicago | | Ty Lawson (20) | K. Faried & T. Mozgov (9) | Ty Lawson (12) | Pepsi Center17,033 | 7–7 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 15 | November 26 | @ Phoenix | | Wilson Chandler (19) | Timofey Mozgov (13) | Ty Lawson (12) | Talking Stick Resort Arena16,099 | 7–8 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 16 | November 28 | Phoenix | | Arron Afflalo (22) | J.J. Hickson (11) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center15,509 | 8–8 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 17 | December 1 | @ Utah | | T. Lawson & W. Chandler (15) | Timofey Mozgov (10) | Ty Lawson (12) | EnergySolutions Arena16,768 | 9–8 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 18 | December 2 | Portland | | Ty Lawson (24) | Wilson Chandler (10) | Ty Lawson (13) | Pepsi Center12,822 | 9–9 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 19 | December 5 | @ Washington | | Wilson Chandler (20) | J.J. Hickson & T. Mozgov (6) | Ty Lawson (10) | Verizon Center19,451 | 9–10 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 20 | December 7 | @ Atlanta | | Wilson Chandler (29) | Timofey Mozgov (11) | Ty Lawson (10) | Philips Arena12,143 | 9–11 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 21 | December 8 | @ Toronto | | Arron Afflalo (25) | Darrell Arthur (13) | Ty Lawson (10) | Air Canada Centre19,800 | 9–12 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 22 | December 10 | Miami | | Wilson Chandler (17) | Timofey Mozgov (10) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center13,433 | 10–12 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 23 | December 13 | @ Houston | | Darrell Arthur (20) | J.J. Hickson (10) | Ty Lawson (12) | Toyota Center18,136 | 10–13 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 24 | December 14 | San Antonio | | Arron Afflalo (31) | Timofey Mozgov (13) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center16,544 | 10–14 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 25 | December 17 | Houston | | Wilson Chandler (23) | Kenneth Faried (11) | Ty Lawson (16) | Pepsi Center12,107 | 10–15 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 26 | December 19 | LA Clippers | | Nate Robinson (20) | Timofey Mozgov (8) | Ty Lawson (14) | Pepsi Center15,030 | 11–15 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 27 | December 20 | Indiana | | Danilo Gallinari (19) | Timofey Mozgov (15) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center14,125 | 12–15 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 28 | December 22 | @ Charlotte | | Ty Lawson (18) | Kenneth Faried (9) | Ty Lawson (4) | Time Warner Cable Arena16,913 | 12-16 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 29 | December 23 | @ Brooklyn | | Ty Lawson (29) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Ty Lawson (9) | Barclays Center17,080 | 12-17 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 30 | December 26 | Minnesota | | Kenneth Faried (26) | Kenneth Faried (25) | Ty Lawson (11) | Pepsi Center14,516 | 13–17 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 31 | December 28 | Toronto | | Ty Lawson (25) | Kenneth Faried (16) | Ty Lawson (7) | Pepsi Center14,216 | 13–18 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 32 | December 30 | LA Lakers | | T. Lawson & J. Nurkic (16) | T. Mozgov & J. Nurkic (8) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center17,248 | 13–19 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 33 | January 1 | @ Chicago | | Wilson Chandler (22) | Kenneth Faried (19) | Ty Lawson (7) | United Center21,794 | 13–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 34 | January 3 | Memphis | | Ty Lawson (25) | Kenneth Faried (13) | Ty Lawson (11) | Pepsi Center16,350 | 14–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 35 | January 5 | @ Minnesota | | Arron Afflalo (34) | J.J. Hickson (11) | Ty Lawson (12) | Target Center10,386 | 15–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 36 | January 7 | Orlando | | Ty Lawson (23) | Kenneth Faried (12) | Nate Robinson (7) | Pepsi Center13,513 | 16–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 37 | January 9 | @ Sacramento | | T. Lawson & A. Afflalo (22) | Kenneth Faried (13) | Ty Lawson (8) | Sleep Train Arena16,029 | 17–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 38 | January 14 | Dallas | | Ty Lawson (29) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Ty Lawson (12) | Pepsi Center14,022 | 18–20 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 39 | January 16 | @ Dallas | | Arron Afflalo (16) | J.J. Hickson (14) | Ty Lawson (12) | American Airlines Center20,337 | 18–21 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 40 | January 17 | Minnesota | | Ty Lawson (22) | J.J. Hickson (10) | Ty Lawson (7) | Pepsi Center14,821 | 18–22 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 41 | January 19 | @ Golden State | | Ty Lawson (19) | Kenneth Faried (9) | Ty Lawson (6) | Oracle Arena19,596 | 18–23 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 42 | January 20 | San Antonio | | Kenneth Faried (26) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Ty Lawson (8) | Pepsi Center14,434 | 18–24 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 43 | January 23 | Boston | | Jameer Nelson (23) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Jameer Nelson (7) | Pepsi Center16,133 | 18–25 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 44 | January 25 | Washington | | Ty Lawson (31) | Kenneth Faried (11) | Ty Lawson (12) | Pepsi Center15,410 | 18–26 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 45 | January 26 | @ L.A. Clippers | | Ty Lawson (31) | K. Faried & W. Chandler (10) | Ty Lawson (12) | Staples Center19,060 | 18–27 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 46 | January 28 | @ New Orleans | | Arron Afflalo (20) | Jusuf Nurkic (9) | Ty Lawson (12) | Smoothie King Center16,055 | 19–27 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 47 | January 29 | @ Memphis | | K. Faried & W. Chandler (10) | Kenneth Faried (7) | Ty Lawson (6) | FedExForum16,736 | 19–28 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 48 | January 31 | Charlotte | | Danilo Gallinari (15) | J.J. Hickson & W. Chandler (8) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center13,302 | 19–29 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 49 | February 3 | @ Philadelphia | | Danilo Gallinari (15) | Ty Lawson & W. Chandler (6) | Ty Lawson (14) | Wells Fargo Center10,290 | 19–30 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 50 | February 4 | @ Boston | | Ty Lawson (23) | Kenneth Faried (11) | Ty Lawson (8) | TD Garden15,126 | 19–31 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 51 | February 6 | @ Detroit | | Ty Lawson (20) | Jusuf Nurkic (13) | Ty Lawson (9) | The Palace of Auburn Hills17,035 | 19–32 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 52 | February 9 | Oklahoma City | | Wilson Chandler (23) | Jusuf Nurkic (14) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center16,511 | 19–33 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 53 | February 10 | @ L.A. Lakers | | Ty Lawson (32) | J.J. Hickson (7) | Ty Lawson (16) | STAPLES Center18,466 | 20–33 |- align="center" |colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break |- style="background:#fcc;" | 54 | February 20 | @ Milwaukee | | Wilson Chandler (19) | Jusuf Nurkic (15) | Ty Lawson (7) | BMO Harris Bradley Center16,110 | 20–34 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 55 | February 22 | @ Oklahoma City | | Ty Lawson (17) | J. Nurkic & K. Faried (7) | Jameer Nelson (5) | Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203 | 20–35 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 56 | February 23 | Brooklyn | | Danilo Gallinari (22) | Jusuf Nurkic (10) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center13,127 | 20–36 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 57 | February 25 | Phoenix | | Will Barton (22) | Joffrey Lauvergne (9) | Ty Lawson (7) | Pepsi Center12,813 | 20–37 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 58 | February 27 | Utah | | Will Barton (22) | K. Faried & W. Chandler (8) | Ty Lawson (6) | Pepsi Center15,002 | 20–38 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 59 | March 1 | New Orleans | | Danilo Gallinari (21) | J.J. Hickson & Will Barton (10) | Ty Lawson (11) | Pepsi Center13,109 | 20–39 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 60 | March 3 | Milwaukee | | Danilo Gallinari (26) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center12,234 | 21–39 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 61 | March 4 | @ Minnesota | | Will Barton (17) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Ty Lawson & Jameer Nelson (9) | Target Center13,848 | 22–39 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 62 | March 6 | @ San Antonio | | Ty Lawson (23) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (9) | AT&T Center18,581 | 22–40 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 63 | March 7 | Houston | | Wilson Chandler (26) | J.J. Hickson (10) | Ty Lawson (10) | Pepsi Center15,231 | 22–41 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 64 | March 9 | New York | | Kenneth Faried (19) | Kenneth Faried (11) | Ty Lawson (6) | Pepsi Center14,153 | 23–41 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 65 | March 11 | Atlanta | | Danilo Gallinari (23) | J.J. Hickson (9) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center13,217 | 24–41 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 66 | March 13 | Golden State | | Danilo Gallinari & Kenneth Faried (24) | Kenneth Faried (17) | Randy Foye (8) | Pepsi Center19,155 | 25–41 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 67 | March 15 | @ New Orleans | | Will Barton (25) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (9) | Smoothie King Center17,248 | 26–41 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 68 | March 16 | @ Memphis | | Jameer Nelson (24) | Wilson Chandler (8) | Will Barton (4) | FedExForum17,248 | 26–42 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 69 | March 19 | @ Houston | | Danilo Gallinari & Randy Foye (23) | Kenneth Faried (12) | Ty Lawson (10) | Toyota Center18,456 | 26–43 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 70 | March 20 | @ Miami | | Kenneth Faried (20) | J. Nurkic & W. Chandler (7) | Ty Lawson (12) | AmericanAirlines Arena19,710 | 26–44 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 71 | March 22 | @ Orlando | | Danilo Gallinari (40) | J.J. Hickson (8) | Ty Lawson (8) | Amway Center15,788 | 27–44 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 72 | March 25 | Philadelphia | | Ty Lawson (19) | Wilson Chandler (11) | Ty Lawson (6) | Pepsi Center14,068 | 27–45 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 73 | March 27 | Utah | | Ty Lawson & Jameer Nelson (18) | Will Barton (10) | Ty Lawson (9) | Pepsi Center15,312 | 28–45 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 74 | March 28 | @ Portland | | Jameer Nelson (22) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (7) | Moda Center19,769 | 28–46 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 75 | April 1 | @ Utah | | Kenneth Faried (19) | Kenneth Faried (10) | Ty Lawson (3) | EnergySolutions Arena18,275 | 28–47 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 76 | April 3 | @ San Antonio | | Danilo Gallinari (20) | Jusuf Nurkic (9) | Ty Lawson (7) | AT&T Center18,581 | 28–48 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 77 | April 4 | L.A. Clippers | | Wilson Chandler (17) | Kenneth Faried (14) | Randy Foye (5) | Pepsi Center15,566 | 28–49 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 78 | April 8 | L.A. Lakers | | Kenneth Faried (29) | Kenneth Faried (11) | Ty Lawson (8) | Pepsi Center13,338 | 29–49 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 79 | April 10 | Dallas | | Danilo Gallinari (47) | Wilson Chandler (11) | Ty Lawson (18) | Pepsi Center14,041 | 29–50 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 80 | April 12 | Sacramento | | Kenneth Faried (30) | Jusuf Nurkic & Wilson Chandler (9) | Ty Lawson (11) | Pepsi Center14,004 | 30–50 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 81 | April 13 | @ L.A. Clippers | | Wilson Chandler (32) | Kenneth Faried (17) | Randy Foye (8) | Staples Center19,060 | 30–51 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 82 | April 15 | @ Golden State | | Wilson Chandler & Danilo Gallinari (18) | Jusuf Nurkic (9) | Ty Lawson (8) | Oracle Arena19,596 | 30–52 Player statistics Regular season |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 53 || 53 || 33.0 || .428 || .337 || .841 || 3.4 || 1.9 || .6 || .1 || 14.5 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 58 || 4 || 17.0 || .404 || .236 || .780 || 2.9 || 1.0 || .8 || .4 || 6.6 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 28 || 0 || 24.4 || .443 || .284 || .810 || 4.6 || 1.9 || style=|1.2 || .5 || 11.0 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 7 || 0 || 4.4 || .364 || .200 || style=|1.000 || .4 || .3 || .4 || .1 || 1.9 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | style=|78 || style=|75 || 31.7 || .429 || .342 || .775 || 6.1 || 1.7 || .7 || .4 || 13.9 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 75 || 71 || 27.8 || .507 || .125 || .691 || style=|8.9 || 1.2 || .8 || .8 || 12.6 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 3 || 0 || 4.3 || .500 || style=|.500 || .000 || .7 || 1.0 || .00 || .3 || 1.0 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 50 || 21 || 21.7 || .368 || .357 || .818 || 1.7 || 2.4 || .7 || .2 || 8.7 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 59 || 27 || 24.2 || .401 || .355 || .895 || 3.7 || 1.4 || .8 || .3 || 12.4 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 39 || 0 || 13.1 || .482 || .417 || .738 || 1.8 || .5 || .7 || .2 || 4.9 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 43 || 1 || 9.5 || .377 || .298 || .833 || .7 || .9 || .3 || .00 || 3.4 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 55 || 6 || 13.1 || .304 || .204 || .745 || 1.2 || .5 || .7 || .1 || 3.4 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 73 || 8 || 19.3 || .475 || .000 || .577 || 6.2 || .8 || .5 || .5 || 7.6 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 24 || 1 || 11.2 || .404 || .188 || .643 || 3.2 || .5 || .3 || .4 || 3.9 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 75 || style=|75 || style=|35.5 || .436 || .341 || .730 || 3.1 ||style=|9.6 || style=|1.2 || .1 ||style=|15.2 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 27 || 17 || 11.5 || style=|.557 || .000 || .690 || 2.8 || .1 || .1 || 1.1 || 5.2 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 35 || 35 || 25.6 || .504 || .333 || .733 || 7.8 || .5 || .4 || style=|1.2 || 8.5 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 34 || 5 || 20.6 || .450 || .354 || .579 || 1.9 || 3.7 || .7 || .1 || 9.6 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 62 || 27 || 17.8 || .446 || .000 || .636 || 6.2 || .8 || .8 || 1.1 || 6.9 |- align="center" bgcolor="" | | 33 || 1 || 14.1 || .348 || .261 || .650 || 1.2 || 2.3 || .4 || .1 || 5.8 |} Statistics with the Denver Nuggets. 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The Soviet–Canadian 1988 Polar Bridge Expedition (also known as Skitrek) began on March 3, 1988, when a group of thirteen Russian and Canadian skiers set out from Siberia, in an attempt to ski to Canada over the North Pole. The nine Russians and four Canadians reached the pole on 25 April and concluded their trek on Wednesday, June 1, 1988, when they reached Ward Hunt Island, Ellesmere, Northern Canada. At the North Pole, they were welcomed by a group of dignitaries from the Soviet Union and Canada, members of the international press, and radio amateurs involved in support and communications. The daily progress of the skiers was followed by many thousands of school children and radio amateurs around the world. They listened to the voice synthesizer on board the UoSAT-OSCAR-11 satellite, which transmitted the latest known position of the expedition in FM on the two-meter VHF amateur radio band, using digitised voice; and to progress reports, produced regularly by AMSAT-NA, which were distributed worldwide through amateur packet radio and orbiting amateur radio satellites. Background In the autumn of 1986, a group of Soviet scientists and radio amateurs made plans to ski to the South Pole, starting at the Antarctic coast. They intended to use amateur shortwave radio for all their communication with the outside world, especially the support stations in Moscow. However, it is not a good idea to rely on radio propagation conditions to the other side of the world, even with a support station on the Antarctic continent itself; so, in November, 1986, the University of Surrey (UoS) UoSAT centre was contacted to investigate the feasibility of using the UoSAT-OSCAR-11 satellite to relay information to the skiers. Since UoSAT-2 (a.k.a. UO-11 or UoSAT-Oscar-11) is a sun-synchronous polar orbiting satellite in a low Earth orbit, it passes over the poles every 98 minutes and a small handheld receiver with a simple whip aerial is sufficient to get a few minutes of excellent reception on each pass. By the end of 1987, while preparations were under way in the USSR, it was decided that the expedition would not take place at the South Pole, but instead at the North Pole; and the team would consist not only of Soviets, but a few experienced Canadian skiers as well. This time they would not only ski to the pole but continue their trek to Canada. The objective thus became to ski across the Arctic Ocean from the Siberian coast, via the North Pole, to the Canadian coast. The expedition started on March 3, 1988, and finished on June 1, when the skiers reached the small Ward Hunt Island just off Cape Columbia at Ellesmere Island, Northern Canada. The expedition was privately organized by 'Komsomolskaya Pravda', (the Soviet Youth Newspaper). Sponsors were the Soviet Youth Travel Agency 'Sputnik', and McDonald's restaurants of Canada. Canadian Project Manager was the Polar Bridge Company, a group organized by the Canadian skiers. Communications All the necessary equipment for the route was carried in rucksacks. No sledges, dogs or other transport vehicles were used, other than six airdrops of new supplies, carried out by Russian and Canadian planes. The Canadian and Russian skiers trained in both Canada and Siberia during the months prior to the expedition and also tried to learn to speak and understand each other's language. The main obstacles during the 95–100 days were open water, pressure ridges, thin ice, blizzards and very low temperatures, (-50 °C). They were medically examined before and after the expedition. The Russian group consisted of: expedition leader and Arctic explorer Dmitry Shparo; photographer Alexander (Sasha) Belyayev, also in charge of meals; artist Fyodor Konyukhev; cameraman Vladimir Ledenev; physician Mikhail (Misha) Malakhov; radio operators Anatoli Melnikov and Vasili Shishkaryov; Anatoly Fedyakov who was responsible for equipment; and researcher Yuri Hmelevsky. The four Canadians were: navigator Richard Weber; radio operator Laurie Dexter; doctor Max Buxton; and scientist Chris Holloway. (See List of firsts in the Geographic North Pole). Communications were handled via HF (shortwave) amateur radio between the skiers and support stations on and near the Arctic Ocean, and headquarters in Moscow and Ottawa. Special amateur radio call signs, CI8UA and EXOVE, were allocated for the expedition; and prefixes, CI8 and EX, for the support stations. The University of Surrey's orbiting space satellite UoSAT-OSCAR-11 was used to relay the position of the group, using the on-board Digitalker, (a computer speech synthesizer). At this time, before the advent of GPS, the position of the group was obtained by celestial measurements made by skiers themselves, and by using a beacon or Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) to send signals to be picked up by one of the COSPAS and SARSAT 'Search and Rescue' satellites when it flies overhead. Like the UoSAT satellite, they are in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), flying over the poles every 95–98 minutes. The position is calculated by command and tracking stations in Moscow and Canada, using the on-board stored date and time of the signal, and the measured Doppler effect, (a shift in frequency due to the relative velocity between the beacon and the satellite). The skiers could not do the translation to degrees longitude and latitude, because this would require special receivers and computers. Once processed, the data was sent directly to the skiers via shortwave amateur radio, (radio propagation conditions permitting), and by telex or shortwave radio (digital packet radio or voice) to the UoSAT command station at the University of Surrey in Guildford, Surrey, UK. There the information was subsequently loaded into the UoSAT-OSCAR-11 Digitalker. To listen to the satellite, the skiers carried ICOM u2AT handhelds, which were donated by ICOM and tested at very low temperatures, (-50 °C). The shortwave radio equipment used by the expedition was a Soviet-made solid state 10 watt transceiver. It weighed 1.2 kilograms without batteries and had six fixed, crystal controlled frequencies for single-sideband (SSB) operation on the 80, 40 and 20 meter amateur radio bands. The 2 kg lithium battery provided the 2.2 amps at 12 V required to operate the transceiver for about a month, one hour per day, at low temperatures. The antenna for the system was an inverted-V with the mast made of five skis fitted together. The limited lifetime of the batteries was one of the reasons that there was generally no contact between radio 'Hams' and the skiers, other than with the support stations. Uploads from the control station at the University of Surrey to the polar orbiting UoSAT satellite were delayed six to seven hours because the satellite only comes in range during two daily 'windows': two or three passes in the morning and two or three passes in the evening. The satellite flies over the North Pole every 98 minutes. Each day around 1100 GMT the skiers rested for about eight hours and switched on their ELTs for about two hours. During this period the COSPAS/SARSAT satellites passed at least once. When the satellites came in range of their ground stations in Moscow or Ottawa, the information was downloaded and processed. The resulting position in degrees longitude and latitude was then passed on to the Ski-Trek amateur radio support stations. The skiers got this information via the support stations in the USSR and Canada on their shortwave radio and by listening to the UoSAT-2 satellite. The support stations were manned and set up by amateur radio volunteers in remote areas, close to or on the Arctic Ocean at: Resolute Bay on Ellesmere Island, NWT, Canada (CI8C) Sredniy Island, a small Island in the Arctic Ocean near Severnaya Zemlia, Siberia (EX0KP) Soviet drifting ice island North-Pole 28, near the North-Pole (4K0DC and 4K0DX) Dikson Island, North Siberia, USSR (4K0DR) the University of Surrey 'Electronics And Radio Society' (ears) radio station in the UK () and UoSAT Control Station for UoSAT-OSCAR-11 communications Digitalker One of the problems was composing, from a limited vocabulary, a proper DIGITALKER message for the expedition. The speech chips on board the satellite had about 500 words, some with an American accent, others with an English accent. The manufacturers actually used human voices which were digitised, not unlike the Compact Disc technique, but with fewer samples per second. Words such as NORTH, WEST, EAST, POSITION, LATITUDE, and LONGITUDE were not available, and new words could not be added. Fortunately, they did have DEGREE, TIME, and DATE. The following message format was chosen, (with sample values): <Two warning tones> NUMBER 0 PRIORITY 0 0 0 DATE FIRST OF MARCH TIME 12 HOURS AND 0 MINUTES GMT YOU ARE AT 80 DEGREES 12 POINT 3 MINUTES N AND 90 DEGREES 87.6 MINUTES E 73 FROM UOSAT see here for an audio recording. The number would increase for every new position report, (typically once per day). The priority was an emergency code, for when all communication with the skiers failed. Assuming they could still listen to UoSAT, it gave the possibility to acknowledge the last received message and indicate the action taken, like sending a plane or helicopter, if necessary. This feature was not needed. '73' is amateur radio speak, (originating from Morse code), for 'Greetings and Good Bye'. This unprecedented hybrid link, involving ELTs, SARSAT/COSPAS, voice or telex and UoSAT-OSCAR-11 was known as NORDSKI COMM. It was the co-primary navigation tool for the skiers; celestial navigation was the other, more traditional, method. The Expedition The start was delayed two days by bad weather preventing the airplane taking off for Sredniy. As the skiers set out, temperatures were around -47 °C with occasional blizzards. It was still polar night which would end at the start of spring, 23 May. Unexpectedly for those not familiar with Arctic regions, the skiers reported many leads of open water. They didn't use their single man boats, opting to try to go around the lead, or wait until the gap narrowed. The main cause of this open water phenomenon is the Transpolar Drift Stream, a major force in the ocean, which makes the ice break up and drift away, helped by the ever blowing wind. Even when the skiers rested for a few days, their position changed by several kilometres a day, usually in a northerly direction. The daily routine consisted of a steady 10- to 12-hour trek, followed by setting up their single twelve-man tent, switching on their ELT, having a meal of dried food, and spending a few minutes on the shortwave radio (80 m). A few hours later they again had a short contact on 80m to get the SARSAT/COSPAS information. When shortwave propagation failed, they had to wait until the UoSAT satellite was overhead and listen to the Digitalker. The morning routine included a quick breakfast and tent break-down. The skiers reported building igloos to dry clothing. Damp clothing froze as soon as they took it off. The main tent had the damp problem as well, but the temperature inside a properly built igloo can rise above 0 °C. The first of 6 airdrops of supplies took place on March 14. Eleven parachute assisted drops were made in two passes over the skiers with an Antonov AN-74 Soviet plane, specially designed for this type of expedition work. Later, after they passed the North Pole, the Canadian side took over responsibility for the airdrops. Supplies included food and batteries, and, on one occasion, replacement skis. The North Pole The skiers reached the North Pole on April 26, and were welcomed by a group of journalists, officials (including energy minister Izraeli from the USSR and mining minister M. Masse from Canada), and radio amateurs involved in support and communications. All were flown in by helicopter from NP-28, the Soviet drifting ice station about 30 km from the North Pole, which contained an airstrip suitable for the Antonov AN-74, and Canadian Twin Otter and Hawker Siddeley HS748 airplanes. One airdrop, this time containing champagne and caviar, was made in front of the whole party. As the visitors were hurrying back home, the skiers started their 750 km trip to Ellesmere Island. Two more air drops were carried out, and they remained in good health and spirits. The Transpolar Skitrek Expedition came to a successful conclusion on Wednesday, June 1, 1988, at 14:35 UTC as the 13 skiers stepped ashore on Ward Hunt Island just off the coast of Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island. Messages from the 'moving group' (all sent by short wave amateur radio and digital packet-radio) message 1, March 9, after one week "on the ice" Frost bite scaring most faces. Toes and fingers permanently numb and painful even when warm. A skier has blisters on his feet and is taking medication for them. We have been making good distance with only one lead blocking us for 1/2-day. Moisture is a big problem in tent, clothing and boots. No chance of drying clothes that are not being worn as they freeze instantly when taken off. Richard (Weber) and Christopher (Holloway) have slept outside every night to avoid condensation from the tent with the success of perfect igloo building skills. Three pairs of Russian skis broken and we will replace them with Canadian. We have received telegrams from (Secretary) Gorbachev and (Prime Minister) Mulroney wishing success. With our 90km behind us we press on with good steerage and look forward to longer days and warmer weather. message 2, April 17, from Maxwell Buxton "We have been on the ice 45 days now and are ready to begin our final assault on the Pole. The journey has been divided into two week stages Every stage has had its unique problems and solutions, but as we progress I think we all feel that things are getting better. The weather has warmed from a bone chilling -48 degrees Celsius to the present balmy -25 degrees. Many of our initial injuries attributable to cold and inexperience are resolving and we are learning to live and work together more efficiently as a travelling group. For example, in our first thirteen day stage, we covered 215 km. Stage two saw 236 km passed and our recent thirteen days of skiing reduced the distance by 313 km. On the map our efficiency improved. In our tents and in our minds the mood has shifted from apprehension, somber eternalization and concern with survival to optimization, conviviality and a sense of accomplishment. Almost 1000 km remain before our goal is realized, but with the Pole just over 200 km away we are feeling spunkier than at any point to date. The upcoming ceremonies at the Pole, which will bring us in direct contact with the outside world for the first time since our departure, present an exciting focus for our attention. This is the largest expedition ever to reach the Pole and the one hundred days required for the complete crossing is a long time to spend on the ice. In every respect, these startling adventures represent the tip of the iceberg. The magnitude of the project is considerable and its success and completion depends on the work of many people on both sides of the Arctic Sea. For the Canadian members of the trip now presents (an opportunity for thoughts) of home, our families and friends. For all of us we have, in fact, reaffirmed our love for them and for the homeland." A message from all four Canadian skiers "We have found peanut butter to be one of the Arctic's best travelling foods. We receive it in frozen lumps of 100 grams. The plan was originally for 50 grams per man per day but it is so popular we are increasing it to 100 grams daily. The Soviets were unfamiliar with peanut butter and, at first, somewhat suspicious, but have taken to it with vigour. Peanut butter supplies a good balance of carbohydrates and fats, supplying both quick and long term energy. It is also a tasty treat, something to look forward to during our ten hour skiing day. P.S. At -40 degrees Celsius peanut butter does not stick to the roof of your mouth." Progress reports Daily reports were made by the team to communications support stations on Sredniy Island, USSR, Russian ice station North Pole 28 and Resolute Bay, Canada via amateur radio. These reports were relayed south at 1500z in the 20m amateur radio band on 14.121mHz USB. Reports were automatically taped and reduced to daily information notes for continuing logs. DAY/TIM UTC LATITUDE LONGITUDE REMARKS PROGRESS ======== === === ========== ================================== ======== 03Mar 07:31 81d15.0mN 95d50.0mE Starting point on Cape Arktichesky 03Mar 11:24 81d21.2mN 96d12.8mE 7km 04Mar 11:13 81d32.3mN 97d 0.0mE -28dC 20km 05Mar 12:44 81d35.8mN 96d52.4mE -21dC Snow wind 33meters/sec 14km 06Mar No significant progress - Open water – Very windy - camped early 0km 07Mar 12:23 81d56.6mN 97d15.1mE 17km 08Mar No position report 20km 09Mar 12:30 82d09.3mN 97d47.0mE -30dC 12km 10MAR 11:58 82d16.9mN 97d24.6mE -45dC 20km 11Mar 11:36 82d28.8mN 97d13.0mE 12Mar No position report 25km 13Mar 11:16 82d52.2mN 97d19.8mE -42dC wind 3-4meters/sec 24km 14Mar <1st air drop successful on 14MAR > 15Mar 13:00 82d58.7mN 97d28.9mE <Team built igloo and stayed till > 16Mar <17Mar for R&R and experiment > 17Mar 13:00 83d11.7mN 97d26.6mE -35dC SE wind 3-5meters/sec 24km 18Mar 13:00 83d37.9mN 97d21.7mE -31dC no wind or open water good cond 22km 20Mar 11:40 83d51.8mN 97d27.4mE -36dC wind 1-2mps good ice & spirits 26km 21Mar 13:00 84d03.5mN 97d40.4mE -39dC ice excellent few leads&hummocks 21km 22Mar 13:02 84d19.0mN 97d02.9mE Everything good ice, temp, progress 28km 23Mar 13:00 84d28.9mN 96d12.4mE -33dC Strong head winds 20-40km/hr 15km 24Mar 13:00 84d25.6mN 95d58.2mE -37dC wind 40km/hr snowstorm 0km 25Mar No position report 26Mar 12:15 84d43.1mN 95d50.5mE -42dC Clear wind NW 2-3mps 2days prog 32.4km 27Mar 10:48 85d00.1mN 95d31.5mE -45dC clear wind light good ice 31km 28Mar 10:26 85d07.1mN 95d17.4mE -38dC Open water a problem 12km 29Mar 11:38 85d18.9mN 94d55.3mE -35dC 2nd air drop a success - stopped 24km 30Mar No change <Stopped at drop point for R&R > 31Mar No change <and experiments> 01Apr 11:12 85d23.2mN 93d40.0mE -37dC Slept in before starting 8km 02Apr No position report 03Apr 11:49 85d48.8mN 92d20.5mE -36dC Everybody ok 04Apr 10:39 86d00.7mN 91d44.5mE -37dC 22km 05Apr 11:01 86d12.4mN 92d07.2mE 421km to go to the pole 22km 06Apr 10:57 86d26.3mN 93d18.3mE -40dC Lots of ice everybody ok 27km 07Apr 10:08 86d40.6mN 92d38.6mE -28dC 600km total 369km to the pole 26km 08Apr 11:55 87d00.2mN 91d03.5mE -28dC Best single day progress 37km 09Apr 10:38 87d14.2mN 91d48.4mE 10Apr 11:37 87d32.6mN 93d29.5mE -30dC 272km to the pole everything ok 34km 11Apr 12:06 87d42.4mN 94d55.7mE -30dC Estimating pole April 24-26 18km 12Apr 10:49 88d02.7mN 95d34.9mE -30dC 235km to pole 37km 13Apr 10:42 88d10.4mN 96d45.2mE Start of trek before air drop 15km 13Apr 88d11.4mN 97d07.0mE Air drop coordinates 14Apr 11:45 88d11.4mN 95d09.9mE Movement due only to ice drift 15Apr 10:35 88d10.7mN 91d48.2mE Movement due only to ice drift 16Apr 10:30 88d08.9mN 90d44.6mE Movement due only to ice drift 17Apr 11:00 88d20.3mN 91d28.9mE -32dC 185km to pole 25km 18Apr 11:10 88d33.9mN 91d47.9mE -30dC 27km 19Apr 11:58 88d45.8mN 94d31.6mE -35dC 140km to pole 27km 20Apr 11:05 89d00.0mN 95d42.8mE -30dC Now estimating pole on 25Apr 25km 21Apr 11:33 89d11.9mN 89d20.6mE -22dC Wind NE 43kts bad conditions 20km 22Apr 12:39 89d21.2mN 80d26.2mE -20dC 64km to pole 21km 23Apr 89d30.9mN 87d54.9mE -20dC 46km to pole ETA 25Apr 18km 24Apr 11:13 89d46.4mN 107d25.7mE -25dC 24km to the pole 28km 25Apr 10:12 89d56.6mN 147d18.8mE 6km to pole 22km 26Apr 16:00 90d00.0mN The North Pole 27Apr 90d00.0mN Official Canadian/Russian meeting 28Apr 11:21 89d51.1mN 109d53.9mW 29Apr 10:30 89d48.2mN 106d55.0mW 30Apr 10:32 89d37.9mN 94d29.8mW 01May 11:49 89d18.6mN 90d17.4mW -10dC wind 25km/h vis 4km light snow 36km 02May 11:29 89d05.6mN 86d03.0mW 03May 11:58 88d46.6mN 81d41.8mW 04May 10:15 88d31.7mN 81d07.3mW -5dC Open water could become a prob 28km 05May 11:41 88d14.4mN 81d13.6mW 06May No position report 07May 11:54 87d43.5mN 81d31.5mW 08May 10:48 87d25.4mN 81d13.9mW 09May No report available 10May 11:36 86d56.6mN 79d20.3mW 11May 10:28 86d44.7mN 77d32.1mW Approximately 358km from pole 22km 12May 12:12 86d39.7mN 75d38.6mW Approximately 400km from finish 10km 13May No movement stopped for resupply aircraft - 1st attempt failed 14May 11:47 86d37.5mN 75d19.9mW Resupply successful - Drift movement only 15May 10:37 86d36.0mN 75d39.2mW Drift movement only 16May 11:02 86d37.3mN 75d48.4mW Drift movement only 17May 11:00 86d21.3mN 76d29 mW Trek now underway again 18May 10:17 86d06.4mN 77d25.1mW 19May 11:37 85d56.1mN 77d06.4mW -11dC 300km remaining 20km 20May 10:44 85d41.7mN 76d54.8mW -9dC 273km remaining to go 27km 21May 11:42 85d28.2mN 77d09.5mW -10dC 24km 22May 10:22 85d15.8mN 77d04.9mW -8dC Rough ice-problem with lead 24km 23May 10:12 84d59.4mN 77d19.2mW -7dC Lots of water on ice 197km to go 28km 24May 13:48 84d40.2mN 75d47.4mW Wind north 30km/h good ice 35km 25May 11:50 84d28.2mN 75d31.5mW -7dC Planning for big lead near land 22km 26May 11:20 84d16.3mN 75d17.2mW -6dC Rough ice but a little sun 22km 27May 11:09 84d00.4mN 74d35.2mW -6dC Rough ice and foggy 99.9km to go 22km 28May 11:34 83d47.8mN 74d40.2mW -6dC Very rough ice 23km 29May 10:48 83d33.6mN 74d27.3mW -6dC Good ice light wind 26km 30May 10:58 83d24.7mN 74d39.0mW -14dC Very rough going very windy 10km 31May 10:25 83d12.9mN 74d18.8mW -10dC Skiers still moving 21km to go 21km 01Jun 11:39 83d06.8mN 74d39.2mW Moving after 1-hour rest 18km 01Jun 14:35 The TREK is complete at Ward Hunt Island Notes References University of Surrey, several UoSAT-2 Satellite papers AMSAT-UK Colloquium, Guildford, August 1988, A slide-show Talk about the Skitrek 1988 expedition by M.Meerman Many messages received through Amateur Packet Radio directly from Ski-trek Support stations Own material Further reading Book - Polar Bridge expedition Exploring Polar Frontiers: A - L., Volume 1 page 606, By William James Mills (ABC-CLIO) The 1988 Polar Bridge Expedition: effects of the three-month trans-polar ski-trek on aerobic fitness and skiing economy. Booth MA, Thoden JS, Reardon FD, Jette M, Rode A., Arctic Med Res. 1991;Suppl:542–44. Article about Richard Weber mentioning 1988 Soviet - Canadian Polar Bridge Expedition Article about Laurie Dexter member of the joint Soviet-Canadian Polar Bridge expedition that skied from Russia to Canada through the North Pole in 1988. Stresses encountered in the trans-polar ski-trek Arctic Med Res. 1991;Suppl:478–80. Shephard RJ. Source: School of Physical and Health Education, University of Toronto. worlddiscovery mentioning the First surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean from Russia to Canada; 1988 Polar Bridge Expedition Article about Dexter who was a member of the 91-day Soviet-Canadian Polar Bridge ski expedition from Russia to Canada via the North Pole Book review: Polar Expeditions by J. D. Carpenter Newspaper De Apeldoornse Courant (Netherlands) 9 May 1988, 'Apeldoorner op "de top van de wereld" (Apeldoorner on "the top of the world") (Article about trip to the NorthPole to meet the expedition) Newspaper Surrey Advertiser (UK) 16 Sep 1988 'Conference at the Pole' (Article about involvement of University of Surrey in the 1988 Skitrek expedition) Newspaper 'Die Vaderland' (South Africa) 22 Sep 1988 'Ski-ekspedisie op skyfies' (Ski expedition on dia-slides) (Article about upcoming talk and slide show about the communications used by the SkiTrek expedition, in Johannesburg) External links Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd NorthPole trip website with many photographs AMSAT - The Amateur Satellite Organisation about the expedition several photographs made by members of the expedition POLAR BRIDGE – 1988 – ПОЛЯРНЫЙ МОСТ - qsl cards gallery of support stations UoSAT-2 transmitting for 26 years - mentioning digitalker to support Skitrek 1988 Ski Museum bios Richar Weber, page 1 Obituary Leonid Labutin UA3CR main organizer of 'Nordski-Comm' adventure speakers: Laurie Dexter about his experiences (Chapter 5,The Excellence in Endurance, from 'One Step Beyond: Rediscovering the Adventure Attitude') about UoSAT-11 Satellite supporting the SkiTrek Expedition Archives mentioning the 1988 Soviet-Canadian Polar Bridge Expedition from Russia to Canada Polar exploration by Russia and the Soviet Union Arctic expeditions Canada–Soviet Union relations 1988 in Canada 1988 in the Soviet Union 20th century in the Arctic North Pole

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A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or many other shapes and sizes. Graphene (isolated atomic layers of graphite), which is a flat mesh of regular hexagonal rings, can be seen as an extreme member of the family. Fullerenes with a closed mesh topology are informally denoted by their empirical formula Cn, often written Cn, where n is the number of carbon atoms. However, for some values of n there may be more than one isomer. The family is named after buckminsterfullerene (C60), the most famous member, which in turn is named after Buckminster Fuller. The closed fullerenes, especially C60, are also informally called buckyballs for their resemblance to the standard ball of association football ("soccer"). Nested closed fullerenes have been named bucky onions. Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. The bulk solid form of pure or mixed fullerenes is called fullerite. Fullerenes had been predicted for some time, but only after their accidental synthesis in 1985 were they detected in nature and outer space. The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known allotropes of carbon, which had previously been limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal. They have been the subject of intense research, both for their chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology. History Predictions and limited observations The icosahedral cage was mentioned in 1965 as a possible topological structure. Eiji Osawa predicted the existence of in 1970. He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of the shape of a football, and hypothesised that a full ball shape could also exist. Japanese scientific journals reported his idea, but neither it nor any translations of it reached Europe or the Americas. Also in 1970, R. W. Henson (then of the UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment) proposed the structure and made a model of it. Unfortunately, the evidence for that new form of carbon was very weak at the time, so the proposal was met with skepticism, and was never published. It was acknowledged only in 1999. In 1973, independently from Henson, a group of scientists from the USSR made a quantum-chemical analysis of the stability of and calculated its electronic structure. The paper was published in 1973, but the scientific community did not give much importance to this theoretical prediction. Around 1980, Sumio Iijima identified the molecule of from an electron microscope image of carbon black, where it formed the core of a particle with the structure of a "bucky onion". Discovery of In 1985, Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, working with James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley from Rice University, discovered fullerenes in the sooty residue created by vaporising carbon in a helium atmosphere. In the mass spectrum of the product, discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms, namely and . The team identified their structure as the now familiar "buckyballs". The name "buckminsterfullerene" was eventually chosen for by the discoverers as an homage to American architect Buckminster Fuller for the vague similarity of the structure to the geodesic domes which he popularized; which, if they were extended to a full sphere, would also have the icosahedral symmetry group. The "ene" ending was chosen to indicate that the carbons are unsaturated, being connected to only three other atoms instead of the normal four. The shortened name "fullerene" eventually came to be applied to the whole family. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules. Further developments Kroto and the Rice team already discovered other fullerenes besides C60, and the list was much expanded in the following years. Carbon nanotubes were first discovered and synthesized in 1991. After their discovery, minute quantities of fullerenes were found to be produced in sooty flames, and by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. In 1992, fullerenes were found in a family of mineraloids known as shungites in Karelia, Russia. The production techniques were improved by many scientists, including Donald Huffman, Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell D. Lamb, and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos. Thanks to their efforts, by 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. In 2010, the spectral signatures of C60 and C70 were observed by NASA's Spitzer infrared telescope in a cloud of cosmic dust surrounding a star 6500 light years away. Kroto commented: "This most exciting breakthrough provides convincing evidence that the buckyball has, as I long suspected, existed since time immemorial in the dark recesses of our galaxy." According to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It’s possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth." In 2019, ionized C60 molecules were detected with the Hubble Space Telescope in the space between those stars. Types There are two major families of fullerenes, with fairly distinct properties and applications: the closed buckyballs and the open-ended cylindrical carbon nanotubes. However, hybrid structures exist between those two classes, such as carbon nanobuds — nanotubes capped by hemispherical meshes or larger "buckybuds". Buckyballs Buckminsterfullerene Buckminsterfullerene is the smallest fullerene molecule containing pentagonal and hexagonal rings in which no two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing, as in pentalene). It is also most common in terms of natural occurrence, as it can often be found in soot. The empirical formula of buckminsterfullerene is and its structure is a truncated icosahedron, which resembles an association football ball of the type made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. The van der Waals diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 1.1 nanometers (nm). The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 0.71 nm. The buckminsterfullerene molecule has two bond lengths. The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered "double bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon). Its average bond length is 1.4 Å. Other fullerenes Another fairly common fullerene has empirical formula , but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained. The smallest possible fullerene is the dodecahedral . There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. The number of different fullerenes C2n grows with increasing n = 12, 13, 14, ..., roughly in proportion to n9 . For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes . Note that only one form of , buckminsterfullerene, has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene). To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes , 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons. Optimized structures of many fullerene isomers are published and listed on the web. Heterofullerenes have heteroatoms substituting carbons in cage or tube-shaped structures. They were discovered in 1993 and greatly expand the overall fullerene class of compounds and can have dangling bonds on their surfaces. Notable examples include boron, nitrogen (azafullerene), oxygen, and phosphorus derivatives. Trimetasphere carbon nanomaterials were discovered by researchers at Virginia Tech and licensed exclusively to Luna Innovations. This class of novel molecules contains 80 carbon atoms () forming a sphere which encloses a complex of three metal atoms and one nitrogen atom. These fullerenes encapsulate metals which puts them in the subset referred to as metallofullerenes. Trimetaspheres have the potential for use in diagnostics (as safe imaging agents), in therapeutics and in organic solar cells. Carbon nanotubes Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes. These tubes of carbon are usually only a few nanometres wide, but they can range from less than a micrometer to several millimeters in length. They often have closed ends, but can be open-ended as well. There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off. Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high heat conductivity, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and "planar" — that is, it has no "exposed" atoms that can be easily displaced). One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Another highly speculative proposed use in the field of space technologies is to produce high-tensile carbon cables required by a space elevator. Derivatives Buckyballs and carbon nanotubes have been used as building blocks for a great variety of derivatives and larger structures, such as Nested buckyballs ("carbon nano-onions" or "buckyonions") proposed for lubricants; Nested carbon nanotubes ("carbon megatubes") Linked "ball-and-chain" dimers (two buckyballs linked by a carbon chain) Rings of buckyballs linked together. Heterofullerenes and non-carbon fullerenes After the discovery of C60, many fullerenes have been synthesized (or studied theoretically by molecular modeling methods) in which some or all the carbon atoms are replaced by other elements. Inorganic nanotubes, in particular, have attracted much attention. Boron A type of buckyball which uses boron atoms, instead of the usual carbon, was predicted and described in 2007. The structure, with each atom forming 5 or 6 bonds, was predicted to be more stable than the buckyball. However, subsequent analysis found that the predicted Ih symmetric structure was vibrationally unstable and the resulting cage would undergo a spontaneous symmetry break, yielding a puckered cage with rare Th symmetry (symmetry of a volleyball). The number of six-member rings in this molecule is 20 and number of five-member rings is 12. There is an additional atom in the center of each six-member ring, bonded to each atom surrounding it. By employing a systematic global search algorithm, it was later found that the previously proposed fullerene is not a global maximum for 80-atom boron clusters and hence can not be found in nature; the most stable configurations have complex . In the same paper by Sandip De et al., it was concluded that boron's energy landscape, unlike other, has many disordered low-energy structures, hence pure boron fullerenes are unlikely to exist in nature. However, an irregular complex dubbed borospherene was prepared in 2014. This complex has two hexagonal faces and four heptagonal faces with in D2d symmetry interleaved with a network of 48 triangles. Other elements Inorganic (carbon-free) fullerene-type structures have been built with the disulfides of molybdenum (MoS2), long used as a graphite-like lubricant, tungsten (WS2), titanium (TiS2) and niobium (NbS2). These materials were found to be stable up to at least 350 tons/cm2 (34.3 GPa). Icosahedral or distorted-icosahedral fullerene-like complexes have also been prepared for germanium, tin, and lead; some of these complexes are spacious enough to hold most transition metal atoms. Main fullerenes Below is a table of main closed carbon fullerenes synthesized and characterized so far, with their CAS number when known. Fullerenes with fewer than 60 carbon atoms have been called "lower fullerenes", and those with more than 70 atoms "higher fullerenes". In the table, "Num.Isom." is the number of possible isomers within the "isolated pentagon rule", which states that two pentagons in a fullerene should not share edges. "Mol.Symm." is the symmetry of the molecule, whereas "Cryst.Symm." is that of the crystalline framework in the solid state. Both are specified for the most experimentally abundant form(s). The asterisk * marks symmetries with more than one chiral form. When or crystals are grown from toluene solution they have a monoclinic symmetry. The crystal structure contains toluene molecules packed between the spheres of the fullerene. However, evaporation of the solvent from transforms it into a face-centered cubic form. Both monoclinic and face-centered cubic (fcc) phases are known for better-characterized and fullerenes. Properties Topology Schlegel diagrams are often used to clarify the 3D structure of closed-shell fullerenes, as 2D projections are often not ideal in this sense. In mathematical terms, the combinatorial topology (that is, the carbon atoms and the bonds between them, ignoring their positions and distances) of a closed-shell fullerene with a simple sphere-like mean surface (orientable, genus zero) can be represented as a convex polyhedron; more precisely, its one-dimensional skeleton, consisting of its vertices and edges. The Schlegel diagram is a projection of that skeleton onto one of the faces of the polyhedron, through a point just outside that face; so that all other vertices project inside that face. The Schlegel diagram of a closed fullerene is a graph that is planar and 3-regular (or "cubic"; meaning that all vertices have degree 3). A closed fullerene with sphere-like shell must have at least some cycles that are pentagons or heptagons. More precisely, if all the faces have 5 or 6 sides, it follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, V−E+F=2 (where V, E, F are the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces), that V must be even, and that there must be exactly 12 pentagons and V/2−10 hexagons. Similar constraints exist if the fullerene has heptagonal (seven-atom) cycles. Open fullerenes, like carbon nanotubes and graphene, can consist entirely of hexagonal rings. In theory, a long nanotube with ends joined to form a closed torus-like sheet could also consist entirely of hexagons. Bonding Since each carbon atom is connected to only three neighbors, instead of the usual four, it is customary to describe those bonds as being a mixture of single and double covalent bonds. The hybridization of carbon in C60 has been reported to be sp2.01. The bonding state can be analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Encapsulation So-called endohedral fullerenes have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Research In the early 2000s, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes were a hot topic in the field of research and development. Popular Science discussed possible uses of fullerenes (graphene) in armor. In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are some of the more heavily studied properties. There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio quantum methods applied to fullerenes. By DFT and TD-DFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993. Aromaticity Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity of fullerenes by attaching active groups to their surfaces. Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit "superaromaticity": that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not delocalize over the whole molecule. A spherical fullerene of n carbon atoms has n pi-bonding electrons, free to delocalize. These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like only one shell of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for n = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, 128, etc. (i.e., twice a perfect square number), but this series does not include 60. This 2(N + 1)2 rule (with N integer) for spherical aromaticity is the three-dimensional analogue of Hückel's rule. The 10+ cation would satisfy this rule, and should be aromatic. This has been shown to be the case using quantum chemical modelling, which showed the existence of strong diamagnetic sphere currents in the cation. As a result, in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an anion. The n described below may be the result of trying to form a loose metallic bond. Reactions Polymerization Under high pressure and temperature, buckyballs collapse to form various one-, two-, or three-dimensional carbon frameworks. Single-strand polymers are formed using the Atom Transfer Radical Addition Polymerization (ATRAP) route "Ultrahard fullerite" is a coined term frequently used to describe material produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processing of fullerite. Such treatment converts fullerite into a nanocrystalline form of diamond which has been reported to exhibit remarkable mechanical properties. Chemistry Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. The sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain. The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp2-hybridized carbons into sp3-hybridized ones. The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120° in the sp2 orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp3 orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable. Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes to form inclusion compounds known as endohedral fullerenes. An unusual example is the egg-shaped fullerene Tb3N@, which violates the isolated pentagon rule. Recent evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analyzing noble gases so preserved. Metallofullerene-based inoculates using the rhonditic steel process are beginning production as one of the first commercially viable uses of buckyballs. Solubility Fullerenes are soluble in many organic solvents, such as toluene, chlorobenzene, and 1,2,3-trichloropropane. Solubilities are generally rather low, such as 8 g/L for C60 in carbon disulfide. Still, fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature. Among the best solvents is 1-chloronaphthalene, which will dissolve 51 g/L of C60. Solutions of pure buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of are a reddish brown. The higher fullerenes to have a variety of colors. Millimeter-sized crystals of and , both pure and solvated, can be grown from benzene solution. Crystallization of from benzene solution below 30 °C (when solubility is maximum) yields a triclinic solid solvate ·4. Above 30 °C one obtains solvate-free fcc . Quantum mechanics In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna demonstrated that wave-particle duality applied to molecules such as fullerene. Superconductivity Fullerenes are normally electrical insulators, but when crystallized with alkali metals, the resultant compound can be conducting or even superconducting. Chirality Some fullerenes (e.g. , , , and ) are inherently chiral because they are D2-symmetric, and have been successfully resolved. Research efforts are ongoing to develop specific sensors for their enantiomers. Stability Two theories have been proposed to describe the molecular mechanisms that make fullerenes. The older, “bottom-up” theory proposes that they are built atom-by-atom. The alternative “top-down” approach claims that fullerenes form when much larger structures break into constituent parts. In 2013 researchers discovered that asymmetrical fullerenes formed from larger structures settle into stable fullerenes. The synthesized substance was a particular metallofullerene consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two additional carbon atoms and two yttrium atoms inside the cage. The process produced approximately 100 micrograms. However, they found that the asymmetrical molecule could theoretically collapse to form nearly every known fullerene and metallofullerene. Minor perturbations involving the breaking of a few molecular bonds cause the cage to become highly symmetrical and stable. This insight supports the theory that fullerenes can be formed from graphene when the appropriate molecular bonds are severed. Systematic naming According to the IUPAC, to name a fullerene, one must cite the number of member atoms for the rings which comprise the fullerene, its symmetry point group in the Schoenflies notation, and the total number of atoms. For example, buckminsterfullerene C60 is systematically named (-Ih)[5,6]fullerene. The name of the point group should be retained in any derivative of said fullerene, even if that symmetry is lost by the derivation. To indicate the position of substituted or attached elements, the fullerene atoms are usually numbered in a spiral path, usually starting with the ring on one of the main axes. If the structure of the fullerene does not allow such numbering, another starting atom was chosen to still achieve a spiral path sequence. The latter is the case for C70, which is (-D5h(6))[5,6]fullerene in IUPAC notation. The symmetry D5h(6) means that this is the isomer where the C5 axis goes through a pentagon surrounded by hexagons rather than pentagons. In IUPAC's nomenclature, fully saturated analogues of fullerenes are called fulleranes. If the mesh has other element(s) substituted for one or more carbons, the compound is named a heterofullerene. If a double bond is replaced by a methylene bridge , the resulting structure is a homofullerene. If an atom is fully deleted and missing valences saturated with hydrogen atoms, it is a norfullerene. When bonds are removed (both sigma and pi), the compound becomes secofullerene; if some new bonds are added in an unconventional order, it is a cyclofullerene. Production Fullerene production generally starts by producing fullerene-rich soot. The original (and still current) method was to send a large electric current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting electric arc vaporizes the carbon into a plasma that then cools into sooty residue. Alternatively, soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Combustion is the most efficient process, developed at MIT. These processes yield a mixture of various fullerenes and other forms of carbon. The fullerenes are then extracted from the soot using appropriate organic solvents and separated by chromatography. One can obtain milligram quantities of fullerenes with 80 atoms or more. C76, C78 and C84 are available commercially. Applications Fullerenes have been extensively used for several biomedical applications including the design of high-performance MRI contrast agents, X-ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene delivery, summarized in several comprehensive reviews. Tumor research While past cancer research has involved radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy is important to study because breakthroughs in treatments for tumor cells will give more options to patients with different conditions. Recent experiments using HeLa cells in cancer research involves the development of new photosensitizers with increased ability to be absorbed by cancer cells and still trigger cell death. It is also important that a new photosensitizer does not stay in the body for a long time to prevent unwanted cell damage. Fullerenes can be made to be absorbed by HeLa cells. The derivatives can be delivered to the cells by using the functional groups L-phenylalanine, folic acid, and L-arginine among others. Functionalizing the fullerenes aims to increase the solubility of the molecule by the cancer cells. Cancer cells take up these molecules at an increased rate because of an upregulation of transporters in the cancer cell, in this case amino acid transporters will bring in the L-arginine and L-phenylalanine functional groups of the fullerenes. Once absorbed by the cells, the derivatives would react to light radiation by turning molecular oxygen into reactive oxygen which triggers apoptosis in the HeLa cells and other cancer cells that can absorb the fullerene molecule. This research shows that a reactive substance can target cancer cells and then be triggered by light radiation, minimizing damage to surrounding tissues while undergoing treatment. When absorbed by cancer cells and exposed to light radiation, the reaction that creates reactive oxygen damages the DNA, proteins, and lipids that make up the cancer cell. This cellular damage forces the cancerous cell to go through apoptosis, which can lead to the reduction in size of a tumor. Once the light radiation treatment is finished the fullerene will reabsorb the free radicals to prevent damage of other tissues. Since this treatment focuses on cancer cells, it is a good option for patients whose cancer cells are within reach of light radiation. As this research continues, the treatment may penetrate deeper into the body and be absorbed by cancer cells more effectively. Safety and toxicity Lalwani et al. published a comprehensive review on fullerene toxicity in 2013. These authors review the works on fullerene toxicity beginning in the early 1990s to present, and conclude that very little evidence gathered since the discovery of fullerenes indicate that is toxic. The toxicity of these carbon nanoparticles is not only dose- and time-dependent, but also depends on a number of other factors such as: type (e.g.: , , M@, M@ functional groups used to water-solubilize these nanoparticles (e.g.: OH, COOH) method of administration (e.g.: intravenous, intraperitoneal) The authors therefore recommend assessing the pharmacology of every new fullerene- or metallofullerene-based complex individually as a different compound. Popular culture Examples of fullerenes appear frequently in popular culture. Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. In a humorously speculative 1966 column for New Scientist, David Jones suggested the possibility of making giant hollow carbon molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal net with the addition of impurity atoms. See also Buckypaper Carbocatalysis Dodecahedrane Fullerene ligand Goldberg–Coxeter construction Lonsdaleite Triumphene Truncated rhombic triacontahedron References External links Nanocarbon: From Graphene to Buckyballs Interactive 3D models of cyclohexane, benzene, graphene, graphite, chiral & non-chiral nanotubes, and C60 Buckyballs - WeCanFigureThisOut.org. Properties of fullerene Richard Smalley's autobiography at Nobel.se Sir Harry Kroto's webpage Simple model of Fullerene Rhonditic Steel Introduction to fullerites Bucky Balls, a short video explaining the structure of by the Vega Science Trust Giant Fullerenes, a short video looking at Giant Fullerenes Graphene, 15 September 2010, BBC Radio program Discovery Emerging technologies

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Aboriginal deaths in custody is a political and social issue in Australia. It rose in prominence in the early 1980s, with Aboriginal activists campaigning following the death of 16-year-old John Peter Pat in 1983. Subsequent deaths in custody, considered suspicious by families of the deceased, culminated in the 1987 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC). The final RCIADIC report, published in 1991, did not find higher rates of death of Aboriginal people compared to non-Aboriginal people; however, it did highlight deficiencies in care, both systemic and individual, and disproportionate rates of imprisonment due to historical and social factors. , Aboriginal people maintain a disproportionate level of exposure to the justice system and incarceration in Australia. One of the recommendations of the RCIADIC was that statistics and other information on Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal deaths in custody should be monitored nationally on an ongoing basis, by the Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC). As Australian census and prison statistics include both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the counts have included both groups, as Indigenous Australians. The Australian Institute for Health and Welfare reports that the total Indigenous age specific deaths in 2018 were 164 per 100,000 for 25-34 year olds, and 368 for 35-44 year olds. These are the most relevant age groups for the current 12,000 Indigenous prisoners, with a median age of 32. In a group of 12,000 Indigenous 25-44 year olds, an average yearly death rate of around 32 per year occurs even outside prison. The Indigenous death rate in prison is about 15 per year, or half of this. As of June 2021 the AIC had recorded 489 Indigenous deaths in custody since the Royal Commission (June 1991). The majority (65%) had been prison deaths with almost all the rest of the deaths in police custody or custody related operations. The AIC's monitoring program reports Indigenous Australians have made up 18% of prison deaths and 20% of deaths in police custody or custody related operations in this time. This is well above their proportion in the general population that was 3.3% in the 2016 national census While the majority of deaths occurring in prison custody have been of natural causes (58%), hanging deaths accounted for 32%, but the latter have shown a marked decrease in recent years. Although they are greatly over-represented in the prisons, Indigenous prisoners have had a lower death rate than non-Indigenous prisoners since 2002-3. In 2020-21 the death rate for Indigenous prisoners was 0.09 per 100 compared to the non-Indigenous rate of 0.18. Unfortunately, for technical reasons it is not possible to calculate death rates of Indigenous or non-Indigenous people in police custody or custody related operations. Of deaths in police custody, the total between mid-1991 and mid-2016 was 146, with 47% attributed to accidental death (with most of these happening under police pursuit). 21% were attributed to natural causes, with self-inflicted deaths accounting for 19%. There is, however, a number of cases in which calls have been made for greater scrutiny, as avoidable deaths, such as those of Ms Dhu, Tanya Day, David Dungay and Rebecca Maher. Additional protests focusing on Aboriginal deaths in custody, accompanied by renewed media attention, were triggered by the murder of George Floyd in the US as part of the June 2020 protests in Australia. Aboriginal deaths in custody and high incarceration rates were originally absent from the Australian Government's "Closing the Gap" strategy. As part of a 2018 pivot to a new phase, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) drafted targets to reduce Aboriginal custody rates by 2028. Background Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody Concern about the high number of Aboriginal people who had died in custody in the 1980s led to the establishment of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) in 1987, to investigate and report upon the underlying social, cultural and legal issues behind the deaths, including allegations of mistreatment of prisoners which may have led to their deaths. It ran from 1987 to 1991, investigating the period between 1 January 1980 and 31 May 1989, producing its final report in April 1991. The 1988 Australian Institute of Criminology publication, Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, says "The issue of Aboriginal deaths in prisons and holding cells is particularly complex". The report looks at the cases identified by RCIADIC by April 1988. Criminologist Duncan Chappell, in his introduction to the report, writes that while the "problem of death in custody is by no means limited to Aboriginals", the "problem of Aboriginal deaths in custody is linked to fundamental issues which go beyond matters of criminal justice. It would be unfortunate if, by focusing on the criminal justice system, we lost sight of the profound social, cultural and economic problems which confront Aboriginal people". At the time of RCIADIC, there was no ability to compare Aboriginal with non-Aboriginal deaths in custody because the information was not available from state and territory governments. At that time, the greatest number of Aboriginal deaths in custody had occurred in Western Australia and Queensland, half of the victims were under 28 years old, and the most common cause of death was hanging. More detailed analysis was needed, for instance into the different factors operating in police custody compared with correctional facilities. The term "death in custody" was defined in the RCIADIC report to include people under arrest (in police custody) or during the process of attempted detainment (including under police pursuit); on remand (pre-trial detention), in prison or juvenile detention after sentencing, or attempting to escape from police or prison custody. RCIADIC concluded that the deaths were not caused by deliberate killing by police and prison officers, but that "glaring deficiencies existed in the standard of care afforded to many of the deceased". It reported that "Aboriginal people died in custody at the same rate as non-Aboriginal prisoners, but they were far more likely to be in prison than non-Aboriginal people", and that child removal (leading to what has since been dubbed the Stolen Generation) was a "significant precursor to these high rates of imprisonment". Many other historical and social factors were considered, showing a complex network of reasons as to why Aboriginal people were imprisoned at a higher rate. A 2018 review by Deloitte commissioned in December 2017 by the then Indigenous Affairs Minister, Nigel Scullion, found that only 64% of the recommendations had been fully implemented. It reported that 14% were "mostly implemented", 16% were "partly implemented" and 6% not at all. It also found that monitoring of deaths in custody had decreased nationwide, and the quality of data on police custody was "an ongoing issue". Prison safety had increased, but more staff were needed for mental and other health issues of Aboriginal prisoners. Regular in-cell checks, particularly in police watch houses, were still deficient in some jurisdictions. Disproportionate rates of imprisonment Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up approximately 3.3% of the Australian population (798,365) in the 2016 Australian census. As of June 2018, Indigenous Australians aged 18 years and over were approximately 2% of the total adult population, while Indigenous prisoners accounted for 28% of the adult prison population, meaning that Indigenous adults are 15 times more likely to be imprisoned than non-Indigenous adults. The rate of imprisonment of Indigenous Australians almost doubled between 1991 and 2018. Indigenous youth are 26 times more likely to be placed in detention. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, in the June quarter of 2019 there was an average of 949 young people in detention per night: 90% of these were male, and 63% not yet sentenced. Indigenous youths made up 53% of the number. In the four years preceding June 2019, there were no clear trends shown in any of the statistical measures. The Attorney-General for Australia commissioned the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) in October 2016 to examine the factors leading to the disproportionate numbers of Indigenous peoples in Australian prisons, and to look at ways of reforming legislation which might ameliorate this "national tragedy". The result of this in-depth enquiry was a report titled Pathways to Justice – Inquiry into the Incarceration Rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, which was received by the Attorney-General in December 2017 and tabled in Parliament on 28 March 2018. The report made 13 recommendations, covering many aspects of the legal framework and police and justice procedures, including that fine default should not result in imprisonment. Qualified improvement in death rate Overall, the rate of Indigenous deaths in custody has reduced since 1991, lower than the rate of death of non-Indigenous people, which the AIC attributes to improved care by police and corrective services. However the rate of imprisonment of Indigenous people has climbed steeply, which is related to the higher number of deaths when compared with the 10 years examined by the RCIDIAC (99 in 10 years, compared with about 437 in 29 years). Non-Indigenous people have died in custody in greater numbers and at a higher rate than Indigenous people, since 1991; however, with the much higher numbers of imprisonment of Indigenous people, there are more deaths as a proportion of their total population. Issues in WA Attorney-General for Western Australia, John Quigley, said in June 2020 that there was "systematic discrimination" against Indigenous people in the Western Australian justice system. Statistically, Indigenous people were far more likely to be stopped and questioned by police than non-Indigenous, more likely to be charged if arrested by police and less likely to get bail. Imprisonment of Indigenous people in WA was 4.1 per cent, compared with 2.6 nationally. The number of Indigenous adults going to prison, and young people being held in detention was still increasing, although the rate of imprisonment had slowed. He said that legislative reforms were being planned. WA has a higher number of Aboriginal deaths in custody since 1991 than any other state or territory. On 17 June 2020 reforms to the legislation relating to jail sentences for unpaid fines, long a bone of contention, spurred on by the death of Ms Dhu and finally introduced into Parliament in September 2019, was passed in WA. Between 1 July 2018 and 30 June 2019, 430 people spent time in custody for unpaid fines. Under the new legislation, most fine defaulters will do community service if they fail to pay, with imprisonment a last resort, by order of a magistrate only. The change was recommended by RCIADIC in 1991. Definition The RCIDIAC's Recommendation No. 6 in its final report stipulated that "death in custody" includes at least the following categories when considering post-death investigations: The Police Association of South Australia proposed a change to the legal definition in June 2020. PASA President Mark Carroll said that police were only involved in "very few" of these cases, with most of them occurring through natural causes, suicide or violence between prisoners, and that several had occurred when the subjects had tried to flee from police and come to harm, including fatal car crashes. However this idea was opposed by the Aboriginal Legal Rights Movement (ALRM) and the opposition (Labor) Aboriginal Affairs spokesperson Kyam Maher, who said that it was important to keep consistency in the statistics for comparison purposes. Statistics Sources Statistics on deaths in custody are extracted from different sources; there is no single authoritative list of deaths in custody, of any race. Under Australia's federal system, each state or territory has responsibility for criminal justice in their jurisdiction. Those held in prison custody (including institutions such as remand) are the responsibility of a state or territory department overseeing correctional services; youth detention centres are overseen by a variety of types of departments (such as human/community services or youth justice), and those occurring in police custody during operations are the responsibility of each state or territory's police force, or alternatively the Australian Federal Police. The Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) uses data from its National Deaths in Custody Program (NDICP), as laid out in Recommendation 41 of the final report of the RCIADIC. (Where other sources for the statistics quoted below vary from the RCIADIC definition given above, or need further clarification, this is noted.) Historical 1980–1989: The National Report (1991) of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) included a list of the deaths investigated by the Commission, i.e. those occurring between 1980 and 1989. 1989–1996: A 1996 report prepared by prepared for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission reported 96 Aboriginal deaths in custody in the seven years following the period examined by the RCIADIC, with a peak of 22 in 1995. A change in the definition of a death in custody in 1989 meant that only deaths in institutional settings (such as on remand, in prisons and youth detention centres), rather than police pursuit, could be examined when comparing the figures between the Royal Commission and post-Royal Commission periods. 1990–1999: A report comparing the number and circumstances of Indigenous deaths in custody during the 10-year period examined by RCDIAC with those in the following 10 years, found that the average annual rate of deaths has decreased from 4.4 deaths per 100,000 persons to 3.8 deaths per 100,000 people. As a proportion of all deaths in custody, those of Indigenous people had decreased from 21% to 18%. As a proportion of all deaths in custody, deaths in police custody (all races) had decreased, while prison deaths had increased. 2001–2011: A 2013 Monitoring Report by the AIC found that both Indigenous and non-Indigenous rates of deaths in custody had decreased in the ten years preceding 2011, including eight years in which the Indigenous rate of deaths in prison had been lower than non-Indigenous. Looking at police custody, those in institutional and close contact settings had been decreasing (attributed to better training of police and design improvements in holding cells), while "operational deaths" (such as pursuits) had shown an overall increase since the early 1990s, but some reduction between 2003 and 2011. 2013–2015: In the two years between 1 July 2013 and 30 June 2015, there was a total of 115 deaths (of all races) in prison custody, with over 70% of these due to natural causes, and 34 in police custody and related operations. 22% of the prison deaths and 19% of those in police custody were of Indigenous people. 2015–2017: In a Statistical Report looking at prison deaths between 2015 and 2016, the AIC reported that death rates of Indigenous prisoners "[had] been consistently lower than death rates of non-Indigenous prisoners since 2003–04". The death rate in 2015–2016 was 0.18 and 0.23 per 100 respectively, and in 2016–2017, 0.14 and 0.18 per 100 respectively. 1979–2018: The AIC's National Deaths in Custody Program report: Deaths in custody in Australia 2013–14 and 2014–15, published in April 2018, reported a total of 2,608 deaths (of all races) in custody since 1979–80, with 1,600 deaths of those in prison and 985 in police custody. (In addition, 18 deaths had occurred in youth detention facilities and five in other justice facilities, but these were excluded from analysis in this report.) Of those 2,608 deaths, 500 had been Indigenous and 2,104 non-Indigenous people. 1990–2004: A report spanning 25 years summarised the trends in deaths during this period. Compared with the RDDIAC period (1980–1989), in which the majority of deaths (61%) occurred in police custody, during this 15-year period most of the deaths occurred in prison custody (63%). Deaths in police custody had decreased, while the number of deaths occurring during police operations increased, but the latter deaths were mostly of non-Indigenous persons. "While the number of deaths of non-Indigenous prisoners has consistently exceeded deaths of Indigenous prisoners, the rate of Indigenous prisoner deaths exceeded the rate of non-Indigenous prisoner deaths in just over half of the 15 years since RCIADIC, reflecting the general over-representation of Indigenous persons in the prison population." 1991–2016: A 2019 AIC Statistical Bulletin, looking at 25 years of data since the Royal Commission (1 July 1991 to 30 June 2016), found that: With reference to prison custody, "Indigenous people are now less likely than non-Indigenous people to die in prison custody" including a decrease in the rate of hanging deaths. Death from natural causes was the most prevalent cause, at 58% (140), followed by hanging, at 32% (78); 5% (12) were due to drugs and/or alcohol, and 4% (9) were due to external trauma. from mid-2003 to mid–2016, deaths due to natural causes surpassed hanging deaths. Deaths in prison custody had decreased overall for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. With reference to police custody, it was not possible to calculate rates of death due to lack of reliable data, but there was no clear trend over the reference period based on raw numbers. The number of deaths in police custody in each year was "relatively small", with a total of 146 Indigenous deaths over the 25-year period. The largest number occurred in 2002–03 and 2004–05 (11 each), and the lowest in 2013–14 (1). As to the manner of death, 47% (68) of Indigenous deaths in police custody were classified as accidental with 57% (39) of these during motor vehicle pursuits and 19% (13) during another type of pursuit. Natural causes accounted for 21% (31), self-inflicted deaths 19% (28), "justifiable homicide" 7% (10) and "unlawful homicide" 5% (8). 56% (82) of Indigenous deaths were classified as deaths in which officers were not in close contact, while the remaining 44% (64) were deaths in which officers were in close contact with the deceased. This proportion was reflected similarly in the stats for non-Indigenous deaths in police custody (333 and 262 respectively). Recent totals and analyses 1991 – June 2020: A total of at least Indigenous 437 deaths in custody have been recorded since 1991. 2008 – June 2020: The Guardian's Deaths Inside database, tracking all Indigenous deaths in custody between 1 January 2008 and 5 June 2020, was created by Guardian Australia reporters, using all available data available from coronial and other sources. It also includes all deaths that occurred in the presence of police officers, including those caused by self-inflicted injuries. It also includes deaths occurring during a police pursuit or traffic intercept by police. The total number is of deaths recorded is 164, with Western Australia recording the highest number for a state or territory (54). Of the total, 72 deaths were attributed to medical issues; 23 to self-harm and 23 to traffic accidents. Further analysis of the data showed that agencies "failed to follow all of their own procedures in 41% of cases where Indigenous people died"; and in the cases of 38% of Indigenous deaths, required medical care at some point was not given. In 42% of all deaths in custody (all races), "mental health or cognitive impairment was a factor", but Indigenous people with a diagnosed mental condition, including brain injury and foetal alcohol syndrome, did not receive the required care in 49% of cases. Another finding was that Indigenous women fared worse than men in terms of receiving all appropriate medical care and the authorities following procedures. July 2018 – June 2019: The AIC report published in December 2020 (the most recent ) reports on deaths between July 2018 and June 2019. The data tables in Appendices B, C and D can be downloaded in Excel format. Table B1 shows: Responses In Australia, all deaths in custody trigger an inquest. By August 2018 it was found that there had been a lack of action on recommendations arising from inquests, including the recommendations made as part of the 1987 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody. Over half of the Indigenous people who died in custody since 2008 had not been found guilty, as 56% were on remand, died while fleeing police or during arrest, or were in protective custody. Most were suspected of non-indictable offences, which typically carry sentences of less than five years. Custody Notification Scheme Custody Notification Schemes (CNS) have been set up in several states and territories. Implementation of a CNS has been shown to bring about a dramatic reduction in the numbers of Aboriginal deaths in police custody. In October 2016, the federal government offered funding for the first three years to the remaining states and territories which had not yet legislated a mandatory CNS; by July 2020, only Queensland and Tasmania had not yet introduced such legislation. Publicity and community action Since the murder of George Floyd and the protests that followed in the US in the first week of June 2020, Aboriginal deaths in custody have come into focus again. The last day of National Reconciliation Week was marked by a candlelight vigil in Brisbane's Musgrave Park on 3 June 2020, with 432 candles lit for the each of the Aboriginal deaths in custody since the 1991 end of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, and an extra one for George Floyd. Protests planned in major cities on 6 June 2020 were met with differing responses by government and police in each state, owing to the social distancing and other restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Closing the Gap The federal government's Closing the Gap strategy since 2008, which aims to reduce disadvantage among Indigenous Australians, had not addressed justice issues during the first 10 years of its existence, but draft targets for 2019 created by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in December 2018 included one called "Justice (including youth justice)". This target aims to "Reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people in detention by 11-19% and adults held in incarceration by at least 5% by 2028", and the outcome of the target is that "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are not overrepresented in the criminal justice system". The new targets and an overhaul of the Closing the Gap framework were now being led by Indigenous people, with the project still under way as of February 2020, when the 12th Closing the Gap report was published. The Minister for Indigenous Australians, the Hon. Ken Wyatt, said in early June 2020 that law reform alone cannot solve the justice problem: "We're working to address the factors that contribute to high incarceration rates". As one example, Wyatt cited the Western Australian law which includes imprisonment as a punishment for not paying a fine. One of the RCIDIAC recommendations for state governments had been to review the offence of "public drunkenness" as well as imprisonment for unpaid fines, as these played a large part in the number of Indigenous people in custody. The Victorian and Western Australian governments indicated these laws might soon be overturned, years after two women had died in custody in each state while being held for one of these reasons (Tanya Day and Ms Dhu), and WA effected the change on 17 June 2020. Senator Mick Dodson, one of the Commissioners on the RCIDIAC, said in parliament that for too long there had been "nice words" and "good intentions", but there had been a lack of "action and commitment" to keeping Indigenous people out of prison. Individual cases and findings Notable incidents John Pat, a 16-year-old boy killed in Western Australia in 1983. Kingsley Richard Dixon, a 19-year-old who died in Adelaide Gaol in 1987, one of two cases which sparked the Royal Commission. David Gundy, an Aboriginal man who died aged 29, in Marrickville, Sydney, New South Wales, on 27 April 1989 Cameron Doomadgee, a 2004 death in custody on Great Palm Island, Queensland. Ms Dhu, an Aboriginal woman who died in 2014 in South Hedland, Western Australia. David Dungay, who died aged 26 in Long Bay Hospital at Long Bay Correctional Centre in Sydney in 2015. Dungay had diabetes and died after being held down by five guards who had asked him to stop eating biscuits, while being injected with a sedative by a prison nurse. A coronial inquest in November 2019 found that none of the guards should face disciplinary action, saying that their "conduct was limited by systemic efficiencies in training", but the professional conduct of the nurse should be reviewed by the Nursing Board. Rebecca Maher, a Wiradjuri woman, found dead in Maitland, New South Wales police cell in July 2016, after being arrested for public intoxication. The coroner found that she would have survived if police had followed procedures. This was the first time an Aboriginal person had died in custody in NSW or the ACT since the Custody Notification Service was implemented. When Maher was taken into protective custody by police for being intoxicated, police were only obliged to call the CNS if an Indigenous person was taken into custody for an offence, not if they were detained as an intoxicated person, so they did not alert the CNS at the Aboriginal Legal Service (NSW/ACT). As a result of the coronial inquest into her death, in October 2019 the NSW government implemented a change to extend the CNS to cover police custody of intoxicated persons. Wayne Fella Morrison, a 29-year-old Wiradjuri, Kokatha and Wirangu man died in the Royal Adelaide Hospital on 26 September 2016, after being held at Yatala Labour Prison and put in the back of a transport van in the prone position, with a spit hood, cuffed by his ankles and wrists, and with eight prison guards inside. He was pulled from the back of the van unresponsive and taken to hospital, where he died three days later after his life support machine was switched off. Morrison's death sparked the first national Black Lives Matter protests for Aboriginal lives in October, 2016. The state ombudsman's report in September 2020 said that Morrison was failed by the Department for Correctional Services (DCS), and made 17 recommendations, including that the use of body-worn video cameras for prison officers should be mandatory. DCS adopted some of the recommendations, and formed an agreement with Aboriginal Legal Rights Movement whereby all Aboriginal prisoners admitted to the Adelaide Remand Centre are able to access to the Aboriginal Visitors Scheme. The use of spit hoods was banned in SA in September 2021 as a result of Morrison's family and supporters advocating for 'Fella's Bill' - a spit hood prohibition Bill, tabled by SA BEST's Connie Bonaros MLC. After a 5-year long inquiry into Wayne Fella Morrison's death, and multiple delays, officer's in the van maintained their right to claim the penalty privilege against self-incrimination; their right to silence on what happened in the van. South Australia will soon be first state in Australia to ban spit hoods in law. Tane Chatfield, aged 22, who died at Tamworth Correctional Centre in on 22 September 2017. In August 2020 it was found by the coroner that he had committed suicide, but she criticised the inadequate care that he was given by the senior nurse in the hour before his death. Tanya Day, who fell into a coma in a police cell in Melbourne and later died in hospital in December 2017. In April 2020 a coroner referred the case to prosecutors for further investigation, stating that her death was preventable. On 27 August 2020 Victoria Police announced that they would not be laying charges against any officers, after receiving advice from the Office of Public Prosecutions. Nathan Reynolds, a 36-year-old man, died in the last week of his four-month sentence after an asthma attack in the minimum-security John Morony Correctional Centre (now part of the Francis Greenway Correction Complex) in Sydney in September 2018. The coronial inquiry showed that the prison staff's response was "unreasonably delayed", and contributed to his death. See also Age of criminal responsibility in Australia Closing the Gap, a government strategy aimed at reducing disadvantage among Indigenous people Custody Notification Scheme Deaths in custody First Nations Deaths In Custody Watch Committee George Floyd protests in Australia Health Effects from Incarceration of Indigenous Australians Indigenous Australians and crime Punishment in Australia Footnotes References Further reading General reference Details of all Indigenous deaths in custody 2008−June 2020. Google Scholar search results for "Aboriginal deaths in custody" Articles and opinion – about Mulrunji Doomadgee on Palm Island Indigenous Australian politics Australian people who died in prison custody

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The New York World Building (also the Pulitzer Building) was a building in the Civic Center of Manhattan in New York City, along Park Row between Frankfort Street and the Brooklyn Bridge. Part of the former "Newspaper Row", it was designed by George B. Post in the Renaissance Revival style, serving as the headquarters of the New York World after its completion in 1890. The New York World Building was the tallest building in New York City upon completion, becoming the first to overtop Trinity Church, and was by some accounts the world's tallest building. The World Building contained a facade made of sandstone, brick, terracotta, and masonry. Its interior structure included brick interior walls, concrete floors, and an internal superstructure made of iron. There were twelve full stories, two basements, and a six-story dome at the top of the building. The pinnacle above the dome reached . When the building was in use, the World primarily used the dome, ground floor, and basements, while the other stories were rented to tenants. The World Building's design generally received mixed reviews, with criticism focusing mostly on its immense scale. The World owner Joseph Pulitzer started planning for a new World headquarters in the late 1880s, and hired Post to design the building as a result of an architectural design competition. Construction took place from October 1889 to December 1890. Following the World subsequent success, Horace Trumbauer designed a thirteen-story annex for the World Building, which was erected between 1907 and 1908. When the World closed in 1931, the building was used as headquarters of The Journal of Commerce. The World Building was demolished between 1955 and 1956 to make room for an expanded entrance ramp to the Brooklyn Bridge. A large stained glass window and the building's cornerstone were preserved by the Columbia University School of Journalism. Site The New York World Building was at 53–63 Park Row, at the northeast corner with Frankfort Street, in the Civic Center of Manhattan, across from New York City Hall. The building initially occupied a roughly parallelogram-shaped land lot with frontage of on Park Row to the northwest and on Frankfort Street to the south. It abutted the Brooklyn Bridge to the north and other buildings to the east; the lot originally had a cut-out on the northeastern corner so that the Brooklyn Bridge side was shorter than the Frankfort Street side. Immediately to the south of the site was the New York Tribune Building. Frankfort Street sloped downward away from Park Row so that while the basement was one level below Park Row, it was only a few steps below grade at the eastern end of the Frankfort Street frontage. After an annex eastward to North William Street was completed in 1908, the building took up the entire city block and had a frontage of along North William Street. The expanded building had of frontage on Frankfort Street. The annex covered a lot of , giving the building a total lot area of . Prior to the World Building's development, the building was the site of French's Hotel. The hotel had been developed after the lots were acquired by one John Simpson in 1848. The World owner and the building's developer, Joseph Pulitzer, had been thrown out of the same hotel during the American Civil War; at the time, he was a recent Hungarian immigrant who had volunteered to serve in the Union Army's cavalry. Design The original portion of the New York World Building was completed in 1890 and designed by George B. Post in the Renaissance Revival style with some Venetian Renaissance detail. The World Building was also known as the Pulitzer Building, after Joseph Pulitzer. Multiple contractors provided the material for the structure. The World Building consisted of a "tower" with twelve full stories, topped by a six-story dome. This count excluded a mezzanine above the first story but included a viewing gallery in the dome. Including the mezzanine and a penthouse above the twelfth story of the tower, the latter of which was at the same height as the dome's first level, the tower had fourteen stories. When the building opened in 1890, the World Building's dome had a height of and a spire of , though this calculation was measured from the eastern end of the Frankfort Street frontage, rather than from the main frontage on Park Row. The flat roof was above sidewalk level. The World Building was New York City's tallest building when opened, becoming the first to rise higher than Trinity Church's spire. By some accounts, it was also the world's tallest building, when the spire was counted. The actual number of stories in the World Building was disputed. The World described the building as having 26 stories, counting the tower as fourteen stories and including two subsurface levels, three mezzanines, and an observatory over the dome. However, scholars described the building as having only 16 or 18 stories, excluding mezzanines, below-ground levels, and levels that could not be fully occupied. Contemporary media characterized the structure as an 18-story building, while Emporis and SkyscraperPage, two websites that collect data on buildings, listed the building as having 20 stories. A thirteen-story annex to William Street, completed in 1908, was designed by Horace Trumbauer in the same style as Post's design. This annex replaced a two-story addition to the original World Building on Frankfort Street. Facade Park Row The main elevation on Park Row was clad with red sandstone below the tenth story, and buff brick and terracotta above. At the base, the columns were made of red granite, while the spandrel panels between each story were gray granite. The Park Row elevation contained five bays, of which the three center bays formed a slightly projecting pavilion with a triple-height entrance arch at the base. There were two small circular windows in the spandrels of the arch, and a frieze with the words and a cornice above the arch. On the 3rd story, the three central windows were flanked by four ornamental bronze female torch-bearers carved by Karl Bitter, which represented the arts. Pedestals flanked the center bays on the 4th story. The 5th through 10th stories of the center bays were divided horizontally into three sets of double-height arches, each supported by four pairs of columns. At the 11th story, four pairs of square piers divided each bay. Four black copper caryatids by Bitter, representing human races, flanked the 12th-story windows. A cornice and balustrade ran above the 12th story, with a pediment above the center bays, as well as a terracotta panel containing the carved monogram and the date "1889". The outer bays of the Park Row elevation had double-height arched windows above the mezzanine and 3rd story, and square windows above. All of the bays had arched windows on the 12th story. Other facades Between the Park Row and Frankfort Street elevations was a rounded corner that spanned from the first to tenth stories. The corner entrance contained a double-height arch flanked by female figures depicting justice and truth. As in the center bays on Park Row, there were three sets of double-height arches between the fifth and tenth stories. A balustrade ran above the tenth story of the rounded corner, and the 11th and 12th stories were recessed from that corner, with a convex wall running perpendicularly from both Park Row and Frankfort Street. On Frankfort Street, the facade was clad with red sandstone below the 3rd story, and buff brick and terracotta above. The North William Street facade was similar to that of the original building but had granite facing on the 1st story and brick with terracotta above. Features There were eighteen lifts in the building, including passenger and freight elevators. The elevators were made of iron and encased in glazed brick walls. Four hydraulic elevators served passengers; three were for the use of the office tenants below the 12th floor, while the fourth was a circular elevator that ran to the dome and was used exclusively by the World staff. Two additional elevators were used by other employees. Nine other lifts were used to transport materials: one each for stereotype plates, rolls of paper, coal, copy, and restaurant use, and four to carry the stereotype plates and printed papers. The building was heated by a steam system throughout and contained 3,500 electric lights at its opening. The three boilers in the subbasement could generate a combined . In addition, there was a pneumatic tube system to transport items from the dome to the basement. A water storage tank with a capacity of was situated in the cellar, and fed water to a smaller tank at the rear of the roof. There were of available floor space upon the building's opening, which was "practically doubled" with the completion in 1908 of the building's William Street annex. The hallways were tiled, while the entrances were finished in marble. The floors of the World Building's offices were made of Georgia pine upon a concrete base. Ash was used for woodwork finish, except in the publication office, where mahogany was used. The building contained a total of 250 units, of which 149 were rented to tenants and 79 were used by the World staff. Structural features The foundation of the World Building was excavated to a depth of , just above the water level; the underlying layer of bedrock was around deep. The foundation consisted of a "mat" of concrete, overlaid by a series of large stones that formed inverted arches between them. The brick and concrete foundation piers rested upon these arches, which in turn descended to the underlying gravel bed. Such construction was common among the city's large 19th-century buildings but had a tendency to break apart. Hard brick was used for the foundation walls up to the basement story, above which large granite blocks were placed in the wall. The foundation used of sand, plaster, lime, and cement. The World Building contained a hybrid cage-frame structure whose exterior walls were partially load-bearing. The exterior walls' thicknesses had been prescribed by city building codes of the time. They were generally thick at the base, with the thickest wall being thick at the base, but tapered to just below the dome. The exterior wall sections on Park Row and Frankfort Street were so large because they were not part of a single connected wall but instead consisted of several piers, which had to be thicker than continuous walls per city codes. Inside was a superstructure of wrought iron columns supporting steel girders, which collectively weighed over . The columns tapered upward, from at the base to at the top. Flat arches, made of hollow concrete blocks, were placed between the girders. The dome's frame was designed as if it were a separate structure. The dome measured across at its base and measured from the main roof to the lantern. The dome consisted of a wrought-iron framing with double-diagonal bracing between every other pair of columns. The ribs supporting the dome were placed on top of iron columns that descended directly to the building's foundation without intersecting with the rest of the superstructure. The exterior of the dome was made of copper and contained cornices above the first and third stories of the dome. The fourth and fifth dome stories were divided by the ribs into twelve sections with small lunette windows on each story. At the top of the dome was a lantern surrounded by an observatory. Visitors could pay five cents to travel to the observatory. Interior The building had two subsurface levels. The basement below the street had a ceiling high, and protruded under the roadway on Park Row, but had an entrance at Frankfort Street due to the slope of the street. The basement contained the machinery for the building's elevator and plumbing lines, a stereotype room, employee rooms, and a passageway to two elevators. The subbasement, or cellar, had ceilings high for the most part, with the boiler room containing a ceiling high. It extended under the sidewalk on Frankfort Street and protruded the same distance under Park Row as the first basement. The cellar contained the elevator and house pumps, engine room, the printing presses, and a visitors' gallery. The ground floor contained the main entrance, as well as the publication office, private offices, counting room, and three stores. The main entrance from Park Row led to a large circular rotunda running eastward, containing floors and walls decorated in white and pink marbles, and a ceiling vault measuring wide by high. After the annex was completed in 1908, the ground-floor lobby extended between Park Row and North William Street. The World cashier's and bookkeeper's offices occupied the mezzanine over the 1st floor. The original two-story annex on Frankfort Street contained a newspaper-delivery department on its lower story, and bookkeepers' departments on its upper story. The mezzanine through 10th stories were used as offices. Advertisements indicated that there were a 75-seat "Assembly Hall" and 350-seat "Assembly Room" available for rent. The 11th floor originally contained the editorial department of the Evening World, and a two-bedroom apartment used during "special occasions". The 12th story was used as a composing room and contained galleries for proofreaders and visitors. There was also a night editors' department on the 12th floor. Above it was a roof from which the dome rose. The roof was slightly graded and contained a layer of concrete and five layers of felt-and-asphalt above steel beams. A penthouse on the roof, located at the same height at the first story of the dome, contained the offices of the managing and Sunday editor, the art and photo-engraving departments, and an employee restaurant. The six-story dome was used exclusively by editorial offices, Pulitzer's private office, and the paper's library. The first level originally housed the city editors' department and had offices for over one hundred people. The main ceiling of the first dome story was tall, but an overhanging gallery ran around the circumference of the dome, above the fifteenth floor. Pulitzer's office was on the second level of the dome and featured frescoes on the ceiling, embossed leather walls, and three large windows. The second dome story also contained the vice president's apartment, editorial writers' offices, and Council Chamber offices. The second level had a ceiling of while subsequent dome stories had slightly shorter ceilings. The third level contained offices for clerical assistants, the chief artist and cartoonist, and other staff, while the fourth level contained the file room and obituary departments. The fifth level was used as an observatory and storeroom. By 1908, the art department and the World library were located in the 11th story. History Starting in the early 19th century and continuing through the 1920s, the surrounding area grew into the city's "Newspaper Row". Several newspaper headquarters were built on Park Row just west of Nassau Street, including the Potter Building, the Park Row Building, the New York Times Building, and the New York Tribune Building. The New York World and other newspapers would be among the first to construct early skyscrapers for their headquarters. Meanwhile, printing was centered around Beekman Street, two blocks south of the World Building. The New York World was established in 1860, and initially occupied a structure two blocks south at 37 Park Row, later the Potter Building's site. The original World building burned down in 1882, killing six people and causing more than $400,000 in damage (equivalent to $ million in ). The World was subsequently housed at 32 Park Row. Joseph Pulitzer purchased the World in 1883, and the paper's circulation grew tenfold in the following six years, so that 32 Park Row became too small for the paper's operations. Planning and construction In June 1887, Pulitzer purchased land at 11 Park Row and 5–11 Ann Street at a cost of $140,000. The lot was directly across from the headquarters of the New York Herald at the intersection of Park Row, Broadway, and Ann Street. Pulitzer planned to erect a tall headquarters on the site, but Herald owner James Gordon Bennett Jr. bought the corner of Park Row and Ann Street, precluding Pulitzer from acquiring enough land for a skyscraper. In April 1888, Pulitzer bought the site of French's Hotel at Frankfort Street, three blocks north of Ann Street; the hotel site was considered the only one in the neighborhood that was both large enough and affordable for Pulitzer. Pulitzer's estate retained control of the lots at 11 Park Row and Ann Street, but did not develop them. Demolition of the hotel commenced in July 1888. Numerous professional advisors, including Richard Morris Hunt, were hired to judge the architectural design competition through which the architect was to be selected. According to the Real Estate Record and Guide, "about half a dozen well-known architects" had submitted plans by August 1888, when French's Hotel was nearly completely demolished. By October 1888, George B. Post had been selected as the building's architect. Supposedly, Post had called Pulitzer after submitting his plans, and he had designed the building to "annex" over the Brooklyn Bridge approach. He also apparently bet $20,000 against Pulitzer's $10,000 that the project would stay within the $1 million budget that Pulitzer had outlined, even though the building apparently ended up costing $2 million. Pulitzer dictated several aspects of the design, including the triple-height main entrance arch, the dome, and the rounded corner at Park Row and Frankfort Street. Post expressed particular concern about the entrance arch, which entailed removing "valuable renting space" around the arch and initially thought the entrance "wellnigh an impossibility". The foundations for French's Hotel were not completely removed until early June 1889, and so foundation work for the World Building began on June 20, 1889. Although the excavations extended under the surrounding sidewalks and even under part of Park Row, traffic was barely disrupted, mostly because of the inclusion of temporary bridges for pedestrians and for materials storage. The cornerstone of the New York World Building was laid at a groundbreaking ceremony held on October 10, 1889. Work progressed quickly; three months after the groundbreaking, the steel structure had reached nine stories and the masonry had reached six stories. Despite a labor strike among the builders in April 1890 many offices were ready for tenants by that October. The building was formally completed on December 10, 1890, with a luncheon, speeches from several politicians, and a fireworks display from the dome. World usage The World prospered through the 1890s and the early 20th century. At the time of its opening, the World was outselling its competitors, with a daily circulation greater than the Herald, Tribune, Sun, and Times individually, and greater than the latter three papers combined. In its early years, the World Building's dome was used for various purposes: its lantern was used to display results for the 1894 United States elections, and a projector on the dome was used to display messages in the night sky. During a heat wave in 1900, the World hired a "noted rainmaker" to detonate two dozen "rain bombs" from the building's dome. By 1906, Horace Trumbauer was hired to design a thirteen-story annex for the building extending eastward to North William Street. Trumbauer filed plans for the expansion in January 1907, while D. C. Weeks & Son were hired as contractors. Work on the extension began the next months. The expanded structure and the World 25th anniversary were celebrated with a ceremony on May 9, 1908, with a fireworks display and several speeches. A large stained glass window by Otto Heinigke, combining the Statue of Liberty and the New York World banner, was installed over the North William Street entrance to the annex. The stained glass window alluded to how the World had helped raise funds for the statue's pedestal from the public in 1883, before the statue's construction. Despite the expansion of the building, the World declined in stature during the 1910s and 1920s. Several notable events took place at the building during this time. In 1911, American Civil War spy Pryce Lewis killed himself by jumping off the building's dome, having been denied a government pension. After the World exposé of the Ku Klux Klan was published in September 1921, the Ku Klux Klan threatened to destroy the building with a bomb, prompting an armed guard of police and Department of Justice employees to be stationed outside of the building. The next year, the facade of the World Building was used to display scores from the 1922 World Series. There were also some minor fires, including one in 1919, and another in 1924 that slightly damaged the World presses. Overall, the World was not prospering financially, and it shuttered in 1931. Later use and demolition In 1933, The Journal of Commerce leased four floors in the World Building to use as its headquarters. Another long-term tenant, Negro league baseball executive Nat Strong, occupied the building from 1900 until his death in 1935. Strong apparently owned the building for some time after the World had gone defunct. By 1936, there were proposals to demolish the World Building as part of a plan to widen the Manhattan approach to the Brooklyn Bridge. The Central Hanover Bank and Trust Company, acting as trustee of Pulitzer's estate, sold the building to Samuel B. Shankman in 1941 for $50,000 plus taxes. Shankman planned to renovate the structure and hold it as an investment. At the time of the sale, the building was valued at $2.375 million, but the tax assessment was reduced to $2.105 million shortly afterward. In 1942, the facade was thoroughly cleaned for the first time since the building's completion. The next year, the building became the headquarters of Local Draft Board 1, which at the time was described as the "largest in the United States" of its kind. Socony-Mobil leased in the World Building in 1946, using the space as a staff-training center with a 180-seat auditorium, a projecting room, and a publicly accessible exhibit room. Robert F. Wagner Jr., the Manhattan borough president, proposed redesigning the streets around the Manhattan entrance to the Brooklyn Bridge in 1950, and the New York City Planning Commission approved an associated change to the zoning map that August. Details of the plan were released in November 1952. A ramp between the Brooklyn Bridge and southbound Park Row, as well as two ramps carrying northbound Park Row both onto and around the bridge, were to be constructed on the World Building's site. The Planning Commission officially approved Wagner's plan in January 1953, but the New York City Board of Estimate temporarily delayed the building's demolition when it laid over the street-redesign plan. The next month, the Board of Estimate also approved Wagner's plan. The Journal of Commerce, by then the last remaining newspaper to publish from Park Row, moved out of the World Building the day after the Board of Estimate's approval. The Board of Estimate moved to acquire the World Building's land in June 1953, and borough president Hulan Jack signed demolition contracts for the building the next year. In December 1954, during a renovation of City Hall, the office of now-mayor Wagner temporarily moved from City Hall to the World Building. Demolition work on the World Building started in mid-March 1955, and the last commercial tenants were required to leave by April 1. The mayor's office planned to stay in the building until May 1, so mayoral aides arranged for demolition contractors to conduct only minor facade removals until then. In preparation for the construction of the new ramps, the demolition contractors would also strengthen the World Building's foundations. The mayor's office, the last tenant of the World Building, moved back to City Hall on May 13, 1955. The site was mostly cleared by the beginning of 1956, and work on the new Brooklyn Bridge approaches began later that year. Legacy The World Building received mixed reviews upon its completion. The World wrote of its headquarters: "There is a sermon in these stones: a significant moral in this architectural glory." The Real Estate Record and Guide wrote that the building was too tall for its lot, especially considering that it could not be viewed in full from the narrow Frankfort Street, and that "there have been no pains at all taken to keep the building down", with a particularly sharp dissonance between the tower and dome. Another reviewer wrote that "The World building is a monstrosity in varicolored brick and stone". The Skyscraper Museum stated that "The distinctive dome provided a visual identity for the newspaper", and that the lantern on the dome was used at night as a beacon for ships. The building's Heinigke stained glass window was bought by a group headed by a Columbia University journalism professor. In 1954, when the building's demolition was announced, it was brought to Room 305 of the Columbia University School of Journalism. Columbia was also set to receive the cornerstone, and demolition contractors spent more than a year looking for it. The cornerstone was finally discovered in February 1956, using a Geiger counter to detect radiation from the cornerstone. Columbia received the cornerstone that month. The box included publications from 1889; Pulitzer family photographs; gold and silver coins; a medallion celebrating the World having reached a circulation from 250,000; and dedication speeches, recorded in wax phonograph cylinders. The World Building, as an early New York City icon, appeared in several works of media. It was mentioned in the novel Manhattan Transfer by John Dos Passos. The building was also featured on the cover of the World Almanac from 1890 to 1934. References Notes Citations Sources External links 1890 establishments in New York (state) 1955 disestablishments in New York (state) Buildings and structures demolished in 1955 Civic Center, Manhattan Commercial buildings completed in 1890 Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan Former skyscrapers Former world's tallest buildings New York World Newspaper headquarters in the United States Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan

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Aimé Nicolas Morot (16 June 1850 – 12 August 1913) was a French painter and sculptor in the Academic Art style. Biography Aimé Nicolas Morot, son of François-Aimé Morot and Catherine-Elisabeth Mansuy, was born in Rue d'Amerval 4 in Nancy on 16 June 1850, and spent his youth in Rue de la Colline in Boudonville. At age 12 he started his studies in drawing, painting and gravure printing at the l'Ecole Municipal de Dessin et de Peinture de Nancy under Thiéry and the director of the school Charles Sellier. He continued his studies in Nancy until the late 1860s and subsequently attended the workshop of Alexandre Cabanel at the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, but could not study well in the noisy environment of Cabanel's workshop and left after having received two corrections by Cabanel. In the next two years he continued his studies independently studying in the Jardin des Plantes, where he developed his skills in observing and portraying animals. Despite his lack of attendance at the École, he won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1873 with his first submission, the Babylonian Captivity (Super Flumina Babylonis), which is currently in the collection of the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The fellowship allowed him to travel to Italy and become a resident of the Villa Medici, where the French Academy in Rome was housed. Morot rarely set foot in his workshop in the Villa Medici, but still regularly produced paintings. His first submission to the Salon de Paris was awarded a third-class medal for the painting Spring (Printemps) in 1876. In 1877 he was awarded a second-class medal for Médée, for which a Roman woman called Victoria served as his model. He subsequently received a first-class medal in 1879 for Les Ambronnes and the Medal of Honour for The Good Samaritan in 1880, competing against Joan of Arc by the realist painter Jules Bastien-Lepage, who had also studied under Cabanel. According to Brauer (2013) The Good Samaritan was a protest against the continued poor treatment of the Paris Communards after their defeat in 1871. Morot returned to Paris in 1880, where he met painter Jean-Léon Gérôme and married Suzanne-Mélanie Gérôme (1867-1941), one of the painter's four daughters, at the Mairie Drouot (Paris 9eme Arrondissement, civil) and in the Sainte-Trinité church in 1887. Marriage witnesses included fellow painters Fernand Cormon and Charles Jalabert. The family first lived in 18 rue de Chabrol, and in 1896 moved to a town house at 11 rue Weber, in Paris, the garden of which resembled a zoo housing snakes, lions, panthers, leopards and other exotic animals. He had two children, a daughter Aimée Morot (1901-1958) and a son Jean-Léon Morot (1908-1961). Suzanne-Mélanie Morot modelled for paintings in 1897 and, together with her daughter, in 1904. One of Morot's last contributions to the French Artists' Salon de Paris was a painting of his children called Brother and Sister (Frere et Soeur) in 1911. In the 1880s, Morot worked at the Académie Julian, where he was a colleague of William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) with whom he co-supervised the British cartoonist and illustrator Sir Leonard Raven-Hill (1867-1935) in 1885 and 1886. After Gustave Moreau's death in 1898, he led Moreau's studio at the institute. Theodor Pallady (1871-1956) and Gaston Hippolyte Ambroise Boucart (fr) (1878-1962), former pupils of Gustave Moreau, continued their studies under Aimé Morot. Charles Louis Auguste Weisser (Montbéliard, 1864-1940) was a student of both Aimé Morot and Jean-Léon Gérôme. Other French painters and engravers that were supervised by Morot were Hippolyte-Auguste Fauchon, (1853-1935), (1861-1943), Léon Fauché (1868-1951), (1879-1932) and Henry Jacquier (1878-1921). In 1900, he won the grand prix of the l'Exposition Universelle (Paris Exhibition) and in the same year became professor at the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Henry Golden Dearth (Bristol, 1864), a bronze medal winner at the same Paris Exhibition of 1900, was one of his British students, as were Dawson Dawson-Watson (1864-1939) and James Whitelaw Hamilton (1860-1932). His American apprentice artists included Benjamin Foster (1852-1926), Edmund Clarence Messer (1842-1919; elected Principal of Corcoran School of Art in 1902), Gaylord Sangston Truesdell (1850-1899), George Henry Bogert (1864-1944), Georgia Timken Fry (1864-1921), Eurilda Loomis France (1865-1931) and Herbert Haseltine (1877-1962). In 1883 Morot was awarded the title of Chevalier (knight) in the Legion of Honour and in 1901 he became Officier (officer) in the Légion d'Honneur. As an academician and professor at the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts who frequently exhibited at the French Artists' Salon in Paris and being a member of the painting jury, Aimé Morot was an influential person in the modern art centre of Paris, being among the 18 most influential members of the Institute and was included in Grün's painting "One Friday at the French Artists' Salon" in 1911. In 1912 he was awarded the distinction of Commandeur in the Légion d'Honneur. Morot contributed to the Salon until 1913 where he exposed a portrait of M. Paul Deschanel. In 1910, Morot ordered the construction of a second house outside Paris, Maison dite Ker Arlette in Dinard, a coastal village in North-east Brittany. He lived there until his death after a lengthy illness on 12 August 1913. His death mask was cast in bronze using Lost-wax casting by Fonderie Valsuani, with which he had collaborated for casting bronzes (e.g. Baigneuse debout, Torse de femme). Obituaries were published in the 13 August 1913 edition of Gil Blas, the 16 August 1913 edition of L'Illustration and the 24 August edition of L'Immeuble & la Construction dans l'Est. Aimé Morot's brother was a well-known designer and locksmith in Nancy, who worked on the restoration of the 18th century gilded wrought-iron gates on Place Stanislas in Nancy, designed by Jean Lamour. His brother may have been the inspiration for his painting of The Blacksmith (Le Forgeron). His nephew Jacques Morot also became a painter and exhibited three paintings (portrait of an Arab Chleuch au chapelet, Despedida (l'adieu) and Château du Metz) in the Salon in 1922. Military genre, battle scenes Morot had been attached to the General Staff of the French Army, which had given him ample opportunity to study cavalry men and horses. To study the movement of the horses he used his eye as a camera by the use of a simple device that he could open and close rapidly in front of his eyes to better isolate the movements. This allowed him to vividly paint several historic cavalry charges from the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Among the paintings exhibited at the Salon des Artistes Français were Cavalry charge at Rezonville (1886), 3ème Cuirassiers a Helsass Hausen (1887) and Reischoffen (1887, exhibited in Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles)) and Prisonnier! or the Charge of cavalry at Gravelotte (1888). Society portraits After producing a number of classical and figure paintings at the beginning of his career (e.g. Hériodiade (1880), Le Bon Samaritain (1880), Jésus de Nazareth (1883), Temptation of St. Anthony, Dryade (1884)) he went on to become a society portraitist. Among others he painted Madame Bertinot (1880), Madame Agache (1881), Comtesse de Fontarce (1885), Son Altesse Royale la Duchesse d'Alençon Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, Madame Archdeacon-Boisseaux (1895), Madame Méring (1895), Baron Alphonse James de Rothschild (1898), the painter Édouard Detaille (1899), Monsieur Gustave Eiffel (1905), the Duc de Doudeauville, Madame Aymé Darblay (1902), Pastor Goulden (1906), and Frère et Soeur (Brother and sister), which was exhibited at the Salon de Paris in 1911. Paintings of animals Morot excelled in portraying animals, which appeared in many of his other paintings, such as the horses in his historic cavalry paintings, a donkey in Le bon Samaritain, a pig in Temptation of Saint Anthony, a snake in La Charmeuse, lions in Lion before his Prey and Reclining Lions, Rex and Au Tableau, tigers in Tigre and Deux Tigres Combattant, dogs in Mademoiselle Brice and Jacques Goldschmid and a cat in the painting of his daughter Denise with Cat (1899). International travel His visits to Spain inspired him to Spanish motifs, such as the paintings of Toro Colante displayed at the Salon de Paris in 1885 and of which gravures were published in Le Monde Illustré in 1887 and El Bravo Toro!. which was exhibited in the Salon in 1884 and later featured on the cover of Les Annales politiques et littéraires after his death in 1913. These paintings were painted from memory after Morot had visited a series of bull fights in Spain. Aimé Morot loved hunting and travelled extensively. In 1889 he travelled to Morocco in the company of the French novelist and naval officer Pierre Loti, where he made several orientalist drawings. In 1893 he went to India for tiger hunting. He also visited Turkey, Syria and Abyssinia (Ethiopia), where he was refused permission to hunt elephants and lions. In 1900 he visited Niger and French Sudan, where he did hunt and kill a large lion. This resulted in Au Tableau (1902), representing the return from the hunt with a killed lion being carried up on a river bank by Africans, which is in the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Nancy. Although he travelled widely, he produced few works in the Orientalism genre. Arabs attacking an English outpost was part of the collection of Salvador de Mendonça until 1892. Morot's Dessert Warrior and the watercolour Fantasia was inspired by his travels to Morocco. Media Most of Morot's work consists of oil paintings, although he used other media. Aimé Morot was a member of the Société d'aquarellistes Français and submitted the watercolour Hallah to their 1888 exhibition in Paris and painted the Battle of Reichshoffen using watercolours. He also painted the ceiling of the Grand Salon of the Hôtel de Ville in Nancy in 1902. Aimé Morot made various sculptures in marble and bronze. In 1905 he worked on a memorial for Jean-Léon Gérôme, which consisted of a group representing Gérôme working on his Gladiator sculpture. This sculpture is exhibited in the Jardin de l'Infante in one of the courts of the Louvre. At the same time he worked on a portrait of fellow painter Ernest Hébert for display at the Salon de Paris and was selected as a jury member for the next Salon in 1906. Colour palette and painting technique For his oil paintings on canvas, Aimé Morot had a preference for a colour palette consisting of silver white, zinc white, yellow ochre, red ochre, cadmium yellow, cadmium red, raw sienna, burnt sienna, cobalt blue, emerald green, rose madder, carmine lake and ivory black. His painting medium consisted of oil mixed with some turpentine or sometimes with copal. He would start his painting by making a rough outline of the entire subject on a well-dried oiled canvas using a brush or charcoal, then applied the paint. When the completed painting had dried for a long time, he finally applied a light varnish. Paintings and drawings Femmes lisant et panthère dans un paysage, 1869. Oil on canvas, 0.65 x 0.54 m. Jésus parmi les Docteurs (Jesus among the doctors), 1871. Oil on canvas, 32 x 47 cm. Students' work at academy: Sketch for the grand prize of painting. Une Scène de Déluge, 1872. Musée des beaux-arts de Nancy (in storage), France. Super Flumina Babylonis (La captivité des Juifs à Babylone), 1873. Oil on canvas, 1.45 x 1.13 m, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris. Daphnis et Chloé, exhibited at the Salon de Paris in 1873. Médée, 1876. Oil on canvas, 232 x 160 cm. exhibited at the Salon de Paris in 1877. Musée Barrois, Bar-le-Duc, France. Mlle M. d'Epinay, exhibited at the Salon de Paris in 1877. Victoria, 1878. Water colour portrait on paper, 0.12 x 0.09 m. Private collection M.J. Waterloo, Amsterdam - The Netherlands. The Good Samaritan, study, 1878. Oil on canvas, 0.56 x 0.38 m. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1880. Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, France. Les Ambronnes (Ambrones), 1879. Épisode de la bataille d'Eaux-Sextienne. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1879. Musée des beaux-arts de Nancy (in storage), France. Herodiade, 1880. Descente de croix (Descent from the cross), no date. Oil on canvas, 0.82 x 0.59 m, signed Aimé Morot lower left. Portrait of a lady, no date. Charcoal drawing on paper, 0.185 x 0.145 m. Signed in the lower left corner. Le Forgeron, no date. Oil on canvas, 42.2 x 33.8 cm. Musée des beaux-arts, Reims, France. The good Samaritan, 1880, Oil on canvas, 2.69 x 1.98 m, Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, France. Monsieur Barthelemy Crepy, 1880. Oil on canvas, 1.02 x 0.80 m, Musée des beaux-arts, Lille, France. Portrait of Madame Agache, 1880. Oil on canvas. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1882. Temptation of Saint Anthony. Oil on Canvas. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1881. Portrait of Mademoiselle M. Agache, 1881. Oil on canvas. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1881. Madame Julia Bartet, 1881. Carnavalet Museum, (Musée Carnavalet, Paris), France. Portrait of Mme W. H.. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1882. The death of Mazepa’s horse, 1882. Martyrdom of Jesus of Nazareth, 1883. Oil on canvas, 3.50 x 2.50 m. Exhibited in the Salon des Artistes Français in 1883. Musée des beaux-arts de Nancy (in storage), France. Self portrait of A-N. Morot, 1883. Drawing published in de Bélina, 1883. Dryade, 1884. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1884. The wreath of flowers in the frame was modelled by a sculptor who was a friend of the artist. Sold at auction in New York in 1892, from the collection of Mr. Salvador de Mendonca, Brazilian Minister at Washington El Bravo, Toro, 1884. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1884. Toro Colante, no date. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1885. Monsieur Jules Claretie administrateur de la Comédie-Française (1840-1913), no date - between 1880 and 1890. Oil on wood panel, 0.35 x 0.24 m, Carnavalet Museum (Musée Carnavalet, Paris), France. Monsieur Victor Hugo, 1885. Oil on canvas, 1.10 x 0.88 m. Maison de Victor Hugo (Hauteville House), Guernesy, France. Monsieur Jules Laroche, sociétaire de la Comédie-Française (1841-1925), no date - around 1885. Oil on wood panel, 0.27 x 0.22 m, Carnavalet Museum (Musée Carnavalet, Paris), France. Portrait of Comtesse de Fontarce, 1885. Comte de Gironde, no date. Oil on canvas, 1.46 x 0.92 m, Musée Ingres, Montauban, France. Jeune Juive, no date. Etude, oil on wood panel, 0.27 x 0.22 m. Private collection M.J. Waterloo, Amsterdam - The Netherlands. Rezonville, Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France. Reichshoffen, 6 August 1870, 1887. Oil on canvas, 4.30 x 8.00 m. Exhibited in the Salon des Artistes Français in 1887. Palace of Versailles, Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles), France. Une fantasia, Water color, no date. Listed in the 1888 catalogue of the Société d'aquarellistes Français. Gitane, Oil on wood panel, no date. Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy. Monsieur Henri Schneider, no date. Oil on canvas, 130 x 96 cm. Ecomusée Creusot Montceau, Montceau, France. Portrait de Madame la Baronne G.C. de B.. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1888. Madame Aline Leon, 1887, Musée des beaux-arts de Nancy (in storage), France. Hallali, 1888. Watercolor. Exposed at the Salon des Aquarellistes Français in Paris, 1888. Passage de l'oued M'Cazen, 1889 Le passage de un Gué, no date. La fantasia, 1889. , no date. Le Sultan de Maroc dans la cour des Ambassadeurs, no date. , no date. Algerian guard. 0.20 x 0.24 m. Sold at auction in New York from the collection of Mr. J Abner Harper. Arabs Attacking an English Outpost; Episode of the war in Egypt. Oil on canvas, 0,74 x 0.92 m. Sold at auction in New York in 1892, from the collection of Mr. Salvador de Mendonca, Brazilian Minister at Washington. Prisonnier, no date. Oil on canvas, 1.10 x 1.28 m, Musée des beaux-arts, Lille, France. Portrait of M. Paternote, 1889. Mr. Patenotre was the minister of France in Morocco and was painted posing in a palace in Fes. Rixe dans un intérieur, no date. Oil on canvas, 0.46 x 0.55 m. Morot also made a watercolour painting of the same scene. Portrait of Mademoiselle M. Gérôme. Portrait of the wife of Mr. Morot on horseback, exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1890, photograph published in L'Illustration magazine and in Enault (1890) Les danses Françaises à travers les âges (Plafond destiné a l'Hôtel de Ville, Paris), 1892. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1892. Le reveil de Minet, photograph published in Gil Blas in 1894. Fleur d'automne, 1892. Water colour on paper. Retraite de Saint-Jean-d'Acre (Prairial An VII). Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1893. Portrait of Monsieur Eugénidi, 1895. Portrait of Madame Archdeacon-Boisseaux, 1895. Portrait of Monsieur Bernard, no date. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1895. Portrait of Mademoiselle M. Gérôme, 1895. Portrait of Prince A. d'Arenberg, 1897. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1898. Portrait of Monsieur Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1897. Portrait of Le duc de la Rochefoucauld-Doudeauville, 1897. Exhibited at the Salon de Paris, 1898. Portrait of Comte de la Rochette, 1898. Portrait of Madame Depret, 1898. Homme Drapé, no date. Signed pencil drawing sketch on paper for Jean-Léon Gérôme, 0.29 x 0.22 m. Portrait of Monsieur Chevalier, 1899. Portrait of Monsieur Édouard Detaille, 1899. Oil on canvas, 1.50 x 0.90 m, Palace of Versailles, Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles), France. Portrait of Comte de Fontenay, 1900. Portrait de Monsieur Edouard Dumont (architect). Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1900. Portrait of Josephine Prouvost, no date. Oil on canvas. Portrait of Monsieur Louis Stern, 1900. Oil on canvas. Portrait of Comte Creuzé de Besser, 1900. Portrait of Madame A. C.... Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1901. Portrait of Monsieur P. D.... Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1901. Portrait of Monsieur Cronier, 1901. Portrait of Madame A. D.... Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1902. Retour de la chasse au lion (Au Tableau), 1902. Oil on canvas. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1902. Musée des beaux-arts de Nancy, France. Portrait of Monsieur Jacques Goldschmid, 1903. Portrait of Monsieur Denormandie, 1903. Portrait of Madame Aimé Morot et sa fille, 1904. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1904. Portrait of Madame Aymé Darblay, 1904. Oil on canvas. Portrait of Mademoiselle Janine Desmarais, 1904. Oil on canvas, 0.83 x 0.60 m. Portrait of Monsieur Gustave Eiffel, 1905. Oil on canvas, 1.41 x 0.99 m, Palace of Versailles, Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles) France. Portrait of Ernest Hébert, 1905. Oil on canvas, 1.24 x 0.95 m. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1905. Palace of Versailles, Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles), France. Rex. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1907. Published as postcard at the salon. Portrait of Monsieur Eugène Goüin. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1909. Portrait of a girl, 1909. Oil on canvas 0.40 x 0.32 m. Private collection M.J. Waterloo, Amsterdam - The Netherlands. Portrait of Baron Edmond de Rothschild. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1910. Frère et Soeur, 1911. Displayed on the cover of the April 1911 edition of L'illustration Souvenir du Maroc (Fantasia), no date. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1911. Published in the April 1911 edition of L'illustration. Portrait of M. Limantour. Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1912. Ephemère printemps (Les deux psychés). Exhibited at the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1912. Portrait of Monsieur Paul Deschanel, no date. Exhibited in the Salon of the Société des Artistes Français in 1913. This was the last painting exhibited by Aimé Morot at the Salon just before his death in August 1913. Bronze and marble sculptures Gérôme sculpting the Gladiators, Monument to Gérôme, Musée d'Orsay, Paris (sculpted by Jean-Léon Gérôme and Aimé Morot) Head bust of Richard Wagner. White marble on stand, signed, height 42 cm. Woman's torso. No date. Bronze, signed. Baigneuse, no date. Bronze, signed, foundry mark C. Valsuani on base. height 45 cm. Head of elegant woman, no date. Sculpted in high-relief against chiseled background in white marble, signed, height 42 cm. Private collection Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Head of young lady, no date. Sculpted in high-relief against chiseled background in white marble, signed, height 12 cm. Private collection Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Buste of Jean-Léon Gérôme, about 1909. Bronze. Musée Georges-Garret, Vesoul. Vénus au bain, no date. Bronze on green marble base, signed, height 22 cm. Private collection, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Head of young lady, no date. Sculpted in high-relief against chiseled background in Carrara marble, signed, height 20 cm. Private collection Amsterdam. Buste de jeune femme (Buste of a young lady), no date. White Carrara marble on stand, signed, height 27 cm. Head of young lady with eyes closed, no date. Sculpted in high-relief against chiseled background in Carrara marble, signed Morot, height 19 cm. Private collection, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Paysanne, no date. Alabaster sculpture of young farmer girl, signed Morot. Height 35 cm. Private collection Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Art gallery References 1850 births 1913 deaths People from Nancy, France 19th-century French painters French male painters 20th-century French painters 20th-century male artists Prix de Rome for painting Members of the Académie des beaux-arts 19th-century male artists

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A composite bow is a traditional bow made from horn, wood, and sinew laminated together, a form of laminated bow. The horn is on the belly, facing the archer, and sinew on the outer side of a wooden core. When the bow is drawn, the sinew (stretched on the outside) and horn (compressed on the inside) store more energy than wood for the same length of bow. The strength can be made similar to that of all-wood "self" bows, with similar draw-length and therefore a similar amount of energy delivered to the arrow from a much shorter bow. However, making a composite bow requires more varieties of material than a self bow, its construction takes much more time, and the finished bow is more sensitive to moisture. Archaeological finds and art indicate composite bows have existed since the second millennium BCE, but their history is not well recorded, being developed by cultures without a written tradition. They originated among Asiatic pastoralists who used them as daily necessities, classically for mounted archery, although they can also be used on foot. Such bows spread among the military (and hunters) of civilizations that came into contact with nomad tribes; composite bows have been used across Asia from Korea to the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North Africa, and southwards in the Arabian peninsula and in India. The use of horn in a bow was even remarked on in Homer's epic The Odyssey, believed to have been written in the 8th century BCE. The details of manufacture varied between the various cultures that used them. Initially, the tips of the limbs were made to bend when the bow was drawn. Later, the tips were stiffened with bone or antler laths; post-classical bows usually have stiff tips, known as siyahs, which are made as an integral part of the wooden core of the bow. Like other bows, they lost importance with the introduction and increasing accuracy of guns. In some areas, composite bows were still used and were further developed for leisure purposes. Early modern Turkish bows were specialized for flight archery (shooting for distance). Composite bows are still made and used in Korea and in China, and the tradition has been revived elsewhere. Modern replicas are available, often made with fiberglass bellies and backs with a natural or man-made core. Construction and materials The wooden core gives the bow its shape and dimensional stability. It is often made of multiple pieces, joined with animal glue in V-splices, so the wood must accept glue well. Pieced construction allows the sharp bends that many designs require, and the use of woods with different mechanical properties for the bending and nonbending sections. The wood of the bending part of the limb ("dustar") must endure intense shearing stress, and denser woods such as hard maples are normally used in Turkish bows. Bamboo, and wood of the mulberry family, are traditional in China. Some composite bows have nonbending tips ("siyahs"), which need to be stiff and light; they may be made of woods such as Sitka spruce. A thin layer of horn is glued onto what will be the belly of the bow, the side facing the archer. Water buffalo horn is very suitable, as is horn of several antelopes such as gemsbok, oryx, ibex, and that of Hungarian grey cattle. Goat and sheep horn can also be used. Most forms of cow horn are not suitable, as they soon delaminate with use. The horn can store more energy than wood in compression. The sinew, soaked in animal glue, is then laid in layers on the back of the bow; the strands of sinew are oriented along the length of the bow. The sinew is normally obtained from the lower legs and back of wild deer or domestic ungulates. Traditionally, ox tendons are considered inferior to wild-game sinews since they have a higher fat content, leading to spoilage. Sinew has greater elastic tension properties than wood, again increasing the amount of energy that can be stored in the bow stave. Hide glue or gelatin made from fish gas bladders is used to attach layers of sinew to the back of the bow, and to attach the horn belly to the wooden core. Stiffening laths, if used, are attached. Both horn and laths may be bound and glued with further lengths of sinew. After months of drying, the bow is ready for use. Further finishing may include thin leather or waterproof bark, to protect the bow from moisture, and recent Turkish bows were often highly decorated with colourful paints and gold leaf. Strings and arrows are essential parts of the weapon system, but no type of either is specifically associated with composite bows throughout their history. Advantages and disadvantages of composite construction Advantages The main advantage of composite bows over self bows (made from a single piece of wood) is their combination of smaller size with high power. They are therefore more convenient than self bows when the archer is mobile, as from horseback, or from a chariot. Almost all composite bows are also recurve bows as the shape curves away from the archer; this design gives higher draw-weight in the early stages of the archer's draw, storing somewhat more total energy for a given final draw-weight. It would be possible to make a wooden bow that has the same shape, length, and draw-weight as a traditional composite bow, but it could not store the energy, and would break before full draw. For most practical non-mounted archery purposes, composite construction offers no advantage; "the initial velocity is about the same for all types of bow... within certain limits, the design parameters... appear to be less important than is often claimed." However, they are superior for horsemen and in the specialized art of flight archery: "A combination of many technical factors made the composite flight bow better for flight shooting." The higher arrow velocity is only for well-designed composite bows of high draw-weight. At the weights more usual for modern amateurs, the greater density of horn and sinew compared with wood usually cancels any advantage. Disadvantages Constructing composite bows requires much more time and a greater variety of materials than self bows, and the animal glue used can lose strength in humid conditions; the 6th-century Byzantine military manual, the Strategikon, advised the cavalry of the Byzantine army, many of whom were armed with composite bows, to keep their bows in leather cases to keep them dry. Karpowicz suggests that crafting a composite bow may take a week's work, excluding drying time (months) and gathering materials, while a self bow can be made in a day and dried in a week. Peoples living in humid or rainy regions historically have favoured self bows, while those living in temperate, dry, or arid regions have favoured composite bows. However, rain and humidity can be detrimental to both self bows and composite bows and their strings, so keeping bows dry was essential to pre-modern archers no matter what type of bows they carried. Medieval Europeans favoured self bows as hand bows, but they made composite prods for crossbows. The prods were usually well protected from rain and humidity, which are prevalent in parts of Europe. Ancient European civilizations such as the Cretans, Romans, and others who were influenced by Eastern Archery, preferred composite recurve bows. The civilizations of India used both self bows and composite bows. The Mughals were especially known for their composite bows due to their Turko-Mongol roots. Waterproofing and proper storage of composite bows were essential due to India's extremely wet and humid subtropical climate and plentiful rainfall today (which averages in most of the country, and exceeds well over per year in the wettest areas due to monsoons). The civilizations of China also used a combination of self bows, composite recurve bows, and laminated reflex bows. Self bows and laminated bows were preferred in southern China in earlier periods of history due to the region's extremely wet, humid, and rainy subtropical climate. The average rainfall in southern China exceeds , averaging in many areas today. The Mongols and other people of nomadic descent would have had to keep their composite bows dry and properly maintained during their conquests of southern China and India respectively due to these regions' subtropical climates with extreme humidity and rainfall. Origins and use Composite construction may have become common in the third or fourth millennium BCE, in Mesopotamia and Elam. Associated with charioteers Bows of any kind seldom survive in the archaeological record. Composite bows may have been invented first by the nomads of the Asiatic steppe, who may have based it on earlier Northern Asian laminated bows. However, archaeological investigation of the Asiatic steppe is still limited and patchy; literary records of any kind are late and scanty and seldom mention details of bows. There are arrowheads from the earliest chariot burials at Krivoye Lake, part of the Sintashta culture about 2100–1700 BCE, but the bow that shot them has not survived. Other sites of the Sintashta culture have produced finds of horn and bone, interpreted as furniture (grips, arrow rests, bow ends, string loops) of bows; there is no indication that the bending parts of these bows included anything other than wood. These finds are associated with short arrows, long, and the bows themselves may have been correspondingly short. The Andronovo Culture, descendant of the Sintashta culture, was the first to extend from the Ural Mountains to Tian Shan, and its successor cultures gave rise to the Indo-Aryan migration. It has been suggested that the Srubna culture (contemporaneous with, and a neighbour to, the Andronovo culture) used composite bows, but no archaeological evidence is known. Composite bows were soon adopted and adapted by civilizations who came into contact with nomads, such as the Chinese, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Several composite bows were found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, who died in 1324 BCE. Composite bows (and chariots) are known in China from at least the Shang Dynasty (1700–1100 BCE). There are strong indications that Greek Bronze Age cultures were using composite bows on a large scale. By the 4th century BCE, chariotry had ceased to have military importance, replaced by cavalry everywhere (except in Britannia, where charioteers are not recorded as using bows). By mounted archers The mounted archer became the archetypal warrior of the steppes and the composite bow was his primary weapon, used to protect the herds, in steppe warfare, and for incursions into settled lands. Classic tactics for horse-mounted archers included skirmishing: they would approach, shoot, and retreat before any effective response could be made. The term Parthian shot refers to the widespread horse-archer tactic of shooting backwards over the rear of their horses as they retreated. Parthians inflicted heavy defeats on Romans, the first being the Battle of Carrhae. However, horse archers did not make an army invincible; Han General Ban Chao led successful military expeditions in the late 1st century CE that conquered as far as Central Asia, and both Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great defeated horse archer armies. Well-led Roman armies defeated Parthian armies on several occasions and twice took the Parthian capital. By infantry Composite bows can be used without difficulty by infantry. The infantry archers of classical Greece and the Roman Empire used composite bows. The military of the Han Dynasty (220 BCE–206 CE) utilized composite crossbows, often in infantry square formations, in their many engagements against the Xiongnu. Until 1571, archers with composite bows were a main component of the forces of the Ottoman Empire, but in the Battle of Lepanto in that year, they lost most of these troops and never replaced them. Technical changes in classical times The details of bow construction changed somewhat with time. It is not clear that the various developments of the composite bow led to measurable improvements: "the development of archery equipment may not be a process involving progressive improvements in performance. Rather, each design type represents one solution to the problem of creating a mobile weapon system capable of hurling lightweight projectiles." Scythian bows, bending tips Variants of the Scythian bow were the dominant form in Asia until approximately the first century BCE. These were short weapons—one was long when strung, with arrows perhaps long—with flexible, "working" tips; the wooden core was continuous from the centre to the tip. Siyahs, stiff tips From about the 4th century BCE, the use of stiffened ends on composite bows became widespread. The stiffened end of the bow is a "siyah" (Arabic, Persian), "szarv" (Hungarian), "sarvi" (Finnish; both 'sarvi' and 'szarv' mean 'horn') or "kasan" (Turkish); the bending section is a "dustar" (Arabic), "lapa" (Finnish) or "sal" (Turkish). For centuries, the stiffening was accomplished by attaching laths of bone or antler to the sides of the bow at its ends. The bone or antler strips are more likely to survive burial than the rest of the bow. The first bone strips suitable for this purpose come from "graves of the fourth or third centuries" BCE. These stiffeners are found associated with nomads of the time. Maenchen-Helfen states that they are not found in Achaemenid Persia, in early Imperial Rome, or in Han China. However, Coulston attributes Roman stiffeners to about or before 9 CE. He identifies a Steppe Tradition of Scythian bows with working tips, which lasted, in Europe, until the arrival of the Huns, and a Near East or Levantine tradition with siyahs, possibly introduced by the Parni as siyahs are found in Sassanid but not Achaemenid contexts. Siyahs have also been described on the Arabian peninsula. Composite bows were adopted by the Roman Empire and were made even in the cold and damp of Britannia. They were the normal weapon of later Roman archers, both infantry and cavalry units (although Vegetius recommends training recruits "arcubus ligneis", with wooden bows). Laths stiffening the grip A new bow type, in which bone reinforcements cover the handle of the bow as well as the tips, may have developed in Central Asia during the 3rd to 2nd century BCE, with earliest finds from the area of Lake Baikal. Fittings from this type of bow appear right across Asia from Korea to the Crimea. Such bows with reinforcement of both grip and siyahs have been called “Hun,” "Hunnic", or “Hsiung-nu” composite bows. Huns did use such bows, but so did many other peoples; Rausing termed this type the 'Qum-Darya Bow' from the Han Chinese-type site at the frontier post of Loulan, at the mouth of the Qum Darya river, dated by analogy between c. 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE. With the arrival of the Huns, this tradition of bows with stiffened grips came to Europe. "Alanic graves in the Volga region dating to the 3rd to 4th century CE signal the adoption of the Qum-Darya type by Sarmatian peoples from Hunnic groups advancing from the East. In general, Hunnic/Qum-Darya bows had two pairs of ear laths identical in every respect to those found on Roman limes sites. The ear laths show only a greater proportion of longer laths (like those of Roman examples from Bar Hill and London). More distinctively, the grip of the bow was stiffened by three laths. On the sides were glued a pair of trapezoidal laths with their longest edges towards the back. On the belly was glued a third lath, varying in shape but often narrow with parallel sides and splayed ends. Therefore, each bow possessed seven grip and ear laths, compared with none on the Scythian and Sarmatian bows and four (ear) laths on the Yrzi bow." Such bows were often asymmetric, with lower limbs shorter than the upper. The Huns and their successors greatly impressed their neighbours with their archery. Germanic tribes transmitted their respect orally for a millennium: in the Scandinavian Hervarar saga, the Geatish king Gizur taunts the Huns and says, "Eigi gera Húnar oss felmtraða né hornbogar yðrir." (We fear neither the Huns nor their hornbows.) The Romans, as described in the Strategikon, Procopius's histories, and other works, changed the entire emphasis of their army from heavy infantry to cavalry, many of them armed with bows. Maurikios's Strategikon describes the Byzantine cavalry as bow-armed cursores and lance-armed defensores. Additional stiffening laths The Qum-Darya bow was superseded in the modern area of Hungary by an 'Avar' type, with more and differently-shaped laths. The grip laths stayed essentially the same except that a fourth piece was sometimes glued to the back of the handle, enclosing it with bone on all four faces. The belly lath was often parallel-sided with splayed ends. The siyah laths became much wider in profile above the nock and less rounded, giving a bulbous aspect. The nock was often further away from the upper end of the siyah than on Qum-Darya type examples. Additional laths were usually added to the belly and back of the siyah, thus enclosing both ends of the stave on four faces. This made a total of up to 12 laths on an asymmetrical bow with a stiff, set-back handle. Examples measured in situ suggest bow lengths of . When unstrung, the siyahs reversed sharply forward at an angle of 50-60 degrees. Post-classical development After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, armies of the Byzantine Empire maintained their tradition of horse archery for centuries. Byzantium finally fell to the Turks before the decline of military archery in favour of guns. Turkish armies included archers until about 1591 (they played a major role in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), and flight archery remained a popular sport in Istanbul until the early 19th century. Most surviving documentation of the use and construction of composite bows comes from China and the Middle East; until reforms early in the 20th century, skill with the composite bow was an essential part of the qualification for officers in the Chinese Imperial army. The composite bow was adopted throughout the Arab world, even though some Bedu tribesmen in the Hijaz retained the use of simple self bows. Persian designs were used after the conquest of the Sassanid Empire, and Turkish-type bows were widely used after the Turkic expansions. Roughly speaking, Arabs favoured slightly shorter siyahs and broader limbs than the Indo-Persian designs. Sometimes, the protective cover on the back was painted with Arabic calligraphy or geometric patterns. No design was standardized over the vast area of the Arab conquests. It was said that the best Arab composite bows were manufactured in Damascus, Syria. The first surviving treatise on composite bow construction and archery was written in Arabic under Mamluk rule about 1368. Fragments of bone laths from composite bows were found among grave goods in the United Arab Emirates dating from the period between 100 BC and 150 AD. Integral wooden siyahs Later developments in the composite bow included siyahs made of separate pieces of wood, attached with a V-splice to the wooden core of the bow, rather than strengthened by external reinforcement. Medieval and modern bows generally have integral wooden siyahs and lack stiffening laths. String bridges A string "bridge" or "run" is an attachment of horn or wood, used to hold the string a little further apart from the bow's limbs at the base of the siyahs, as well as allowing the siyah to rest at an angle forward of the string. This attachment may add weight, but might give a small increase in the speed of the arrow by increasing the initial string angle and therefore the force of the draw in its early stages. Large string bridges are characteristic of Manchu (Qing dynasty, 1644–1911) bows and late Mongolian bows, while small string bridges are characteristic of Korean, Crimean Tatar, and some Ming dynasty (1368–1644) bows. String bridges are not present in artwork in the time of Genghis Khan or before. Modern living traditions of composite bows All Eurasian composite bows derive from the same nomad origins, but every culture that used them has made its own adaptations to the basic design. The Turkish, Mongolian, and Korean bows were standardized when archery lost its military function and became a popular sport. Recent Turkish bows are optimized for flight shooting. Perso-Parthian bow The Perso-Parthian bow is a symmetric recurve under high tension when strung. The "arms" of the bow are supposed to reflex far enough to cross each other when the bow is unstrung. The finished bow is covered by bark, fine leather, or in some cases shark skin to keep out moisture. Perso-Parthian bows were in use as late as the 1820s in Persia (ancient Iran). They were then replaced by muskets. Turkish bow This is the Ottoman development of the composite bow, presumably brought from the steppes. Turkish bows evolved, after the decline of military archery, into probably the best traditional flight bows. Their decoration often included delicate and beautiful multicoloured designs with gold. Chinese bow For millennia, archery has played a pivotal role in Chinese history. Because the cultures associated with Chinese society spanned a wide geography and time range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery are diverse. Historical sources and archaeological evidence suggest that a variety of bow designs existed throughout Chinese history. For much of the 20th century, only a few Chinese traditional bow and arrow-making workshops were active. However, in the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows in the traditional Chinese style. Mongol bow The Mongolian tradition of archery is attested by an inscription on a stone stele that was found near Nerchinsk in Siberia: "While Genghis Khan was holding an assembly of Mongolian dignitaries, after his conquest of Sartaul (Khwarezm), Yesüngge (the son of Genghis Khan's younger brother) shot a target at 335 alds (536 m)". The Mongol bowmaking tradition was lost under the Qing, who heavily restricted archery practice; only practice with blunt arrows at shorted distances was allowed while most other forms of practice, including mounted archery; was forbidden. The present bowmaking tradition emerged after independence in 1921 and is based on Manchu types of bow. Mounted archery had fallen into disuse and has been revived only in the 21st century. Archery with composite bows is part of the annual festival of the three virile sports (wrestling, horseriding, archery), called "Naadam". Hungarian bow The Hungarian bow is a fairly long, approximately symmetrical composite reflex bow with bone stiffeners. Its shape is known from two graves in which the position of the bone plates could be reconstructed. Modern Hungarians have attempted to reconstruct the composite bows of their ancestors and have revived mounted archery as a competitive sport. Korean bow A traditional Korean bow, or gakgung, is a small but very efficient horn-bamboo-sinew composite bow. Korean archers normally practice at a range of approximately 145 metres. Japanese bow Yumi is made by laminating multiple pieces of bamboo and wood. Analogous New World bows, modern replicas, alternative materials American sinew-backed bows When Europeans first contacted Native Americans, some bows, especially in the area that became California, already had sinew backing. After the introduction of domesticated horses, newly mounted groups rapidly developed shorter bows, which were often given sinew backing. The full three-layer composite bow with horn, wood, and sinew does not seem to be recorded in the Americas, and horn bows with sinew backing are not recorded before European contact. Replicas made with modern materials Modern replicas of traditional composite bows are commercially available; they are usually made with fibreglass or carbon on both belly and back, easier to mass-produce and easier to take care of than traditional composite bows. Other less satisfactory materials than horn have been used for the belly of the bow (the part facing the archer when shooting), including bone, antler, or compression-resistant woods such as osage orange, hornbeam, or yew. Materials that are strong under tension, such as silk, or tough wood, like hickory, have been used on the back of the bow (the part facing away from the archer when shooting). See also Bow construction techniques References External links The Asian Traditional Archery Research network The building process of a Manchu composite bow Ancient Composite Bows Making an Asiatic Composite Bow Five composite bows from the tomb of Tutankhamun Bows (archery)

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Freeze-casting, also frequently referred to as ice-templating, or freeze alignment, is a technique that exploits the highly anisotropic solidification behavior of a solvent (generally water) in a well-dispersed slurry to template controllably a directionally porous ceramic. By subjecting an aqueous slurry to a directional temperature gradient, ice crystals will nucleate on one side of the slurry and grow along the temperature gradient. The ice crystals will redistribute the suspended ceramic particles as they grow within the slurry, effectively templating the ceramic. Once solidification has ended, the frozen, templated ceramic is placed into a freeze-dryer to remove the ice crystals. The resulting green body contains anisotropic macropores in a replica of the sublimated ice crystals and micropores found between the ceramic particles in the walls. This structure is often sintered to consolidate the particulate walls and provide strength to the porous material. The porosity left by the sublimation of solvent crystals is typically between 2–200 μm. Overview The first observation of cellular structures resulting from the freezing of water goes back over a century, but the first reported instance of freeze-casting, in the modern sense, was in 1954 when Maxwell et al. attempted to fabricate turbosupercharger blades out of refractory powders. They froze extremely thick slips of titanium carbide, producing near-net-shape castings that were easy to sinter and machine. The goal of this work, however, was to make dense ceramics. It was not until 2001, when Fukasawa et al. created directionally porous alumina castings, that the idea of using freeze-casting as a means of creating novel porous structures really took hold. Since that time, research has grown considerably with hundreds of papers coming out within the last decade. The principles of freeze casting are applicable to a broad range of combinations of particles and suspension media. Water is by far the most commonly used suspension media, and by freeze drying is readily conducive to the step of sublimation that is necessary for the success of freeze-casting processes. Due to the high level of control and broad range of possible porous microstructures that freeze-casting can produce, the technique has been adopted in disparate fields such as tissue scaffolds, photonics, metal-matrix composites, dentistry, materials science, and even food science. There are three possible end results to uni-directionally freezing a suspension of particles. First, the ice-growth proceeds as a planar front, pushing particles in front like a bulldozer pushes a pile of rocks. This scenario usually occurs at very low solidification velocities (< 1 μm s−1) or with extremely fine particles because they can move by Brownian motion away from the front. The resultant structure contains no macroporosity. If one were to increase the solidification speed, the size of the particles or solid loading moderately, the particles begin to interact in a meaningful way with the approaching ice front. The result is typically a lamellar or cellular templated structure whose exact morphology depends on the particular conditions of the system. It is this type of solidification that is targeted for porous materials made by freeze-casting. The third possibility for a freeze-cast structure occurs when particles are given insufficient time to segregate from the suspension, resulting in complete encapsulation of the particles within the ice front. This occurs when the freezing rates are rapid, particle size becomes sufficiently large, or when the solids loading is high enough to hinder particle motion. To ensure templating, the particles must be ejected from the oncoming front. Energetically speaking, this will occur if there is an overall increase in free energy if the particle were to be engulfed (Δσ > 0). where Δσ is the change in free energy of the particle, σps is the surface potential between the particle and interface, σpl is the potential between the particle and the liquid phase and σsl is the surface potential between the solid and liquid phases. This expression is valid at low solidification velocities, when the system is shifted only slightly from equilibrium. At high solidification velocities, kinetics must also be taken into consideration. There will be a liquid film between the front and particle to maintain constant transport of the molecules which are incorporated into the growing crystal. When the front velocity increases, this film thickness (d) will decrease due to increasing drag forces. A critical velocity (vc) occurs when the film is no longer thick enough to supply the needed molecular supply. At this speed the particle will be engulfed. Most authors express vc as a function of particle size where . The transition from a porous R (lamellar) morphology to one where the majority of particles are entrapped occurs at vc, which is generally determined as: where a0 is the average intermolecular distance of the molecule that is freezing within the liquid, d is the overall thickness of the liquid film, η is the solution viscosity, R is the particle radius and z is an exponent that can vary from 1 to 5. As expected, we see that vc decreases as particle radius R goes up. Waschkies et al. studied the structure of dilute to concentrated freeze-casts from low (< 1 μm s−1) to extremely high (> 700 μm s−1) solidification velocities. From this study, they were able to generate morphological maps for freeze-cast structures made under various conditions. Maps such as these are excellent for showing general trends, but they are quite specific to the materials system from which they were derived. For most applications where freeze-casts will be used after freezing, binders are needed to supply strength in the green state. The addition of binder can significantly alter the chemistry within the frozen environment, depressing the freezing point and hampering particle motion leading to particle entrapment at speeds far below the predicted vc. Assuming, however, that we are operating at speeds below vc and above those which produce a planar front, we will achieve some cellular structure with both ice-crystals and walls composed of packed ceramic particles. The morphology of this structure is tied to some variables, but the most influential is the temperature gradient as a function of time and distance along the freezing direction. Freeze-cast structures have at least three apparent morphological regions. At the side where freezing initiates is a nearly isotropic region with no visible macropores dubbed the Initial Zone (IZ). Directly after the IZ is the Transition Zone (TZ), where macropores begin to form and align with one another. The pores in this region may appear randomly oriented. The third zone is called the Steady-State Zone (SSZ), macropores in this region are aligned with one another and grow in a regular fashion. Within the SSZ, the structure is defined by a value λ that is the average thickness of a ceramic wall and its adjacent macropore. Initial zone: nucleation and growth mechanisms Although the ability of ice to reject suspended particles in the growth process has long been known, the mechanism remains the subject of some discussion. It was believed initially that during the moments immediately following the nucleation of the ice crystals, particles are rejected from the growing planar ice front, leading to the formation of a constitutionally super-cooled zone directly ahead of the growing ice. This unstable region eventually results in perturbations, breaking the planar front into a columnar ice front, a phenomenon better known as a Mullins-Serkerka instability. After the breakdown, the ice crystals grow along the temperature gradient, pushing ceramic particles from the liquid phase aside so that they accumulate between the growing ice crystals. However, recent in-situ X-ray radiography of directionally frozen alumina suspensions reveal a different mechanism. Transition zone: a changing microstructure As solidification slows and growth kinetics become rate-limiting, the ice crystals begin to exclude the particles, redistributing them within the suspension. A competitive growth process develops between two crystal populations, those with their basal planes aligned with the thermal gradient (z-crystals) and those that are randomly oriented (r-crystals) giving rise to the start of the TZ. There are colonies of similarly aligned ice crystals growing throughout the suspension. There are fine lamellae of aligned z-crystals growing with their basal planes aligned with the thermal gradient. The r-crystals appear in this cross-section as platelets but in actuality, they are most similar to columnar dendritic crystals cut along a bias. Within the transition zone, the r-crystals either stop growing or turn into z-crystals that eventually become the predominant orientation, and lead to steady-state growth. There are some reasons why this occurs. For one, during freezing, the growing crystals tend to align with the temperature gradient, as this is the lowest energy configuration and thermodynamically preferential. Aligned growth, however, can mean two different things. Assuming the temperature gradient is vertical, the growing crystal will either be parallel (z-crystal) or perpendicular (r-crystal) to this gradient. A crystal that lays horizontally can still grow in line with the temperature gradient, but it will mean growing on its face rather than its edge. Since the thermal conductivity of ice is so small (1.6 - 2.4 W mK−1) compared with most every other ceramic (ex. Al2O3= 40 W mK−1), the growing ice will have a significant insulative effect on the localized thermal conditions within the slurry. This can be illustrated using simple resistor elements. When ice crystals are aligned with their basal planes parallel to the temperature gradient (z-crystals), they can be represented as two resistors in parallel. The thermal resistance of the ceramic is significantly smaller than that of the ice however, so the apparent resistance can be expressed as the lower Rceramic. If the ice crystals are aligned perpendicular to the temperature gradient (r-crystals), they can be approximated as two resistor elements in series. For this case, the Rice is limiting and will dictate the localized thermal conditions. The lower thermal resistance for the z-crystal case leads to lower temperatures and greater heat flux at the growing crystals tips, driving further growth in this direction while, at the same time, the large Rice value hinders the growth of the r-crystals. Each ice crystal growing within the slurry will be some combination of these two scenarios. Thermodynamics dictate that all crystals will tend to align with the preferential temperature gradient causing r-crystals to eventually give way to z-crystals, which can be seen from the following radiographs taken within the TZ. When z-crystals become the only significant crystal orientation present, the ice-front grows in a steady-state manner except there are no significant changes to the system conditions. It was observed in 2012 that, in the initial moments of freezing, there are dendritic r-crystals that grow 5 - 15 times faster than the solidifying front. These shoot up into the suspension ahead of the main ice front and partially melt back. These crystals stop growing at the point where the TZ will eventually fully transition to the SSZ. Researchers determined that this particular point marks the position where the suspension is in an equilibrium state (i.e. freezing temperature and suspension temperature are equal). We can say then that the size of the initial and transition zones are controlled by the extent of supercooling beyond the already low freezing temperature. If the freeze-casting setup is controlled so that nucleation is favored at only small supercooling, then the TZ will give way to the SSZ sooner. Steady-state growth zone The structure in this final region contains long, aligned lamellae that alternate between ice crystals and ceramic walls. The faster a sample is frozen, the finer its solvent crystals (and its eventual macroporosity) will be. Within the SSZ, the normal speeds which are usable for colloidal templating are 10 – 100 mm s−1 leading to solvent crystals typically between 2 mm and 200 mm. Subsequent sublimation of the ice within the SSZ yields a green ceramic preform with porosity in a nearly exact replica of these ice crystals. The microstructure of a freeze-cast within the SSZ is defined by its wavelength (λ) which is the average thickness of a single ceramic wall plus its adjacent macropore. Several publications have reported the effects of solidification kinetics on the microstructures of freeze-cast materials. It has been shown that λ follows an empirical power-law relationship with solidification velocity (υ) (Eq. 2.14): Both A and υ are used as fitting parameters as currently there is no way of calculating them from first principles, although it is generally believed that A is related to slurry parameters like viscosity and solid loading while n is influenced by particle characteristics. Controlling the porous structure There are two general categories of tools for architecture a freeze-cast: Chemistry of the System - freezing medium and chosen particulate material(s), any additional binders, dispersants or additives. Operational Conditions - temperature profile, atmosphere, mold material, freezing surface, etc. Initially, the materials system is chosen based on what sort of final structure is needed. This review has focused on water as the vehicle for freezing, but there are some other solvents that may be used. Notably, camphene, which is an organic solvent that is waxy at room temperature. Freezing of this solution produces highly branched dendritic crystals. Once the materials system is settled on however, the majority of microstructural control comes from external operational conditions such as mold material and temperature gradient. Controlling pore size The microstructural wavelength (average pore + wall thickness) can be described as a function of the solidification velocity v (λ= Av−n) where A is dependent on solids loading. There are two ways then that the pore size can be controlled. The first is to change the solidification speed that then alters the microstructural wavelength, or the solids loading can be changed. In doing so, the ratio of pore size to wall size is changed. It is often more prudent to alter the solidification velocity seeing as a minimum solid loading is usually desired. Since microstructural size (λ) is inversely related to the velocity of the freezing front, faster speeds lead to finer structures, while slower speeds produce a coarse microstructure. Controlling the solidification velocity is, therefore, crucial to being able to control the microstructure. Controlling pore shape Additives can prove highly useful and versatile in changing the morphology of pores. These work by affecting the growth kinetics and microstructure of the ice in addition to the topology of the ice-water interface. Some additives work by altering the phase diagram of the solvent. For example, water and NaCl have a eutectic phase diagram. When NaCl is added into a freeze-casting suspension, the solid ice phase and liquid regions are separated by a zone where both solids and liquids can coexist. This briny region is removed during sublimation, but its existence has a strong effect on the microstructure of the porous ceramic. Other additives work by either altering the interfacial surface energies between the solid/liquid and particle/liquid, changing the viscosity of the suspension, or the degree of undercooling in the system. Studies have been done with glycerol, sucrose, ethanol, Coca-Cola, acetic acid and more. Static vs. dynamic freezing profiles If a freeze casting setup with a constant temperature on either side of the freezing system is used, (static freeze-casting) the front solidification velocity in the SSZ will decrease over time due to the increasing thermal buffer caused by the growing ice front. When this occurs, more time is given for the anisotropic ice crystals to grow perpendicularly to the freezing direction (c-axis) resulting in a structure with ice lamellae that increase in thickness along the length of the sample. To ensure highly anisotropic, yet predictable solidification behavior within the SSZ, dynamic freezing patterns are preferred. Using dynamic freezing, the velocity of the solidification front, and, therefore, the ice crystal size, can be controlled with a changing temperature gradient. The increasing thermal gradient counters the effect of the growing thermal buffer imposed by the growing ice front. It has been shown that a linearly decreasing temperature on one side of a freeze-cast will result in near-constant solidification velocity, yielding ice crystals with an almost constant thickness along the SSZ of an entire sample. However, as pointed out by Waschkies et al. even with constant solidification velocity, the thickness of the ice crystals does increase slightly over the course of freezing. In contrast to that, Flauder et al. demonstrated that an exponential change of the temperature at the cooling plate leads to a constant ice crystal thickness within the complete SSZ, which was attributed to a measurably constant ice-front velocity in a distinct study. This approach enables a prediction of the ice-front velocity from the thermal parameters of the suspension. Consequently, if the exact relationship between the pore diameter and ice-front velocity is known, an exact control over the pore diameter can be achieved. Anisotropy of the interface kinetics Even if the temperature gradient within the slurry is perfectly vertical, it is common to see tilting or curvature of the lamellae as they grow through the suspension. To explain this, it is possible to define two distinct growth directions for each ice crystal. There is the direction determined by the temperature gradient, and the one defined by the preferred growth direction crystallographically speaking. These angles are often at odds with one another, and their balance will describe the tilt of the crystal. The non-overlapping growth directions also help to explain why dendritic textures are often seen in freeze-casts. This texturing is usually found only on the side of each lamella; the direction of the imposed temperature gradient. The ceramic structure left behind shows the negative image of these dendrites. In 2013, Deville et al. made the observation that the periodicity of these dendrites (tip-to-tip distance) actually seems to be related to the primary crystal thickness. Particle packing effects Up until now, the focus has been mostly on the structure of the ice itself; the particles are almost an afterthought to the templating process but in fact, the particles can and do play a significant role during freeze-casting. It turns out that particle arrangement also changes as a function of the freezing conditions. For example, researchers have shown that freezing velocity has a marked effect on wall roughness. Faster freezing rates produce rougher walls since particles are given insufficient time to rearrange. This could be of use when developing permeable gas transfer membranes where tortuosity and roughness could impede gas flow. It also turns out that z- and r-crystals do not interact with ceramic particles in the same way. The z-crystals pack particles in the x-y plane while r-crystals pack particles primarily in the z-direction. R-crystals actually pack particles more efficiently than z-crystals and because of this, the area fraction of the particle-rich phase (1 - area fraction of ice crystals) changes as the crystal population shifts from a mixture of z- and r-crystals to only z-crystals. Starting from where ice crystals first begin to exclude particles, marking the beginning of the transition zone, we have a majority of r-crystals and a high value for the particle-rich phase fraction. We can assume that because the solidification speed is still rapid that the particles will not be packed efficiently. As the solidification rate slows down, however, the area fraction of the particle-rich phase drops indicating an increase in packing efficiency. At the same time, the competitive growth process is taking place, replacing r-crystals with z-crystals. At a certain point nearing the end of the transition zone, the particle-rich phase fraction rises sharply since z-crystals are less efficient at packing particles than r-crystals. The apex of this curve marks the point where only z-crystals are present (SSZ). During steady-state growth, after the maximum particle-rich phase fraction is reached, the efficiency of packing increases as steady-state is achieved. In 2011, researchers at Yale University set out to probe the actual spatial packing of particles within the walls. Using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) they characterized the particle size, shape and interparticle spacing of nominally 32 nm silica suspensions that had been freeze-cast at different speeds. Computer simulations indicated that for this system, the particles within the walls should not be touching but rather separated from one another by thin films of ice. Testing, however, revealed that the particles were, in fact, touching and more than that, they attained a packed morphology that cannot be explained by typical equilibrium densification processes. Morphological instabilities In an ideal world, the spatial concentration of particles within the SSZ would remain constant throughout solidification. As it happens, though, the concentration of particles does change during compression, and this process is highly sensitive to solidification speed. At low freezing rates, Brownian motion takes place, allowing particles to move easily away from the solid-liquid interface and maintain a homogeneous suspension. In this situation, the suspension is always warmer than the solidified portion. At fast solidification speeds, approaching VC, the concentration, and concentration gradient at the solid-liquid interface increases because particles cannot redistribute soon enough. When it has built up enough, the freezing point of the suspension is below the temperature gradient in the solution and morphological instabilities can occur. For situations where the particle concentration bleeds into the diffusion layer, both the actual and freezing temperature dip below the equilibrium freezing temperature creating an unstable system. Often, these situations lead to the formation of what are known as ice lenses. These morphological instabilities can trap particles, preventing full redistribution and resulting in inhomogeneous distribution of solids along the freezing direction as well as discontinuities in the ceramic walls, creating voids larger than intrinsic pores within the walls of the porous ceramic. Novel freeze-casting techniques Freeze-casting can be applied to produce aligned porous structure from diverse building blocks including ceramics, polymers, biomacromolecules, graphene and carbon nanotubes. As long as there are particles that may be rejected by a progressing freezing front, a templated structure is possible. By controlling cooling gradients and the distribution of particles during freeze casting, using various physical means, the orientation of lamellae in obtained freeze cast structures can be controlled to provide improved performance in diverse applied materials. Munch et al. showed that it is possible to control the long-range arrangement and orientation of crystals normal to the growth direction by templating the nucleation surface. This technique works by providing lower energy nucleation sites to control the initial crystal growth and arrangement. The orientation of ice crystals can also be affected by agrpplied electromagnetic fields as was demonstrated in 2010 by Tang et al. Using specialized setups, researchers have been able to create radially aligned freeze-casts tailored for filtration or gas separation applications. Inspired by Nature, scientists have also been able to use coordinating chemicals and cryopreserved to create remarkably distinctive microstructural architectures Freeze cast materials Particles that are assembled into aligned porous materials in freeze casting processes are often referred to as building blocks.As freeze casting has become a widespread technique the range of materials used has expanded. In recent years, graphene and carbon nanotubes have been used to fabricate controlled porous structures using freeze casting methods, with materials often exhibiting outstanding properties. Unlike aerogel materials produced without ice-templating, freeze cast structures of carbon nanomaterials have the advantage of possessing aligned pores, allowing, for example unparalleled combinations of low density and high conductivity. Applications of freeze cast materials Freeze casting is unique in its ability to produce aligned pore structures. Such structures are often found in nature, and consequently freeze casting has emerged as a valuable tool to fabricate biomimetic structures. The transport of fluids through aligned pores has led to the use of freeze casting as a method towards biomedical applications including bone scaffold materials. The alignment of pores in freeze cast structures also imparts extraordinarily high thermal resistance in the direction perpendicular to the aligned pores. The freeze casting of aligned porous fibres by spinning processes presents a promising method towards the fabrication of high performance insulating clothing articles. See also Freeze gelation Further reading J. Laurie, Freeze Casting: a Modified Sol-Gel Process, University of Bath, UK, Ph.D. Thesis, 1995 M. Statham, Economic Manufacture of Freeze-Cast Ceramic Substrate Shapes for the Spray-Forming Process, Univ. Bath, UK, Ph.D. Thesis, 1998 S. Deville, "Freezing Colloids: Observations, Principles, Control, and Use." Springer, 2017 External links A website with large dataset, allowing creation of graphs References Casting (manufacturing) Ceramic engineering Colloids Water ice

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Stefan Nemanja (Serbian Cyrillic: , ; – 13 February 1199) was the Grand Prince (Veliki Župan) of the Serbian Grand Principality (also known as Raška, lat. ) from 1166 to 1196. A member of the Vukanović dynasty, Nemanja founded the Nemanjić dynasty, and is remembered for his contributions to Serbian culture and history, founding what would evolve into the Serbian Empire, as well as the national church. According to the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Nemanja is also among the most remarkable Serbs for his literary contributions and altruistic attributes. In 1196, after three decades of warfare and negotiations, including the Third Norman invasion of the Balkans (1185-1186) which consolidated Serbia while distinguishing it from both Western and Byzantine spheres of influence, Nemanja abdicated in favour of his middle son Stefan Nemanjić, who later became the first King of Serbia. Nemanja ultimately went to Mount Athos, where he became a monk and took the name of Simeon, joining his youngest son (later known as Saint Sava), who had already become the first archbishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Together with his son Saint Sava, Nemanja restored the Hilandar Monastery at Mount Athos from 1198 to 1199, and issued the "Charter of Hilandar". The monastery thus became the center of Serbian Orthodox monasticism at Athos. Shortly after his death, Serbian Orthodox Church canonized Stefan Nemanja, under the name Saint Simeon the Myrrh-streaming (). Early life Nemanja was born around the year 1113 or 1114 AD in Ribnica, Zeta (in the vicinity of present-day Podgorica, the capital of Montenegro). He was the youngest son of Zavida, a Prince of Zahumlje, who after a conflict with his brothers was sent to Ribnica where he had the title of Lord. Zavida (Beli Uroš) was most probably a son of Uroš I or Vukan. Since western Zeta was under Roman Catholic jurisdiction, Nemanja received a Latin baptism, although much of his later life was spent balancing Western and Eastern forms of Christianity. After Byzantine armies defeated Nemanja's kinsmen Đorđe of Duklja and Desa Urošević, leading to the decline of that branch of the Vojislavljević family, Zavida took his family to their hereditary lands at Raška. Byzantine-Hungarian War In 1163, Emperor Manuel I Comnenus came to Niš with the army via Serdica (Sofia), where, according to John Kinnamos, he decided "to deal with things concerning Serbia". At that time, Serbia was ruled by the grand zoupan (archzupan or megajupanus) Desa, an ally of Stephen III in the Hungarian dynastic conflicts, and thus an opponent of Manuel. When Desa was finally forced to come to Niš before the emperor, his connections with the Hungarian king Stephen III were revealed, Desa called him his master, Manuel I decided to take him to court and punish him. Desa was first detained and kept under guard, and then sent to the court prison in Constantinople. In Raška, he replaced the grand zoupan Desa, who entered into an alliance with the Hungarians, and instead gave the land to the administration of Zavida's sons, who were in the pro-Greek party. Zavida had four sons: Tihomir, Stracimir, Miroslav and the youngest Nemanja. Tihomir was the oldest and became the grand zoupan of Raška. He was recognized by the brothers who ruled certain parts of Raška. Stracimir held the areas around West Morava, Miroslav Zahumlje, while Stefan Nemanja held the areas around Ibar, and Dubocica (around Leskovac). Stefan Nemanja was married to Anastasia, with whom he had three sons, Vukan, Stefan and Rastko, and daughters Vuk, Deva and Efimija The Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus launched a large army against Hungary because he was informed of their dissatisfaction and internal conflicts. The Hungarian prince Bela III had to live in Constantinople, where he was married, and Bela's lands, Dalmatia with southern Hungary (below Velebit), had to come under Constantinople's rule. There is resistance in Hungary, which is why Emperor Manuel embarks on a campaign. The Byzantine army conquered Zemun and Srem in 1165. The Greeks were accompanied by the obligatory detachments of Serbs. The second Byzantine army under command of John Doukas Komnenos moved west, across Raška and Bosnia towards the Adriatic coast. Without significant resistance, they took all the cities from Split to Bar, forcing them to recognize Byzantine rule. The Byzantines also had success in a campaign in Italy where they captured an important seaport on the west coast of the Adriatic, Ancona. Venice, which had previously turned to Byzantium for help during the conquest of Friedrich Barbarossa in northern Italy, changed its attitude towards the Greeks for fear of losing the Adriatic. It approached Hungary as a natural ally against the Greeks. At the same time, they began to work among the Serbs, especially in Raška, in order to rebel against Byzantium. In 1166, the Hungarians counterattacked to push Byzantium out of the newly conquered areas. However, in response, Emperor Manuel launched three armies against Hungary, one from the Danube, and the other two across the Carpathians, towards the center of Pannonia. While the main Hungarian army was operating towards the Danube, Belgrade and Braničevo, two Byzantine armies went deep into their territory, causing general panic. The Hungarians were forced to seek peace through intermediaries to their detriment in 1167. Meanwhile, in 1166, the Byzantine emperor Manuel began negotiations with Pope Alexander III on church union. As the ideal candidate of Venice and Hungary among the Serbs appeared Nemanja, when his brothers and, above all, the grand zoupan Tihomir imprisoned him in a cave near Fortress Ras. Nemanja probably hoped that he would take the place of Desa, as the former representative of the pro-Greek party, while Emperor Manuel brought his eldest brother Tihomir to the throne. Angry because of that, Nemanja changes his policy in favor of Hungary and its allies. Nemanja escaped from the dungeon, it is not known with whose help. Nemanja's son and biographer, Stefan Nemanjić, describing his father's youth, says how he escaped with the help of "heavenly forces": "And this again, because of meekness and justice, and wonderful humility, and because of all good customs, with a high arm he brought him out of the rocky cave, and brought him to the throne of his fatherland, and raised him up as the great lord of all the world." Rise to the throne (1168-1172) Probably in 1166 or 1167, Nemanja gathered his supporters in Ras and started a conflict against Tihomir, who was looking for support from the Greeks. Nemanja overthrew Tihomir, but he managed to survive with the help of Byzantium. The decisive battle between the brothers took place near Pantina in Kosovo in 1168, in which Tihomir's army was defeated, and he was drowned with armor during retreat in the river Sitnica. At that time, William of Tyre, an emissary of the Amalric, a Latin King of Jerusalem, arrived at the diplomatic mission in Constantinople. His goal was for Byzantium to join the crusade against Egypt. During his stay in Constantinople, probably under the influence of the Byzantines, William of Tyre left negative classifications about Serbs in his reports. The following year, Nemanja attacked the Byzantine vassal, Prince of Zeta Radoslav, and on that occasion annexed to his country a part of the then Zeta and the Neretva region. Soon, Manuel I Komnenos came into conflict with the Venetian Republic , and on his order, on March 12, 1171, all Venetian property in Byzantium was confiscated. In response to this, from Venecia was launched Venetian navy with about 120 ships to Byzantine possessions. The Venetian fleet headed east in September of that year, conquering, by the way, Byzantine Trogir and Dubrovnik. Then Nemanja entered into closer ties with the Venetians and began attacks on Byzantine Kotor, simultaneously carrying out raids through the Moravian valley through which the main public road passes between Byzantine Belgrade and Niš. According to Arnold of Lübeck on that road, near fortress Ravno, in March 1172, the Serbs carried out a night attack on the camp of Western knights and pilgrims led by Henry the Lion accompanied by the Byzantines. Arnold of Lubeck also left a very negative opinion in his chronicle about Serbs. Probably under the impression of the night attack, he even called them the "sons of Belial." Meanwhile, in 1171, Saladin was appointed sultan of Egypt, who would become one of the greatest defenders of Islam in history. Kingdom of Hungary also wanted joined the fight against Byzantium, and the Holy Roman Empire of Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), also supported this alliance. Nemanja expected Hungarian help, but in the meantime, king Stephen III of Hungary died on March 4, 1172. The Hungarian emissaries went to Serdica (Sofia), where Emperor Manuel encamped with the army, preparing for the campaign. The Hungarian throne was won by Manuel's candidate Bela III (1173-1196). In the meantime, during the winter of 1171/72 on the island of Chios, the Venetian army was decimated by an epidemic, so that the Serbs were left alone in the fight against Byzantium. Manuel immediately took advantage of the favorable moment and after receiving the Hungarian emissaries, he headed for the Serbs at the head of the army. Before the oncoming Byzantine army, the grand zoupan Nemanja retreated to the mountains. According to the Byzantine historian John Kinnamos, the Venetians incited Nemanja to revolt. Byzantine vassal (1172-1182) This conflict ended with Nemanja's surrender to Emperor Manuel. One day, Nemanja ritually obeyed Manuel I Komnenus in Niš . Barefoot, with his clothes torn to the elbows, a rope around his neck and a sword in his hands, he entered the Byzantine camp and went out to the emperor. Arriving in front of Manuel, he fell on his knees in front of him, handing him his sword, to do with him what he wanted. The Byzantine emperor accepted his humility, agreeing to the renewal of vassal obligations and leaving Nemanja in the position of grand zoupan. The final part of this episode took place in Constantinople, where was Nemanja was taken as a slave in Manoel's triumphal procession, while the gathered people ridiculed him. The Byzantine emperor Manuel Comnenus returned Nemanja to the position of grand zoupan, and he confirmed to his brothers their areas - Stracimir around the West Moravia and Miroslav Zachlumia. Upon his return to Raška, Nemanja turned to consolidating the central government, and forced Tihomir's son and successor Prvoslav to renounce the ruler's claims in his favor. In accordance with his vassal duties, Nemanja regularly sent auxiliary detachments to Byzantine military campaigns. Serbian detachments were also part of the Byzantine army that defeated the troops of the Sultanate of Rum in the battle of Myriokephalon on September 17, 1176, in the gorges of Asia Minor. Bogumilism reached its peak in the Byzantine Empire during the 11th and in the first half of the 12th century. At the end of the 12th century, among Serbs and other Balkan Slavs, there was a very widespread 'Slavic' Gnosticism or dualistic teaching called Bogumilism. The main political tendency of Bogomilism was resistance to the Byzantine state and church authorities. Bogumilism itself was very widespread among the people in Raška and Bosnia, and its spread among the nobles led to Nemanja's actions against them. He convened a state-church assembly at which a decision was to be made on further measures against them. The Assembly gathered the entire state leadership, composed of nobles and Bishop Evtimije of Raska, as well as a large number of abbots and monks. The assembly was held around 1176, during the time of Nemanja's vassalship and before the death of Emperor Manoel in 1180. The grand zoupan Nemanja gave a speech at the assembly about the harmfulness of the Bogumil heresy. A woman who was married to a heretic spoke as the main witness at the assembly. Her testimony was crucial to end the quarrel at the council and to give the majority the impression that it was a harmful religious teaching. After consultations, especially with the bishop Euthemius, the grand zopuan brought measures against them. The leader of the Bogumil community in Raska was caught and brought before the court. The grand zoupan spared the life of their leader, and he was sentenced to corporal punishment, cutting off his tongue so that he would no longer blaspheme and spread harmful teachings. The army was sent to those parts of Raska where their actions were most pronounced. The primary goal of this action was conversion. The measures taken against those who refused were the confiscation of property, the punishment of milder punishments, the burning of books, as well as expelled from the country. For the Bogumil community in Raska, this was certainly persecution and ruthless action. Their confiscated property was distributed to the lepers and the poor. War with Byzantium (1183-1191) After the death of Emperor Manoel on September 24, 1180, the Hungarian king Bela III considered that he had no more obligations to Byzantium. The following 1181, he launched an offensive against Byzantium and conquered Srem, the northeastern part of the Adriatic coast (Including Zara) and Zemun. Byzantium was then occupied by internal conflicts, so that there was no military response to the Hungarian conquests. In 1182, Bela III ordered an attack on Byzantine Belgrade and Braničevo. The attack itself was quite clumsily carried out, and both fortresses were defended by experienced military leaders from the time of Emperor Manoel, Alexius Branas and Andronikos Lapardas. Following the death of Manuel I in 1180, his widow, the Latin princess Maria of Antioch, acted as regent to her infant son Alexios II Komnenos. Her regency was notorious for the favoritism shown to Latin merchants and was overthrown in April 1182 by Andronikos I Komnenos, who entered the city in a wave of popular support. Almost immediately, the celebrations spilled over into massacre of Latins. The usurpation of Andronikos I freed Nemanja from subordination to the Byzantine emperor. Stefan Nemanja, in alliance with the Hungarian king Bela III, launched a great offensive on Byzantium in 1183. Also, the commander of the Byzantine army, Andronicus Lampardis in Niš and Braničevo, renounced obedience to the new central authorities. At the same time, the Hungarian king Bela III conquered Byzantine Belgrade, Niš and Serdica (Sofia). According to the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates, the Serbs, led by Nemanja, joined this campaign. The following year, Nemanja launched an offensive on the southeastern Adriatic coast and conquered Byzantine Skadar and besieged Dubrovnik (Ragusa). In 1185, Andronicus I was killed in Constantinople and the new Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos began peace negotiations with the Hungarian king. The peace treaty provided for Emperor Isaac II to marry Bela's daughter Margaret. The Hungarian army withdrew from the Byzantine central part of the Balkans, leaving Nemanja without support. Fortunately for Nemanja, at the same time, the Normans and the Bulgarians joined the anti-Byzantine alliance. Nemanja forced Dubrovnik (Ragusa) to replace Byzantium with Norman rule. The Normans of king William II of Sicily, also in 1185, conquered Byzantine Durres and Thessaloniki, and embarked on an expedition to Constantinople, but they lost discipline due to large-scale looting, so the Byzantines easily defeated them in the battle of Demetritzes near Lower Struma. In October 1185, in the Lower Danube, in northern Bulgaria, an uprising began, led by the brothers Peter and Ivan I Asen, one of the reasons for which was an extraordinary tribute that Emperor Isaac II ordered to be collected for his wedding. Nemanja then coordinated actions with the Asen brothers against Byzantium. Between two emperors Meanwhile, Ayyubid sultan Saladin captured Jerusalem in 1187. Due to the fall of Jerusalem in the Latin West, there was a great commotion that started the Third Crusade. A large crusader army led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa marched in 1189 from Buda through Belgrade and Niš to Adrianople and Constantinople. In Niš, in the new capital of Stefan Nemanja, the German emperor and the grand zoupan met at the end of July 1189. At the meeting, Nemanja asked Barbarossa for the Crusaders to go to war against Byzantium. However, Barbarossa rejected this proposal in a diplomatic manner, wanting to ensure only a safe passage for his army through Byzantium. A month later, negotiations began between the Crusaders and the Byzantines over the passage with great tension. At that time, according to Christian doctrine, there could be only one emperor in the Christian world. Hence the great rivalry and tension between the Roman Empire (today known as Byzantium) and the Holy Roman Empire. The Crusaders captured Philippopolis and Adrianople and prepared for an attack on Constantinople. Finally, an agreement was reached on the crossing of the Dardanelles in February 1190. During the uncertain negotiations, Emperor Isaac II replied that the new friendship between the Crusaders and the Serbs was very difficult for him. In 1190, Frederick Barbarossa drowned in the river Calycadnus. At the same time, Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos launched a punitive expedition against the Serbs, and Nemanja was defeated in the battle of South Morava. In fact, Constantinople did not want to subdue the Serbs, but to regain Niš and the main road to Belgrade, as well as to make allies of the rebellious Serbs. The peace treaty provided for Stefan Nemanjić, the middle son of the grand zoupan Stefan Nemanja, to marry a Byzantine princess, i.e. nephew of the Byzantine emperor. Return to Byzantium The concluded peace envisaged that Nemanja would be succeeded by his middle son Stefan, who received the Byzantine title of sebastokrator and the Byzantine princess Eudokia for a wife, and not the firstborn Vukan. In November 1192, on the way to Venice, from Acre via Byzantine Corfu to the southeastern Adriatic coast on the small island of Lokrum near Dubrovnik (Ragusa), Richard I arrived incognito as an ordinary knight or pilgrim, where he revealed that he is the King of England. Hungarian king Béla invaded Serbia at the beginning of 1193. Emperor Isaac II demanded the withdrawal of his troops, and threatened Béla with war. At the same time, Doge Enrico Dandolo attempted to occupy Hungarian Zara, but failed. In April 1195, the father-in-law of Stefan Nemanjić, Alexius III Angelus (1195-1203), overthrew his brother Emperor Isaac II and took power. In 1196, at the state assembly near Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Ras, Stefan Nemanja abdicated the throne in favor of his middle son Stefan, who became the grand prince of Serbia. He left his eldest son Vukan in charge of Zeta, Travunija, Hvosno and Toplica. Nemanja became a monk in his old age and was given the name Simeon. Shortly afterwards, he went to Byzantium, to Mount Athos, where his youngest son Sava had been a monk for some time. They received permission from the new Byzantine emperor to rebuild the abandoned monastery of Hilandar. Death and legacy Knowing his death was near in his 86th year, Simeon asked to be placed on a mat in front of the icon of the Virgin Hodegetria with a stone for his pillow. He died in front of his son Sava and other monks, on 13 February 1199. He was buried in the grounds of Hilandar monastery. His last words requested that Sava take his remains to Serbia, "when God permits it, after a certain period of time". Sava later wrote the Liturgy of Saint Simeon in Nemanja's honour. In 1206, Sava decided to bring his father's remains to Serbia, where his brothers Stefan and Vukan were fighting among themselves, thus tearing apart the Serbian lands their father had reunited. Upon arrival of Sava, his brothers made peace and Simeon was re-buried in 1207 in his personal foundation, the Studenica Monastery, where holy oil (myrrh) started to seeped, from his new grave, thus giving Simeon the epithet the Myrrh-streaming. Because of miracles that occurred at his grave, the Serbian Orthodox Church canonised him, and declared his feast-day on . The cult of St. Simeon helped consolidate Serbian national identity. Centers of his cult are in monasteries of Studenica and Hilandar. Name and title Various names have been used to refer to Stefan Nemanja, including Stefan I and the Latin Stephanus Nemania. Sometimes the spelling of his name is anglicised, to become Stephen Nemanya. In the latter part of his life, he became a monk and hence was referred to as Monk Simeon, or Monk Symeon. After his death, he was canonised by the Orthodox Church, and became St. Symeon the Myrrh-streaming. His son and successor, Stefan the First-Crowned, called him "The Gatherer of the Lost Pieces of the Land of his Grandfathers, and also their Rebuilder". His other son Sava, called him "Our Lord and Autocrat, and ruler of the whole Serbian land". In a way, both sons introduced the cult of their father, thus creating the ideal picture of a ruler-saint, without parallel in Byzantium. Family Nemanja was married to a Serb noblewoman by the name of Ana. They had three sons and three daughters: Vukan Nemanjić - Prince of Doclea and briefly Grand Prince of Serbia (1202-1204) Stefan Nemanjić - Nemanja's successor, first King of All Serbian lands, 1196–1228 Rastko Nemanjić (Saint Sava) (1171–1236) - The first archbishop and saint of the Serbian Orthodox Church Jefimija Nemanjić - married Manuel Komnenos Doukas Regent of Thesaloniki (+1241) A daughter married Bulgarian nobleman Tihomir Asen, mother of Bulgarian emperor Konstantin Tih (r. 1257–77) Elena-Evgenia, wife of Ivan Asen I Foundations Stefan Nemanja founded, restored and reconstructed several monasteries. He also established the Raška architectural school, that spanned from 1170 to 1300. Monastery of Saint Nicholas, in Kuršumlija Monastery of Saint Mother of Christ, between Kosanica and Toplica Monastery Temple of George's Tracts (Đurđevi Stupovi), in 1171 in Ras Monastery Temple of the Immaculate Holy Virgin the Benefactor (Studenica), in 1190 in Ibar Church of Saint Mother of Christ, at the confluence of the Bistrica and the Lim Monastery of Saint Nicholas, in Kaznovići/Končulj on the Ibar Nunnery of Mother of Christ, in Ras Reconstructions Hilandar monastery on Mount Athos, in 1199 Monastery of Saint Archangel Michael, in Skopje Monastery of Saint Pantheleimon, in Niš Donations Church of Lord, Holy Grave and Christ's Arrisal, in Jerusalem Church of Saint John the Forerunner, in Jerusalem Church of Saint Theodosios, in the Desert of Bethlehem Church Saint Apostole Peter and Paul, in Rome Church of Saint Nicholas, in Bari Monastery/Church of the Virgin of Evergethide, in Constantinople Monastery/Church of Saint Demetrios, in Thessalonika See also Battle of Pantina History of Serbia; List of Serbian monarchs History of Montenegro; List of rulers of Montenegro History of Herzegovina References Sources External links In the Beginning was the Word - History of the Miroslav Gospel Serbian Unity Congress - Rulers of the Land CD Chilandar by Studio A, Aetos, Library of Serb Patriarchate and Chilandar monastery, Belgrade, 1998. 1110s births 1199 deaths 12th-century Serbian monarchs 12th-century monarchs in Europe 12th-century Eastern Orthodox Christians 12th-century Christian saints Eastern Orthodox monarchs Eastern Orthodox royal saints Serbian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church Nemanjić dynasty Monarchs who abdicated Byzantine people of Slavic descent Ktetors Founders of Christian monasteries Medieval Serbian Orthodox clergy Burials at Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches Myroblyte saints Christian monarchs

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The Evolution Series is a line of diesel locomotives built by GE Transportation Systems (now owned by Wabtec), initially designed to meet the U.S. EPA's Tier 2 locomotive emissions standards that took effect in 2005. The first pre-production units were built in 2003. Evolution Series locomotives are equipped with either AC or DC traction motors, depending on the customer's preference. All are powered by the GE GEVO engine. The Evolution Series was named as one of the "10 Locomotives That Changed Railroading" in the January 2009 issue of Trains Magazine. It was the only locomotive introduced after 1972 to be included in that list. The Evolution Series, mainly the ES44DC, ES44AC, and ET44AC, are some of the best-selling and most successful freight locomotives in United States history. Models Currently, six different Evolution Series models have been produced for the North American market. They are all six axle locomotives and have the wheel arrangement C-C (AAR classification) or Co′Co′ (UIC classification), except for the ES44C4 which has an A1A-A1A wheel arrangement and the meter-gauge version developed for the Brazilian network ES43BBi which is B-B-B-B. All North American Evolution Series locomotives are equipped from the factory with a Nathan-Airchime K5HL-R2 "Evolution" airhorn, and most later models are equipped with a Graham-White 373 electronic bell. ES40DC (2004-2008) The ES40DC (Evolution Series, 4000 HP, DC traction) replaced the Dash 9-40CW model in the General Electric catalogue and, like the former model, was delivered exclusively to Norfolk Southern Railway. ES44DCs owned by CSX Transportation were also given this designation in 2009 after being de-rated to . However, high-horsepower demand on Norfolk Southern made a mandatory repowering of several ES40DC engines into their former ES44DC power. ES44DC (2005-2010) The ES44DC (Evolution Series, 4400 HP, DC traction) replaced the Dash 9-44CW model in the General Electric catalogue. Primary users are BNSF Railway, CSX Transportation, and Canadian National Railway. Pilbara Iron in Australia ordered a lengthened, international version designated ES44DCi. The extra length is used for a larger radiator to increase cooling capacity in the Australian outback. ES44AC (2003-2019) The ES44AC (Evolution Series, 4400 HP, AC traction) replaced the AC4400CW model in the General Electric catalogue. These locomotives have been ordered by every Class I railroad in North America: Union Pacific Railroad (who refers to these locomotives as the C45ACCTE), BNSF Railway, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern de Mexico, Ferromex, Canadian Pacific Railway, and Canadian National Railway. The Class II Iowa Interstate Railroad ordered 14 ES44ACs (IAIS 500-513) in 2008 to handle an expected traffic growth resulting from new ethanol plants coming on line. An additional 3 locomotives (IAIS 514-516) were delivered in 2016 and three more (IAIS 517-519) were delivered in late 2019. As a result of the delivery of the final six locomotives, the Iowa Interstate will retire its SD-38 fleet. The IAIS 513 is painted in a Rock Island, Route of the Rockets heritage paint scheme, and the IAIS 516 is painted in a Rock Island inspired scheme celebrating the 30th anniversary of the start-up of the railroad. CSX began receiving an order of 200 ES44ACs (referred to by CSX as the ES44AH) in December 2007. The A is for A.C power The "H" in the class CW44AH and ES44AH units refers to the HTE ("high tractive effort") adhesion-management software with which those units are equipped. The reason CSXT has assigned specific classes to units equipped with that software is that the software allows the units to have increased tonnage ratings and is in reference to a combination of subsystems that produce high levels of tractive effort at low speeds. In order to be classified as an "AH" by CSX, a locomotive has to have not only an increased nominal weight (currently to ), but also (1) steerable trucks, (2) TM3 adhesion control software, (3) software that extends to from the maximum amount of tractive effort that each traction motor is permitted to produce, and (4) GE's Rail Cleaner, which directs high-pressure air onto the rails in front of the sand nozzles forward of axle number one. In September 2008, Norfolk Southern purchased 24 ES44ACs numbered 8000-8023, and began receiving the first of these units in October 2008. Ordered to be used on long haul coal trains, they were the first new AC locomotives ever purchased by NS. An additional 65 units were ordered in 2011, numbered 8025-8090. 24 more units, numbered 8091-8115, were ordered at the beginning of 2012. 10 of these units: 8025, 8098-8105 & 8114 were painted in predecessor company "heritage" paint schemes for NS's 30th anniversary. All NS ES44ACs are built to CSX specifications, with the exception of the Hi-Ad trucks & headlight placement. Canadian National's first order of ES44ACs was in January 2012, and as of 2018 they roster about 236 units, numbered in the 2800-2999 and 3800-3835 series. ES44C4 (2009-Present) The ES44C4 (Evolution Series, 4400 HP, C to denote 3 axles per truck, 4 traction motors) was introduced in 2009. While similar to the ES44AC, the ES44C4 has two traction motors per truck, instead of the conventional three such as on the ES44AC. No ES44C4s with DC traction were built. The center axle of each truck is unpowered, giving an A1A-A1A wheel arrangement. BNSF Railway is the launch customer for this model, ordering an initial batch of 25 units numbered 6600-6624. As of 2020, BNSF Railway currently rosters Present 1200 ES44C4 units. The 4200's and units 7921-7999 are certified as Tier 4 Credit units, while the others are Tier 2 or Tier 3. It is speculated that as many as 288 more units are on order, to be numbered 5547-5599, 6439-6499, 8292-8317, and 8600-8748. On 30 January 2014 Florida East Coast Railway announced that they would buy 24 ES44C4s, to be numbered 800-823, for heavy haul service and intermodal traffic. All were delivered by the end of 2014, in order to beat the EPA's deadline on exhaust-emissions standards for new-built Tier 3 locomotives. A unique feature of these units is that there is a variable traction control system in their computer systems. One of the differences between an ES44AC and an ES44C4 are the air cylinders and linkages on the truck sideframes of the ES44C4; these are part of the traction control system. Every time a variation in grade, traction, or wheel slip occurs, the computer will adjust the pressure in these cylinders to maintain sufficient adhesion, by varying the weight on the drive axles. ES44DCi/ES44ACi The ES44DCi (Evolution Series, 4400 horsepower, DC traction, international version) was built for the Rio Tinto railway in Australia. The ES44ACi was built for the Roy Hill and Rio Tinto Group. The ES44ACi/DCi is essentially an ES44AC/DC in a GE AC6000CW's body, with the radiator at the end protruding out over the rear deck in the same way the AC6000CW does. The locomotive's large radiator allows it to handle the Australian outback's extreme temperatures. Roy Hill has ordered 21 ES44ACi locomotives, and is currently in possession of all 21 locomotives (numbered 1001 "Ginny"-1021). Rio Tinto ordered 100 ES44DCi locomotives and has all 100 (numbered 8100-8199) and 21 ES44ACi locomotives (numbered 9100-9120) and more are on order. Ferromex also acquired 50 ES44ACi. As the construction of these locomotives was subsequent to the new environmental laws of the US, GE cataloged them only as ES44ACi, although in the external technical specifications of the locomotives say ES44AC). These locomotives can no longer reenter the US operating. ET44AC/ET44C4 (2012-Present) The ET44AC (Evolution Series Tier 4, 4400 HP, AC traction) replaces the ES44AC model. These locomotives have been ordered by most of the Class I railroads in North America, including Union Pacific, CSX Transportation, Norfolk Southern and Canadian National Railway. BNSF Railway will be receiving similar ET44C4 locomotives, which have no traction motor on the middle axle of each truck. CSX designates their ET44ACs as ET44AH, due to their locomotives being heavy-ballasted. In the summer of 2012, GE unveiled its first Tier 4 emissions-compliant locomotive, now officially named the ET44AC. The prototype demonstrators, as well as current production units, are visually quite different from previous models. First, the "ET" is long - an increase of from the length of all previous GE 6-axle models beginning with the "DASH 9" series in 1993. While the front third of the locomotive, including the control cab, is unchanged, the rear two-thirds is noticeably different. On Tier 4 demonstrator units the entire midsection above the prime mover is raised to accommodate an advanced exhaust treatment system; it is seen as a "hump" that rises above the rest of the locomotive considerably. Production units have this hump only over the exhaust manifold directly ahead of the radiator, rather than encompassing the entire midsection. Also, the radiator section is much larger than that of earlier "ES" units, featuring a two-fan split-cooling system located inside a very large, angular compartment. Grilles under the radiator section have been smoothed out, and there are two extra air intakes on the rear of the locomotive hood. ET44ACs are all equipped with Graham-White electronic bells (E-bells). Tier 4 demonstrator units are equipped with two airhorns: a three-chime horn – facing forward – located behind the cab and a rear-facing two-chime horn protruding from the back of the radiator. Production units feature the now-standard Nathan-Airchime model K5HL-R2 "Evolution" airhorn mounted on the hood slightly forward of the placement location used on previous models. A DC variant of the ET44AC has not been cataloged by General Electric. TE33A The TE33A is an export 1520 mm gauge locomotive in the GE Evolution Series. Identifying features The Evolution Series locomotives are visually similar to the AC4400CW, although small differences are evident. The most noticeable difference is the radiator section at the rear of the locomotive is larger to accommodate the GEVO's Air to air intercoolers. As with the AC6000CW, the radiators project beyond the end of the hood. On the ES44ACi and ES44DCi models, the radiator extends in the same way as the AC6000CW, protruding out over the rear deck. For the other Evolution Series locomotives, the radiator does not protrude completely over the rear deck, but rather sits nearly flush with the rear of the engine hood. Unlike previous GE locomotives, the grills under the radiator are at two different angles. The increase in radiator size is due to the necessity for greater cooling capacity in the locomotive in order to reduce emissions. The other major difference between the Evolution Series and earlier models are the vents below the radiators, which are larger than those on previous GE locomotives. Also, all Evolution Series units have air conditioners mounted below the cab on the conductor's side. Operators ArcelorMittal, operated by Cartier Railway: 2 ES44AC units, numbered 301 and 302, built in summer 2010 BNSF Railway: 30 pre-production ES44AC units, numbered 5718-5747, were built between October 2003 and April 2004. 685 production ES44AC units, numbered 5748–5837 (built 2005) and 5844-6438 (built between 2005 and 2009). BNSF 5942 was wrecked at Cactus, Texas in October 2006 (along with SD70MAC 9939), but was rebuilt in 2009. 5958 was wrecked and retired in December 2013. 1,280 ES44C4 units, numbered 3250-3281, 4200-4299, 5533-5546, 6500-7199 (built 2009-2014), 7921-8291 (built 2014-2015) and 8318-8399 (built 2015). 6943 and 8153 were wrecked and retired. 275 ET44C4 units (as of September 2018), numbered 3725-3999 (built 2015-2017). 3967 was wrecked and retired. Additional units, numbered 3721-3724 were built in late 2019. More units, numbered 3675-3706, (built early through mid-2020). 14 Units, numbered 3707-3720 (will be built 2021-2022). 721 ES44DC units, numbered 7200-7920 (built 2005-2010). Number 7695 wears the "golden" swoosh rather than the black swoosh. 7766 has a 3 chime K5LA, similar to the ones that Metra used to have. 7553, 7673, 7838 and 7847 were wrecked and retired. Canadian National Railway: 125 ES44DC units, numbered 2220-2344. All are equipped with microwave ovens. 313 ES44AC units, numbered 2800-2999, 3800-3912, and 3913-3987. 2800-2975 were built 2012 through 2015. The first 2015 order (2951–2975) was built to Tier 3 standards but after the Tier 4 cutoff date and therefore are restricted to operation in Canada only. More Tier 4-compliant ET44AC's were on order for 2015 delivery, with the first two, CN 3002 and 3004, entering service on 6 August 2015. 8 additional Tier 4 units (2976-2983) were built in 2016- 2017. 2984-2999 and 3800-3805 built in late 2017. 3806-3835 built in 2018 and 3836-3875 built in 2018-2019. 3913-3987 are ex-CREX units. 286 ET44AC units, numbered 3000-3285. The 3009 was wrecked in January 2019. 3115 painted in BC Rail red, white and blue livery. 3008 painted in Illinois Central Death Star livery. 3069 painted in Wisconsin Central red and yellow livery. 3023 painted in Elgin, Joliet & Eastern orange livery. 3015 and 3233 painted into first responders and veterans schemes. Canadian Pacific Railway: 291 ES44AC units, numbered 8700–8960 and 9350-9379 8700–8759 were built with GE self-steering trucks. Later orders specified the standard Hi-Adhesion trucks due to the higher maintenance costs of the steerable design. 8858–8877 were painted to promote the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Effective 4 March 2010, all 20 Olympic units have been earmarked to be sent to Progress Rail in Winnipeg for removal of Olympic logos and repainting of the logo area to the original red and white scheme. As of 2018, 8876 still wears the Olympics paint; however, all Olympics logos have been removed. 8890–8899 are fully equipped with electronically controlled pneumatic brakes (ECP), which CP had been testing on its coal fleet. 8700–8960 and 9350–9379 are equipped with fuel trip optimizers (FTO). 8939 wears stickers on the front of either side promoting Lord Strathcona's Horse. Cerrejón: 4 ES44AC units, numbered 10015–10018 Citicorp Railmark Inc. (Citirail) CREX: 15 ES44AC units, numbered 1201–1215, delivered in December 2012. 50 ES44AC units, numbered 1301–1350, delivered in late 2013. 35 ES44AC units, numbered 1401–1435, delivered during summer 2014. 25 ES44AC units, numbered 1501—1525, delivered in December 2015, units are T4CU (Tier 4 Credit Units). Most units have been sold to Canadian National as of 2021. Cemex: One ES44AC unit, numbered 81, built in March 2008 as an add-on to a CSXT order. CSX Transportation: 550 ES44AH units, numbered 700–999 and 3000–3249. 847 and 963 have been wrecked and retired, 3112 renumbered to 1776. Three units have special names and paint schemes: 911 Spirit of Our First Responders, 3112 renumbered to 1776 Spirit of Our Armed Forces and 3194 Spirit of Our Law Enforcement. CSXT 3099 lettered "Spirit of West Springfield and Safety Train"; wrecked 2018 in Mexico and scrapped 225 ET44AH units, numbered 3250-3474. 3440 lettered "Spirit of Ravenna" along with L&N and KSHC markings after attending the announcement of Kentucky Steam buying the Ravenna yard property from CSX. 3438 and 3374 were involved in a derailment in Georgia. It is unknown whether CSX will repair the locomotives or send them for scrap. 302 ES40DC units, built as ES44DC units but were downgraded by 2010, numbered 5200–5501. 5488 was wrecked and retired. CSXT 5500 lettered "Spirit of Cincinnati" Ferromex: 100 ES44AC units, numbered 4600–4699. 50 ES44AC units, numbered 4800-4849. Delivery started on June 2016. Units numbered 4800-4818 were built at the GE plant in Erie, PA. Units numbered 4819-4849 were built at the GE plant in Fort Worth, Texas. 4815 was wrecked and retired in 2018. 4838 also wrecked and retired. Ferrosur: 23 ES44AC units, numbered 4700-4722. Painted in Ferromex colors. Florida East Coast Railway: 24 ES44C4 units, numbered 800-823, built in November–December 2014. All units have since been converted to use a combination of standard diesel fuel/liquid natural gas mixture, supplied from an external tender towed behind the locomotives. GE Transportation 1 ES44DC unit, numbered 2011. 1 ES44AC unit, numbered 2012. Wears the same demonstration scheme as 2011, as well as GECX 2005 and UP 7605 (formerly). 1 ES44AC-H prototype, numbered 2010. This locomotive was rebuilt in 2007 as a hybrid from GECX ES44AC 2005. 1 ES44AC converted to operate on battery power, numbered 3000. Unit was rebuilt from former NextFuel (liquid natural gas/diesel mixture) demonstrator ES44AC 3000. These locomotives are most often used in GE Transportation/Wabtec's small test fleet on a nearly 3 mile long test track in Erie, PA, to test new locomotives before delivery. Iowa Interstate Railroad: 12 ES44AC units were delivered from 2008 to 2009, numbered 500–511. These are the first new units purchased by this railroad and were originally intended for CSX. 2 ES44AC units were delivered in early 2010, numbered 512 and 513. 513 is painted in a Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad heritage scheme in honor of this Iowa Interstate predecessor. 3 ES44AC units were delivered in 2015, numbered 514–516. 516 is painted in a Rock Island inspired 30th anniversary paint scheme. 3 ES44AC T4C units, numbered 517-519. Units were set for delivery in late 2019. Kansas City Southern Railway: 135 ES44AC units, numbered 4680-4709 and 4765–4869 4700 was wrecked and retired. 25 ET44AC units, numbered 5000-5024 Kansas City Southern de México: 85 ES44AC units, numbered 4650–4679 and 4710–4764 25 ES44AC units, numbered 4870-4894 (Built 2015). 25 ES44AC units, numbered 4895-4919, units are equipped with steerable trucks (Built 2019). Norfolk Southern Railway: 220 ES44DC units, numbered 7500–7719. Units were uprated from 4,000 to 4,400 HP in 2014. 166 ES44AC units, numbered 8000–8165. 8025, 8098-8105 and 8114 were painted in schemes of predecessor railroads as part of Norfolk Southern's 30th anniversary. 8120 has a Leslie RS5T instead of the Nathan Airchime K5HL found on most of Norfolk Southern’s GEVO locomotives. 3 ES44AC units, numbered 8166–8168 Tier 4 credit units, built concurrently with ET44AC's 3600-3646. 16 ES44AC units, numbered 8169-8184, tier 4 credit units. 47 ET44AC units, numbered 3600–3646 3633 wrecked in 2019. 34 ET44AC units, numbered 3647-3680. Sava Transportation (Savatran) SVTX: 3 ES44AC units, numbered 1912, 1982, and 1986, delivered February 2012. Units are numbered for the years that Penn State University won national college football championships. Union Pacific Railroad: Five pre-production ES44AC (C45ACCTE) units, numbered 5695–5699 (renumbered 5348–5352), were built between January and February 2003. 938 production ES44AC (C45ACCTE) units, numbered 5248–5347, 5353-5553, 7345-7529, and 7600-8051. 5359, 5412, 5482, 7421 and 7914 were wrecked and retired. 296 ES44AH (C45AH) heavy units, numbered 8052-8267, 2520-2569 and 2740-2769. These units are compared to the ES-series standard , and are supplied with all required equipment and computer software to be classified as "AH" heavy units. UP's "AH" types are similar to CSXT's, except for their Hi-Ad trucks, and are designated C45AH's by U.P. 2520-2569 and 2740-2769 are Tier 4 Credit Units. 2542 wrecked in Texarkana, TX in 2015 and retired. 200 ET44AH (C45AH) units, numbered 2570-2769. UP 7605 was delivered in GE Demonstrator colors, but has been repainted into the standard Building America scheme as of 01/05 2008. UP 2010, an ES44AC Boy Scouts of America tribute unit, was unveiled on 31 March 2010, in Houston, Texas to commemorate 100 years of Boy Scouts. The unit was renumbered from 7469. However, in early 2022 it was repainted into the Union Pacific lettered scheme after months of sitting in storage. It kept its number of 2010. In September 2010, UP 7400 was unveiled, featuring a pink ribbon on the side as a tribute to Susan G. Komen for the Cure. UP 7964 is the 5,000th Evolution Series locomotive to be built, and it had decals on both sides. As of 30 August 2016, it had the decals removed and was repainted. Export sales China In October 2005 China Railway ordered 700 Evolution Series locomotives, ES59ACi, from GE Transportation Systems and Qishuyan Locomotive and Rolling Stock Works for delivery in 2008–2009. Two have been built at Erie, Pennsylvania, the rest will be assembled by Qishuyan at Changzhou. Kazakhstan On 28 September 2006 national railway Kazakhstan Temir Zholy signed an agreement with GE Transportation Systems ordering 310 Evolution Series locomotives designated as the TE33A. The first ten of these were built in GE's Erie, Pennsylvania, plant while the remaining 300 will be assembled at a new plant in Astana, Kazakhstan which was opened by President Nursultan Nazarbayev on 3 July 2009 Delivery is expected between 2009 and 2012. The locomotives are built with dual cabs and are among the first diesel-electric locomotives with AC traction motors to operate in the Commonwealth of Independent States and Ukraine (besides the 2TE25A built by Bryansk Engineering Works, Transmashholding, Russia). Australia Rio Tinto Group has ordered 100 ES44DCi locomotives for operation on their privately owned rail line, operated by Pilbara Iron. The ES44DCi uses the AC6000CW's longer frame to allow space for a heavy duty cooling system to cope with the hot desert environment that the locomotives operate in. Units 8100-8118 were delivered in a predominantly grey paint scheme, while units 8119-8199 feature additional red lettering and striping. Rio Tinto Group has ordered 21 ES44ACi of 'EVO' units, an AC version of the ES44DCi. These units are numbered from 9100 onwards and more are on order. They are in the Rio Tinto silver with red stripes and numerals. Roy Hill took delivery of the first 14 out of a total order for 21 ES44ACis in January 2015. Brazil Carajás Railroad, a subsidiary of Brazilian mining company Vale, ordered 70 5800 hp ES58ACi locomotives. The units were built at GE's Erie plant and delivered in 2009. The prime mover is a GEVO-16. Gauge is Egypt In 2009, Egyptian National Railways received 80 dual cab ES40ACi locomotives in two versions (painted blue for passenger trains and red/black for freight trains). In 2017, Egyptian National Railways placed an order for 100 ES30ACi Light Evolution Series Locomotives valued at $575 million that can be used for both passengers or freight rail. The first 10 units were delivered in November 2019. Pakistan Pakistan Railways has ordered 55 ES43ACi locomotives for 1,676 mm gauge. Deliveries are expected during 2017. See Locomotives of Pakistan. Licensed production South Africa Transnet Engineering in South Africa has a license to manufacture 233 ES40ACi locomotives for Transnet Freight Rail, with core components including GEVO-12 engines supplied from the United States. The first six of these Class 44-000 locomotives were built in Erie, Pennsylvania in April and July 2015. In October 2015, the first of the 227 South African-built locomotives was nearing completion at Transnet Engineering's Koedoespoort shops in Pretoria. India In November 2015, it was announced Indian Railways and GE would engage in a 11-year joint venture in which GE would hold a majority stake of 74%, to provide a mix of 1,000 diesel locomotives of type ES 43ACmi which are 4,500 horsepower and type ES 58ACi which are 6,000 horsepower each. Indian Railways designated these 1,676 mm (broad gauge) locomotives as the WDG-4G class and WDG-6G class respectively. General Electric has invested ₹2,052 crore (US$305 million) for its construction. In the $2.6 Billion deal, Indian Railways would purchase 1000 goods locomotives a year for 10 years beginning in 2017; the locomotives would be modified versions of the GE Evolution series. Diesel Locomotive Factory, Marhowrah was built by GE for the manufacture of the locomotives. See also EMD SD70 series, a similarly powerful locomotive produced by EMD in response to GE's predecessor of the Evolution Series, the Dash 9 Series. References Notes Bibliography External links GE Transportation Systems. Evolution Series locomotive. NorthEast Rails. GE AC4400-6000 Diesel Railroad Locomotives. Retrieved on 23 February 2005. GE Evolution Locomotives. Published by Voyageur Press 2007 "" Evolution Series C-C locomotives Diesel-electric locomotives of the United States A1A-A1A locomotives EPA Tier 2-compliant locomotives of the United States Railway locomotives introduced in 2003 Standard gauge locomotives of the United States Standard gauge locomotives of Canada Standard gauge locomotives of Mexico Standard gauge locomotives of China Standard gauge locomotives of Australia Standard gauge locomotives of Egypt 5 ft gauge locomotives 5 ft 3 in gauge locomotives Standard gauge locomotives of Colombia Diesel-electric locomotives of Canada Diesel-electric locomotives of Mexico Diesel-electric locomotives of China Diesel-electric locomotives of Australia Diesel-electric locomotives of Egypt Diesel-electric locomotives of Colombia

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Walking with Dinosaurs is a 2013 3D live-action/computer-animated adventure comedy film about dinosaurs set in the Late Cretaceous period, years ago. The production features computer-animated dinosaurs in live-action settings with actors Justin Long, John Leguizamo, Tiya Sircar, and Skyler Stone providing voice-overs for the main characters. It was directed by Neil Nightingale and Barry Cook from a screenplay by John Collee. The film was produced by BBC Earth and Evergreen Films and was titled after the BBC's 1999 television documentary miniseries of the same name. The film, with a budget of , was one of the largest independent productions at the time. It was financed by Reliance Big Entertainment and IM Global instead of a major studio. The majority of distribution rights were eventually sold to 20th Century Fox. The crew filmed footage on location in Alaska and New Zealand, which were chosen for their similarities to the dinosaurs' surroundings millions of years ago. Animal Logic designed computer-animated dinosaurs and added them to the live-action backdrop. Though the film was originally going to lack narration or dialogue, 20th Century Fox executives decided to add voiceovers, believing it would connect audiences to the characters. Walking with Dinosaurs premiered on 2013 at the Dubai International Film Festival. It was released theatrically in 2D and 3D on 2013. It received generally negative reviews from critics, who commended the film's visual effects but criticized its writing and voice acting. The film grossed million in the United States and Canada and in other territories for a worldwide total of . The Hollywood Reporter stated the film's global box office performance was disappointing in context of the production budget and marketing costs. Plot A paleontologist named Zack takes his nephew Ricky, whose parents went on vacation to Europe, and niece Jade on a fossil hunt. While alone, Ricky is met by a talking raven named Alex, who later turns into his ancestor, an "Alexornis". He tells him of a story set in the Late Cretaceous period, 70 million years ago, about his best friend Patchi, who is the smallest in a litter of "Pachyrhinosaurus" hatchlings and is often bullied by his older brother Scowler. Their father Bulldust is the leader of the "Pachyrhinosaurus" herd. Alex, who is Patchi's mentor, tries to help Patchi impress a female "Pachyrhinosaurus" named Juniper, but her herd migrated south without him. Patchi is also attacked by a "Troodon" which attempts to take him away, but he is saved by Bulldust, resulting in Patchi having a hole in his frill as an injury which Alex claims that Patchi is "destined for greatness". Bulldust moves his herd south as well, but when they try to pass through a forest, they are forced to flee when a storm strikes, and a fire erupts. Taking advantage of the chaos, a pack of "Gorgosaurus" attacks the scattered herd. They kill the rest of Patchi and Scowler's family while their leader Gorgon fights and kills Bulldust, who was trying to protect Patchi and Scowler. Afterwards, Patchi's herd, which is now led by Bulldust's rival Major, combined with Juniper's as they continued their migration where Gorgon's pack attacks them again. In the ensuing chaos, Patchi, Scowler, and Juniper fall into a river and are swept downstream to the ocean, with Alex following them from above. At a beach, Scowler follows a herd of "Edmontosaurus" to find food, callously leaving Patchi and Juniper behind. The two make their way through a forest and eventually are able to find their herd and Scowler. After years of making the same Animal migration from north to south and vice versa, an adult Scowler becomes the herd's new leader after defeating Major, and chooses Juniper to be his mate, much to Patchi's disappointment. Scowler recklessly leads the herd onto a frozen lake, but Patchi is able to lead the majority of the herd to safety. Enraged and believing that Patchi is going to be usurping him and also trying to take Juniper from him, Scowler confronts Patchi and challenges him for a battle in exchange for leadership of the herd. Scowler quickly gains the upper hand and wins as he disowns Patchi before ordering Juniper and the rest of the herd to leave him as well as Alex behind. Despondent and heartbroken, Patchi, who has gotten trapped under a tree during the fight, tries to allow predators to kill him, but Alex convinces him to die for something worth dying for as Bulldust did. Reinvigorated by the advice, Patchi escapes and fights off the predators, before returning to the herd, only to find them under attack by Gorgon and his pack again. As Gorgon easily overpowers him in battle, a repentant Scowler orders Patchi to save himself and lead the herd to safety. However, Patchi instead leads them into fighting off Gorgon and his pack. The herd successfully forces the "Gorgosaurus" pack to back off while Patchi defeated Gorgon by breaking his arm which had gotten caught in the hole in Patchi's frill, saving Scowler. Scowler reconciles with Patchi and concedes leadership of the herd to him, while Patchi goes on to have eggs with Juniper, one of which hatched, and Alex asked for it to be named after him. In the present day, moved by Alex's story, Ricky returns Gorgon's tooth to Zack and Jade, who had discovered Gorgon's body buried in the ground. Cast In the film, the story of the dinosaurs is book-ended by live-action footage. Long, Leguizamo, Sircar, and Stone provide voiceovers for the computer-animated dinosaurs, while the book-end scenes star Urban as an uncle taking his nephew and niece, played by Rowe and Rice, to a dinosaur excavation site. For the role of Alex, Leguizamo said he sought to conceal his own accent and create a unique voice for Alex. He adopted a Spanish accent since parrots had a Latin American origin. He said, "What was most difficult was finding the right pitch, because Alex is a small bird, but he's also the story's narrator. So he also had to sound paternal and patriarchal." Leguizamo compared his accent to that of Ricardo Montalbán, a Mexican actor. Long said he was cast based on his voicing of the chipmunk Alvin in Alvin and the Chipmunks (2007) and its sequels. Creatures in film Alexornis Alphadon Avitelmessus Chirostenotes Edmontonia Edmontosaurus Gorgosaurus Hesperonychus Pachyrhinosaurus Parksosaurus Quetzalcoatlus Troodon Production Walking with Dinosaurs, named after BBC's 1999 television documentary miniseries, was produced by BBC Earth, an arm of BBC Worldwide that was launched in 2009. The feature film is directed by Barry Cook, who was a director for Mulan (1998) and the co-director for Arthur Christmas (2011), and by Neil Nightingale, creative director at BBC Earth. The script was written by John Collee. Nightingale and BBC Earth's managing director Amanda Hill sought to produce film adaptations to extend the arm's brand of nature programming. The two were inspired by returns for Deep Blue (2003) and Earth (2007), which were theatrical versions cut from their respective nature documentary series. In June 2010, BBC Earth entered a deal with Evergreen Films, based in the United States, to produce a film featuring dinosaurs. By the following November, BBC Earth entered a deal with Reliance Big Entertainment to finance the production of three films, including Walking with Dinosaurs. The deal had initially attached Pierre de Lespinois of Evergreen Films and Neil Nightingale to co-direct the film. Barry Cook, who joined the film in March 2010, eventually replaced de Lespinois as director. The total production budget was . About 70% of the budget was covered when IM Global, a finance and sales company backed by Reliance, sold film rights to various distributors at the American Film Market in November 2010. The budget was further covered by tax breaks provided for filming in Alaska and in New Zealand. IM Global covered only 15% of the budget directly. Forbes called Walking with Dinosaurs an independent film with an unconventionally large budget since the production did not originate at a major studio. Nightingale explained, "It was originally funded by... Reliance, and then we sold it pretty quickly to 20th Century Fox for most of the world, and to a range of other distributors in a few other countries, and that's not an unusual path for an independent film — in other words, a non-studio film which doesn't originate from a big studio." Filming The film features computer-animated creatures in live-action settings. Live-action footage was filmed in New Zealand and in the southern part of the U.S. state of Alaska. Director Nightingale said, "[They] have that kind of temperate climate which represents the period very well. The world was a bit warmer then, so they would have had 24 hours of sunshine in the summer and 24 hours of darkness in the winter." Filming began in 2011 in Alaska, where Evergreen Films is headquartered. In the second half of 2011, more than were working out of Evergreen's office in the Alaskan city of Anchorage. While the film's dinosaurs lived in Alaska during the Late Cretaceous period approximately years ago, they lived more in the northern part of the state due to the climate at the time. Filmmakers considered Southeast Alaska's rainforests below the Arctic Circle close to the climate that the dinosaurs experienced, so they filmed there and in Southcentral Alaska. Specific locations included Crow Creek Mine near Girdwood, Alaska and the Kenai Peninsula. In 2012, the state government of Alaska awarded the production companies a subsidy of . Additional filming also took place in the South Island of New Zealand. For a river chase scene, filming was performed at rapids in New Zealand using a helicopter and with a 3D camera rig in a rubber boat. At the locations, the crew built dinosaur shapes out of PVC drain pipes to give the filmmakers a sense of the dinosaurs' scale when filming the live-action backdrop. Animation Animation work was done by the Australia-based company Animal Logic, which joined the production in January 2011. Its involvement with the production created 140 jobs in New South Wales. The company's animation director for Walking with Dinosaurs was Marco Marenghi, who had also worked on the BBC miniseries. The company collaborated with animation producer Jinko Gotoh, who contributed to Finding Nemo (2003) and 9 (2009). Character designer David Krentz, who also worked on Disney Animation's Dinosaur (2000), designed about for the film and worked with 5-6 palaeontologists. The characters were based on creatures found at fossil sites in Alaska and in Canada. Krentz initially designed the creatures in pencil then modeled them with the software ZBrush to send to animators. In addition, palaeontologists provided Animal Logic with technical drawings of dinosaur skeletons so animators could construct the skeletons virtually. The animators collaborated with the palaeontologists to validate the basic movements of the computer-animated dinosaurs. Software was used to overlay muscle to fit the movements. Animal Logic adapted the software Quill, which they used to animate penguin feathers in their work on Happy Feet (2006), into new software called RepTile to animate dinosaur skin and scales. It also added feathers for some dinosaurs, including the Troodon and the Hesperonychus. The color palette and feather pattern of a golden pheasant was used for the appearance of the Hesperonychus. The natural history unit archives were used to create a "behaviour matrix" that matched dinosaurs' anatomically correct gestures to their moods. Animal Logic ultimately created shots for the film, which director Cook said was a low number for an animated film. The 3D effects for the animation were achieved with the Fusion 3D system, which was used for Avatar (2009), Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011), and live 3D sports broadcasts. Cinematographer John Brooks worked with consultants and stereographers from the Cameron Pace Group to use a two-camera setup and capture film in 3D. Music Paul Leonard-Morgan composed the film score for Walking with Dinosaurs. He joined the production in July 2013. The German Film Orchestra Babelsberg performed the score at the Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam, Germany, this available soundtrack available on Sony Classical and WaterTower Music. where it was recorded. Engineer Rupert Coulson then mixed the score at AIR Studios in London, England. Leonard-Morgan then went to Los Angeles, California to dub the music for the film. Leonard-Morgan's score was one of scores from feature films that were determined by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to be eligible for the Academy Award for Best Original Score at the 86th Academy Awards, though it was not nominated. Voiceovers In the film, actors provide voiceovers for the main creatures. Director Barry Cook said the original plan was for the film to be without dialogue or narration. He said, "I think originally, we were looking at a film that could stand alone as a virtual silent movie... You can turn the soundtrack off and still get involved with the story and feel the emotions of the characters. In its final version, the movie has a narration and goes inside the heads of the animals, so you can hear what they're thinking." Executives at 20th Century Fox, one of the film's main distributors, viewed a rough cut and felt the film needed voiceovers so children in the audience could connect to the characters. The film's character designer David Krentz said, "Although the production veered away from being very realistic, the animation still plays independently. The powers that be decided to add narration and voice-over to reach a wider audience and the characters became slightly anthropomorphized to make them more attractive to younger kids." Palaeontologist Steve Brusatte responded to The Scotsmans prompt about the "danger of anthropomorphising" the dinosaurs, "The voiceovers are a bit of a compromise; the dinosaurs' lips aren't moving, they are not smiling and having human-like facial expressions or anything like that... They are only anthropomorphised to a small degree and that is necessary for a film like this." Palaeontological accuracy Variety reported, "[Director] Nightingale describes the project as 'mainstream entertainment' rather than natural history... but draws accurately on the latest discoveries in paleontology." A team of scientific and technical consultants contributed to the film. One team member was Dr. Steve Brusatte of the University of Edinburgh, who is a Chancellor's Fellow in Vertebrate Palaeontology. Brusatte said the filmmakers strove to understand the discoveries about dinosaurs since the release of Jurassic Park in 1993, "They used so much of this information that we've learned over the past few decades, about feathered dinosaurs, about how dinosaurs lived in big herds, which dinosaurs preyed on each other, their environments, and used that to tell the story." Some dinosaurs in the film are feathered. Brusatte said, "Over the past 15 years, we have collected thousands of specimens of feathered dinosaurs – proper bona fide dinosaurs covered in feathers." New Scientist reported that "no evidence has yet been found" to suggest that the Pachyrhinosaurus or the Gorgosaurus were feathered. Director Cook said of the Gorgosaurus, "We decided that we wouldn't put feathers on that one, but we did give that dinosaur iridescent scales." National Geographic said, "Many paleontologists and dinosaur fans are disappointed that CGI docudrama's villains, a gaggle of iridescent Gorgosaurus, are devoid of any fluff or fuzz." Shortly after the filmmakers designed their Gorgosaurus for the film, the tyrannosauroid Yutyrannus was discovered with direct evidence of feathers. While older than Gorgosaurus, Yutyrannus provides further evidence of feathers in tyrannosauroids. National Geographic also noted that Gorgosaurus was depicted as feathered in the 2011 direct-to-video film March of the Dinosaurs. Palaeontologist Anthony Fiorillo was a consultant for the film and helped determine what dinosaurs lived in Alaska at the time. Fiorillo said "the first known track" of a therizinosaur in Alaska was discovered in 2012, which was too late to include in the film's lineup of dinosaurs. The palaeontologist said based on ongoing research of the Pachyrhinosaurus perotorum, which he discovered in Alaska in 2012, he would have modified his advice to the filmmakers about designing the film's Pachyrhinosaurus. Don Lessem, a writer who specializes in dinosaurs, said Walking with Dinosaurs was an improvement from Jurassic Park in how the dinosaurs fit the period. He found most of the dinosaurs to be depicted correctly but also highlighted the possibility of the Gorgosaurus having feathers. Lessem stated the Alaskan scenery, while "a spectacular backdrop", did not exist at the time, "Conifers excepted, such scenery did not exist in dinosaur-age Alaska. Think woody outskirts of Seattle instead. Rainy and cool. No grand Rockies. Or much grass. And not much snow or ice." Marketing 20th Century Fox marketed Walking with Dinosaurs in the territories where it distributed the film. It also held a launch event at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in California. The film is an extension of an existing franchise that started with the BBC miniseries and continued with an arena show that put animatronic dinosaurs on display. Since merchandising deals already existed, filmmakers easily began releasing merchandise for the film. Forbes said, "There is already merchandise (toys, lunch boxes etc.) related to the movie which is normally unheard of for a first film." Macmillan Children's Books (under Macmillan Publishers) acquired the license to publish tie-in books for the film in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth. They published in November 2013 an encyclopaedic guide to the film's dinosaurs, a film handbook, and sticker books. Travelgoods.com produced back to school merchandise based on the film, and Keldan International sold a hatching-egg toy for Christmas. Supermassive Games developed the Wonderbook game Walking with Dinosaurs for the PlayStation 3. The game was released on 2013. Release Distribution sales While Reliance Entertainment released the film in India, IM Global, which represented non-India rights to distribute the film, marketed it at the American Film Market in November 2010. In what Variety called one of the "biggest deals in years", 20th Century Fox, the one-time U.S. home video distributor of the original series, purchased rights to distribute the film in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Latin America, and other territories. Variety reported, "Insiders say it's safe to say that the pre-sales cover most, if not all, of the film's budget." For other territories, Constantin Film purchased distribution rights for Germany, Alliance Films for Canada, Aurum for Spain, and Dutch Film Works for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Entertainment One acquired Alliance and Aurum in January 2013, which rearranged distribution rights. Theatrical run Walking with Dinosaurs premiered on 2013 at the Dubai International Film Festival. Distributor 20th Century Fox also had a special screening for the film in New York City on 2013. It distributed the film in cinemas in the United States and in the United Kingdom on 2013. It distributed the film in Australia and New Zealand on 2014. Distributor 20th Century Fox focused advertising on young children. It also advertised the film as one for kids like Avatar (2009) was for adults. Prior to the film's release, Forbes stated that in the United States, Walking with Dinosaurs was the only "kid-friendly film" coming out in December 2013. The Wall Street Journal said, "Walking with Dinosaurs... is the only new release targeted at children and is expected to appeal primarily to young ones." Box Office Mojo commented in its December 2013 forecast, "It should do some solid business among families with younger children, though in a highly-competitive season this is the kind of movie that can get lost in the pack." It predicted that Walking with Dinosaurs would gross over the weekend and rank sixth at the box office. ComingSoon.net predicted that with a crowded weekend of films, Walking with Dinosaurs would gross over the weekend to rank seventh at the box office. TheWrap says that box office analysts predict a weekend opening "in the low-teen millions". The film was released in in the United States with 84% of the cinemas having 3D. On the opening weekend in the United States, it grossed and ranked eighth at the box office. According to the polling firm CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a "B" grade. Distributor 20th Century Fox had anticipated an opening weekend of to . The Hollywood Reporter said, "Walking with Dinosaurs is the first major disappointment of the Christmas season." It was outperformed almost 3-to-1 by the competing family film Frozen, which ranked third at the box office and had been in theaters for a month. Outside the United States, Walking with Dinosaurs was released in the same opening weekend. It grossed , with grossed in the United Kingdom. Walking with Dinosaurs has grossed in the United States and Canada and in other territories for a worldwide total of . In the United States, it is one of only twelve feature films to be released in over 3,000 theaters and still improve on its box office performance in its second weekend, increasing 2.6% from $7,091,938 to $7,276,172. The Hollywood Reporter said in January 2014 that the film's global box office performance was disappointing and was likely to only go up to , meaning "a potential loss in the tens of millions for the financiers". It reported the financiers' response about the anticipated loss, "They contend they will break even because of sponsorships, merchandising, tax breaks and foreign presales in territories where Fox didn't pick up the film." Fox would also avoid a loss since it did not cover any part of the production budget and would get a distribution fee. Critical reception The Wall Street Journal reported that film critics thought that Walking with Dinosaurss "majestic visuals are seriously undermined by pedestrian storytelling". The Hollywood Reporter said, "Many critics have derided the juvenile tone of the voice dialogue... also noting that the animals' lips don't move." The film review aggregator website Metacritic gave an aggregate score of 37 out of 100, which it said indicated "generally unfavorable" reviews. It surveyed and assessed 10 reviews as negative, six as mixed, and five as positive. The similar website Rotten Tomatoes scored the film with 23% based on a survey of assessed as positive or negative, with an average score of 4.41/10. The website said, "Walking with Dinosaurs boasts painstaking visual brilliance, but it's unfortunately clouded by a clumsy script that's dominated by juvenile humor." It also reported, "The pundits say the filmmakers seem to have worried that a quasi-nature documentary approach might have turned off the youngsters, but the narrative is so poorly executed that the end result isn't all that entertaining, much less educational." Mark Adams of Screen International said Walking with Dinosaurs worked as "a kids' film for young dino fans". Adams commended the 3D special effects as "immersive and impressive" but thought audiences may be frustrated at "its rather simplistic story". He said, "The film's attempt to make its story broad and accessible at times sits uneasily alongside the spectacular computer animation." Michael Rechtshaffen, reviewing for The Hollywood Reporter, also approved of the effects, calling them "first rate". The critic however complained that the added dialogue was "needless" and that it was "safe to assume that the overlay was added after the fact" by studio executives. Rechtshaffen said, "Although the plotting... follows a safely predictable course... It's that forced, unnecessary and largely unfunny dialogue—save for Leguizamo's spirited way with words—that comes up distractingly flat." Dan Jolin at Empire panned Walking with Dinosaurs as "insipid, bloodless, pseudo-educational and offensively anthropomorphised". Jolin applauded the visual effects but said that "the decision to insert chirp-pop songs and voice the principal dinosaurs" overshadowed the effects. Tom Meek, reviewing for Paste, also praised the effects as "a visual wonderment" but disparaged "the cutesy animal voices and personas". Aside from highlights like the line "Think outside the nest" and the song "Tusk" by Fleetwood Mac, Meek was disappointed by the dialogue and choice of music. Riley Black, reviewing for National Geographic, said the voiceovers ruined the film. She said where films like The Land Before Time and You Are Umasou (the latter based on the Japanese book of the same name) were children's films with meaningful dialogue, Walking with Dinosaurs instead had dialogue that "is vacuous and not only lacks emotional weight, but actually drains any emotions the audience might feel for the characters." Black said the film could be salvaged if its release on home media would include an option to watch it without the dialogue. Home media Walking with Dinosaurs was released on Blu-ray 2D and 3D and DVD in the United States on 2014. It ranked third in both Blu-ray sales and combined DVD and Blu-ray sales. It ranked below Disney's 3D computer-animated musical Frozen, which was in its second week of home media release, and The Wolf of Wall Street, which was also in its first week. Over 35% of sales for Walking with Dinosaurs were from Blu-ray sales. Around 4% of its total sales were Blu-ray discs in 3-D. The Blu-ray 3D disc for Walking with Dinosaurs features bonus content including a "Cretaceous Cut" of the film that omits the voiceovers. Walking With Dinosaurs: Prehistoric Planet 3D In 2014, a shortened 45-minute version of Walking With Dinosaurs was released in 3D theaters across the U.S.A. Unlike the movie, this documentary is narrated in a style similar to that of the TV series, and removes the character names and dialogue. Unlike the series though, Prehistoric Planet 3D has a "profile" appear whenever a new prehistoric animal species shows up; this profile shows the animal's name and diet. The Gorgosaurus that appeared in the movie are referred to as Nanuqsaurus; this is probably because other than a few possible indeterminate remains, Gorgosaurus is not known from Alaska, while Nanuqsaurus is. See also List of films featuring dinosaurs References Further reading External links The Algorithms That Power the Hyper-Real Creatures of Walking With Dinosaurs at Wired King of the monsters by The Scotsman, a general history of dinosaurs in film 2013 films 2013 3D films 2013 computer-animated films 2010s American animated films 2010s children's adventure films 2010s children's fantasy films 2010s children's animated films 2010s fantasy adventure films American films American computer-animated films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated fantasy films American children's animated drama films American fantasy adventure films Australian films Australian computer-animated films Australian children's adventure films Australian animated fantasy films Australian children's drama films Australian fantasy adventure films British films British computer-animated films British children's adventure films British animated fantasy films British children's drama films British fantasy adventure films 3D animated films English-language films Walking with... Films based on television series Animated films about birds Animated films about dinosaurs Animated films set in prehistory Films set in Alaska Films shot in Alaska Films shot in New Zealand Films with live action and animation Films directed by Barry Cook Films with screenplays by John Collee Films scored by Paul Leonard-Morgan 20th Century Fox films 20th Century Fox animated films Reliance Entertainment films Entertainment One films IM Global films Animal Logic films

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Intelligence cycle management refers to the overall activity of guiding the intelligence cycle, which is a set of processes used to provide decision-useful information (intelligence) to leaders. The cycle consists of several processes, including planning and direction (the focus of this article), collection, processing and exploitation, analysis and production, and dissemination and integration. The related field of counterintelligence is tasked with impeding the intelligence efforts of others. Intelligence organizations are not infallible (intelligence reports are often referred to as "estimates," and often include measures of confidence and reliability) but, when properly managed and tasked, can be among the most valuable tools of management and government. The principles of intelligence have been discussed and developed from the earliest writers on warfare to the most recent writers on technology. Despite the most powerful computers, the human mind remains at the core of intelligence, discerning patterns and extracting meaning from a flood of correct, incorrect, and sometimes deliberately misleading information (also known as disinformation). Overview Intelligence defined One study of analytic culture established the following "consensus" definitions: Intelligence is secret state or group activity to understand or influence foreign or domestic entities. Intelligence analysis is the application of individual and collective cognitive methods to weigh data and test hypotheses within a secret socio-cultural context. Intelligence errors are factual inaccuracies in analysis resulting from poor or missing data. Intelligence failure is systemic organizational surprise resulting from incorrect, missing, discarded, or inadequate hypotheses. Management of the intelligence cycle One basic model of the intelligence process is called the "intelligence cycle". This model can be applied and, like all basic models, it does not reflect the fullness of real-world operations. Intelligence is processed information. The activities of the intelligence cycle obtain and assemble information, convert it into intelligence and make it available to its users. The intelligence cycle comprises five phases: Planning and Direction: Deciding what is to be monitored and analyzed. In intelligence usage, the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies. Collection: Obtaining raw information using a variety of collection disciplines such as human intelligence (HUMINT), geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and others. Processing: Refining and analyzing the information Analysis and production: The data that has been processed is translated into a finished intelligence product, which includes integrating, collating, evaluating, and analyzing all the data. Dissemination: Providing the results of processing to consumers (including those in the intelligence community), including the use of intelligence information in net assessment and strategic gaming. A distinct intelligence officer is often entrusted with managing each level of the process. In some organisations, such as the UK military, these phases are reduced to four, with the "analysis and production" being incorporated into the "processing" phase. These phases describe the minimum process of intelligence, but several other activities also come into play. The output of the intelligence cycle, if accepted, drives operations, which, in turn, produces new material to enter another iteration of the intelligence cycle. Consumers give the intelligence organization broad directions, and the highest level sets budgets. Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) describes an activity that synchronizes and integrates the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, and dissemination systems in direct support of current and future operations. This is an integrated intelligence and operations function. Sensors (people or systems) collect data from the operational environment during the collection phase, which is then converted into information during the processing and exploitation phase. During the analysis and production phase, the information is converted into intelligence. Planning and direction overview The planning and direction phase of the intelligence cycle includes four major steps: Identification and prioritization of intelligence requirements; Development of appropriate intelligence architecture; Preparation of a collection plan; and Issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff described planning & direction in 2013 as: "...the development of intelligence plans and the continuous management of their execution. Planning and direction activities include, but are not limited to: the identification and prioritization of intelligence requirements; the development of concepts of intelligence operations and architectures required to support the commander’s mission; tasking subordinate intelligence elements for the collection of information or the production of finished intelligence; submitting requests for additional capabilities to higher headquarters; and submitting requests for collection, exploitation, or all-source production support to external, supporting intelligence entities." Requirements Leaders with specific objectives communicate their requirements for intelligence inputs to applicable agencies or contacts. An intelligence "consumer" might be an infantry officer who needs to know what is on the other side of the next hill, a head of government who wants to know the probability that a foreign leader will go to war over a certain point, a corporate executive who wants to know what his or her competitors are planning, or any person or organization (for example, a person who wants to know if his or her spouse is faithful). National/strategic "Establishing the intelligence requirements of the policy-makers ... is management of the entire intelligence cycle, from identifying the need for data to delivering an intelligence product to a consumer," according to a 2007 report by the U.S. Intelligence Board. "It is the beginning and the end of the cycle—the beginning because it involves drawing up specific collection requirements and the end because finished intelligence, which supports policy decisions, generates new requirements." "The whole process depends on guidance from public officials. Policy-makers—the president, his aides, the National Security Council, and other major departments and agencies of government—initiate requests for intelligence. Issue coordinators interact with these public officials to establish their core concerns and related information requirements. These needs are then used to guide collection strategies and the production of appropriate intelligence products". Military/operational Intelligence requirements are determined by the commander to support his operational needs. The commander's requirement, sometimes called "essential elements of intelligence" (EEIs), initiates the intelligence cycle. Operational and tactical intelligence always should help the commander select an action. Each intelligence source has different characteristics that can be used, but which may also be limiting. Imagery intelligence (IMINT), for instance, may depend on weather, satellite orbits or the ability of aircraft to elude ground defenses, and time for analysis. Other sources may take considerable time to collect the necessary information. Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) depends on having built a library of signatures of normal sensor readings, in order that deviations will stand out. In rare cases, intelligence is taken from such extremely sensitive sources that it cannot be used without exposing the methods or persons providing such intelligence. One of the strengths of the British penetration of the German Enigma cryptosystem was that no information learned from it was ever used for operations, unless there was a plausible cover story that the Germans believed was the reason for Allied victories. If, for example, the movement of a ship was learned through Enigma COMINT, a reconnaissance aircraft was sent into the same area, and allowed to be seen by the Axis, so they thought the resulting sinking was due to IMINT. Intelligence architecture The intelligence cycle is only a model. Budgetary and policy direction are hierarchically above it. In reality, it is not a cycle, but a series of parallel activities. According to Arthur S. Hulnick, author of What's Wrong with the Intelligence Cycle, "Collection and analysis, which are supposed to work in tandem, in fact work more properly in parallel. Finally, the idea that decision-makers wait for the delivery of intelligence before making policy decisions is equally incorrect. In the modern era, policy officials seem to want intelligence to support policy rather than to inform it. The Intelligence Cycle also fails to consider either counterintelligence or covert action." The OODA loop developed by military strategist John Boyd, discussed in the context of the Intelligence Cycle, may come somewhat closer, as OODA is action-oriented and spiraling, rather than a continuing circle. Budgeting The architectural design must then be funded. While each nation has its own budgeting process, the major divisions of the US process are representative: National intelligence, often excluding specifically national-level military intelligence, National-level military intelligence, Military tactical intelligence, Transnational intelligence, often involving law enforcement, for terrorism and organized crime, and Internal counterintelligence and antiterrorism. Depending on the nation, at some level of detail, budgetary information will be classified, as changes in budget indicate changes in priorities. After considerable debate, the U.S. now publishes total budgets for the combination of its intelligence agencies. Depending on the sensitivity of a line item, it may be identified simply as "classified activity,"not broken out, but briefed to full oversight committees, or only revealed to a small number of officials. "It should be possible to empower a committee composed of mid-level officials (or aides to senior officials) from the intelligence and policy-making communities to convene regularly to determine and revise priorities. The key is to try to get policymakers to provide guidance for both collection and analysis, to communicate not just what they want but also what they do not." The CFR proposed a "market constraint" on consumers, in which they could only get a certain amount of intelligence from the intelligence community, before they had to provide additional funding. A different constraint would be that an agency, to get information on a new topic, must agree to stop or reduce coverage on something currently being monitored for it. Even with this consumer-oriented model, the intelligence community itself needs to have a certain amount of resources that it can direct itself, for building basic intelligence and identifying unusual threats. "It is important that intelligence officers involved in articulating requirements represent both analysts and collectors, including those from the clandestine side. In addition, collection should be affected by the needs of policymakers and operators. All of this argues strongly against any organizational reforms that would isolate the collection agencies further or increase their autonomy." Especially in nations with advanced technical sensors, there is an interaction between budgeting and technology. For example, the US has tended, in recent years, to use billion-dollar SIGINT satellites, where France has used "swarms" of "microsatellites". The quantity versus quality battle is as evident in intelligence technology as in weapons systems. The U.S. has fought a stovepipe battle, in which SIGINT and IMINT satellites, in a given orbit, were launched by different agencies. New plans put SIGINT, MASINT, and IMINT sensors, corresponding to a type of orbit, on common platforms. Policy factors Western governments tend to have creative tension among their law enforcement and national security organizations, foreign-oriented versus domestic-oriented organizations, and public versus private interests. There is frequently a conflict between clandestine intelligence and covert action, which may compete for resources in the same organization. Balancing law enforcement and national security There is an opposition between law enforcement and intelligence, because the two entities are very different. Intelligence is oriented toward the future and seeks to inform policy-makers. It lives in an area of uncertainty where the truth may be uncertain. Because intelligence strives to protect its sources and methods, intelligence officials seek to stay out of the chain of evidence so they will not have to testify in court. By contrast, law enforcement's business is the prosecution of cases, and if law enforcement is to make a case, it must be prepared to reveal how it knows what it knows. The Council on Foreign Relations recommended that "foreign policy ought to take precedence over law enforcement when it comes to overseas operations. The bulk of U.S. intelligence efforts overseas are devoted to traditional national security concerns; as a result, law enforcement must ordinarily be a secondary concern. FBI and DEA agents operating abroad should not be allowed to act independently of either the ambassador or the CIA lest pursuit of evidence or individuals for prosecution cause major foreign policy problems or complicate ongoing intelligence and diplomatic activities. (The same should hold for any Defense Department personnel involved in intelligence activity overseas.) There are likely to be exceptions, and a degree of case-by-case decision-making will be inevitable. What is needed most is a Washington-based interagency mechanism involving officials from intelligence, law enforcement, and foreign policy to sort out individual cases. One now exists; the challenge is to make it work. "At home, law enforcement should have priority and the intelligence community should continue to face restraints in what it can do vis-à-vis American citizens." The protection of civil liberties remains essential. National organizations intended for foreign operations, or military support, should operate within the home country only under specific authorization and when there is no other way to achieve the desired result ... Regardless, the ability of intelligence agencies to give law enforcement incidentally acquired information on U.S. citizens at home or overseas ought to be continued. There should be no prohibition (other than those based on policy) on the intelligence community collecting information against foreign persons or entities. The question of what to do with the information, however, should be put before policymakers if it raises foreign policy concerns. President Harry S. Truman had legitimate concerns about creating a "Gestapo," so he insisted that the new CIA not have law enforcement or domestic authority. In an era of transnational terrorism and organized crime, there may not be clean distinctions between domestic and foreign activities. Public versus private "During the Cold War, national security was a federal government monopoly. To be sure, private citizens and corporations were involved, but there was a neat correspondence between the threat as defined and the federal government's national security machinery that was developed to meet that threat. The war against terrorism and homeland security will be much less a federal government monopoly. Citizens of democracies and the economy are already suffering the inconvenience and higher business costs of much tighter security. And tragically, more ordinary citizens are likely to die from transnational terrorism." Public and private interests can both complement and conflict when it comes to economic intelligence. Multination corporations usually have a form of capable intelligence capabilities in their core business. Lloyd's of London has extensive knowledge of maritime affairs. Oil companies have extensive information on world resources and energy demands. Investment banks can track capital flow. These intelligence capabilities become especially difficult when private organizations seek to use national capabilities for their private benefit. Sometimes, a quid pro quo may be involved. Secret economic information can be collected by several means-mostly SIGINT and HUMINT. The more sensitive reconnaissance satellites may not be needed to get substantially correct imagery. Earth resources satellites may give adequate, or even better detail—reconnaissance satellites tend not to have the multispectral scanners that are best for agricultural or other economic information. The private sector may already have good information on trade policy, resources, foreign exchange, and other economic factors. This may not be "open source" in the sense of being published, but can be reliably bought from research firms that may not have the overhead of all-source security. The intelligence agencies can use their all-source capability for verification, rather than original collection. Intelligence agencies, working with national economic and diplomatic employees, can develop policy alternatives for negotiators. One subtle aspect of the role of economic intelligence is the interdependence of the continental and world economies. The economic health of Mexico clearly affects the United States, just as the Turkish economy is of concern to the European Community. In a post-Cold War environment, the roles of Russia and China are still evolving. Japan, with a history of blurred lines between industry and government, may regard a policy (for them) as perfectly ethical, which would be questionable in North America or Eastern Europe. New groupings such as the Shanghai Cooperative Organization are principally economic. Economic measures also may be used to pressure specific countries—for example, South Africa while it sustained a policy of apartheid, or Sudan while there is widespread persecution in Darfur. Collection planning Collection planning matches anticipated collection requirements with collection capabilities at multiple organizational levels (e.g., national, geographic theater, or specific military entities). It is a continuous process that coordinates and integrates the efforts of all collection units and agencies. This multi-level collaboration helps identify collection gaps and redundant coverage in a timely manner to optimize the employment of all available collection capabilities. CCIRM The collection coordination intelligence requirements management (CCIRM) system is the NATO doctrine for intelligence collection management, although it differs from U.S. doctrine. From the U.S. perspective, CCIRM manages requests for information (RFI), rather than the collection itself, which has caused some friction when working with U.S. collection assets. Within NATO, requests for information flowed through the chain of command to the CCIRM manager. Where the U.S. sees collection management as a "push" or proactive process, NATO sees this as "pull" or reactive. In NATO doctrine, CCIRM joins an intelligence analysis (including fusion) to provide intelligence services to the force commander. Senior NATO commanders receive intelligence information in the form of briefings, summaries, reports and other intelligence estimates. According to authors Roberto Desimone and David Charles, "Battlefield commanders receive more specific documents, entitled intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB)." While these reports and briefings convey critical information, they lack the full context in which the intelligence cell assembled them. In coalition warfare, not all sources may be identified outside that cell. Even though the material presented gives key information and recommendations, and assumptions for these interpretations are given, the context "...not in a strong evidential sense, pointing exactly to the specific intelligence information that justifies these interpretations. As a result, it is not always easy for the commander to determine whether a particular interpretation has been compromised by new intelligence information, without constant interaction with the intelligence analysts. Conversely, security constraints may prevent the analyst from explaining exactly why a particular command decision might compromise existing intelligence gathering operations. As a result, most of the detailed intelligence analyses, including alternative hypotheses and interpretations, remain in the heads of intelligence officers who rely on individual communication skills to present their brief and keep the commander informed when the situation changes." Experience in Bosnia and Kosovo demonstrated strain between CCIRM and U.S. procedures, although the organizations learned by experience. Operation Joint Endeavor began in 1995, with Operation Deliberate Force going to a much higher level of combat. Operation Allied Force, a more intense combat situation in Kosovo, began on 24 March 1999. At the highest level of direction, rational policies, the effects of personalities, and culture can dominate the assignments given to the intelligence services. Another aspect of analysis is the balance between current intelligence and long-term estimates. For many years, the culture of the intelligence community, in particular that of the CIA, favored the estimates. However, it is in long-term analysis of familiar subjects and broad trends where secret information tends to be less critical and government analysts are, for the most part, no better and often not as good as their counterparts in academia and the private sector. Also, many estimates are likely to be less relevant to busy policy-makers, who must focus on the immediate. To the extent long-term estimates are produced, it is important that they be concise, written by individuals, and that sources justifying conclusions be shown as they would in any academic work. If the project is a group effort, differences among participants need to be sharpened and acknowledged. While it is valuable to point out consensus, it is more important that areas of dispute be highlighted than that all agencies be pressured to reach a conclusion that may represent a lowest common denominator. Issuance of orders and requests Once the intelligence effort has been planned, it can then be directed, with orders and requests issued to intelligence collection agencies to provide specific types of intelligence inputs. Prioritization Upper managers may order the collection department to focus on specific targets and, on a longer-term basis (especially for the technical collection disciplines), may prioritize the means of collection through budgeting resources for one discipline versus another and, within a discipline, one system over another. Not only must collection be prioritized, but the analysts need to know where to begin in what is often a flood of information. "Intelligence collection priorities, while reflecting both national interests and broader policy priorities, need to be based on other considerations. First, there must be a demonstrated inadequacy of alternative sources. Except in rare circumstances, the intelligence community does not need to confirm through intelligence what is already readily available." In most intelligence and operations watch centers, a television set is always tuned to the Cable News Network. While initial news reports may be fragmentary, this particular part of OSINT is a powerful component of warning, but not necessarily of detailed analyses. "Collection priorities must not only be those subjects that are policy-relevant, but also involve information that the intelligence community can best (or uniquely) ascertain." Other topics Political misuse There has been a great amount of political abuse of intelligence services in totalitarian states, where the use of what the Soviets called the "organs of state security" would take on tasks far outside any intelligence mission. "The danger of politicization-the potential for the intelligence community to distort information or judgment in order to please political authorities-is real. Moreover, the danger can never be eliminated if intelligence analysts are involved, as they must be, in the policy process. The challenge is to develop reasonable safeguards while permitting intelligence producers and policy-making consumers to interact." Clandestine intelligence versus covert action Clandestine and covert operations share many attributes, but also have distinct differences. They may share, for example, a technical capability for cover and forgery, and require secret logistical support. The essence of covert action is that its sponsor cannot be proven. One term of art is that the sponsor has "plausible deniability." In some cases, such as sabotage, the target indeed may not be aware of the action. Assassinations, however, are immediately known but, if the assassin escapes or is killed in action, the sponsor may never be known to any other than to the sponsor. See a Congressional study, Special Operations Forces (SOF) and CIA Paramilitary Operations: Issues for Congress, for one policy review. Coordination of HUMINT and covert action Experience has shown that high level government needs to be aware of both clandestine and covert field activities in order to prevent them from interfering with one another, and with secret activities that may not be in the field. For example, one World War II failure occurred when Office of Strategic Services (OSS) field agents broke into the Japanese Embassy in Lisbon, and stole cryptographic materials, which allowed past communications to be read. The net effect of this operation was disastrous, as the particular cryptosystem had been broken by cryptanalysis, who were reading the traffic parallel with the intended recipients. The covert burglary—the Japanese did not catch the OSS team, so were not certain who committed it—caused the Japanese to change cryptosystems, invalidating the clandestine work of the cryptanalysts. In World War II, the United Kingdom kept its Secret Intelligence Service principally focused on HUMINT, while the Special Operations Executive was created for direct action and support of resistance movements. The Political Warfare Executive also was created, for psychological warfare. HUMINT resources have been abused, even in democracies. In the case of the U.S., these abuses of resources involved instances such as Iran-Contra and support to the "plumbers unit" of the Nixon campaign and administration, as well as infiltrating legal groups using a justification of force protection. British actions in Northern Ireland, and against terror groups in Gibraltar and elsewhere, have been criticized, as have French actions against Greenpeace. "... Contrary to widespread impressions, one problem with the clandestine services has been a lack of initiative brought about by a fear of retroactive discipline and a lack of high-level support. This must be rectified if the intelligence community is to continue to produce the human intelligence that will surely be needed in the future." For a detailed discussion, see Clandestine HUMINT and Covert Action. Common risks and resources Clandestine collection entails many more risks than the technical collection disciplines. Therefore, how and when it is used must be highly selective, responding to carefully screened and the highest priority requirements. It cannot be kept "on the shelf" and called upon whenever needed. There must be some minimal ongoing capability that can be expanded in response to consumer needs. This has become increasingly difficult for clandestine services, such as diplomats, in response to budget pressures, and has reduced its presence that could otherwise provide official cover. In 1996, the House Committee on Intelligence recommended that a single clandestine service should include those components of the Defense HUMINT Service (DHS) that undertake clandestine collection, as well. The congressional concern about strategic military HUMINT, however, may not apply to military special operations forces or to force protection. "This is not meant to preclude the service intelligence chiefs from carrying out those clandestine collection activities specifically related to the tactical needs of their military departmental customers or field commanders." Clandestine HUMINT and covert action involve the only part of governments that are required, on a routine basis, to break foreign laws. "As several former DCIs have pointed out, the clandestine services are also the DCI's most important 'action arm,' not only running covert action programs at the direction of the president (a function whose utility we believe will continue to be important), but also in managing most of the IC's liaison with foreign government leaders and security services. A House staff report is of the opinion that analysis should be separate from both covert action and clandestine HUMINT, or other clandestine collection that breaks foreign laws. HUMINT is and should be part of a larger IC-wide collection plan." Failures in the intelligence cycle Any circular cycle is as weak as its weakest component. At one time or another, a national or organizational intelligence process has broken down, thus causing failure in the cycle. For example, failures in the intelligence cycle were identified in the 9/11 Commission Report. Each of the five main components of the cycle has, in different countries and at different times, failed. Policy-makers have denied the services direction to work on critical matters. Intelligence services have failed to collect critical information. The services have analyzed data incorrectly. There have been failures to disseminate intelligence quickly enough, or to the right decision-makers. There have been failures to protect the intelligence process itself from opposing intelligence services. A major problem, in several aspects of the enhanced cycle, is stovepiping or silos. In the traditional intelligence use of the term, stovepiping keeps the output of different collection systems separated from one another. This has several negative effects. For instance, it prevents one discipline from cross-checking another or from sharing relevant information. Other cycles Boyd OODA loop Military strategist John Boyd created a model of decision and action, originally for air-to-air fighter combat, but which has proven useful in many areas of conflict. His model has four phases, which, while not usually stated in terms of the intelligence cycle, do relate to that cycle: Observe: become aware of a threat or opportunity. Orient: put the observation into the context of other information. Decide: make the best possible action plan that can be carried out in a timely manner. Act: carry out the plan. After the action, the actor observes again, to see the effects of the action. If the cycle works properly, the actor has initiative, and can orient, decide, and act even faster in the second and subsequent iterations of the Boyd loop. Eventually, if the Boyd process works as intended, the actor will "get inside the opponent's loop". When the actor's Boyd cycle dominates the opponent's, the actor is acting repeatedly, based on reasoned choices, while the opponent is still trying to determine what is happening. While Boyd treated his cycle as self-contained, it could be extended to meet the intelligence cycle. Observation could be an output of the collection phase, while orientation is an output of analysis. Eventually, actions taken, and their results, affect the senior commanders. The guidelines for the preferred decisions and actions come from the commanders, rather than from the intelligence side. References Intelligence analysis Military intelligence Intelligence assessment

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The 2000 presidential campaign of John McCain, the United States Senator from Arizona, began in September 1999. He announced his run for the Republican Party nomination for the presidency of the United States in the 2000 presidential election. McCain was the main challenger to Texas Governor George W. Bush, who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment. McCain staged an upset win in the February 2000 New Hampshire primary, capitalizing on a message of political reform and "straight talk" that appealed to moderate Republican and independent voters and to the press. McCain's momentum was halted when Bush won the South Carolina primary later that month, in a contest that became famous for its bitter nature and an underground smear campaign run against McCain. McCain won some subsequent primaries, but after the March 2000 Super Tuesday contests he was well behind in delegates and withdrew. He grudgingly endorsed Bush two months later and made occasional appearances for him during the general election. Leading up to the announcement McCain was mentioned as a possible candidate for the Republican nomination beginning in 1997, but he took few steps to pursue it, instead concentrating on his 1998 senate re-election. The decision of General Colin Powell not to run helped persuade McCain that there might be an opening for him. McCain later wrote that he had a "vague aspiration" of running for president for a long time. He would also be candid about his motivation: "I didn't decide to run for president to start a national crusade for the political reforms I believed in or to run a campaign as if it were some grand act of patriotism. In truth, I wanted to be president because it had become my ambition to become president. I was sixty-two years old when I made the decision, and I thought it was my one shot at the prize." Potential weaknesses of a McCain candidacy included his senatorial accomplishments skewing towards the maverick side rather than those that would appeal to the party core, a lack of funds and of fund-raising prowess, and an unpredictability of personality and temperament. Potential assets included favorable treatment in the political media, as well as being featured on A&E's Biography series, and support from veterans. National polls showed McCain with low name recognition, but once voters were asked about a hypothetical candidate with a similar military biography, the numbers improved dramatically. Announcements and Kosovo McCain had initially planned on announcing his candidacy and beginning active campaigning on April 6, 1999. There was to be a four-day roadshow, whose first day would symbolically begin at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, then see early primary states New Hampshire and South Carolina, before concluding in home Phoenix, Arizona with a big audience, marching bands, and thousands of balloons. However, the Kosovo War intervened. On March 24, the NATO bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia began. McCain had voted the day before in favor of approval for the Clinton administration's action, saying "Atrocities are the signature of the Serbian Army. They've been carrying out atrocities since 1992. We must not permit the genocide that Milosevic has in mind for Kosovo to continue. We are at a critical hour." He was critical of past inaction by the Clinton administration in the matter, and within days was urging that the use of ground troops not be ruled out. McCain became a very frequent guest on television talk shows discussing the conflict, and his "We are in it, now we must win it" stance drew much attention. On March 31, three American soldiers were captured by Yugoslavia; the next day, McCain canceled his planned roadshow, stating "this is not an appropriate time to launch a political campaign." He received media praise for his action and continued to be a highly visible spokesman for strong action regarding Kosovo; CNN pundit Mark Shields said that, "In thirty-five years in Washington, I have never seen a debate dominated by an individual in the minority party as I've seen this one dominated by John McCain." On April 13, McCain simply issued a statement without fanfare that he would be a candidate: "While now is not the time for the celebratory tour I had planned, I am a candidate for president and I will formally kick off my campaign at a more appropriate time." McCain and his wife Cindy would make some campaign-related appearances over the spring and summer. McCain's co-authored, best-selling family memoir, Faith of My Fathers, published in August 1999, helped promote the new start of his campaign. The book garnered largely positive reviews, and McCain went on a 15-city book tour during September. The tour's success and the book's high sales led to the themes of the memoir, which included McCain talking more about his Vietnam prisoner-of-war experience than he had in the past, becoming a major part of McCain's campaign messaging. McCain finally formally announced his candidacy on September 27, 1999, before a thousand people in Greeley Park in Nashua, New Hampshire, saying "It is because I owe America more than she has ever owed me that I am a candidate for president to the United States." He further said he was staging "a fight to take our government back from the power brokers and special interests and return it to the people and the noble cause of freedom it was created to serve." As originally planned, he began his announcement day with a visit to the Naval Academy. Campaign staff and policy team McCain's campaign used many veteran Washington political insiders, including some who had an insurgency-oriented or contrarian mindset. Rick Davis was the campaign manager for the McCain effort, while Mike Murphy was the overall strategist and John Weaver the chief political adviser. Greg Stevens was the media adviser and Mark Salter was the chief speechwriter (and credited co-author of McCain's books). Howard Opinsky was the campaign's press officer. Craig Turk was the general counsel. After a while, a rivalry formed between Davis, at campaign headquarters, and Weaver and Murphy, who traveled on the campaign bus. Davis wanted a larger role in campaign strategy, and eventually differences between the two factions escalated to attacks made via the press. Campaign developments 1999 There was a crowded field of Republican candidates, but the big leader in terms of establishment party support and fundraising was Texas Governor and presidential son George W. Bush. Indeed, by the time of McCain's formal announcement, top-echelon Republican contenders such as Lamar Alexander, John Kasich, and Dan Quayle were already withdrawing from the race due to Bush's strength. As McCain would later write, "No one thought I had much of a chance, including me." Four of McCain's fifty-five fellow Republican senators endorsed his candidacy. The day after McCain announced, Bush made a show of visiting Phoenix and displaying that he, not McCain, had the endorsement of Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull and several other prominent local political figures. McCain did have the support of the rest of the Republican Arizona congressional delegation. Hull would continue to attack McCain during the campaign, and was featured in high-profile Arizona Republic and New York Times stories about McCain's reputation for having a bad temper, with the latter featuring on-the-record criticism from Governor of Michigan John Engler. By early November, stories about McCain's temper problem were frequent enough that Washington Post media critic Howard Kurtz wrote a survey article about them. Some of McCain's opponents, including those in or close to the Senate Republican leadership, intimated that McCain's temper was a sign of mental instability. The notion that this was due to McCain's POW days caused Admiral James Stockdale, a fellow former POW and 1992 vice-presidential candidate for Ross Perot, to write an op-ed piece for The New York Times, "John McCain in the Crucible". In it, Stockdale said that the reverse was true: that the experience of resisting during the POW experience made former POWs more emotionally stable in later life, not less. In early December, McCain released some 1,500 pages of his medical and psychiatric records, which showed several psychiatric evaluations over a number of years following his POW release that indicated no signs of lingering mental or emotional difficulty from that period. Bush avoided most of the scheduled Republican Party debates during 1999, including one held on November 21 at Arizona State University in McCain's home state. There McCain debated second-tier candidates Alan Keyes, Orrin Hatch, and Steve Forbes instead. Bush finally did participate in the December 6 debate from the Orpheum Theatre in Phoenix, by which time McCain was so busy campaigning in New Hampshire that he had to join via a video linkup. There McCain's signature push for campaign finance reform led to one of the few lively exchanges in an otherwise placid event. Following political consultant Mike Murphy's advice, McCain decided to skip the initial event of the nomination season, the Iowa caucus, where his long opposition to ethanol subsidies would be unpopular and his late start and lack of base party support would hurt him in the grassroots organizing necessary for success in the state. (He had earlier skipped the August 1999 Iowa Straw Poll, labeling it a sham.) McCain focused on introducing his biographical story, especially his Vietnam and POW experiences; a videocassette telling the story was sent to 50,000 voters in the first two primary states, as well as to military veterans in other states. Caucuses and primaries 2000 New Hampshire By skipping Iowa, McCain was able to focus instead on the New Hampshire primary, where his message held appeal to independents and where Bush's father had never been very popular. At first, McCain attracted small crowds and little media attention. But by November 1999, McCain had become competitive, measuring evenly with Bush in polls. Bush said he realized McCain was a strong candidate there: "If I had to guess why Senator McCain is doing well, it's people respect him and so do I. He's a good man." McCain traveled on a campaign bus called the Straight Talk Express, whose name capitalized on his reputation as a political maverick who would speak his mind. In visits to towns he gave a ten-minute talk focused on campaign reform issues, then announced he would stay until he answered every question that everyone had. He pledged that "I will never tell you a lie." He conducted 114 of these town hall meetings, speaking in every town in New Hampshire in an example of "retail politics" that overcame Bush's familiar name. His growing number of supporters became known as "McCainiacs". McCain was famously accessible to the press, using free media to compensate for his lack of funds. As one reporter later recounted, "McCain talked all day long with reporters on his Straight Talk Express bus; he talked so much that sometimes he said things that he shouldn't have, and that's why the media loved him." Some McCain aides saw the senator as naturally preferring the company of reporters to other politicians. McCain and Bush argued over their proposals for tax cuts; McCain criticized Bush's plan as too large and too beneficial to the wealthy. McCain preferred a smaller cut that would allocate more of the surplus towards the solvency of Social Security and Medicare. McCain pushed his signature issue of campaign finance reform, and was the only candidate to talk much about foreign policy and defense issues. On February 1, 2000, McCain won the primary with 49 percent of the vote to Bush's 30 percent, and suddenly was the focus of media attention. Other Republican candidates had dropped out or failed to gain traction, and McCain became Bush's only serious opponent. Analysts predicted that a McCain victory in the crucial South Carolina primary might give his insurgency campaign unstoppable momentum; a degree of fear and panic crept into not only the Bush campaign but also the Republican establishment and movement conservatism. Bush's top campaign staff met and strategized what to do about McCain; one advisor said, "We gotta hit him hard." South Carolina The battle between Bush and McCain for South Carolina has entered U.S. political lore as one of the nastiest, dirtiest, and most brutal ever. On the one hand, Bush switched his label for himself from "compassionate conservative" to "reformer with results", as part of trying to co-opt McCain's popular message of reform. On the other hand, a variety of business and interest groups that McCain had challenged in the past now pounded him with negative ads. The day that a new poll showed McCain five points ahead in the state, Bush allied himself on stage with a marginal and controversial veterans activist named J. Thomas Burch, who accused McCain of having "abandoned the veterans" on POW/MIA and Agent Orange issues: "He came home from Vietnam and forgot us." Incensed, McCain ran ads accusing Bush of lying and comparing the governor to Bill Clinton, which Bush complained was "about as low a blow as you can give in a Republican primary"; many Republicans thought comparing Bush's truthfulness to Bill Clinton's dishonesty was distasteful smear by McCain. An unidentified party began a semi-underground smear campaign against McCain, delivered by push polls, faxes, e-mails, flyers, audience plants, and the like. These claimed most famously that he had fathered a black child out of wedlock (the McCains' dark-skinned daughter Bridget was adopted from Bangladesh; this misrepresentation was thought to be an especially effective slur in a Deep South state where race was still central), but also that his wife Cindy was a drug addict, that he was a homosexual, and that he was a "Manchurian Candidate" traitor or mentally unstable from his North Vietnam POW days. The Bush campaign strongly denied any involvement with these attacks; Bush said he would fire anyone who ran defamatory push polls. During a break in a debate, Bush put his hand on McCain's arm and reiterated that he had no involvement in the attacks; McCain replied, "Don't give me that shit. And take your hands off me." Bush mobilized the state's evangelical voters, and leading conservative broadcaster Rush Limbaugh entered the fray supporting Bush and claiming McCain was a favorite of liberal Democrats. Polls swung in Bush's favor; by not accepting federal matching funds for his campaign, Bush was not limited in how much money he could spend on advertisements, while McCain was near his limit. With three days to go, McCain shut down his negative ads against Bush and tried to stress a positive image. But McCain's stressing of campaign finance reform, and how Bush's proposed tax cuts would benefit the wealthy, did not appeal to core Republicans in the state. McCain lost South Carolina on February 19, with 42 percent of the vote against Bush's 53 percent, allowing Bush to regain the momentum. On to Super Tuesday McCain's campaign never completely recovered from his defeat in South Carolina. He did rebound partially by winning in Arizona and Michigan on February 22, mocking Governor Hull's opposition in the former. In Michigan, which he won 50 percent to 43 percent in an upset, he captured many Democratic and independent votes, who combined made up over half of the primary electorate. Still reeling from his South Carolina experience, McCain made a February 28 speech in Virginia Beach that criticized Christian leaders, including Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell, as divisive; McCain declared, "... we embrace the fine members of the religious conservative community. But that does not mean that we will pander to their self-appointed leaders." He also made an off-the-cuff, unserious remark on the Straight Talk Express that referred to Robertson and Falwell as "forces of evil", that came across as angry hostility to many Christian conservatives. McCain lost the Virginia primary on February 29, as well as one in Washington. McCain had stated in mid-February that "I hate the gooks", referring to his captors during the Vietnam War. This use gained some media attention in California, which had a large Asian American population. After criticism from some in that community, McCain vowed to no longer use the term, saying, "I will continue to condemn those who unfairly mistreated us. But out of respect to a great number of people for whom I hold in very high regard, I will no longer use the term that has caused such discomfort." Reaction among Vietnamese Americans to McCain's use of this term was mixed although supportive of McCain himself, and exit polls in the primary in California showed that they strongly supported him. This was not the first or the last example of controversial remarks by McCain. A week later on March 7, 2000, he lost nine of the thirteen primaries on Super Tuesday to Bush, including large states such as California, New York, Ohio, and Georgia; McCain's wins were confined to the New England states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and Vermont. His overall loss on that day has been attributed to his going "off message", ineffectively accusing Bush of being anti-Catholic due to having visited Bob Jones University and getting into a verbal battle with leaders of the Religious Right. Withdrawal Throughout the campaign, McCain had achieved parity with Bush among self-identified Republicans only in the northeastern states; in most of the rest of the country, Bush ran way well ahead of McCain among Republicans, enough to overcome McCain's strength among independents and Democrats. With little hope of overcoming Bush's delegate lead after Super Tuesday, McCain withdrew from the race on March 9, 2000. In his remarks before a crowd of supporters and onlookers with the red rocks of Sedona, Arizona as a backdrop, McCain said that "When we began this campaign, we knew that ours was a difficult challenge" but that now the challenge had become "considerably more difficult" and that it was time to stop. Nevertheless, he said he would not abandon the idea of political reform that the campaign had embraced, saying "I will never walk away from a fight for what I know is right and just for our country." General election Following the end of his campaign, McCain returned to the Senate, where he was welcomed with respect for the effort he had made, his openness in the campaign, and the attacks he had undergone. Other Republicans sought out his endorsement in their general election races. In the Senate, McCain continued his push for campaign finance reform. The question of whether McCain would endorse Bush remained uncertain. The events of South Carolina stayed with McCain. In an interview during this time, McCain would say of the rumor spreaders, "I believe that there is a special place in hell for people like those," and in another interview he called the rumor spreaders "the ugly underside of politics." McCain regretted some aspects of his own campaign there as well, in particular changing his stance on flying the Confederate flag at the state capitol from a "very offensive" "symbol of racism and slavery" to "a symbol of heritage". He would later write, "I feared that if I answered honestly, I could not win the South Carolina primary. So I chose to compromise my principles." He had done so woodenly, reading his revised statement from a piece of paper. According to one report, the South Carolina experience overall left McCain in a "very dark place." McCain finally did announce he would campaign for Bush, in a joint appearance with him on May 9, but did not use the actual word "endorse" until reporters pressed him to do so. The Guardian characterized the endorsement as "tepid" and said that McCain "betrayed little outward enthusiasm" during the appearance, while The New York Times wrote that "there was a tight, grudging quality to the event," and that McCain had been "looking a bit like a teenager forced to attend a classical music concert." McCain also made it clear that he was not interested in a vice-presidential nomination. When the 2000 Republican National Convention began in Philadelphia at the end of July, McCain took his Straight Talk Express to meet with his delegates and supporters before formally releasing them to Bush. There were tears from McCain, his wife Cindy, and some of the campaign staff and delegates. Many of McCain's supporters were vocally unhappy with his words of support for Bush, and the Times wrote that, "Politics as usual with its compromises, cruelties and emotional costs—caught up with Senator John McCain this weekend." McCain made a point of having Cindy McCain head the Arizona delegation at the convention, not his antagonist Governor Hull. On August 1, the second night of the convention, McCain delivered a speech in praise of Bush, in particular trying to solidify Bush's national security and foreign policy credentials. In it, McCain connected his family to Bush's, making reference to former President George H. W. Bush's combat service as a naval aviator in the Pacific Theater of World War II under Admiral John S. McCain, Sr., McCain's grandfather. He said directly of the nominee, "I support him. I am grateful to him. And I am proud of him." The Almanac of American Politics called it "a moving, elegiac speech that ended as if in a minor key." McCain's plans to campaign for Bush in fall 2000 were delayed later in August by a recurrence of melanoma. This Stage IIa instance on his temple required extensive surgery that removed the lesion, surrounding lymph nodes, and part of the parotid gland. The final pathology tests showed that the melanoma had not spread, and his prognosis was good, but McCain was left with cosmetic aftereffects including a puffy cheek and a scar down his neck. McCain did join Bush for a few days of appearances in late October, emphasizing, in the wake of the October 12 USS Cole bombing, his belief that Bush was a better choice than Democratic Party nominee Al Gore to deal with international security threats. Bush aide Scott McClellan later described the joint appearances by saying, "The tension was palpable. The two were cordial, but McCain would get that forced smile on his face whenever they were together." McCain also campaigned for about forty Republican House of Representatives candidates, and was credited by National Republican Congressional Committee chair Tom Davis with keeping the House in Republican hands. McCain would state that he voted for Bush on November 7 (although years later several witnesses would relate that McCain and his wife Cindy had both said at a dinner party that they had not). When the November presidential election continued on in indecision during the Florida election dispute, McCain stayed generally quiet in an atmosphere of extreme partisanship, though he did appear on CBS' Face the Nation to say, "I think the nation is growing a little weary of this. We're not in a constitutional crisis, but the American people are growing weary, and whoever wins is having a rapidly diminishing mandate, to say the least." Once Bush was declared the winner and inaugurated in January 2001, McCain's battles with him would resume, with a significant amount of lingering bitterness between the two men and their staffs over what had transpired during the course of 2000. Aftermath South Carolina investigated and revisited While South Carolina was known for legendary hard-knuckled political consultant Lee Atwater and rough elections, this had been rougher than most. Michael Graham, a native writer, radio host, and political operative, would say "I have worked on hundreds of campaigns in South Carolina, and I've never seen anything as ugly as that campaign." In subsequent years there would be persistent accounts trying to tie the anti-McCain smears to high levels of the Bush campaign: the 2003 book Bush's Brain would use it to build up their "evil genius" depiction of Bush chief strategist Karl Rove, while a 2008 NOW on PBS program showed a local political consultant stating that Warren Tompkins, a Lee Atwater protégé and then Bush chief strategist for the state, was responsible. In contrast, in 2004 National Review's Byron York would try to debunk many of the South Carolina smear reports as unfounded legend. McCain's campaign manager said in 2004 they never found out where the smear attacks came from, while McCain himself never doubted their existence. When McCain ran for president again in 2008, South Carolina again proved crucial, in his battle with former Governors Mitt Romney and Mike Huckabee and former Senator Fred Thompson. This time, McCain had the support of much of the state Republican establishment (although Rush Limbaugh and other talk radio figures were still lambasting him), and aggressively moved to thwart any smear campaign before it got started. McCain won the primary on January 19, 2008; in his victory remarks to supporters that evening, he said, "It took us awhile, but what's eight years among friends?" The New York Times described McCain's win as "exorcising the ghosts of the attack-filled primary here that derailed his presidential hopes eight years ago." Primary campaign results Total popular votes in Republican 2000 primaries: George W. Bush – 12,034,676 (62.0%) John McCain – 6,061,332 (31.2%) Alan Keyes – 985,819 (5.1%) Steve Forbes – 171,860 (0.9%) Unpledged – 61,246 (0.3%) Gary Bauer – 60,709 (0.3%) Orrin Hatch – 15,958 (0.1%) Key states: Feb 1 New Hampshire primary: McCain 115,606 (48.5%), Bush 72,330 (30.4%), Forbes 30,166 (12.7%), Keyes 15,179 (6.4%) Feb 19 South Carolina primary: Bush 305,998 (53.4%), McCain 239,964 (41.9%), Keyes 25,996 (4.5%) Feb 22 Arizona primary: McCain 193,708 (60.0%), Bush 115,115 (35.7%), Keyes 11,500 (3.6%) Feb 22 Michigan primary: McCain 650,805 (51.0%), Bush 549,665 (43.1%), Keyes 59,032 (4.6%) Feb 29 Virginia primary: Bush 350,588 (52.8%), McCain 291,488 (43.9%), Keyes 20,356 (3.1%) Feb 29 Washington primary: Bush 284,053 (57.8%), McCain 191,101 (38.9%), Keyes 11,753 (2.4%) Mar 7 California primary: Bush 1,725,162 (60.6%), McCain 988,706 (34.7%), Keyes 112,747 (4.0%) Mar 7 New York primary: Bush 1,102,850 (51.0%), McCain 937,655 (43.4%), Keyes 71,196 (3.3%), Forbes 49,817 (2.3%) Mar 7 Ohio primary: Bush 810,369 (58.0%), McCain 516,790 (37.0%), Keyes 55,266 (4.0%) Mar 7 Georgia primary: Bush 430,480 (66.9%), McCain 179,046 (27.8%), Keyes 29,640 (4.6%) Mar 7 Missouri primary: Bush 275,366 (57.9%), McCain 167,831 (35.3%), Keyes 27,282 (5.7%) Mar 7 Maryland primary: Bush 211,439 (56.2%), McCain 135,981 (36.2%), Keyes 25,020 (6.7%) Mar 7 Maine primary: Bush 49,308 (51.0%), McCain 42,510 (44.0%), Keyes 2,989 (3.1%), Uncommited 1,038 (1.1%) Mar 7 Massachusetts primary: McCain 325,297 (64.7%), Bush 159,826 (31.8%), Keyes 12,656 (2.5%) Mar 7 Vermont primary: McCain 49,045 (60.3%), Bush 28,741 (35.3%), Keyes 2,164 (2.7%) Mar 7 Rhode Island primary: McCain 21,754 (60.2%), Bush 13,170 (36.4%), Keyes 923 (2.6%) Mar 7 Connecticut primary: McCain 87,176 (48.7%), Bush 82,881 (46.3%), Keyes 5,913 (3.3%) References John McCain 2000 Republican Party (United States) presidential campaigns

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Bigfoot or Sasquatch is an alleged ape-like creature said to inhabit North America. Since the mid-20th century, Bigfoot has become increasingly relevant in popular culture and is the subject of film, television, advertising, music, literature and more. Advertising "Bigfoot" and "Sasquatch" are pop culture terms that have been used in advertising across many different products and services Jack Link's brand of beef jerky produces a series of popular commercials entitled "Messin' with Sasquatch". In the commercials, hikers play tricks on Bigfoot. The end of the commercials typically show the creature reacting angrily to the pranks, chasing, and sometimes attacking them. Game camera manufacturer the Bushnell Corporation, along with Field & Stream, launched a promotional contest over a photo taken in September 2007, by deer hunter Rick Jacobs of Pennsylvania on his game camera of what some believe could be a young Bigfoot. More skeptical viewers deemed it a bear. The companies offered a one million dollar reward for a verifiable photo of Bigfoot taken on a game camera. The food chain Red Robin ran a television commercial in which a hiker speaks the words "Red Robin" and hears a reply of "Yummm" from Bigfoot. The restaurant chain Boston Pizza used "Louie" the Bigfoot in a series of television commercials around 2007. Ultimately they decided to drop the character as a promotional gimmick. Kokanee Beer used a Bigfoot named "Mel" in a series of commercials pitting him against the "Kokanee Ranger" played by John Novak. In 2004, a Mel statue was built in Creston, British Columbia. The Columbia Brewery Company paid for half the construction costs. American comfort technology company Purple launched an internet ad on YouTube in November 2016 entitled, "Can Your Mattress Protector Stand up to Sasquatch?". It depicts a Bigfoot mother advertising the brand in a comedic style along with her husband and son. As of January 2022, this advertisement has over 128 million views. American Insurance company Progressive launched a commercial in March 2020 depicting fictional saleswoman Flo having a conversation with a Bigfoot named "Darryl" who is upset that people are so preoccupied with their outdoor recreational vehicles that no one wants to find him anymore. American personal care products company Dr. Squatch parodies the name "Sasquatch" in their brand and the creature is depicted in their logo. Sierra Nevada Brewing Company brews a barley wine-style ale called "Bigfoot". The U.S. Forest Service uses Bigfoot in comedic environmental protection campaigns. In the spring of 2020, fire safety officials in Oregon began a forest fire safety campaign called "Safer with Sasquatch". Among the various characters associated with Chuck E. Cheese's is a Bigfoot named Nigel. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Bigfoot was used as a symbol for numerous private and public social distancing campaigns. Veganuary launched an advertisement in December 2021 in which a Bigfoot, voiced by James Cromwell, plans to switch to a vegan diet in order to help prevent climate change. Films Bigfoot is a popular film subject that has appeared in numerous genres including horror films, comedy films, animated films, documentary films and more. Bigfoot (1970) The Geek (1971) The Legend of Boggy Creek (1972) Bigfoot Man or Beast (1972) Sasqua (1975) The Mysterious Monsters (1976) Creature from Black Lake (1976) Snowbeast (1977) Sasquatch, the Legend of Bigfoot (1977) Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) Manbeast, Myth Or Monster? (1978) Curse of Bigfoot (1978) The Capture of Bigfoot (1979) Revenge of Bigfoot (1979) Night of the Demon (1980) Boggy Creek II: And the Legend Continues (1985) Bigfoot (1987) Cry Wilderness (1987) Harry and the Hendersons (1987) Jacaranda Joe (1994) A Goofy Movie (1995) Drawing Flies (1996) Little Bigfoot (1997) Little Bigfoot 2: The Journey Home (1997) Sasquatch Hunters (1997), Ape Canyon (2002)Whatcom County The Untold (2002) Bigfootville (2002) They Call Him Sasquatch (2003) Sasquatch Hunters (2005) The Unknown (2005) Bigfoot (2006) Abominable (2006) Bigfoot (2006) Sasquatch Mountain (2006) The Legend of Sasquatch (2006) Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny (2006) The Sasquatch Gang (2007) TMNT (2007) Noah's Ark (2007) Strange Wilderness (2008) Bedtime Stories (2008) Not Your Typical Bigfoot Movie (2008) Bigfoot (2009) The Wild Man of the Navidad (2009) Boggy Creek (2009) Momo (2009) Letters from the Big Man (2011) The Erickson Project (2011) Bigfoot: The Lost Coast Tapes (2012) Bigfoot (2012) Hotel Transylvania (2012) The Cabin in the Woods (2012) Willow Creek (2013) Feed the Gods (2014) Stomping Ground (2014) Hunting the Legend (2014) Exists (2014) The Legend of Grassman (2014) Bigfoot vs. D.B. Cooper (2014) Something in the Woods (2015) Valley of the Sasquatch (2015) Bigfoot vs. Zombies (2015) Bigfoot: The Movie (2015) Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015) Sassquatch: Return of the Queen (2015) The Sighting (2016) Gimme Head: the Tale of the Cuyahoga Valley Bigfoot (2016) The Bigfoot Project (2017) The Son of Bigfoot (2017) Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation (2018) Big Legend (2018) The Man Who Killed Hitler and then The Bigfoot (2018) Missing Link (2019) Big Fur (2019) Missing 411: The Hunted (2019) Bigfoot Family (2020) Bigfoot vs. the Illuminati (2020) Sasquatch (2021) Bigfoot vs Megalodon (2021) Games Toys and board games The Milton Bradley Company released a board game in 1977 entitled Big Foot The Giant Snow Monster. Fisher-Price released an "Imaginext" remote controlled robot called BIG FOOT The Monster in 2010. Archie McPhee produces a Bigfoot action figure as well as other novelty Bigfoot-related items including car air fresheners, a lunchbox, and ornaments. Video games In the Darkstalkers series, Sasquatch is a playable character. In the 1991 The Simpsons arcade game, Bigfoot is depicted as an opponent. In the 1993 game Sam & Max Hit the Road, one mission involves a search for a Bigfoot that escaped from a traveling freak show. In the 2000 game Banjo-Tooie, the player encounters a Bigfoot/Yeti-like creature called "Biggafoot" in Hailfire Peaks. In the 2000 game Ski Resort Tycoon, Bigfoot is an obstacle that players must overcome when building their resort. In the 2001 game Zoo Tycoon, players can unlock Bigfoot and the Yeti for display at their zoo. In the 2003 game Banjo-Kazooie: Grunty's Revenge, the player encounters a creature in the swamp level "Bad Magic Bayou" called a "Bogfoot". In the 2004 game Tony Hawk's Underground 2, when unlocked, Bigfoot is a playable character. In the 2004 game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, a rumor surfaced regarding players allegedly catching a glimpse of Bigfoot within the game's forests. It soon became a popular topic on sites such as YouTube, and much like its real-life counterpart, players searching for Bigfoot within the game became a commonplace. Rockstar Games has denied the existence of Bigfoot within the game. Modders have since added their own versions of the creature to the game. In Cabela's Dangerous Hunts 2, the final boss is the Yeti. In the 2007 game The Sims 2: Bon Voyage, a Bigfoot sim can be found on a secret vacation lot and brought home to live with the player's sim. In the 2007 game Poptropica, on Cryptids Island, Bigfoot is the last cryptid that the player must find. He is proven to be real, and is found in the Pacific Northwest. In the 2007 game Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2007, Bigfoot is seen hiding behind a tree and an easter egg. In the 2010 game Red Dead Redemption: Undead Nightmare, a side-mission entitled "Birth of the Conservation Movement", has the main protagonist, John Marston, interact with the last living Sasquatch. In the 2012 game Assassin's Creed III, the young assassin Connor is told stories of a tall, hairy figure who steals from hunter's traps. This starts a side quest, where the player is tasked with finding out the truth about this story. In the 2013 game Grand Theft Auto V, Bigfoot is seen in the game's "Predator" mission. After completion of the story mode, players can complete a mission to hunt Bigfoot, although it turns out to be a man in a suit. Additionally, players can find and consume peyote plants, one of which temporarily transforms the player into a Bigfoot. In the 2018 game WarioWare Gold, several Bigfoot family members are seen in the Potluck Gang's story at the Peridot Campgrounds. In the 2020 game Terrordrome: Reign of the Legends, Sasquatch appears as one of the playable characters. Law Skamania County, Washington passed a law regarding Bigfoot in 1969 declaring that "any willful, wanton slaying of such creatures shall be deemed a felony" subject to substantial fine and/or imprisonment. The fact that this legislation was passed on April 1 did not escape notice, but County Commissioner Conrad Lundy said that "this is not an April Fool's Day joke ... there is reason to believe such an animal exists." The ordinance was amended in 1984 to preclude an insanity defense and to consider such a killing homicide if the creature was proven by a coroner to be humanoid. The Skamania County ordinance speculates on whether or not Bigfoot is a subspecies of Homo sapiens. Whatcom County, Washington passed a bill on June 9, 1991, which declared Whatcom County a "Sasquatch Protection and Refuge Area". Literature Like film and television, Bigfoot is a common subject of literature appearing in a variety of genres. The Long Earth is a novel by Terry Pratchett and Stephen Baxter whose main antagonists are a dimension jumping archaic humanoid species similar to man which are referred to as trolls. Sasquatch Books is the largest publishing house in the Pacific Northwest. Its logo features a Sasquatch footprint. The Gwaii, published by Arcana Studio, is a children's graphic novel that features a Sasquatch named "Tanu" searching for his mother and tribe in the Canadian wilderness. John Prufrock, the hero of the comic book Proof, is a Bigfoot who works for a secret agency that hunts and captures other cryptids. The comic was written by Alex Grecian and illustrated by Riley Rossmo. It was published in Image Comics from October 2007 to May 2011. Donations to Clarity, a 2011 novel by Noah Baird, tells the story of a Bigfoot who falls in love with a Bigfoot hoaxer. A character called "The Sasquatch" appears in the Italian comic series Tex (as a huge wild man with thaumaturgical powers) and Martin Mystère. In the non-canon Star Wars Tales comic "Into the Great Unknown", the Millennium Falcon, after a blind hyperspace jump, crash-lands on what appears to be Endor but is in fact the Pacific Northwest around the time of Lewis and Clark, resulting in Han Solo's death at the hands of the natives and the eventual discovery of his body by Indiana Jones (who is disturbed by something "eerily familiar" about the remains) - "Sasquatch" is actually Chewbacca. One of the main characters from the Canadian Marvel Comics superhero team Alpha Flight is called Sasquatch. Alternate history author Harry Turtledove has written stories as part of the "State of Jefferson Stories" titled "Visitor from the East" (May 2016), "Peace is Better" (May 2016), "Typecasting" (June 2016) and "Three Men and a Sasquatch" (2019) published online here where Sasquatches, Yetis and other related cryptids are real. However, unlike common popular depictions of such creatures as less evolved primates, they are essentially another race of human beings, and have been integrated into society. In the poem Satch by Jeannette Allée (Fence literary magazine, Vol. 8,1&2, Summer 2005), Bigfoot is a metaphor for how individuals childishly hide from their own talents, desires, love. In the SCP Foundation mythos, the Bigfoot are depicted as Homo nocturnalis, an endangered species of the genus Homo classified as SCP-1000. A cover story initially introduces SCP-1000 as possessing a fictitious genetic disease that increases the likelihood of spontaneous brain death in other hominids the longer they are viewed at. In actuality, SCP-1000 was once the dominant species of Earth until prehistoric humans stole and used their own technology against them, drove them to near extinction, and wiped their civilization from history. The survivors and their descendants have been given the moniker of the "Children of the Night" by a group of human oral historians known as the "Children of the Sun." Author Max Brooks released a novel on June 16, 2020 entitled Devolution: A Firsthand Account of the Rainier Sasquatch Massacre, about a fictional Bigfoot attack at Mount Rainier. Miscellaneous Bigfoot is a popular Halloween costume. The 2021 Ford Bronco features a "Sasquatch" package. Music The Bigfoot Song:I Still Believe in Bigfoot, by singer/songwriter Danny Freyer, has become somewhat of an anthem for Bigfoot enthusiasts since it was first released in 2005, and is used in the closing credits of a film forthcoming production titled American Bigfoot, which is directed by American comedian Bobcat Goldwait. The song's lyrics include, "I still believe in Bigfoot/Don't care what they say/Still believe in apple pie and the good ol' U.S.A," and were written in response to a news article following the death of Ray Wallace, the man who claimed responsibility for finding Bigfoot evidence. The article quoted Wallace's son stating that his father had perpetrated a hoax, carving the footprints himself. The song highlights the desire of many Bigfoot enthusiasts to believe in Bigfoot, regardless of scientific evidence or lack thereof. The song "Bigfoot" by the Winnipeg indie-rock band The Weakerthans is about the frustration and humiliation of a man who is purported to have seen a Bigfoot. The pop punk band Groovie Ghoulies released a song in 1997 about Bigfoot called "Running with Bigfoot". American chiptune-based synthpunk band, Math the Band released a song as part of their Don't Worry album in 2009 titled "Bigfoot". The musician Saxsquatch has had a number of viral videos where he, dressed in a Sasquatch costume, performs saxophone covers of popular music. Saxsquatch has gathered a large social media following. Podcasts The Adventure Zone, a popular real-play RPG podcast, features Bigfoot as a side character in its Amnesty campaign, set in West Virginia. Sports Bigfoot is the name of the first series of monster trucks. In 1975, Bob Chandler created the original truck, which he named after his driving style rather than its characteristically large tires. Squatch was the mascot of the Seattle SuperSonics, who were a professional basketball franchise that was based in Seattle, Washington and played in the NBA from 1967 until 2008. Quatchi, one of three mascots for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, is portrayed as a "young sasquatch who comes from the mysterious forests of Canada". Television Bigfoot has been featured in a wide variety of television and has been the focus point such as in documentaries and programs depicting the search for the creature, or referenced in many other ways within shows of varying genres and types. Finding Bigfoot on Animal Planet follows a team of Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization (BFRO) members searching for the creature. Destination Truth on Syfy features multiple episodes of host Josh Gates searching for Bigfoot or related creatures such as the Yeti. Survivorman season 6 depicted Les Stroud searching for the creature while surviving in the wilderness alone. It was titled - Survivorman Bigfoot. Unsolved Mysteries seasons one and six featured episodes regarding eyewitness accounts of Bigfoot encounters. The Animal X series on the Discovery Channel featured an episode related to Bigfoot in which a research team discovered the Skookum cast in the year 2000. The 2004 spin-off "Animal X - Natural Mystery Unit" showcased an episode in where a team searched for Bigfoot in Texas. Ancient Aliens on History aired an episode on May 23, 2012 entitled "Aliens and Bigfoot", which explored theories between extraterrestrials and Bigfoot. The Six Million Dollar Man/The Bionic Woman featured three separate stories (two of them two-part episodes) featuring a bionic Bigfoot which was created by aliens. In the first two-part episode, the creature was played by professional wrestler André the Giant while in the latter episodes he was played by Ted Cassidy. The Beachcombers episode "The Sasquatch Walks By Night", aired January 13, 1974 and depicts a storyline involving a hoaxed Bigfoot sighting. Bigfoot and Wildboy, which started as a segment of the second season of the Krofft Supershow before spinning off into a series, has the title character joined by a young orphan. Harry and the Hendersons was a 72 episode show that ran from 1991 to 1993 and was based on the film of the same name. Trailer Park Boys depicts one of the characters frequently mispronounces Sasquatch as a "Samsquanch". Sasquatch was also featured in the Tenacious D (The Greatest Band in the World) TV show and wanted to join the band but was unable to. Sasquatch did, however, cause Jack Black and Kyle Gass regained their trust in the rock star mythos. Bigfoot makes an appearance in a Futurama episode entitled "Spanish Fry", where Philip J. Fry attempts to find Bigfoot. A female Bigfoot appears near in the end of The All New Popeye Hour episode "Popeye and Bigfoot" and carries Bluto. In the TV series The Invisible Man, the title character of Darien Fawkes is turned invisible by a chemical derived from Bigfoot; Bigfoot has escaped detection over the centuries by turning invisible. In The Simpsons episode "The Call of the Simpsons", Homer Simpson gets covered in mud and is mistaken for Bigfoot. In DuckTales episode "The Other Bin of Scrooge McDuck!", Bigfoot was found with a thorn in his paw by Huey, who removed the thorn, hoarded him in McDuck Manor, and named him Tenderfeet. In Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Sasquashed", while on a camping trip, Tom, Jerry and Tuffy find a Bigfoot named Sheldon. In Phineas and Ferb episode "Get That Bigfoot Outta My Face!", Candace was eaten by a Bigfoot, mistaking with real, however, it turns out that was a Bigfoot costume instead of real. In The Newsroom episode "I'll Fix You", news researchers discuss and (often jokingly) debate the reality of Bigfoot as a future story for the news. The iCarly episode "iBelieve in Bigfoot" focuses on the main characters visiting a forest in search of Bigfoot. In The California Raisin Show, the Raisins, sick and tired of autograph hounds and obsessive fans, elect to go camping in the deep woods for a much needed vacation. One of the Raisins tells of a Native American (portrayed as potatoes) legend of a monster called "Sasquash". In the fruit & vegetable manner of the show, the Raisins come across a race of gigantic anthropomorphic squash and appease them by performing an impromptu concert, then return to civilization leaving a boombox of their music and an autograph for the Bigfoot-type creatures. Bigfoot makes an appearance in the "Summer Camp!" episode of the family comedy series The Aquabats! Super Show!, turning out to be the boyfriend of a female shapeshifting "Were-Ape" which has been terrorizing a summer camp. In the Brickleberry episode "Steve's Bald", one of the park rangers, Steve, is mistaken for Bigfoot after overuse of a black-market baldness cure leaves his whole body covered in hair, playing along with the misconception until being accused of killing Steve - prompting a chase which leads to the discovery, and death, of the real Bigfoot. The Penn & Teller: Bullshit! episode "Cryptozoology" discusses Bigfoot and the Loch Ness Monster. The Spike reality show 10 Million Dollar Bigfoot Bounty has nine teams trying to find proof of Bigfoot's existence. In the Littlest Pet Shop episode "Littlest Bigfoot", Penny Ling encounters a juvenile bigfoot in a forested National Park. Her friends are skeptical of her findings, until they encounter the creature themselves later in the episode. In the Australian YouTube series The Big Lez Show, Sassy the Sasquatch is one of the main protagonists, accompanied by other Sasquatch like creatures. Sassy and his friends frequently engage in recreational drug use. In Gravity Falls, Bigfoot appears for a split second in the theme song and is parodied in the series. In Timon & Pumbaa episode “Bigfoot, Littlebrain”, Timon and Pumbaa meet Bigfoot. When they accidentally eat Bigfoot's bug friends, Bigfoot makes them keep him company so that he won't be lonely. In How I Met Your Mother, Marshall Eriksen (played by Jason Segel) has often declared himself a 'believer' of Sasquatch, although being frequently mocked for this by his friends. Bigfoot is a recurring character in Back at the Barnyard. In the Goof Troop episode "Winter Blunderland", Pete convinces Goofy to play Bigfoot in order to bring business to his car lot. Instead of customers, the real female Bigfoot is attracted. In the SheZow episode "SheSquatch", SheZow and Maz help a female Sasquatch named SheSquatch from an evil park ranger from forcing her to scare campers. In the Round the Twist episode "The Nirandathal Beast", the title creature is based on Bigfoot. Bronson gets mistaken for the beast after growing a long beard due to using the family razor before Pete and gets the attention of the authorities and eventually bounty hunters. In the Cartoon Network series We Bare Bears, the character Charlie is an anthropomorphic Bigfoot. In The A-Team episode "Timber", Murdock (played by actor Dwight Schultz) searches for Bigfoot. A childlike version of Bigfoot is a recurring character in Wabbit, voiced by Matthew Mercer. In Mr. Pickles, a mafia hit-man is turned into Bigfoot. "Bigfoot: The Convincing Evidence", released on April 14, 2017, is episode 2 of season 2 of BuzzFeed web series, BuzzFeed Unsolved: Supernatural in which evidence suggesting the existence of Bigfoot is discussed and investigated. In the Courage the Cowardly Dog episode "Courage Meets Bigfoot" the titular character befriends a Bigfoot and protects him from a mob. In the Dexter's Laboratory episode "Sassy Come Home", Dee Dee befriends a Bigfoot due to their mutual huge feet and they have to contend with Dexter, who is determined to capture the sasquatch. In The Powerpuff Girls episode "Say Uncle", The girls take a Bigfoot home by mistake thinking he is their uncle, but problems ensue when they take this legendary creature to Townsville. In the Blaze and the Monster Machines episode "Gasquatch!", the guest character is a large, fur-covered Bigfoot-like monster truck who lives in the forest and loves mud. In the CatDog episodes, "The Great Parent Mystery" and "Vexed of Kin", the titular characters' adopted mother is a blue-furred sasquatch married to a big-nosed frog. In the Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi episode "Camping Caper", Ami gets kidnapped by a giant Bigfoot, Yumi attempts to rescue Ami before being eaten by the Bigfoot. In the MacGyver episode "Ghost Ship", MacGyver encounters BigFoot on an abandoned boat in an Alaskan bay. The 2010 Super Sentai series, Tensou Sentai Goseiger featured the antagonistic cryptid-themed monster group Yuumajuu. Their second-in-command, Kinggon, is a bigfoot with secondary theme of tarantula. In the second season of The World According to Jeff Goldblum, the 2021 episode entitled "Monsters" has Jeff Goldblum joining Bigfoot hunters at Mount Shasta. In Yellowstone season three, main character John Dutton (played by Kevin Costner) explains the hardships of ranching to his grandson Tate and talks about livestock being killed by predators, including joking about cattle being eaten by a "big stinkin' Sasquatch". When Tate asks Dutton if Sasquatch are real, Dutton laughs and responds that he has never seen one. Theatre Sasquatched! The Musical is a musical play written and composed by Minnesota native Phil Darg in 2012. It follows the story of a gentle, dignified talking Sasquatch named Arthur, his interactions with the human characters of the surrounding Pacific Northwest area, and the issues revolving around Sasquatch-human relations. The style of the play is humorous, fast-moving, and family-friendly. The play was submitted as an entry to the New York Musical Theatre Festival in September 2012. In February, it was chosen as one of NYMF's Next Link selections and later received an award from the Anna Sosenko Assist Trust. In July 2013, the show was performed as part of NYMF at the Pearl Theatre in New York City. Tourism There are annual Bigfoot-related conventions, and the creature plays a role in Pacific Northwest tourism, such as the annual "Sasquatch Daze" held for several years in Harrison Hot Springs, British Columbia and the Oregon "Bigfoot Festival" held in Troutdale, Oregon which draws thousands in attendance from all over. The small town of Remer, Minnesota holds an annual festival called "Bigfoot Days". Primatologist and Bigfoot researcher John Napier commented on this, stating that "Bigfoot in some quarters of North America has become big business ... It can no longer be considered simply as a natural phenomenon that can be studied with the techniques of a naturalist; the entrepreneurs have moved in and folklore has become fakelore." In March 2021, as a means to draw tourism, Oklahoma announced it will issue "Bigfoot Tracking Permits" to be sold at certain businesses and will offer a $2.1 million bounty for a Bigfoot captured alive, unharmed, and legally. See also Bigfoot Loch Ness Monster in popular culture Patterson–Gimlin film Sasquatch! Music Festival Hibagon - Japan's Bigfoot Kraken in popular culture Sasquatch Pushing Over a House (1982), Seattle, Washington References Popular culture United States in popular culture

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Fort Center is an archaeological site in Glades County, Florida, United States, a few miles northwest of Lake Okeechobee. It was occupied for more than 2,000 years, from 450 BCE until about 1700 CE. The inhabitants of Fort Center may have been cultivating maize centuries before it appeared anywhere else in Florida. The area around Fisheating Creek was occupied by people of the Belle Glade culture from as early as 1000 BCE. Fort Center is a complex of earthwork mounds, linear embankments, middens, circular ditches, and an artificial pond occupying an area approximately long and wide extending east-west along Fisheating Creek, a stream that empties unto Lake Okeechobee. The site is named for a US Army fortification, "Fort Center", used during the Seminole Wars. Physical environment The Fort Center site consists of three environments: a meander belt along the stream consisting of a floodplain swamp and natural levees, wet prairie, and oak-cabbage palm-saw palmetto hammocks. The floodplain and prairie are subject to frequent flooding. The prairie consists of two to four feet of sandy soil on a hardpan, resulting in poor drainage. The stream meander belt cuts below the hardpan. Pollen evidence shows that the river meander belt and prairie existed in essentially their current condition since human occupation began 2,500 to 3,000 years ago until the 20th century. The area covered by hammocks has increased since sustained occupation ended around 1700. Much of the area around Fort Center was developed as improved pasture during the 20th century. Lake Okeechobee was surrounded by a system of dikes built during the 20th century, except for where Fisheating Creek enters the lake. Cultural environment Fort Center is in the Lake Okeechobee Basin, an area that surrounds and drains into Lake Okeechobee, and is synonymous with the Belle Glade culture area, one of several related culture areas in southern Florida. The people of the Belle Glade culture occupied the area around Fisheating Creek from as early as 1000 BCE until historic times. The Kissimmee River valley is usually regarded as a sub-area of the Lake Okeechobee Basin (Belle Glade culture area). Sears treats the Lake Okeechobee Basin, including the Kissimmee River Valley, as a sub-region of the Glades culture area, while others place the Belle Glade (Lake Okeechobee) and Glades areas on an equal footing. The cultural traditions of southern Florida had a long history and were well adapted to the area. Archaeological evidence of changes in those cultures is mostly limited to small changes in the few ceramics that were decorated. Mounds, ditches, canals and other earthworks have been found at a number of locations in interior southern Florida. More than thirty sites of the Belle Glade culture or its predecessors are known from the area around Fisheating Creek. A number of sites with extensive earthworks have been found in the Belle Glade culture area. At least seven other sites in southern Florida, including two near Fisheating Creek, have similar circular features, although none of them has been subject to detailed examination by archaeologists. McGoun quotes Stephen Hale as saying that complexes "with sequences of construction and architectural style almost identical to those at Fort Center" are found from Lake Tohopekaliga in the north to Palm Beach and Hendry counties to the south. There are also similarities between Fort Center and the Crystal River site. Milanich also notes resemblances between Period II Fort Center and contemporary Cades Pond culture sites at River Styx and Cross Creek in northern Florida. Authors have sometimes postulated that the various mounds and other earthworks in the Belle Glade and Glades areas were constructed by or at least used by the Calusa. Archaeologists now generally discount that theory. While the Calusa exercised political hegemony over much of southern Florida during the historic period, the Belle Glade and Glades culture areas remained distinct from the Caloosahatchee culture area inhabited by the Calusa. It may be the case that the Caloosahatchee culture developed later than the Belle Glade culture. Excavation The Fort Center site came to the attention of archaeologists after a carved wooden bird was found in the pond in 1926. Working for the Federal Emergency Relief Administration beginning in the Great Depression, archaeologists conducted surveys and test excavations at Fort Center during the 1930s and 1940s. Archaeologist John Goggin surveyed the site in the early 1950s, digging some test pits. In 1961, an amateur group obtained permission from the land owner, Lykes Brothers, to survey the site. The group exceeded their permit and conducted an uncontrolled excavation. They took many artifacts, including objects from the historic period that had been reworked from metals of Spanish origin. When Lykes Brothers realized what was happening, they cancelled the group's permit, closed access to the site, and invited a professional archaeologist to survey the site. The complex was excavated over six years (1966–1971) by teams from the University of Florida, Colgate University and Florida Atlantic University. The State of Florida acquired the Fort Center site from Lykes Brothers in 1999 as part of the Fisheating Creek Ecosystem. It is operated as a wildlife management area. In 2010 further research at the Fort Center site was conducted by Victor D. Thompson and Thomas J. Pluckhahn with grants from the National Geographic Society, Ohio State University and the University of South Florida. their work confirmed much of Sears' data but differed significantly on the function and archaeological significance of the Fort Center ritual place. Thompson and Pluckhahn are the first archaeologists to view Fort Center as one of many persistent Monumental ritual earthworks in the Glades/Calusa cultural region of south Florida. They concluded that the area is one of the most important hunter-gatherer intensive earthworks groups in world prehistory. Origins Sears believed that the freshwater regions of peninsular Florida were peopled by immigrants from northern South America who preceded Arawakan language-speakers through the Antilles. He cited the use of celts and adzes made from conch-shells, the proposed derivation of the Timucuan language from South American roots, the cultivation of maize, and the use of earthworks to form fields in savannahs (wet prairies) as was done in South America. He also cited the use of fiber-tempered pottery, similar to that used in South American, and distinct from pottery used in the rest of eastern North America. Sears divided the period of occupation at Fort Center into four periods. Period I began before 450 BCE, perhaps as early as 1000 BCE, and lasted until around 200 CE. Period II ran from about 200 to between 600 and 800, followed by period III until 1200 to 1400, and then period IV up to about 1700. Archaeologists have been skeptical of Sears' migration theory because there is no evidence of South American root crops being introduced to Florida, and the evidence from pottery does not give a clear south to north sequence of introduction within Florida. There is some support for the idea that maize, and at least one strain of tobacco, were introduced into Florida by a sea route. Other archaeologists have noted that the peoples living in the Greater Antilles prior to the arrival of Arawakan-speakers were hunter-gatherers, not agriculturists. They believe that the agricultural Arawakan-speaking Tainos did not reach Hispaniola and Cuba until 600 to 700, near the end of Sears' Period II, well after the introduction of maize at Fort Center. Thompson and Pluckhahn's research and dating clearly shows that Fort Center as a regional ritual center began with the construction of the Great Circle before Sears' Glade I period by as much as 350 years. Their recent archaeology also shows that immediately after the construction of the Great Circle, work commenced on the building of the mortuary mound and pond complex nearby. In 2017, anthropologist Nathan Lawres addressed the issue of previous researchers evaluating the monumental structures at Fort Center and the entire Kissimmee/Okeechobee Area primarily in terms of economic interpretations. He is the first to argue that the alterity of Belle Glade monumental landscapes provides a context to an ontological (metaphysical) approach. Period I Period I is characterized by several mounds, mostly artificial, that supported living areas, and by circular ditches, which Sears interpreted as enclosing fields. Only one or a few families lived on the site at any given time, and there is no evidence of any differentiated status. Maize pollen was found in middens on the mounds and in the fields dating from this period. Five artificial mounds, identified as Mounds 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14, are in or near the stream meander zone. They are each round, about 100 feet in diameter, and two to three feet high. Most of these mounds are now part of the natural levees along the Fisheating Creek. The mounds may have been built on existing natural levees, or the presence of the mounds may have helped shape the levees. Three burials were found in Mound 13, which may have been used as a burial mound and later as a house mound. Mound 10 was not excavated. Little other than sherds were found in the other mounds. The Okeechobee basin is subject to frequent flooding. Mounds are required in most parts of the basin to raise house floors above flood levels. The only place in the area high enough to remain above the flood waters was a section of old natural levee. Part of this levee, named Midden B, was also used as a living site during Period I. While the mounds at Fort Center were mostly used as house platforms, some mounds and other earthworks served other purposes. The site may have been inhabited because it provided easy access to food sources in the stream. Thompson and Pluckhahn conclude that the mortuary mound and pond complex was built much earlier. They agree that only a few families lived permanently on the site, but they found evidence of a larger number of people living there probably during times of construction. Such alterations to the physical landscape at Fort Center for continuous for almost twenty-five centuries. this would necessitate a volunteer labor force living periodically onsite. The regular group funerals would require lodging for the families of the deceased. Circular ditches Sears' team of archaeologists found three circular ditches at Fort Center. Two were about 300 feet in diameter, and partially overlapped. A third, later circular ditch was about 1,200 in diameter. It enclosed the earlier ditches, but was not concentric with either of them. This ditch was 25 to 30 feet wide, and six feet deep. Most of the dirt from the ditch had been thrown on the inner side of the ditch. There were two gaps in the ditch, one on the southeast side and another on the east side, closest to Mound B in the Ceremonial Complex. No artifacts were found in the ditches or in the area enclosed by the ditches, but maize pollen was found under soil that had been disturbed from digging the ditches. Radio-carbon dating indicates that all three circles were complete by 450 BCE. There is no evidence of the circles being used for habitation, ceremonial or defense purposes. Sears holds that the maize pollen indicates that the circles were used for cultivation. The ditches around the circles penetrated the hardpan, helping to drain the prairie soil. Sears also states that the Great Circle likely was used for gardens from several centuries BCE until the end of period II, around 600 to 800. Sears compares the circular ditches at Fort Center to similar circular ditches used for agriculture in pre-Columbian Colombia. Sears states that the circles at Fort Center were earlier than those of the Adena culture of the Ohio River valley. Sears believes that the Fort Center circles are related to circles at Hopewellian sites. He states that circle earthworks were almost certainly imported into Florida from South America along with maize. Sears believes that the inhabitants of Fort Center, who dug the circular ditches and introduced maize and cord-tempered pottery to the area, were people who were descended from migrants from South America, but they had been resident in Florida long enough to have adapted to the local environment. In researching the circular ditches at Fort Center, Thompson and Pluckhahn employed LiDAR technology. They discovered that there were actually 4 concentric circular ditches, one more than Sears. Their measurement of the larger outer circle was 1197 feet in diameter. The greatest discovery by this team was the discovery that the circular ditches were routinely destroyed and rebuilt. This indicates that the Glades had a profound understanding of creation, destruction/death being an integral part of creation/birth. In contrast, Sears never researched similar circular ditches in the Lake Okeechobee Basin region that had the same features and like functions. Historian Ted Ehmann recently argued that beginning with the construction of the first feature at Fort Center, The Great Circle, and for the following twenty-five centuries, several groups worked cooperatively. Ehmann believes the evidence shows the merging of prehistoric cultures and a synthesis of beliefs occurred, and was unique to the south Florida mound-building epoch. Period II During Period II, from about 200 until sometime between 400 and 600, all of the residents of Fort Center, three to six families, were involved in a ceremonial center. Two mounds, A and B, and an artificial pond are interpreted as a ceremonial complex. An embankment or wall surrounds Mound B and the pond, with both ends attached to Mound A. Part of the area enclosed by the embankment forms what appears to be a courtyard, but no evidence of how it may have been used was found. The complex was located on the prairie, close to the stream meander belt, and was the focus of the Fort Center site during Period II. Mounds Mound A is irregular in shape and about three feet tall. It has been interpreted as a living site. A couple of slightly higher places on the mound were probably structure sites. Middens on Mound A contained potsherds, maize pollen, animal bones (mostly deer), and human baby teeth. Some human bones, broken similarly to the animal bones, were also found in the middens, suggesting that cannibalism was practiced at the site. Shell tools, stone grinding tools and pipes were found in the living areas of the mound. Also found were sherds from imported ceramics, including types identified as Deptford, Cartersville, Pasco, Crystal River, and St. Johns. Sears suggests that this trade pottery was sacred and acquired for ceremonial purposes. Many post holes found in the lower level of the mound indicate that round or oval houses about 30 feet in diameter had stood on the mound. There were also pits in which shells had been burned to produce lime. Unburned shells around the edges of the lime pits were mainly river mussels, but also included conchs and venus clams. Human coprolites, feces preserved by exposure to the lime, were also found around the edges of the pits. Mound A was expanded at least twice during Periods II and III (200 to 1200 or later), with a particularly dense midden area deposited in the first half of that period. Some habitation of the mound extended past 1400. At its final development, Mound B was cone-shaped (with a steeper slope on the upper part) with a slightly truncated top. Decayed conch shells, along with badly decayed human bones and teeth, were found on the original surface of the mound, below the lowest midden layer of Mound B. Dirt excavated from the adjacent pond was used to build the earliest part of Mound B and the embankment that surrounded the mound (connecting to Mound A at both ends). Around 500 Mound B was built up more with dirt from another borrow pit (not the pond). Around 150 secondary bundled burials were placed in the sides of mound in the dirt added at this time. No artifacts were found with the secondary burials, but small deposits of muck, presumed to be from the pond associated with Mounds A and B, were found with them. A set of objects, described by Sears as a "Hopewellian type deposit", was found in the side of Mound B facing the pond. Mound B was originally used as a living site and for preparing and bundling bodies. The habitation area was later moved to Mound A while the body preparation activities continued on Mound B. Use of Mound A for ceremonial purposes is indicated by broken pipes found on Mound A and in the charnel pond. Pipes have been found at only one other place (the University of Florida Mound) at Fort Center. Habitation of Mound A apparently continued for a while after the site ceased being used as a ceremonial center. Charnel pond The artificial pond in the ceremonial complex was four to five feet deep, with a nearly flat bottom. It was cut through the hardpan, allowing water above the hardpan to flow into the pond, keeping it full. Dirt from Mound B had washed into the pond, partially filling it. Excavation of the pond yielded wooden objects, human bones from about 150 individuals, and human coprolites. Some of the wooden pieces found in the pond were carved (it was a carved wooden bird found in this pond that first brought the site to the attention of archaeologists). Some of the carvings had remnants of a lime-based coating. Other pieces of wood were long enough to have been set in the bottom of the pond and hold the carvings above the water. Some of the wood was rotted, other pieces were charred. Under the wood and bones was a midden layer, consisting of sherds, shells, pipe fragments and coprolites (preserved human feces). Some of the coprolites showed evidence of constipation, others showed evidence of diarrhea. Sears interpreted the materials in the midden layer as having been thrown into the pond during a "housecleaning" of Mound A, with the coprolites coming from the lime pits where similar coprolites were excavated. Despite the large number of carved beast and bird effigies in the same naturalistic style of Calusa wood carving, he stated he did not see in carving style or function any real resemblance to similar figures found at the Key Marco Calusa sites. Without research to support, Sears stated such wood carvings were similar and comparable with other North American Indian art. William H. Marquardt an authority on Calusa wood carvings found only one other slightly comparable tradition, the Northwest Coast tribes. Sears also stated he believed the carved effigies had no community function despite their apparent connection to regional funeral and burial rituals. Sears interprets the pond as a "charnel" pond, with a wooden platform in the pond holding bundled bodies. The carved figures of birds and animals found in the pond were probably mounted on the platform. The platform stood long enough for some of the wood to rot. The platform apparently caught fire and collapsed into the pond sometime around 500. As the bones found in the pond accounted for about 150 bodies, and about 150 bundled bodies with muck from the pond were found buried in Mound B, Sears states that the platform in the charnel pond must have held about 300 bundled bodies when it burned and collapsed. About half of the bundled bodies dumped into the pond were recovered and reburied in Mound B. The sex and age distribution of the bones is normal for the level of culture attributed to the inhabitants of Fort Center. Sears states that the platform was "clearly ceremonial", that the pond was a "culturally correct environment for [a] charnel platform", and that the water was "a ceremonial requirement." Water burials were common in inland (freshwater) sites in Florida, such as the Windover archaeological site and Little Salt Springs. Artificial ponds have been noted at two other sites near Fisheating Creek. A "water mortuary cult" may have been widespread in southern Florida from Paleoindian times into the historic period. Later analysis of the bones found in the charnel pond and in Mound B indicated the people suffered from osteoarthritis and anemia due to parasite infections and iron deficiency, but were relatively well nourished and showed less tooth wear than other contemporary populations in Florida. Few lived past age 35, and none in the analyzed population lived past about 55. Significance Sears interprets the complex consisting of Mounds A and B and the charnel pond as a ceremonial center where mortuary specialists processed bodies; in particular, they cleaned flesh from bones. They probably lived with their families on Mound B early in Period II, moving to Mound A later in the Period. They served a population spread through a large area, and probably also supplied tobacco, pipes, and lime for processing maize to the surrounding population. The 300 bodies kept on the platform may represent the people of the ceremonial center over several centuries. All of the residents of the ceremonial center would have been in a sacred social class, serving some large portion of the Okeechobee Basin (including the Kissimmee Valley). (There were many small sites with single houses on mounds throughout the area.) Period III Period III ran from between 600 and 800 to between 1200 and 1400. The ceremonial center was no longer active. Two places on the natural levee along Fisheating Creek, Midden A and part of Midden B, were occupied during this period, as was Mound A for at least the early part of the period. There was little change in the artifacts left by Period III inhabitants compared to artifacts from Period II. There is no evidence of maize cultivation from Period III. Period IV Period IV ran from sometime between 1200 and 1400 to around 1700. Most of this period was after European contact began affecting the peoples of Florida. Artifacts recovered from this period include reworked metal of Spanish origin. Occupation continued at Middens A and B on the natural levee along Fisheating Creek, and expanded to new mounds on the prairie away from the stream meander zone. Linear earthworks associated with those mounds also appeared in this period. Maize pollen was found in deposits from this period, after being absent during Period III. Burials from after 1500 were found in the top of Mound B. Most of these burials were flexed (legs bent), while the rest were bundled. Post holes associated with the upper level burials may be from small shelters built over the burials. Burials from Period IV were associated with grave goods, including objects reworked from Spanish gold, silver, copper and brass, unlike those from earlier periods. Some of the grave goods may have been symbols or badges of rank. Fort Center was probably now part of the Calusa realm. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, who was held captive by Indians in Florida for 17 years in the 16th century, indicates that the Mayaimi people, who lived around Lake Okeechobee and were therefore the likely inhabitants of Fort Center, were subject to the Calusa. Fontenada describes the Mayaimi as living in very small towns and scattered settlements. Sears states that the Calusa probably did not use Fort Center as a ceremonial center. During Period IV, several living sites were occupied (although not necessarily all at the same time), including Middens A and B, and Mounds 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and the University of Florida Mound. Most of the mounds were new to this period. Mound 3 was built up from a small natural mound, and had been previously occupied. Mound 8 may be natural. Broken smoking pipes were found at the original ground level under the University of Florida mound, indicating the site may have served a ceremonial purpose before the mound was built. The mounds (not including the middens on the levee) are each big enough for a single house, and each mound is associated with a linear earthwork, which Sears interpreted as "agricultural plots." The linear earthworks varied in size, from 30 to 100 feet wide and 300 to 1,200 feet long. The earthworks were raised two to three feet above the prairie, and were surround by ditches from which the fill was taken. Although one end of each linear earthwork was close to a house mound, they were never connected to the mounds. No artifacts were found in the linear earthworks. Earthworks similar to the mounds and linear ridges at Fort Center have been reported from Belle Glade, Tony's Mound, Big Mound City and the Boynton Mound complex, and these sites may all have been part of a "prehistoric farmstead culture." Diet Other than maize, which was perhaps used only in a ceremonial role or as a high-status food, the inhabitants of Fort Center relied on gathering, hunting and fishing for food. They ate a variety of animal food, particularly turtles (nine different species) and fish. They also ate alligators, snakes, frogs, sirens, opossums, raccoons, muskrats, moles, squirrels, foxes, bobcats, deer, geese, turkeys, and turkey buzzards. Maize cultivation Sears reported several lines of evidence for the cultivation of maize at Fort Center. Direct evidence for the presence of maize was the discovery of maize pollen in several environments at Fort Center. Indirect evidence for cultivation of maize at Fort Center includes the fields enclosed by circular ditches created during Period I, and the linear earthworks of Period IV, which Sears compares to the circles and ridges used for agriculture on tropical savannahs in pre-Columbian South America. Sears points out that the lime produced by burning shells on Mound A during Period II could be used to process dried maize into masa, and that pestles found in middens could be used to produce mush. Fontaneda stated that the Mayaimi ate bread made from roots, and does not mention maize, but Sears wondered whether Fontaneda may have failed to recognize maize. The claim that maize was cultivated at Fort Center by 450 BCE has been controversial. Some archaeologists have pointed out that neither maize kernels nor cobs have been found at Fort Center. Others have questioned the dating of the maize pollen. McGoun argues that while the maize pollen found in fields might be the result of later contamination, the pollen in the coating on the carved wooden bird and in the coprolites is harder to explain away. Later reanalysis of samples from Fort Center confirmed the presence of maize pollen long before maize is known to have appeared elsewhere in Florida. Evidence against the proposition that the circular ditches drained fields so that maize could be cultivated includes that one of the earlier ditches did not cut through the hardpan in at least some places. The soil at Fort Center has low fertility, high acidity, and high levels of aluminum, and thus is not suited for growing maize. Milanich also notes that the raised ridges and circles in South America that Sears cites as the models for the structures at Fort Center differ in important details from Fort Center. An analysis of dental wear indicates that the Period II residents of Fort Center did not depend on horticulture for their diet, and any use of maize did not contribute significantly to their diet. 19th century During the Second Seminole War Fort Center, a palisade of cabbage-palm trunks, was constructed on the northeastern edge of the Great Circle, on the banks of Fisheating Creek. The fort was named after Lieutenant J.P. Center, who was killed in the Battle of Lake Okeechobee during the Second Seminole War. Fort Center was one of several strategic forts for supplies for the war effort around Lake Okeechobee.}} In 1842, a reconnaissance party of 83 sailors and marines (along with a Seminole guide and his wife and child) led by United States Navy Lieutenant John Rodgers traveled in 16 dugout canoes from Key Biscayne through the Everglades, across Lake Okeechobee and up both the Kissimmee River to Lake Tohopekaliga, and Fisheating Creek to the head of the open stream, before returning to Key Biscayne. Fort Center had been abandoned by then, and the expedition had to repair the palisade when they occupied it for a few days. The expedition found evidence that Seminoles had been living in the area of Fisheating Creek, but did not encounter any in the course of the 60-day expedition. Fort Center was reactivated during the Third Seminole War (1853–55) as a station on a military road from Fort Myers to Fort Jupiter, with part of the route using canoes to cross Lake Okeechobee. No trace remains of the blockhouse, which may have been eroded by the river. Notes Citations References (some pages hidden) Glades County, Florida Archaeological sites in Florida Mounds in Florida

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Z Nation is an American zombie drama series created by Karl Schaefer and Craig Engler. The series premiered on September 10, 2014 in the United States on the Syfy television network. The following is a list of characters who have appeared in the television series. Overview Main Characters Roberta Warren Lt. Roberta Warren (Kellita Smith) is a survivor of the zombie apocalypse. An ex-National Guard member activated out of Missouri, she is a member of the Westward-bound survivor group, and a former member of the Blue Sky Camp survivor group in New York. Like many other survivors of the zombie apocalypse, Warren lost nearly everything and everyone that mattered to her. She becomes the leader of the survivor group after the death of Garnett. at the end of season 4, it is revealed that she is a talker Citizen Z Simon Cruller (DJ Qualls), commonly known as Citizen Z, is a PFC and former hacker who was working at the NSA's Northern Light listening post in the Arctic Circle. After a doomed rescue mission flight out of Northern Light, he becomes the NSA's sole surviving employee and uses his high-tech equipment to assist the group in its journey to California. He also runs a radio broadcast for other survivors, informing people to take cover when there is a threat of inescapable disaster-level weather or zombie hordes. He is slowly going insane from loneliness; his only companion is a sled dog named Pup. In the second season, the Northern Lights missile defense system intercepts a nuclear bomb, severely damaging the listening post and waking the zombies in the doomed evacuation flight wreckage. Citizen Z fights to survive the cold and the zombie onslaught, despite minimal shooting skills. At the end of season 2, Citizen Z decides to leave Northern Light when he realizes that all the post's resources are used up and it has sustained too much damage for him to survive there any longer. He leaves on foot with Pup, pulling a dog sled, in subzero temperatures. Near death, he is rescued by Kaya, an Inuit girl, and her surviving family members. They return to Northern Lights when they need food, and he and Kaya form a relationship, which results in her becoming pregnant. He leaves in a plane and meets the survivor group in person, but later returns.kaya then has her son, JZ . Alvin Murphy Alvin Bernard Murphy (Keith Allan) is a resentful and frail former convict who becomes the only known survivor of zombie bites after being part of a scientific experiment. The Westward-bound survivor group is tasked with transporting him to a government laboratory in California, as his apparent immunity is believed to be the sole solution to the ZN1 virus. Over time, Murphy's appearance changes, and he becomes part zombie. He can communicate with zombies, develops feelings for them and can make them do his bidding. He also becomes more and more misanthropic, going from simply a cowardly jerk with few redeeming moments to an increasingly darker character who even starts to succumb to zombie instincts and does not care about the lives of others to the point where he is willing to abandon the mission. He also develops a special gift: After biting a person or exposing them to his saliva or blood, he can direct them using telepathy. In season 3, after finding out the survivors at Zona want to use him for only themselves, he escapes, bites 10K and decides to make the human race into zombie-human hybrids like himself. He eventually rejoins the group when they find out his daughter Lucy has been kidnapped by The Man. In a fight with the forces of Zona, a bullet passes through him and hits Warren, infecting her with his blood. In season 4 he has been taken to Zona and the doctors have seemingly cured him, making him look more human. After Zona falls, he and Warren return to the mainland and eventually meet up with Lucy, 10K, Doc and Sgt. Lilly. During this season, he demonstrates great concern for Lucy, and is more humane and less harsh than he was in prior seasons, even taking part in killing zombies, though he maintains his pessimism. At the end of season 4 he is struck by flesh eating bacteria when trying to protect Warren. Doc Steven Beck (Russell Hodgkinson), commonly known as Doc, is a former counselor and recovering addict. He serves as the medic of the Westward-bound survivor group. He is not an actual medical doctor, but has sufficient medical knowledge to aid the members of the group. He holds a Phd in clinical psychology, and has an extensive knowledge of drugs due to his occupation pre-apocalypse and his drug addiction. During the apocalypse he returned to his drug addiction and became a short time drug dealer before engaging on the mission to take Murphy to the CDC Laboratory in California. He is one of the wisest members of the group and serves Warren without hesitation. He develops a fatherly bond with 10k due to his regret of not being supportive of an unrecognized son he had when he was 19, and 10k's trauma after having to mercy his father. He uses two hammers which he keeps in holsters when smashing zombies. His stoner antics is a comic relief in the entire series and at times aids the group in sticky situations. 10K Thomas (Nat Zang), commonly known as 10K and often called "The Kid" by Doc, is the youngest member of the Westward-bound survivor group. In the season 1 finale, his real name was revealed to be Tommy. 10K is quiet and observant. He is highly proficient with a sniper rifle and other projectiles, and is "pretty good with a knife". He loves killing zombies, and keeps track of each one he kills. His goal is 10,000 kills, hence his self-given nickname, and he has already reached 1,000 by his first appearance. His backstory reveals that 10K was forced to kill his father, making a promise to him that he would stay strong and fight. 10K harbors feelings of anger and hatred towards Murphy for turning Cassandra into a zombie-human hybrid, but does not act on those feelings, knowing that Murphy could be humanity's only chance to survive. In the season 2 finale, he is injured and taken with Murphy to the CDC submarine to be given medical attention for his wound. He escapes the submarine with Murphy, Dr. Merch and the others bitten by Murphy, and is openly opposed to following him. He is told by Dr. Merch that he was bitten after she gave him his first dose of the original cure. He stops counting during season 3, but resumes during season 4. Addy Carver Addison Grace "Addy" Carver (Anastasia Baranova) is a former member of the Blue Sky camp in New York and is Mack's girlfriend prior to his death. She is the survivor group's communication specialist and uses her talents with radio equipment to contact Citizen Z. Broken by unresolved trauma, she is slowly being worn down by the apocalypse. At one point, she chooses to leave the group and join the Sisters of Mercy camp, but after the camp is destroyed, she reunites with Mack, who refused to leave her behind, and returns to the Westward-bound survivor group. Her weapon of choice against zombies is a customized metal bat with spikes; in season 3, her bat is upgraded by Sun Mei and her team to emit an electric charge similar to a taser. Between seasons 3 and 4, she loses her right eye. She disappears early in season 4. She becomes part of the blue sky camp as their lead communications specialist Mack Thompson Mack Thompson (Michael Welch; seasons 1–2) is a former hockey player for the Tri-City Americans, a survivor of the zombie apocalypse, and Addy's boyfriend. He is a former member of the Blue Sky camp in New York, and a member of the Westward-bound survivor group. A good shot, Mack protects Addy and stays behind when she chose to join the Sisters of Mercy camp, and watches over her from afar. He is eventually reunited with Addy and returns to the survivor group. He is killed ("mercied") by Addy after being bitten by zombies. Cassandra Cassandra (Pisay Pao; seasons 1–2, guest season 3) is a survivor of the initial zombie apocalypse. She is a former member of the Philadelphia cannibal survivor group, where she served as a "lure" to attract male survivors with the promise of sexual trade, in order for the group to trap and consume them. Cassandra joins the Westward-bound survivor group after being found in a locked cage at a rendezvous station near Philadelphia. A leg injury leads to an infection. Lacking antibiotics and near death, she is bitten by Murphy and becomes a zombie-human hybrid controlled by Murphy. She eventually attacks and is mercied by 10K. Charles Garnett Sgt. Charles Garnett (Tom Everett Scott; season 1) was with the National Guard, based out of Georgia, prior to the ZN1 outbreak. He is a former member of the Blue Sky camp in New York before taking on the task of transporting Murphy. He is the leader of the Westward-bound survivor group until his demise. Trying to protect Murphy, he is murdered and turned into a zombie by Priest Jacob and his Resurrection Cult. He is mercied by Warren, his second in command, and at that point, his girlfriend. Mark Hammond Lt. Mark Hammond (Harold Perrineau; season 1) is the last surviving member of the Delta Force team transferring Murphy to a laboratory in California. He is mercied by the Westward-bound survival group after being bitten. Javier Vasquez Javier Vasquez (Matt Cedeño; seasons 2, guest season 3) is first encountered in the opening episode of season 2, "The Murphy". Vasquez was a DEA agent, but after he arrested some of Escorpion's men, Escorpion abducted his wife and daughter, later killing them in front of him. His wife and daughter turned into zombies during their funeral, and Vasquez seeks revenge on Escorpion. He tries to assassinate Escorpion during the group's Zeros induction ceremony, but is stopped by Warren and tortured by the Zeros before escaping. At the conclusion of season 2, he apparently leaves the main survivor group. In the season 3 episode "Heart of Darkness", Vasquez reappears, having assumed the mantle of "Escorpion" after suffering a mental breakdown, and is later mercied by Warren. Escorpion Hector Alvarez (Emilio Rivera; seasons 2–3), commonly known as Escorpion, is the main antagonist of season 2, first encountered in the second episode, "White Light". He served as the right-hand of La Reina, the head of the Mexican drug cartel known as the Zeros. He has a small Z-shaped scar on his right hand and has a tattoo of a face in his forearm. He tortured Javier Vasquez when he was still working for the DEA, and killed the latter's wife and daughter. Escorpion's weapon of choice is a golden gun. At the end of season 2, he has reformed, and joins the main survivor group. In season 3, he is killed by Vasquez, who has assumed his former identity after suffering from a mental breakdown. He is later injected with an experimental vaccine to save his life which was ineffective at first but later on proves effective. However, it is unclear exactly what the vaccine did to him, as he never appears again in the series. The Man The Man (Joseph Gatt; season 3) first appears in One Punch Man. Following a list created by his Zona employer, it is his job to collect people by any means necessary and ship them to Zona. He is ruthless and will take out anyone in his way. He is known to have completely decimated at least two survivor communities to obtain the people on his list. He has a perfect success rate and has yet to lose a target. As of the second episode of season 3, "A New Mission", The Man's current list contains only one name: "Alvin Bernard Murphy". His fate is unknown to the group following the season 3 finale, as he is not mentioned again. Sun Mei Sun Mei (Sydney Viengluang; season 3–5) is first encountered in the second episode of season 3, "A New Mission". She is a Laotian virologist from Beijing, China, where 200,000 survived the zombie apocalypse by sealing themselves behind the walls of the Forbidden City. She is sent with a team and equipment from China to collect DNA samples from the American survivor group and Murphy in the hope of synthesizing a cure. She is the sole survivor of her team's mission and for now, has joined the survivor group. In Season 5, she would work in Newmerica as a doctor until her death. She eventually finds the cure in Murphy's blood. Kaya Kaya Cruller (Ramona Young; season 3–5) is first encountered in the second episode of season 3, "A New Mission". Kaya is an Inuit girl living with her Uncle Koukou and her grandmother; they are the sole survivors of their village. She finds Citizen Z and Pup out in a blizzard, rescues them, and takes them to her home. She reveals to Citizen Z that she is a huge fan of his, telling him he needs to get healthy and start broadcasting again. They eventually form a relationship after they return to Northern Lights, and she becomes pregnant with their son, JZ. It is confirmed in Season 5 that Kaya and Citizen Z are married but it is not indicated when they got married. Red Red (Natalie Jongjaroenlarp; season 3–5) is a survivor of the zombie apocalypse. She is the guardian of 5K and love interest of 10K. She is later reunited with the group in Newmerica, and has developed a strong friendship with Sun Mei who has been working on an antidote against the zombie virus. Nature Boy / 5K 5K (Holden Goyette; season 3, guest season 4), also known as Nature boy, is a survivor of the zombie apocalypse under the protection of Red. He falls off a cliff when he pursues Addy, Lucy, and The Man in the season 3 finale. Red hopes he is still alive somewhere, while 10K believes he is dead. Lucy Murphy Lucy Serena Murphy (Tara Holt; seasons 4, guest seasons 2–3) is the daughter of Murphy and Serena. In season 2 she is a baby, but ages rapidly due to the virus Murphy passes on. In season 3, she ages from someone who looks 5 years old, to preteen, to teenager (and is thus portrayed by multiple actresses). In season 4, she looks like a young adult, and is portrayed by Tara Holt. She is kidnapped by The Man, who tries to bring her to Zona in her father's place, but this is impeded by Addy, who she forms a close bond with, even referring to her as "Aunt Addy". Sgt. Lilley Sgt. Lilley Mueller (Grace Phipps; season 4–5) is Lt. Mueller's daughter, who assists him in running a refugee camp trying to get survivors to Newmerica. After her father's death, she joins the main survivor group. She later sacrifices herself in Newmerica to save 10K by killing several zombies in an explosion. Lt. Mueller Lt. Mueller (Henry Rollins; season 4) is Sgt. Lilley's father, who runs a refugee camp trying to get survivors to Newmerica. He is killed by zombies and mercied by his daughter. Recurring Characters Lisa Coronado as Dr. Marilyn Merch (seasons 1–3) Dr. Marilyn Merch is a genetic recombiner and Harvard graduate, skilled in gene splicing. She disappeared two years before the zombie outbreak and resurfaced at the Portsmouth Naval Prison infection lab, where she injected three prisoners, including Murphy, with experimental vaccines. The vaccines worked, but killed the other two prisoners. Due to a security breach by a horde of zombies, Merch was forced to leave the lab via helicopter. She is later known to be at a lab in Fort Collins, Colorado, where Dr. Kurian claims she "didn't make it". In the season 2 finale, she resurfaces aboard the CDC submarine lab. She escapes the sinking submarine, but is bitten by Murphy and is now controlled by him. She uses small doses of the original cure to regain control of herself. After Murphy finds out, he bites her a second time. To break control for good, Merch walks into a cage of zombies, injects herself with the cure and is then eaten alive by the zombies. Mark Carr as Sketchy McClane (season 1–present) Sketchy McClane, an old acquaintance of Doc, is a weapons dealer and con artist and travels with his friend Skeezy. They usually appear as comic relief in one episode per season, with the exception of the first, where they appear in two episodes. Doug Dawson as Skeezy (season 1–present) Skeezy is a weapons dealer and con artist and travels with his friend Sketchy. They usually appear as comic relief in one episode per season, with the exception of the first, where they appear in two episodes. Pup (seasons 1–3) Simon's dog. Sara Coates as Serena (seasons 1–2, guest season 3) Serena, a tough guard at the Sisters of Mercy camp, is first seen in the 11th episode of season 1, "Sisters of Mercy". She has a brief fling with Murphy outside the camp, resulting in her pregnancy. After the destruction of the Sisters of Mercy, she eventually catches up to Murphy and the Westward-bound survivor group. She dies shortly after giving birth, protecting her baby from a horde of zombies. She is given mercy by Warren at the request of Murphy. Donald Corren as Dr. Walter Kurian (seasons 1–2) Dr. Walter Kurian, the main antagonist of season 1, is first encountered in episode 13, "Doctor of the Dead". Kurian is revealed to be responsible for the virus known as HZN1, which caused the zombie apocalypse. Working at a lab in Fort Collins, Colorado and using samples he gathered from Krokodil addicts in New York, Ebola camps in Africa, abandoned bioweapons in Kazakhstan, and brain matter from a man in Haiti, he created the "Red Death" virus, meant for use in biological warfare. The virus escaped the lab by infecting a lab technician named Brandon Doyle. From there it spread, and in the resulting chaos, Kurian fled and went underground. The right side of his face appears scarred from the nuclear blast in the season 2 premiere. Gina Gershon as La Reina (season 2) La Reina, also referred to as "the Queen of the Dead", is first seen in the 12th episode of season 2, "Party With the Zeros". She has inherited the leadership position of the Zeros drug cartel from her deceased husband Gonzalo. Throughout season 2, she and her gang attempt to hunt down "The Murphy" so she can control a cure made by the captured Dr. Kurian, who is now her servant. She dreams of creating a new world order, with her in charge. After Warren appears to save her from an assassination attempt, she offers him a place in her regime. In the season 2 finale, La Reina is killed by Alvarez during a fight between Warren and La Reina. Nidhi Ghildayal as Corinne (season 2) Corinne is Escorpion's Emilio Rivera right-hand and a member of the Zeros. Loyal, cunning and quick to extreme violence. A sugar skull tattoo covers her face. Frank Boyd as Dr. Harold Teller (seasons 3–4) Cecil Cheeka as Kaskae (season 3) Darlene Mccarty as Nana (season 3–present) Aaron Trainor as Will Chaffin (season 3) Kathryn Brown as Hope Chaffin (season 3) DeRon Brigdon as Wesson (season 3) Michael Berryman as The Founder (season 4–present) Michael Oaks as Mr. Sunshine (season 4) Kodiak Lopez as JZ (season 4–present) Minor Characters Scott Roddan as Donner Donner is a member of Camp Blue Sky in New York, encountered in the debut episode, "Puppies and Kittens". Rick Rivera as Tobias Campbell Tobias Campbell is the founder and leader of the Philadelphia cannibal survivor group, first encountered in the third episode of season 1, "Philly Feast". This group, based in the Upper Darby, Pennsylvania area, starts out like many others, surviving by way of Tobias's resourcefulness and cunning, while still retaining some semblance of their humanity and morality. However, after his wife becomes ill, Tobias suffers a mental breakdown and leads his "family" down the dark path of victimization and cannibalism. Yuji Okumoto as Bernt. Bernt is a member of the Philadelphia cannibal survivor group, first encountered in the third episode of season 1, "Philly Feast". One of Tobias's men, he is responsible for guarding the gate. Bill Moseley as Arthur McCandles General Arthur C. McCandles is the commander of the Emergency Headquarters for Infection Control in McLean, Virginia, appearing in the fourth episode of season 1, "Full Metal Zombie". McCandles, who has gone insane, is holed up in a secure building, surrounded by undead soldiers and the corpses of his military peers. He hurts his leg badly, contracting gangrene, and when told that the leg requires amputation, he murders his former medic by throwing him into an airshaft. When the Westward-bound survivor group reaches his stronghold in need of a helicopter, McCandles allows Doc in, believing him to be a real doctor, and throws him into the same airshaft when Doc gives him the same prognosis. McCandles dies by attacking a group of zombies, then throwing himself and the zombies off the building's rooftop. Jason Gallagher as Keith Richards Keith Richards is part of the S&S Unlimited gun show in Kansas, encountered in the seventh episode of season 1, "Welcome to the Fu-Bar". He plays guitar in the Fu-Bar. He is last seen fleeing the area after the approach of the "zunami", and his status is unknown. Christy Choi as Brittany Brittany, a girl traveling with her father, encounters the Westward-bound survivor group in Kansas at the S&S Unlimited gun show, in the seventh episode of season 1, "Welcome to the Fu-Bar". She participates in a shooting contest, losing to 10K as the zunami enters the area. 10K gives her the first prize, a rifle, which she uses to save him from a zombie. She then safely leaves with her father. Conner Marx as Cosmonaut Yuri Yuri is an imaginary Russian pilot, a hallucination experienced by Citizen Z due to oxygen deprivation. He appears in the eighth episode of season 1, "Zunami". Kelly McGillis as Helen Helen is the leader of the Sisters of Mercy camp, first encountered in the 11th episode of season 1, "Sisters of Mercy". She and her sister-wives started the camp, which only allow women and children to stay and turns away male travelers. A survivor of abuse by her late husband, she promotes killing men even if there is no proof of any wrongdoing. William Sadler as Sam Custer Sam Custer is a former long-haul driver who becomes the wagon master of a group of survivors headed to Edmonton. He appears in the third episode of season 2, "Zombie Road". Sam is suffering from radiation poisoning, but continues to drive a modified truck carrying the survivors until his apparent demise. George R. R. Martin as Zombie George R. R. Martin A famous author (played by himself), he is bitten after escaping to his hotel room when the Comic Con event he is attending as a guest star is overrun. He appears in the eighth episode of season 2, "The Collector", as part of the zombie collection of Dean a.k.a. "The Collector", and is the only famous person that Dean has collected. He spends his zombie days signing books through retained muscle memory. Dean hopes to eventually make his fortune by selling the books on eBay when humankind makes its comeback. Tom Beyer as Dean Dean, a.k.a. "The Collector", is the curator of a unique collection of mutated zombies, displaying them in a museum setting and restraining the zombies with an invisible dog fence. He appears in the eighth episode of season 2, "The Collector". In the past, Dean aspired to be part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, repeatedly warning them about the possibility of a zombie pandemic. He grew bitter after repeated rejections and began his own preparations for what he saw as the inevitable zombie apocalypse. He captures Murphy, interviewing him, sampling his blood and controlling him with a shock collar. Dean is killed by bites from a nuclear zombie, a "phytozombie" and a "blaster" zombie, all released from captivity by Murphy. Missi Pyle as Bernadette Bernadette is the leader of a cult-like group of "extranauts", people who believed they will soon be going to outer space with a race of aliens. She appears in the ninth episode of season 2, "Rozwell". Eddie Spears as Gorden Firecloud, a.k.a. Red Hawk Gorden "Red Hawk" Firecloud is the leader of part of a Native American tribe that follows him to their ancestral land, in the hope that their ancestors will protect them. The son of Chief Dan Firecloud and brother of Ayalla Firecloud, he appears in the 10th episode of season 2, "We Were Nowhere Near the Grand Canyon". Before the apocalypse, he was a college professor specializing in native culture. His tribe is wary of the zombie virus infecting their community, calling it "Zendigo" and a "disease of the soul", and Red Hawk blames the outbreak on whites. Tinsel Korey as Ayalla Firecloud Ayalla Firecloud is the sister of Red Hawk, but does not share his views. She appears in the 10th episode of season 2, "We Were Nowhere Near the Grand Canyon". Anthony Michael Hall as Gideon Gould Gideon Gould appears in the 11th episode of season 2, "Corporate Retreat". John Wu as Lt. Mong Lt. Mong is encountered in the second episode of season 3, "A New Mission". He is a soldier in what is left of the Chinese army, and is part of Dr Sun Mei's team. Mong is bitten by a zombie during the Chinese team's mission to obtain their supply drop. He is given mercy by Sun Mei. References Lists of action television characters Lists of American drama television series characters

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Scarborough Athletic Football Club is an English association football club representing Scarborough, North Yorkshire. The club was formed on 25 June 2007 following the winding up of Scarborough Football Club. After spending their first ten seasons groundsharing at Bridlington Town, the club moved into a new stadium, Flamingo Land Stadium in Scarborough in July 2017. The club currently play in the . Background A covenant existed on the McCain Stadium that restricted its use only to sporting activities. Scarborough failed to convince the Scarborough Borough Council that its proposals to sell the McCain Stadium to a housing developer would raise enough money to pay off the debts and build a new ground. Scarborough were wound up in the High Court with debts of £2.5 million on 20 June 2007, ending its 128-year existence as a club. The Seadog Trust (a supporters' trust established in 2006) then formed Scarborough Athletic to carry forward the spirit of the former club. History Formation Following the liquidation of Scarborough, Scarborough Athletic was founded as a continuation or rebirth of the previous club by a supporters' trust named The Seadog Trust. They took on the same red kit, nickname, motto and official club logo from the original club. The Trust successfully applied for membership of the North Riding County Football Association and the Northern Counties East League on 25 June 2007. Due to the unavailability of any suitable grounds in the town, a ground-sharing agreement was made with Bridlington Town. On 29 June the club appointed former North Ferriby United manager Brian France as their first manager, who brought with him many former Ferriby players. The NCEL Division One years For their debut season, the club entered the Northern Counties East League Division One (NCEL1). The club's first-ever game was a friendly against Edgehill FC on 15 July 2007. The game ended in a goalless draw and was played in Hunmanby, North Yorkshire. Three days later, 20-year-old Shaun Chadburn gained the distinction of scoring the first-ever goal for the new club in a 2–2 draw at Northallerton Town. Their first competitive game, a NCEL1 fixture, was away to Teversal on 11 August 2007. The game ended in a 2–1 defeat in front of 427 fans and saw David Thompson score Scarborough Athletic's first-ever league goal. The new club had mixed results early in the season, but on 24 October it was announced the club was to face a 6-point deduction and a £300 fine for fielding ineligible players earlier in the season. This decision was later upheld by the FA and so despite a run of six wins in eight matches, the club found themselves lying in 10th place in early January 2008. A strong end to the season saw the club finish with an unbeaten 12 match league run, securing a 5th-place finish. After a slow start to the following season, gaining just one point from the opening two league games, Scarborough Athletic then embarked upon a club record 27 match unbeaten league run which saw them surge to the top of the table. On 8 November 2008, Ryan Blott scored a club record five goals in a league match at Yorkshire Amateur. By the end of February 2009 the club had moved into a commanding lead at the top of the NCEL1 table and on 21 March 2009, following a 2–1 victory at Teversal, they were guaranteed promotion to the Northern Counties East League Premier Division (NCELP). Three days later the club were confirmed as champions after a 3–0 win at home to Brighouse Town. The NCEL1 trophy was presented to the team after the final home game of the season, against Leeds Carnegie, on 18 April 2008. A game that ensured they remained unbeaten at home in the league throughout the entire season. The club also reached the 2008–09 Northern Counties East League Presidents Cup final but lost 3–2 on aggregate to Nostell Miners Welfare after drawing the away leg 1–1 and losing the home leg 2–1. The 2008–09 season also saw Scarborough Athletic enter the FA Vase for the first time. They reached the 4th round, the furthest they would ever reach in the competition, before losing at Bideford. The NCEL Premier Division years The club once again had a slow start to the season, but a long winning streak followed, which took them to the top of the table by the end of September. A series of inconsistent results then followed, mainly away from home, and the club eventually finished the season in fifth place. In November a 'landlords vs tenants' match at Queensgate between Bridlington Town and Scarborough Athletic attracted a division record of 1,082 fans and in April, Athletic hit 13 goals without reply against relegated Brodsworth Welfare – a record for the club and division. This season also saw Scarborough Athletic enter the FA Cup for the first time, although they fell at the first hurdle, losing 2–1 at home to Guisborough Town in the extra-preliminary round. In preparation for the 2010–11 season, Scarborough Athletic played their first ever game in Scarborough, a friendly against local league side Eastfield St. James. On 24 July Athletic beat Merthyr Town 2–0 to win the inaugural Supporters Direct Shield at the New Bucks Head home of A.F.C. Telford United. The club recorded their first ever victory in the FA Cup after beating Ryton 1–0 in the Extra-Preliminary Round on 14 August 2010. On 21 September, first team coach Paul Olsson was appointed acting manager to cover for Brian France who underwent a lengthy period of hospitalisation following a brain injury. On 19 November Olsson's managerial position was made permanent after it was revealed France would be unlikely to return before the end of his contract. League results were very inconsistent during the season, and on 31 March 2011 it was announced that Olsson had left the club by mutual consent and was replaced by former Teversal, Rainworth Miners Welfare and Shirebrook Town manager, Rudy Funk. The club finished the season in 10th place. On the first day of the 2011–12 season Scarborough Athletic beat Parkgate at home 4–2 to register the club's first-ever opening day victory, followed by a 1–0 victory at Tadcaster Albion. The club's September was largely successful, with the exception of a disappointing 3–0 FA Cup exit to Tadcaster Albion. October was also successful in the league, but the club exited the FA Vase. A tough November saw Athletic pick up their first league draws of the season and their third defeat, but by the end of November, they were top of the table – a position which could be attributed to 12 wins from their opening 17 league fixtures. December, however, was hugely disappointing with just 1 point from 4 games. Results improved in the new year but by the end of March, Athletic found themselves too far behind the two clubs at the top of the table and, thus, out of promotion contention. On 14 April 2012 Ryan Blott hit 5 goals in a game for the 2nd time, this time against Armthorpe Welfare. A strong finish saw the club finally end the season in, a club best, 3rd position. The 2012–13 season was very successful for Scarborough Athletic which culminated with the club being crowned Champions of The Northern Counties East League Premier Division. Athletic made a good start to the season losing only one of their opening 14 league games. By the end of September, they were sitting in second place, a point behind the leaders in a tightly contested table. Athletic's fine form in the league continued to the end of the year and with the help of a 2–1 Boxing Day victory over their landlords Bridlington Town, they entered 2013 as league leaders. The consistently good run of results continued into the latter half of the season and Athletic eventually went on to record a 26-game unbeaten league run that consisted of 20 wins and six draws and on 30 March a Bridlington Town vs Scarborough Athletic meeting attracted a crowd of 1,569, a new club and divisional record, eclipsing the previous best set by the same fixture three seasons previously. Despite the great form, Athletic were still not sure of promotion until the penultimate week of the season due to the good form of second place Brighouse Town. On 13 April 2013 Athletic visited Brighouse Town for a first vs second place clash which they won 2–0, a result that put them 9 points clear at the top of the table with just two games remaining (Brighouse had four games left to play). The following week Athletic beat Retford United 2–0 at home whilst Brighouse Town could only draw their game and, amidst great scenes of celebration, the league title was Scarborough Athletic's. The NPL Division One years Following promotion from the NCELP Scarborough Athletic competed as members of the Northern Premier League with the club entered to play in the Northern Premier League Division One South for the 2013–14 season. The club also entered the FA Trophy for the first time winning through three ties to eventually go out at the 3rd Round Qualifying stage. Boro made a slow start to life in the NPL, with just one win from their first seven matches; however, they did reach the 2nd Qualifying Round of the FA Cup for the first time. However, from late September onwards results showed a dramatic improvement, and twelve wins from the next fifteen league fixtures lifted Boro into play-off contention by the start of the new year. Results were inconsistent from January onwards and by the end of March Boro were realistically out of the play-off chase & the season ended with the club in 7th place. Prior to the start of the 2014–15 season, Scarborough Athletic were moved laterally from the Northern Premier League Division One South to compete in the Northern Premier League Division One North. The team got off to a good start and at the half-way stage of the season, Boro had won thirteen, drawn one and lost eight games which placed them just outside the play off zone. Once again they reached the 2nd Qualifying Round of the FA Cup after replay victories over North Shields (on penalties) and Ashington before bowing out of the competition having lost 1–0 at Curzon Ashton. Early in November Rudy Funk unexpectedly resigned his position as manager to be succeeded by his erstwhile assistants Paul Foot and Bryan Hughes who both took on the role as joint-managers. The team continued their good form into the second half of the season but, with the season coming to an end results dropped off and they eventually ended the campaign in 6th place just two points shy of the play-offs. It was however their highest placed finish since formation. On 6 April a league game against promotion-chasing Darlington attracted a crowd of 1,118, which at the time was a new record home attendance. The 2015–16 season began in a positive fashion with the team winning their opening four games without conceding a goal. An unexpected drop in form followed and on 23 December both joint-managers left the club by mutual consent. Club captain Matty Bloor took on managerial responsibility for two games until Steve Kittrick was appointed permanent manager on 5 January 2016. Boro finished the season in a very disappointing 20th place (although 12 points clear of the team below them). The poor season and continued groundsharing at Bridlington also contributed to the club's record low league attendance of 211. The club were eliminated from the FA Cup and Trophy at the preliminary round stage of both, but the poor league season was partly compensated for by the club reaching the final of the Northern Premier League Challenge Cup The 2016–17 season had a slow start, and an inconsistent set of results in their first ten games left them in mid-table by the end of September. A strong run of form took the club to the top of the table in late November, but then form dried up, and in February the team was languishing well outside the play-off zone. However, the club finished the season with an eight-match winning run (with no goals conceded) which saw them finish 3rd in the table, their highest ever finish, and for the first time qualification for the play-offs, where they lost 3–1 to Ossett Town in the semi-final. This play-off semi-final defeat, watched by 1,004 supporters, would be the club's last home game played at Bridlington Town. For the second season in a row, the team exited the FA Cup and FA Trophy in the preliminary round. Homecoming season The 2017–18 season saw Boro returning to their hometown of Scarborough after ten years in exile. The opening pre-season friendly at the new stadium resulted in a 1–4 defeat against a young Sheffield United team, in front of an almost sell-out crowd of 2,038 supporters. Subsequent friendlies also saw a considerable improvement in crowds when compared with previous seasons, and the club played their first competitive match in the town on 12 August 2017, with a club-record 1,385 spectators witnessing a 0–0 draw against Hyde United. The club's first FA Cup game in Scarborough saw Marske United of the Northern League take Boro to a Preliminary Round replay in front of 885 supporters. The replay was won 2–1 by Boro after extra time, which saw them progress to the 1st Qualifying Round for the first time in three seasons. Boro's record attendance was broken again on 28 August 2017 for the visit of South Shields, with 1,667 supporters witnessing a 1–3 victory for the Tyneside club. Boro began September by equalling their best ever FA Cup run, reaching the 2nd Qualifying Round for only the third time with a 1–0 home victory over higher-ranked Workington AFC. Two weeks later, they beat Northern League side Sunderland RCA 2–0, advancing to the 3rd Qualifying Round for the first ever time. Despite having to wait until 19 September for the first league victory at their new home, seven wins from their first nine league games helped place Boro in 2nd position with 22 points, with up to two games in hand on their league rivals. This included a run of five straight away league victories. Boro's FA Cup run continued to reach new heights at the beginning of October. A 4–1 extra-time replay victory away at higher-ranked Stratford Town, after a 2–2 draw at the Flamingo Land Stadium, put Boro in the 4th Qualifying Round draw. They faced fellow Northern Premier League North side Hyde United on 14 October, but in front of a new club record attendance of 2,003 were defeated 0–2, bringing their run to an end. Boro's FA Trophy campaign was less successful, with a heavy 2–5 home defeat to South Shields eliminating them in the Preliminary Round. Boro's league form continued to be solid, and on Boxing Day, a nine-game winning streak began which placed Boro in second position by 20 February, with 20 victories from 27 league games. The club's Boxing Day fixture, a 3–0 victory over Tadcaster Albion, was their first in Scarborough since 2004. Boro's nine-game winning streak came to a sudden halt in March, with only three wins in a run of eight league games leaving the club four points adrift of the top two. Following this brief downturn in form, however, Boro recorded a run of nine wins and a draw in their final ten league games, ending the season as runners-up and promoted to the Northern Premier League Premier Division. Boro's final league game of the season was significant, as it not only attracted a new record attendance of 2,022 but was Ossett Albion's last ever game before merging with Ossett Town to form Ossett United. A memorable season finished with an appearance at Middlesbrough FC's Riverside Stadium in the North Riding Senior Cup final. The NPL Premier Division years Scarborough Athletic got the 2018–19 season off to a good start with six wins, three draws and two losses in their opening eleven league games, and they topped the table for several weeks in the Autumn. However, a poor run of form either side of Christmas, where the club gained 17 points from a possible 45, saw Boro sitting in 6th position at the end of February, just outside the playoff places. On 16 March after a disappointing home defeat to Stalybridge Celtic. which saw the club lose further ground in the play-off chase, manager Steve Kittrick and his assistant Chris Bolder were relieved of their duties with Steve Roberts taking over as manager on a caretaker basis. On 2 April former Bradford Park Avenue and Farsley Celtic chief John Deacey was appointed as the new manager, but eight league defeats since New Year's Day saw Boro's playoff hopes finally extinguished with one game to go. The club ended their first season at the new level with an 8th-place finish. Boro reached the North Riding Senior Cup final for the second successive year and beat Marske United on penalties at Middlesbrough's Riverside Stadium to win the club's first cup since forming in 2007. During the summer of 2019, a new covered stand was erected at the Flamingoland Stadium which increased the capacity from 2,070 to 2,833. It was officially opened prior to the opening home game of the 2019–20 season. The Coronavirus (COVID-19) seasons The 2019–20 season got off to a poor start for Boro, with two wins, six draws, and four defeats seeing the Seadogs languishing in 15th position after twelve matches with twelve points. Unusually, they drew their first seven competitive home matches of the season, before finally recording a home win on 15 October. An FA Cup 1st Qualifying Round replay win against Marske United (mirroring the 2017–18 season) set up an attractive 2nd Qualifying Round tie away at National League North club Southport. However, Boro's cup run ended there abruptly, with Southport running out 5-2 winners. The disappointing run of results continued and manager John Deacey eventually left the club by mutual consent on 24 November and was replaced by Darren Kelly, who made an immediate impact, winning his first three league games in charge. On 25 March 2020, due to the worldwide Coronavirus pandemic, and following a suspension of football, the Northern Premier League season was declared null and void, and all records were expunged. The 2020-21 season began later than usual on Saturday 19 September. Due to the Borough of Scarborough declaring a higher than average rate of positive COVID-19 cases in September and October, Boro moved their first home league games of the season to the respective away grounds to avoid the financially challenging situation of playing behind closed doors. An exception to this was Boro's early FA Cup exit at the 1st Qualifying Round stage on Tuesday 22 September, where an empty Flamingoland Stadium saw Ashton United claim a 2-0 victory. Boro's league season started solidly, with three wins, two draws, and two defeats from the opening seven matches. On 17 October, Boro welcomed fans to a home game for the first time since the March national lockdown, with a sold out capped attendance of 600 witnessing a 1-1 draw with Nantwich Town. In February 2021, it was confirmed that for the second consecutive season the league would not be completed due to the ongoing pandemic, with Boro having played just eight league games. Darren Kelly resigned as Scarborough manager on 18 May 2021 and was subsequently replaced by Jonathan Greening. The Return of Football The 2021-22 season began against the backdrop of the ongoing pandemic, but with a highly vaccinated population alongside some remaining protective measures, fans were let back into stadiums without restrictions. Boro began the season well, with 3 wins and 2 draws from their opening five games. However, four consecutive defeats followed - all at home - including an FA Cup exit at the 1st Qualifying Round stage. Inconsistent results, including a club record 6-0 defeat at FC United of Manchester, left Boro in the bottom half by mid-October. Boro's form picked up slightly on the approach to the festive period, and despite losing heavily at lower-ranked side Liversedge in the FA Trophy and 5-1 at Buxton in the league, Boro were within touching distance of the playoffs by Christmas. Further improved form in the New Year of 2022 saw Boro propel themselves into a playoff position, which was helped by a run of just one defeat in fifteen games in all competitions. Players Current squad Honours Northern Premier League Division One North Runners-up and Promoted 2017–18 Northern Counties East League Premier Division Champions 2012–13 Northern Counties East League Division One Champions 2008–09 North Riding Senior Cup Winners 2018–19 Runners-up 2017–18 Northern Premier League Challenge Cup Runners-up 2015–16 Northern Counties East League Presidents Cup Runners-up 2008–09 Supporters Direct Shield Winners 2010–11 ManagersAs of 26 February 2022. Only competitive matches are counted. Please note that the league games in the 2019-20 season do not count, as the season was abandoned and records expunged. The 2020-21 league season contained just eight matches for Scarborough Athletic, which have been added to Darren Kelly's record.Statistics Average league attendance Top league goalscorers Performance League and cup history 1: EP = Extra-Preliminary Round, P = Preliminary Round, 1Q = 1st Qualifying Round, 2Q = 2nd Qualifying Round, 3Q = 3rd Qualifying Round, 4Q = 4th Qualifying Round 2: 6 points deducted 3: Eastwood Town resigned mid-season, resulting in two expunged victories and a reduction of teams from 22 to 21 4: Moved laterally by the FA from the Northern Premier League Division One South to the Northern Premier League Division One North. 5: Defeated in playoff semi-final 1–3 at home to Ossett Town. 6: North Ferriby United liquidated mid-season, resulting in two expunged victories and a reduction of teams from 22 to 21 7: Season declared null and void on 25 March 2020 due to Coronavirus pandemic, and all record expunged. 8:The 2020–21 season was also terminated on 24 February 2021 due to the coronavirus pandemic with all record expunged. FA Cup FA Trophy FA Vase David Holland Memorial Trophy This trophy is contested between Scarborough Athletic and former landlords Bridlington Town during the pre-season period each season. It is played in memory of David Holland, former chairman of Scarborough Athletic who died in 2017. Records Club records Best FA Cup Performance: 4th Qualifying Round, 2017–18 Highest League Position: 8th in Northern Premier League Premier Division (Level 7), 2018–19 Record Victory: 13–0 over Brodsworth Welfare, 24 April 2010 Record Home Victory: 13–0 over Brodsworth Welfare, 24 April 2010 Record Away Victory: 10–0 over Lincoln Moorlands Railway, 15 September 2012 Record Defeat: 0–6 at Thackley, 16 April 2013; AFC Telford United, 16 November 2013, and FC United of Manchester, 28 September 2021. Record Home Defeat: 2–6 v Barton Town Old Boys, 25 August 2007; 1–5 v Guisborough Town, 22 November 2011; 0–4 v Darlington, 1 November 2014, and 1–5 v Dunston UTS, 19 November 2019 Record Away Defeat: 0–6 at Thackley, 16 April 2013; AFC Telford United, 16 November 2013, and FC United of Manchester, 28 September 2021. Record Attendance: 2,022 v Ossett Albion, Northern Premier League Division One North, 28 April 2018 Longest unbeaten run: (League) 27 games, 23 August 2008 to 14 March 2009 Longest unbeaten home run: (League) 35 games, 9 February 2008 to 9 February 2010 Longest unbeaten away run: (League) 13 games, 25 August 2008 to 11 March 2009 and 10 October 2012 to 13 April 2013 Most games won in a row: (League) 15 games, 25 October 2008 to 7 March 2009 Most games lost in a row: (League) 9 games, 14 November 2015 to 23 January 2016 Longest time without conceding: 763 minutes, 4 March 2017 to 25 April 2017 Player records Record Goalscorer: Ryan Blott, 231 Most Goals in a Season (All Competitions): 42, Ryan Blott, 2008–09 and Michael Coulson, 2017–18 Most League Goals in a Season: 37, Ryan Blott, 2012–13. Most goals scored in a match by one player: 5, Ryan Blott v Yorkshire Amateur, 8 November 2008 & v Armthorpe Welfare, 14 April 2012 Most appearances: Ryan Blott, 380 (341 starts and 39 as substitute), 20 October 2007 to 29 September 2020 International caps First capped player: Jacob Hazel, for Saint Kitts and Nevis on 4 June 2017 against Armenia. Most international caps while a Scarborough Athletic FC player: Jacob Hazel, 2 for Saint Kitts and Nevis Media Commentary on Scarborough Athletic games is broadcast on Coast & County Radio. Commentary was previously broadcast on the online platform of another local radio station, Yorkshire Coast Radio until this was absorbed into Greatest Hits Radio in September 2020. Reserve team A reserve team existed from June 2008 until October 2014 when lack of player availability lead to the reserves withdrawing from all competition early in the 2014–15 season. The reserves played in the Humber Premier League and were promoted from the First Division to the Premier Division (as runners up) in the 2012–13 season. Home games were played at Rotsea Lane, Hutton Cranswick, East Riding of Yorkshire, the home of Hutton Cranswick United FC from formation until the end of the 2009–10 season and then from 2010–11 onwards at the Community Sports Club complex in Filey, North Yorkshire. Reserve team performance (league) Reserve team performance (cups) U19s team and Youth Development teams Scarborough Athletic U19s side was formed during the 2010–11 season. The club affiliated the team to the North Riding FA in August 2010, but were unable to enter the side into a league in time to play competitive football for that season although some friendly fixtures were played. From the 2011–12 season the U19s entered the Northern U19s Alliance League with home fixtures played at the Mill Lane home of Pickering Town. The current U19s manager is Ian Wilson. The 2011–12 season also saw the formation of the U16s and U12s teams, both of whom entered the Hull Boys Sunday League. The Under 16s achieved success in their debut season, winning their league and reaching two cup finals, one of which they won. For the 2012–13 season, three further youth teams were formed at U18, U14 and U13 level, resulting in six age-group teams in total. Supporter activities On 4 November 2009 the club launched the Back2Boro'' scheme which has two main objectives: to raise awareness of the club's lack of a permanent home, and to raise funds to help finance a return home to Scarborough. The club had its own online radio service called "Seadogslive", which provided live match commentaries on selected home fixtures and occasional away games. This service was discontinued in 2010. Scarborough Athletic had an occasionally published fanzine entitled Abandon Chip!, which had been continued from the original club. In 2019 a new fanzine was produced called Voice of Treason; another semi-regular publication called Boro Memories was also launched. In April 2016, the club launched its first-ever 'frame' football team, for youngsters with cerebral palsy. Season one concluded in October 2016. See also List of Fan Owned Teams List of football clubs in North Yorkshire References External links Official website Supporters Trust Official Facebook Page Official Twitter Account Northern Premier League clubs Football clubs in England Fan-owned football clubs in England Football clubs in North Yorkshire Association football clubs established in 2007 2007 establishments in England Sport in Scarborough, North Yorkshire Supporters' trusts Phoenix clubs (association football)

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San Bruno (Spanish for "St. Bruno") is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States, incorporated in 1914. The population was 43,908 at the 2020 United States Census. The city is between South San Francisco and Millbrae, adjacent to San Francisco International Airport and Golden Gate National Cemetery, and is approximately south of downtown San Francisco. Geography The city is between South San Francisco and Millbrae, adjacent to San Francisco International Airport and Golden Gate National Cemetery, and is approximately south of downtown San Francisco. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land. The city spreads from the mostly flat lowlands near San Francisco Bay into the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains, which rise to more than above sea level in Crestmoor and more than above sea level in Portola Highlands. San Bruno City Hall sits at an official elevation of 41 feet (12.5 m) above sea level. Portions of Mills Park, Crestmoor, and Rollingwood are very hilly, featuring canyons and ravines. Creeks, many of them now in culverts, flow from springs in the hills toward San Francisco Bay. Just west of Skyline Boulevard and outside of city limits is San Andreas Lake, which got its name from the San Andreas Fault. The lake is one of several reservoirs used by the San Francisco Water Department, providing water to San Francisco and several communities in San Mateo County, including San Bruno west of I-280. Climate San Bruno has a mild Mediterranean climate characterized by mild to warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters. San Bruno has much milder temperatures than most of the state. Owing to its relatively mild temperatures, the city's climate closely resembles that of an oceanic climate. Other regions of the world with similar temperatures to San Bruno include much of the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, southern Australia, the coastal areas of Norway and much of Scandinavia (where mild climates are often found). Since 1927, the National Weather Service (formerly the U.S. Weather Bureau) has maintained a weather station at the nearby San Francisco International Airport (formerly Mills Field). According to the official records, January is the coldest month with an average high of 55.9 °F (13.3 °C) and an average low of 42.9 °F (6.1 °C). Freezing temperatures occur on an average of only 1.3 days annually. The coldest winter temperature on record was on December 11, 1932, the same day 1.0 inch (2.5 cm) of snow fell. A week-long cold spell in December 1972 caused hard freezes throughout the area, damaging trees and plants and causing some water pipes to break; the temperature dropped as low as at the airport and in Crestmoor, which also reported snow flurries several times that week. There was 1.5 inch of snow at the airport on January 21, 1962, with several inches falling in the hills. September is the warmest month with an average high of and an average low of . Temperatures exceed on an average of 4.0 days annually. Fog and low overcast are common during the night and morning hours in the summer months, which are generally very dry except for occasional light drizzle from the fog. On rare occasions moisture moving up from tropical storms has produced thunderstorms or showers in the summer. Gusty westerly winds are also common in the afternoon during the summer. The highest summer temperature was on June 14, 1961, breaking a record of set in June 1960. A high of was recorded on July 17, 1988, and a high of was recorded on September 1, 2017. Until August 1, 1993, it had never reached in August, which is one of the foggier months in the area. Due to thermal inversions, summer temperatures in the higher hills are often much higher than at the airport. Thunderstorms occur several times a year, mostly during the winter months, but are usually quite brief. Total annual precipitation, most of which falls from November to April, ranges from at the nearby National Weather Service station at San Francisco International Airport to over in the higher hills (according to observations by Gayle Rucker for the Army Corps of Engineers and Robert E. Nylund for the U.S. Geological Survey from 1962 to 1985). Nylund also took temperature observations for several years and published weekly weather reports in the San Bruno Herald from 1966 to 1969, which were included in official reports for the Golden Gate National Cemetery. The annual average days with measurable precipitation is 65.2 days. The most rainfall in a month at the airport was in February 1998, and the most rainfall in 24 hours was on January 4, 1982. Nylund reported in Crestmoor during a 24-hour period in January 1967. Winter storms are often accompanied by strong southerly winds. Demographics 2010 The 2010 United States Census reported that San Bruno had a population of 41,114. The population density was 7,505.0 people per square mile (2,897.7/km2). The racial makeup of San Bruno was 20,350 (49.5%) White, 942 (2.3%) African American, 246 (0.6%) Native American, 10,423 (25.4%) Asian, 1,377 (3.3%) Pacific Islander, 5,075 (12.3%) from other races, and 2,701 (6.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12,016 persons (29.2%). The Census reported that 40,716 people (99.0% of the population) lived in households, 316 (0.8%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 82 (0.2%) were institutionalized. There were 14,701 households, out of which 4,831 (32.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,364 (50.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,830 (12.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 850 (5.8%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 764 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 123 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,660 households (24.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,119 (7.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77. There were 10,044 families (68.3% of all households); the average family size was 3.31. The population was spread out, with 8,632 people (21.0%) under the age of 18, 3,577 people (8.7%) aged 18 to 24, 12,038 people (29.3%) aged 25 to 44, 11,653 people (28.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,214 people (12.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.1 males. There were 15,356 housing units at an average density of 2,803.1 per square mile (1,082.3/km2), of which 8,938 (60.8%) were owner-occupied, and 5,763 (39.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.9%. 24,712 people (60.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 16,004 people (38.9%) lived in rental housing units. 2000 As of the census of 2008, there were 42,401 people, 15,486 households, and 10,561 families residing in the city. The population density was 8,353.6 people per square mile (3,840.3/km2). There were 16,403 housing units at an average density of 3,742.6 per square mile (2,059.3/km2). There were 15,486 households, out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.4% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.72 and the average family size was 4.29. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 25.0% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 35.5% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.1 males. The median household income for the city was $60,081, and the median income for a family was $69,251 (these figures had risen to $71,869 and $80,401 respectively as of a 2008 estimate). Males had a median income of $47,843 versus $39,851 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,360. About 5.1% of families and 7.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.8% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over. Politics The current Mayor of San Bruno is Rico E. Medina who began his term as Mayor on December 12, 2017. He has previously been a Council Member. The previous mayor of San Bruno was Jim Ruane, first elected in 2009 and served until December 2017. The mayor before Jim Ruane was Larry Franzella, first elected November 1999, and who was reelected through November 2009. Bob Marshall, "Mr. San Bruno", served as mayor from 1980 to 1992. San Bruno is one of the only cities in San Mateo County with an independently elected mayor. In the California State Legislature, San Bruno is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, San Bruno is in . According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, San Bruno has 22,808 registered voters. Of those, 11,856 (52%) are registered Democrats, 3,051 (13.4%) are registered Republicans, and 6993 (30.1%) have declined to state a political party. Parks San Bruno City Park, bordered by Crystal Springs Avenue and El Crystal School, is the major municipal park. It offers shaded walkways and hiking trails, picnic tables, a playground, a small ballpark, a municipal swimming pool, and a recreation center that includes an indoor basketball court once used for training by the San Francisco Warriors basketball team. There are smaller municipal parks in other parts of the city. Junipero Serra County Park, also accessible from Crystal Springs Avenue, is a 100-acre (.405 square kilometer) park owned by San Mateo County and includes numerous hiking trails, as well as picnic shelters, barbecue pits, and picnic tables. The wilderness area was named for Junípero Serra, a Franciscan friar who founded many of the Spanish missions in California during the eighteenth century; Serra regularly passed through what is now San Bruno whenever he visited the mission at San Francisco. The park is administered by the San Mateo County Parks and Recreation Department, which charges a six dollar entry fee for vehicles. Education The city is served by the San Bruno Park School District which operates five elementary schools, and one intermediate school; in 1970, the school district had an enrollment of 4,829, and in 2013 is closer to 2,700. San Mateo Union High School District also serves the city, and most students who attend secondary public education attend Capuchino High School, the only High School in the community after Crestmoor High School was closed in 1980. The city's main library is part of the Peninsula Library System. Skyline College, a community college part of the San Mateo Community College District (SMCCD), is located in San Bruno. History Early years San Bruno was the location of the Ohlone village Urebure. It was explored in November 1769 by a Spanish expedition led by Gaspar de Portolà. Later, more extensive explorations by Bruno de Heceta resulted in the naming of San Bruno Creek after St. Bruno of Cologne, the founder of a medieval monastic order. This creek apparently later gave its name to the community. With the establishment of the San Francisco de Asís (St. Francis of Assisi) mission, much of the area became pasture for the mission livestock. Following the decline of the missions, the area became part of Rancho Buri Buri granted to José de la Cruz Sánchez, the eleventh Alcalde (mayor) of San Francisco. After Jose Antonio Sanchez died, his heirs divided the Rancho and sold it off. Dairy farms later became common in much of the area. The city began as Clarks's Station, a stop on the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach route, utilizing an inn built in 1849, which was initially called Thorp's Place and later Uncle Tom's Cabin or 14 Mile House. The inn was demolished in 1949 and replaced with a Lucky's supermarket (now a Walgreens drugstore, on the corner of El Camino Real and Crystal Springs Avenue). Gus Jenevein (for whom Jenevein Avenue was named) built another landmark called San Bruno House, which burned several times and was not rebuilt after the third fire. A few homes and farms were developed in the area. The railroad between San Francisco and San Jose built a train station at San Bruno in the 1860s. The railroad eventually became part of the Southern Pacific system, which ran both passenger and freight trains on the line. Today it is known as Caltrain. A U.S. Post Office was first established at San Bruno in 1875. Postal services were discontinued for several months in both 1890 and 1891, then from 1893 to 1898. There has been a post office in San Bruno continuously since 1898. The present post office is located near the Tanforan shopping center. 20th century Real growth and development began after the 1906 earthquake and fire. The city's first public school was completed in late 1906. With the construction of Edgemont Elementary School in 1910, all classes were moved there and the original school building became a public facility named Green Hall. Another school, North Brae Elementary School, opened in 1912; among its earliest students was future actor Eddie "Rochester" Anderson. Paving of California's first state highway, El Camino Real, began in 1912 in front of San Bruno's Uncle Tom's Cabin; the highway is now designated as State Route 82. The adjoining San Francisco International Airport opened in early 1927 and included a Weather Bureau station, now operated by the National Weather Service. Charles Lindbergh was an early visitor to the airport, during his national tour following his successful transatlantic flight; unfortunately, his airplane (Spirit of St. Louis) became stuck in the mud. On January 18, 1911, aviator Eugene Ely made naval aviation history when he took off from Tanforan and made a successful landing on the armored cruiser anchored in San Francisco Bay. This marked the first successful shipboard aircraft landing. Following a campaign by the local newspaper, the San Bruno Herald, the community was incorporated in 1914, mainly so the streets could be paved. Green Hall became the first city hall. San Bruno grew rapidly, passing 1,500 residents by 1920 and 3,610 residents in 1930. Additional schools, including New Edgemont (later renamed Decima Allen) and Crystal Springs, were built during the 1940s. In 1930, the El Camino Theater opened at the corner of El Camino Real and San Mateo Avenue. The popular theater, wired for sound, replaced the earlier Melody Theater, which had presented silent films. The El Camino showed double features, cartoons, short comedies, adventure serials, and newsreels during its history, including Saturday matinees and summer Wednesday matinees for children. Normally, films changed every week, but in 1958 Cecil B. DeMille's The Ten Commandments ran for two weeks to packed audiences. The theater closed in the early 1970s when a four-screen movie theater opened in the Tanforan shopping center. The El Camino Theater building was remodeled, but was demolished. The lot is now home to a mixed use apartment and retail space. A larger, multi-screen complex was later built north of Tanforan, but it has been replaced by an even larger complex, Century at Tanforan, in the remodeled shopping center. In 1939, the War Department created the Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno as space was starting to run out for veterans to be buried at the Presidio of San Francisco. In 1942, after the start of World War II, the local race track became the Tanforan Assembly Center, a temporary detention site for Japanese Americans evicted from the West Coast under Executive Order 9066. Following World War II, there was continued growth and new subdivisions in Mills Park, Rollingwood, and Crestmoor. In 1947, the Bayshore Freeway (U.S. Route 101) was opened from South San Francisco to Redwood City and included an interchange at San Bruno. Prior to 1950, San Bruno's high school students attended San Mateo High School (opened in 1902) and then Burlingame High School (opened in 1923), traveling to and from school on the street cars that ran next to the Southern Pacific railroad. Finally, on September 11, 1950, Capuchino High School opened in San Bruno. After years of using Green Hall as a multi-purpose building, the city dedicated a library and city hall in 1954. That same year saw the dedication of the current central terminal at the airport, part of a major expansion program. A central fire station was later built next to the city hall; an additional station was built in Crestmoor. Actress and businesswoman Suzanne Somers was born in San Bruno in 1946. She attended local schools and graduated from Capuchino High School in June 1964. In 1953, San Bruno annexed the adjoining unincorporated community of Lomita Park, bounded by San Felipe Avenue, El Camino Real, San Juan Avenue, and the railroad tracks. Until the annexation, Lomita Park had its own Southern Pacific train station and some community services. Parkside Intermediate School was opened in 1954, followed by additional elementary schools: Rollingwood, Crestmoor, John Muir, and Carl Sandburg. A second intermediate school, Engvall, was built in Crestmoor Canyon, only to be closed, along with North Brae and Sandburg, when enrollment fell. These were all part of the San Bruno Park School District. Students in northwestern San Bruno were included in the Laguna Salada district. The private school, Highlands Christian School, is also located in San Bruno. Founded in 1966, Highlands Christian School is an interdenominational school, and offers preschool through college preparatory school instruction. San Bruno considered new annexations in the mid-1950s that would have extended the city limits to the Pacific Ocean. The unincorporated communities west of San Bruno were against annexation, and collectively incorporated as the city of Pacifica in 1957. On March 22, 1957, a magnitude 5.7 earthquake was centered in the area of the city. It inflicted minor damage throughout the city. Eitel-McCullough operated a large manufacturing plant in San Bruno for many years. William Eitel and Jack McCullogh formed the company in 1934. It specialized in the manufacture of power grid tubes. Known as Eimac, the company also made vacuum tubes used in communication equipment, as well as other products for military and commercial applications. Due to its work on broadcast transmission parts, Eimac operated an FM radio station, KSBR, which transmitted on 100.5 megahertz. The station began operations in 1947 and, that same year, was one of only two in the nation to test Rangertone tape recorders. (The other station was WASH-FM in Washington, D.C.) The recorders were based on the German Magnetophon. In need of more space, the company moved to San Carlos in 1959. Eimac's San Carlos plant was dedicated on April 16, 1959. In 1965, Eimac merged with Varian Associates and became known as the Eimac Division. In 1995, Leonard Green & Partners purchased the entire Electron Devices Business from Varian and formed Communications & Power Industries. Crestmoor High School opened in September 1962, but was closed in June 1980 due to a decline in school enrollment. The city has a two-year community college, Skyline College. A major landmark in San Bruno for many years was Tanforan Racetrack, which opened in 1899. Such famous racehorses as Seabiscuit and Citation raced there. Famed Hollywood director Frank Capra filmed scenes for two of his films, Broadway Bill and Riding High, at the racetrack. For six months in 1942, it served as one of the main Bay Area centers for those forced into Japanese American internment, processing about 8000 Japanese before they were sent out to larger facilities in the desert of Utah and Manzanar in Owens Valley. The track closed in 1964 and was about to be demolished, when it was destroyed in a major fire on July 31, 1964. The Shops at Tanforan mall was later built on the site; surrounding city streets were named for some of the racehorses who appeared at Tanforan. The city was the site of the crash of Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 on December 23, 1964. During the late 1960s, the I-280 (Junipero Serra Freeway), followed by I-380, was built through San Bruno. The San Bruno Planning Commission (then chaired by Peter Weinberger, brother of Caspar Weinberger) reviewed and approved plans for two major shopping centers, Bayhill (located on the old U.S. Navy property between San Bruno Avenue and Sneath Lane) and Tanforan. With final approval by the San Bruno City Council, construction proceeded on these major retail developments. Prior to these developments, most of the city's retail businesses were located on San Mateo Avenue and El Camino Real. San Bruno is one of two cities in the Bay Area that manages its own cable TV and internet system. The October 17, 1989, Loma Prieta earthquake (6.9 magnitude) caused some damage in the city. The U.S. Postal Service's Western Regional headquarters, then the tallest building in San Bruno, had to be demolished due to severe structural damage. The site was rebuilt as part of an expansion of The Gap clothing company world headquarters campus. The building now houses the headquarters for Wal-Mart's online retail services, Walmart.com, and is now the tallest building in the city. 21st century The San Bruno BART station opened in 2003, when the transit system was extended to Millbrae and the San Francisco International Airport. September 2010 explosion and fire On September 9, 2010, at about 6:15 p.m. PDT, a gas line ruptured leading to a fire that severely damaged a residential neighborhood. Eight people were killed, nearly 60 others were injured, 38 homes were destroyed and 123 additional homes were damaged. The resulting fire "hot spots" were easily detected using meteorological satellite images. The explosion, which took place two miles (3 km) west of San Francisco International Airport (), was initially thought to have been a plane crash, but the FAA and airport officials confirmed no downed aircraft was reported. During the days prior to the explosion, some residents reported a strong smell of natural gas in the area. On September 10, a team from the National Transportation Safety Board began an investigation into the cause of the explosion. On September 13, PG&E agreed to set aside a $100 million fund to the victims of the explosion. This does not preclude residents from taking any further action against PG&E. Parts of the exploded material were taken to Washington, D.C., a couple of days after the explosion for examination. YouTube headquarters In 2007, YouTube had moved its headquarters from San Mateo, California to San Bruno, on Cherry Avenue next to Interstate 380. The main building was initially built for Gap Inc. in 1997. It had been designed in 1994, has a green roof, and was built with energy efficient ventilation systems. Across more than six properties, YouTube has over 2,000 employees working in the city, and is San Bruno's largest employer. On April 3, 2018, a shooting took place at the headquarters complex, leaving four wounded and the female shooter dead. Former Naval Facility San Bruno During World War II the United States Navy established a base on what was a dairy opened by Richard Sneath. There it operated a Classification Center and a Naval Advance Base Personnel Depot. After the war it continued operation, and became host to the consolidated Western Division of Naval Facilities, supporting the multiple navy bases that were operating in the greater San Francisco Bay Area. Due to the 1993 BRAC and its closure of neighboring bases although recommended for realignment, the Navy decided to close the facility, carrying through with its decision in October 1994. The federal government retained part of the former Naval Facility. The Pacific Region (San Francisco) facility of the National Archives and Records Administration was established. One of the buildings became a Navy and Marine Corps Reserve Center, which hosts the Headquarters Company of the 23rd Marine Regiment, amongst other units. The rest of the facility was sold to a private developer who has since built multi-story apartment buildings on the former base. The area of the former U.S. Navy complex is bounded by San Bruno Avenue, El Camino Real, Sneath Lane, and I-280. Economy Top employers According to San Bruno's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, and San Mateo Daily Journal the top employers in the city were: Notable people Wally Bunker, baseball player Emma Chamberlain, YouTuber Neal Dahlen, football administrator Luana DeVol, soprano Keith Hernandez, baseball player Ky Hollenbeck, kickboxer Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, musician Neekolul, Twitch streamer Ruggiero Ricci, violinist Suzanne Somers, actress The Mummies, garage rock cult band Sister cities Narita, Chiba Prefecture, Japan See also List of cities and towns in the San Francisco Bay Area Notes References External links 1849 establishments in California 1914 establishments in California Butterfield Overland Mail in California Cities in San Mateo County, California Incorporated cities and towns in California Populated places established in 1849 Populated places established in 1914

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Lalu Prasad Yadav (born 11 June 1948) is an Indian politician and a convicted criminal. He is the president of the political party Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), a former Chief Minister of Bihar, a former Union Minister of Railways, and a former Member of Parliament of the Lok Sabha. He entered politics at Patna University as a student leader and in 1977 at the age of 29, was elected as the youngest member of the Lok Sabha for the Janata Party. He became the Chief Minister of Bihar in 1990. His party came to power in 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election in partnership with Nitish Kumar of JD(U). This coalition ended when Nitish resigned and RJD was ousted, becoming the opposition party. In 2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, RJD remained the single largest party in Bihar, and currently serves as the state's main opposition party. Lalu Yadav was convicted in the controversial Fodder Scam, and was serving a term until 17 April 2021, when he was granted bail from the High Court in the corruption scandal. Early and personal life Lalu Prasad, second of his parents six sons, was born in Phulwaria in Bihar to Kundan Ray and Marachhiya Devi, and attended a local middle school before moving to Patna with his elder brother. After completing Bachelor of Laws and a M.A. in Political Science from B. N. College of Patna University, he worked as clerk in Bihar Veterinary College at Patna where his elder brother was also a peon. Lalu Prasad belongs to Yadav agricultural caste. He turned down Patna University's Honorary Doctorate in 2004. Yadav married Rabri Devi on 1 June 1973, in an arranged marriage, and they went on to have two sons and seven daughters. Political career 1970–1990: Student Leader and Youngest MP In 1970, Lalu entered in student politics as the general secretary of the Patna University Students' Union (PUSU), became its president in 1973, joined Jai Prakash Narayan' Bihar Movement in 1974 where he became sufficiently close to Janata Party (JP) leaders to become the Janta alliance's winning candidate in the 1977 Lok Sabha election from Chapra at the age of 29. In 1979, the Janata Party government fell due to in-fighting. The parliament was dissolved with new polls held in 1980. Lalu quit Janta party to join the splinter group, Janta Party-S led by Raj Narain, only to lose the re-election in 1980. He managed to win Bihar Legislative Assembly election later in 1980, and again in 1985 to become leader of opposition in Bihar assembly in 1989. Later in 1989, he was also elected for Lok Sabha under V. P. Singh government. By 1990, he positioned himself as the leader of Yadav (11.7% of the Bihar's) and lower castes. Muslims, who had traditionally served as Congress (I) vote bank, shifted their support to Prasad after the 1989 Bhagalpur violence. He became popular among the young voters of Bihar. 1990–1997: Lalu Yadav as Chief Ministers of Bihar In 1990, Janata Dal came to power in Bihar. PM V. P. Singh wanted former chief minister Ram Sundar Das to lead the government. and Chandra Shekhar backed Raghunath Jha. To break deadlock deputy PM Devi Lal nominated Prasad as CM candidate. He was victorious in an internal poll of Janta Dal MLA's and became the chief minister. On 23 September 1990, Prasad arrested L. K. Advani at Samastipur during the latter's Ram Rath Yatra to Ayodhya, which establish himself as a secular leader among the people of Bihar. The World Bank lauded his party for its work in the 1990s on the economic front. In 1993, Prasad adopted a pro-English policy and pushed for the re-introduction of English as a language in school curriculum, contrary to the angrezi hatao (banish English) policy of then Uttar Pradesh CM Mulayam Singh Yadav. Policy of opposition to English was considered an anti-elite policy since both the Yadav leaders represented the same social constituents – the backward castes, dalits and minority communities. With the mass support of people of Bihar, Lalu continued to be Bihar CM. 1997–2000: Formation of RJD and National Politics In 1997, due to allegation related to Fodder Scam, a leadership revolt surfaced in Janta Dal, consequently Lalu broke away from Janta Dal and formed a new political party Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD). In 1998 general for 12th Lok Sabha Lalu won from Madhepura, but lost in 1999 general election to Sharad Yadav. In 2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election he won and remained in opposition. 2000–2005:Rabri Devi as Chief Ministers of Bihar In 2002, Lalu was elected in Rajya Sabha where he stayed till 2004. In 2002, RJD formed the government with Rabri Devi as the CM. Except for brief President rule and 7 days term of Nitish Kumar, RJD remained in power in Bihar till 2005. 2004–2009: Union Minister of Railway In May 2004, Lalu Yadav contested general election from Chhapra and Madhepura against Rajiv Pratap Rudy and Sharad Yadav respectively and won from both the seats with a huge margin with the great support and faith of people of Bihar. In total, RJD won 21 seats and it allied with Indian National Congress becoming second-largest member of UPA I after Congress. Lalu Yadav became the Railway Minister in the 2004 UPA Government. Later, he gave up the Madhepura seat. As railway minister, Lalu Yadav left passenger fares untouched and focused on other sources of revenue for the railways. He banned plastic cups from being used to serve tea at railway stations and replaced those with kulhars (earthen cups), in order to generate more employment in rural areas. Later, he also said that he had plans to introduce buttermilk and khādī. In June 2004, he announced that he would get on the railway himself to inspect its problems and went on to board the train from Patna Railway station at midnight. When he took over, the Indian Railways was a loss-making organisation. In the years under his leadership, it showed a cumulative total profit of . Business schools around the world became interested in Lalu Yadav's leadership in managing the turnaround. The turnaround was introduced as a case study by the Indian Institute of Management. Yadav also received invitations from eight Ivy League schools for lectures, and addressed over a hundred students from Harvard, Wharton and others in Hindi. Harvard Business School and HEC Management School, France, have shown interest in turning Lalu Yadav's experiment with the Indian Railway into case studies for aspiring business graduates. 2005–2015: Out of power in Bihar and Center Bihar Assembly elections were held twice in the year 2005. There was a fractured verdict in February 2005 Assembly Election. Since no government could be formed in Bihar, fresh elections were held in October–November the same year. In November 2005 state elections RJD won 54 seats, less than both Janata Dal United (JDU) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Nitish Kumar led coalition, consisting of JD(U) and BJP, came to power. In the 2010 elections, the RJD tally was reduced to just 22 seats whereas the ruling alliance claimed a record 206 out of the 243 Assembly seats. In 2009 general election RJD won 4 seats and provided outside support to Manmohan Singh government. In May 2012, Lalu Prasad Yadav envisaged Hamid Ansari, previous vice-president, as a presidential candidate. In May 2013, Lalu Yadav tried to rejuvenate the party and fuel the party workers in his Parivartan Rally. After the conviction in Fodder Scam on 3 October 2013, Yadav was disqualified from the membership of Lok Sabha. In 2014 general election, Lalu Yadav's RJD again won 4 seats. 2015–current: Grand Alliance In the 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, Lalu Yadav's RJD became the largest party with a total of 81 seats. He along with his partner Nitish Kumar of JD(U) had the absolute majority to form a government in Bihar. This was cited as a major comeback for the RJD and for Lalu Yadav on the political stage of Bihar after a gap of 10 years. But that suffocating alliance did not last long as Nitish Kumar dumped and ousted Lalu's party from the power and alliance in July 2017 after the Enforcement Directorate and Central Bureau of Investigation lodged several criminal cases against Lalu's son and Deputy Chief Minister, Tejashwi Yadav. Chronology of political career 1977: Elected to the 6th Lok Sabha at the age of 29 from Chapra (Lok Sabha constituency). 1980: Lost Lok Sabha election from Chapra in January as member of Charan Singh's Janata (Secular), but won Vidhan Sabha election in June. 1980–1989: Member of the Bihar Legislative Assembly (two terms), from Sonpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency), also spelled Sonepur 1989: A Leader of Opposition of Bihar Legislative Assembly, Chairman of Pustakalaya Committee, Convenor of Committee on Public Undertakings. Re-elected to the 9th Lok Sabha (2nd term) from Chapra (Lok Sabha constituency). 1990–1995: Member of the Bihar Legislative Council. 1990–1997: Chief Minister of Bihar 1995–1998: Member of the Bihar Legislative Assembly, elected from Raghopur (Vidhan Sabha constituency) 1996: Lalu implicated in Fodder Scam 1997: Splits from Janata Dal to form Rashtriya Janata Dal. 1998: Re-elected to 12th Lok Sabha (3rd term) from Madhepura (Lok Sabha constituency). 1998–1999: Member of General Purposes Committee, Committee on Home Affairs and its Sub Committee on Swatantrata Sainik Samman Pension Scheme, Consultative Committee of Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. 1999: Lost election from Madhepura (Lok Sabha constituency) 2000: Won election from Raghopur (Vidhan Sabha constituency) and Danapur, but vacated the Raghopur seat for Rabri Devi. 2002: Elected to Rajya Sabha, and vacated his Bihar assembly seat. 2004: Re-elected to the 14th Lok Sabha (4th term) from Chapra and Madhepura; retained Chapra. Appointed Cabinet Minister in the Ministry of Railways in UPA govt. Lalu, wife Rabri Devi, son Tejashwi Yadav and daughter Misa Bharti booked for railway tender bribery scam, disproportionate illegal property and income tax evasion cases in 2017. 2009: Re-elected to the 15th Lok Sabha (5th term). Contested two seats. Lost from Pataliputra but won from Saran, and disqualified in 2013 subsequent to his conviction in the first fodder scam case. And barred from contesting elections for 6 years. 2020: RJD declares Lalu as mahagathbandhan coordinator for Assembly polls. Populist policies and consolidation of lower castes According to Seyed Hossein Zarhani, though Laloo Prasad became a hate figure among Forward Castes, he drew huge support from backward castes and Dalits. He was criticised for neglecting development but a study conducted during his reign among downtrodden Musahars revealed that though the construction of houses for them hasn't been concluded at required pace, still they will choose Laloo as he returned them their "ijjat"(honour) and for the first time they are allowed to vote. A number of populist policies which directly impacted his backward caste supporters were launched during his tenure. Some of these being; establishment of "Charvaha schools", where children of poor could get skilled; abolishment of cess on toddy and more importantly the negligence of rules related to reservation for backward castes were made cognizable offence. Laloo mobilised backwards through his identity politics. According to his conception, Forward Castes were elite in the outlook and thus he portrayed himself as, "Messiah of backwards" by ensuring that his way of living remain identical to his supporters who were mostly poor. He even continued to reside in his quarter of one room after getting elected as chief minister, though later he moved to official residence of the CM for administrative convenience. Another significant event during his regime was the recruitment of backward castes and communities to government services in large numbers. The Government's white paper claimed to have significant number of vacancies in health sector and similar manpower crunch existed across various sectors. The rules of recruitment were changed drastically in order to benefit backward castes who supported Laloo. The frequent transfer of existing officers, who were at the higher echelon of bureaucracy was also an important feature of Laloo and Rabri Devi regime. These developments led to collapse of administration and entire system. Yadav however continued to rule Bihar due to massive support from backward castes as well as his emphasis on "honour" which he considered more important than the development. Thus according to Zarhani, for the lower caste he was a charismatic leader who was capable to become the voice of those who were silent for long. Another form of mobilisation of his Dalit supporters by Laloo Yadav was popularising all those folk heroes of lower castes, who were said to have vanquished the upper caste adversaries. One such example is of a popular Dalit saint who was revered as he not only ran away with an upper caste girl but also suppressed all her kins. Praising him could enrage Bhumihar caste in some parts of Bihar. There is a grand celebration every year at a particular place near Patna and Yadav participates in this fair with pomp and show. His energetic participation in this show makes it a rallying point for Dalits, who saw it as their victory and the harassment of upper castes. According to Kalyani Shankar, Lalu created a feeling amongst the oppressed that they are real rulers of state under him. He continuously lambasted the oppressors on the behalf of the oppressed and led to their emergence as the pivot of political power. The upper caste who composed just 13.2% of the population were controlling most of the land while the backwards who were 51% own very little land. With the advent of Lalu thd economic profile of the state changed too with the backward caste diversifying their occupational pattern as well as controlling more swathes of land. Lalu instilled a sense of confidence among Muslims by stopping Lal Krishna Advani's controversial "Rath yatra". Muslims of Bihar were feeling a sense of insecurity after the ghastly 1989 Bhagalpur riots. The Satyendra Narayan Singh government failed to control law and order situation thus death toll reached over 1000. The people affected were mostly poor weavers and others belonging to low strata of society and hence they were looking for a leader who could control the deteriorating situation of state under Congress. According to Kalyani, during this period upper castes were totally marginalised and backwards came to control the power firmly. Emergence as the leader of plebeians During his Chief Ministerial period, Yadav never tried to emulate the erstwhile elite chief ministers. He took part in the public festivals and popularised his famous Kurta far Holi (cloth tearing holi). On this occasion his invitees and the media persons would reach his house shouting: Kaha Chhupal hai Lalu Sala (Where is the bloody Lalu hiding ?). Yadav also responded in a similar abusive tone. The vulgar songs were also played on the occasion. Besides this, he never hesitated in calling himself as a son of poor Goala (herder). During his public celebration of Holi festival, he used to play the Dhol himself and dance on the beat of Jogira song. Yadav's rallies were called railla, a symbol of masculinity. Those participating in these rallies were supposed to carry a lathi, a robust stick which was both the symbol of "masculinity" as well as the chief weapon of a "herder" who used it to manage his cows. The drinking of Bhang, a natural liquor and sitting the whole night to watch the Launda dance (Dance of a Eunuch acting as a woman) made him popular among rural Biharis but all of these obscene activities of a Chief Minister irritated the middle class sensibilities. According to Ashwini Kumar: Criticism on Yadavisation Lalu Yadav's rule witnessed Yadav caste becoming assertive in the rural and urban landscape of Bihar, leading his opponents to coin the slogan of "Yadavisation" of Bihar's polity and administration. This fact was used by other political parties to dislodge his government on the charges of working for the benefit of a single caste group at the cost of various other backward communities. According to a report of Indian Human Development Survey (2011–12), Brahmins topped in average per capita income with Rs 28,093, the other upper castes of Bihar which comprises Rajputs have an average per capita income of Rs 20,655, closely followed by middle agrarian castes like Kushwahas and Kurmis earning Rs 18,811 and Rs 17,835 respectively as their average per capita income. In contrast, Yadavs’ income is one of the lowest among OBCs at Rs 12,314, which is slightly less than the rest of OBCs (Rs 12,617). Hence; despite the political mobilisation of backward castes in post mandal period, the upper-caste are still the highest income groups in Bihar. According to this report, the economic benefits of the Mandal politics could be seen as affecting only few backward castes of agrarian background leading to their upward mobilisation. The Yadavs hence transformed their assertiveness to the upward mobility in the politics only while the other backward castes gained momentum in the other fields, though still the upper-caste dominance was retained in upper echelon of bureaucracy. Corruption, conviction and criticism Corruption cases Lalu Prasad Yadav has been convicted and jailed in two scams. As of January 2018, he, his wife, his sons Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav, and his daughter Misa Bharti were all facing charges in several other corruption cases. 1996 Fodder Scam – 1st case Yadav was an accused party and later convicted in the first Fodder Scam case of 1996. The case involved the siphoning off of about ₹ 4.50 billion ($111.85 million) from the animal husbandry department. Several allegations of embezzlement from the animal husbandry department were tabled between 1990 and 1995. In January 1996, a raid conducted on Chaibasa treasury indicated the siphoning off of funds by non-existent companies. Yadav ordered an inquiry to probe the irregularities. However, after a public interest litigation, the Bihar High Court in March 1996 ordered the case to be handed over to the CBI. In June 1997, the CBI filed the charge sheet in the case and made Yadav an accused. The charge forced Yadav to resign from the office of Chief Minister, at which time he appointed his wife, Rabri Devi, to the office. In 2001, the Supreme Court of India transferred the scam cases to newly formed court in Ranchi, Jharkhand. The trial began in 2002. In August 2013, Yadav tried to get the trial court judge transferred, but his plea was rejected by Supreme Court of India. Yadav has been an accused in many of the 53-odd cases filed. He has been remanded to custody on multiple occasions because of the number of cases. Over 64 people were convicted in the case. Yadav was first sent to "Judicial remand" (Bihar Military Police guest house, Patna) on 30 July 1997, for 134 days. On 28 October 1998, he was again sent to the same guest house for 73 days. When the Supreme Court took exception to his guest house stay, he had also moved to the Beur jail in Patna. On 26 November 2001, Yadav was again remanded, in a case related to the fodder scam. Yadav accused the NDA of creating a conspiracy against him. On 1 October 2004, the Supreme Court served a notice to Yadav and his wife in response to a petition which alleged that they have been interfering with the investigation. Yadav, along with 44 other accused, was convicted on 30 September 2013 after being found guilty in fraudulent withdrawal of ₹ 37 crores (₹ 370 million) from Chaibasa treasury. Several other politicians, IAS officers were also convicted in the case. Immediately after the verdict was pronounced, Yadav was arrested and taken to Birsa Munda Central Jail, located at Ranchi. Yadav was disqualified as MP for six years. He was given a jail sentence of five years and a fine of 25 lakh rupees. He was released on bail from Birsa Munda Central Jail, after he completed the bail formalities in a Special CBI court, two-and-a-half months after his conviction. 1998 disproportionate assets case In 1998, a disproportionate assets case arising out of the fodder scam was registered against Yadav and Rabri Devi. In April 2000, both were made co-accused in the charge-sheet and surrendered. While Rabri Devi got bail due to being Chief Minister of Bihar, Yadav was remanded in Beur jail for 11 days. They were acquitted in 2006. The Bihar government wanted to appeal against the acquittal but the Supreme Court in 2010 ruled that the state government can not challenge such rulings. 1996 Fodder Scam – 2nd case Yadav was convicted and jailed in the second Fodder Scam case of INR8.927 million on the same day 23 December 2017 when his daughter Misa Bharti was also charged by the Enforcement Directorate of having disproportionate assets. Yadav was convicted 23 December 2017 and sentenced on 6 January 2018 to 3½ years' imprisonment and INR1,000,000 fine) for the fraudulent withdrawal of INR8,900,000 from the Deoghar district treasury between 1990 and 1994. 1996 Fodder Scam – 3rd case This case, pertaining to scamming INR356.2 million scammed from the Chaibasa tresury of West Singhbhum district, 1996 Fodder Scam – 4th case Yadav was convicted by the special CBI court in the fourth fodder scam case relating to alleged withdrawal of Rs 3.13 crore from the Dumka district treasury over two decades ago. CBI Judge awarded him two separate sentences of seven years each under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Prevention of Corruption Acts. 1996 Fodder Scam – 5th case This case, pertaining to the scamming Yadav has been found guilty of illegal withdrawals of Rs 139.35 crore from the Doranda treasury by a special CBI court in Jharkhand's Ranchi on 15 February 2022. In February 2022 A CBI court sentenced to five years jail term in fifth case and imposed a fine of Rs 60 lakh. 2005 Indian Railway tender scam 2005 Indian Railway tender scam, investigated by the CBI, is the bribery and corruption case where Lalu Prasad Yadav and his family are charged for illegally receiving prime property from the bidder as a bribe for corruptly awarding the Railway tender during Yadav's tenure as Railway Minister. Transfer of these properties as bribe to Yadav and his children were disguised using the shell companies; for example, wife Rabri Devi and three children, Misa Bharti, Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav, received Saguna Mor Mall property worth INR 45 crore through a shell company named Delight Marketing (renamed as Lara properties), and another shell company AB Exports was used to transfer properties worth INR 40 crore for a price of INR 4 lakh to Lalu's other three children Tejashwi Yadav, Ragini and Chanda. This case spawned several other related but independent cases, such as disproportionate assets case as well as tax avoidance case by ED. Under the Benami Transactions Prohibition Act recipient of such benami properties can be imprisoned for up to 7 years and fined up to 25% fair market value, and convicted politicians are barred from contesting elections or holding elected position for six years. 2017 Delight Properties case Investigated by the Enforcement Directorate (ED), against Yadav, his wife, son Tejashwi, daughter Misa and others, arose from the alleged illegal proceeds of the 2005 Indian Railway tender scam. The I-T department issued summons for 12 June 2017 to Misa Bharti, over Benami land deals worth Rs. 10 billion. Misa was officially charged by ED in disproportionate assets case on the same day her father was convicted again in the second fodder scam. After the CBI lodged an FIR on 5 July 2017, ED filed the Case Information Report (ECIR) on 27 July 2017 against Lalu, his wife Rabri, their younger son Tejashwi Prasad Yadav and others in the railways tender corruption and ill-gotten property scam that happened during Lalu's tenure as the Railway Minister. Taking action against this scam, ED of Income Tax Department on 12 September 2017 attached more than 12 properties in Patna and Delhi including the plot for the mall in Patna, a farm house in Delhi and up-market land in Palam Vihar in Delhi. This includes the transfer of INR450 million (45 crore) Seguna mor benami property transferred to Lalu's wife Rabri Devi and children Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav by using a shell company named Delight Properties, which was later renamed as Lara Properties. (Updated: 7 Jan 2018) 2017 AB Exports cases AB Exports was a shell company used to transfer, as a bribe for the railway tender scam, INR400 million (40 crore) benami property for a mere price of INR400,000 to Lalu's 3 children Tejashwi Yadav, Ragini Yadav and Chanda Singh. ED has attached this property and booked the 3 accused children of Lalu. (Updated: 7 Jan 2018) 2017 Patna zoo soil scam 2017 Patna zoo soil scam is an allegation/case against Lalu Prasad Yadav and his sons Tej Pratap Yadav and Tejaswi Yadav for the "gross irregularities" of selling soil from the construction of Tej Pratap's Saguna Mor mall basement. The bogus beautification scheme was for Rs 90 lakh to Patna zoo without inviting any tenders when Tej Pratap was the minister of environment and forest in Bihar, a department that controls the zoo. The scam came to the light in April 2017, a public interest litigation (PIL) was filed in Patna High Court in October 2017, court ordered the Bihar government to furnish the details of investigation, following which the case was handed over to Bihar Vigilance Investigation Bureau (VIB) department for the investigation under the Pollution Control Board Act, the Environment Protection Act and Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (update: 6 Jan 2018). The Bihar government said that official procedure was duly followed in the case and prima facie no evidence of irregularity has come into light in zoo soil deal. (Updated: 31 May 2020) Bail Yadav was convicted in the controversial Fodder Scam, and was serving a term until 17 April 2021, when he was granted bail from the Jharkhand High Court in the corruption scandal. Criticism Corruption, nepotism and dynasticism Yadav is one of the first noted politicians to lose parliamentary seat on being arrested in fodder scam as per Supreme Court decision banning convicted legislators to hold their posts. During his tenure as Chief Minister, Bihar's law and order was at lowest, kidnapping was on rise and private armies mushroomed. Writings Lalu Prasad has written his autobiography named Gopalganj to Raisina Road. Filmography Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav (Bollywood), as himself (special appearance) Mahua (Bhojiwood) Gudri Ke Lal (Bhojiwood) In media Books A writer named Neena Jha has written a book on Lalu Prasad named Lalu Prasad, India's miracle. Book named Laloo Prasad Yadav: A Charismatic Leader was published in 1996. "The Making of Laloo Yadav, The Unmaking of Bihar", updated and reprinted under the title "Subaltern Sahib: Bihar and the Making of Laloo Yadav", is a book based on Lalu's life by Sankarshan Thakur. Movies Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav, the Bollywood movie was released in 2005. It was based on a girl named Padmshree, her boyfriend Laloo, her lawyer Prasad and Yadav was Lalu Prasad himself as a special appearance. Upcoming Bhojpuri film Lalten is a biopic based on the life of Lalu Prasad. References External links |- |- |- |- Criminals from Bihar Indian politicians convicted of crimes Indian politicians convicted of corruption Indian politicians disqualified from office Chief Ministers of Bihar Finance Ministers of Bihar Railway Ministers of India 6th Lok Sabha members 9th Lok Sabha members 12th Lok Sabha members 14th Lok Sabha members 15th Lok Sabha members Rajya Sabha members from Bihar Leaders of the Opposition in the Bihar Legislative Assembly Indian socialists Janata Party (Secular) politicians Lok Dal politicians Janata Dal politicians Janata Party politicians Chief ministers from Janata Dal Rashtriya Janata Dal politicians Indian political party founders Indians imprisoned during the Emergency (India) V. P. Singh administration Lalu Prasad Indian Hindus Living people 1947 births Bihari politicians Members of the Bihar Legislative Assembly

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Sarah Elizabeth Blaskow (born 23 September 1976), known professionally as Sarah Blasko, is an Australian singer, songwriter, musician and record producer. From April 2002, Blasko developed her solo career after fronting Sydney-based band, Acquiesce, between the mid-1990s and 2001. She had performed under her then married name, Sarah Semmens, and, after leaving Acquiesce, as Sorija in a briefly existing duo of that name. As a solo artist Blasko has released six studio albums, The Overture & the Underscore (11 October 2004), What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have (21 October 2006) – which peaked at No. 7 on the ARIA Albums Chart, As Day Follows Night (10 July 2009) – which reached No. 5, I Awake (26 October 2012) – which made No. 9, Eternal Return (6 November 2015), and Depth of Field (23 February 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Blasko won Best Pop Release for her second album. Her third album won the Best Female Artist in 2009 and her fourth album was nominated for the same category in 2013. In October 2010 As Day Follows Night was listed at No. 19 in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums; the authors noted that it "turned on emotional subtlety and instrumental clarity. It sounded like little else in 2009, or most any other year". Early life Sarah Blasko is the stage name of Sarah Elizabeth Blaskow who was born on 23 September 1976 and grew up in Sydney. Her family had just returned from French-speaking Réunion, where both of her parents were Christian missionaries. Blasko's mother, Ellie (died c. 2000 of bowel cancer), was a nurse and her father, Nikolai David Blaskow, is a teacher. Her father is from a Bulgarian-German background. Blasko has an older sister, Kate. Upon their return to Australia, her parents frequently changed denominations including Anglican, Baptist, Uniting, and Charismatic; and settled at a Pentecostal church in Sydney, which later became the Hillsong Church. Blasko started singing at church. She later recalled "[music] was something I kind of fell into. My sister was always the singer of the family, I wanted to be a vet. I grew up going to church which was often a very musical place". While Blasko was attending high school, she formed a jazz-blues group with Kate. By the age of 15, Blasko was concerned that she "wouldn't make it" and this was partially influenced by the church's apocalyptic message of the "End of the World" and "Christ's Return". She eventually left the church in her final year of school, declaring that its emphasis on material success "just didn't fit" with her, or her interpretation of the scriptures. However, she has since stated that she still believes in God, despite her perception that such an admission is unpopular in Australia. By the age of 18, she had written her first songs. She had no formal singing lessons until age 19 and she also started playing guitar. At university, Blasko completed a degree in English literature and film. Acquiesce and Sorija In the mid-1990s, Blasko joined a Sydney band, Acquiesce, on lead vocals, with founding members Paul Camilleri on guitar, Steve Foxe on violin, Dave Hemmings on drums, Ted Langtree on bass guitar and her sister, Kate Halcrow, on harmony vocals. By 1998, tracks were co-written by Blasko and Camilleri, the group recorded an extended play, Aa for Acquiesce, which was released in September, 1999. Also that year, the group won a New South Wales campus band competition and received greater local attention. Dave Cullen (of Brotherhood Lush) replaced Langtree on bass guitar and they released a single, "Breathing In", in November, 2000. Both EP and single were produced by Hugh Wilson (King Luan, Vertigo, Science for Girls, Brooklyn Social, Huboi, The Blue Phoenix). Acquiesce disbanded by January 2001 and Blasko, as Sorija, teamed up with acoustic guitarist, Nick Schneider in a short-lived project, also named Sorija. Blasko remembered that "[things] started getting weird with the last band I was in when we ended up going to counselling together! This was about the time that I decided to leave and started working on some solo stuff". As an acoustic pop-electronic duo, they played gigs in Sydney until April 2002. Songs performed by the duo and written by Blasko include, "Be Tonight" and "New Religion"; co-written with Schneider: "Will You Ever Know" and "Your Way"; co-written with Wilson: "Sweet Surrender" and "Follow the Sun". Solo career 2002-2003: Prelusive By April 2002, Blasko was performing as a solo artist and, in late September, she released her debut six-track EP Prelusive, all the tracks were previously performed by Sorija. For the EP Blasko provided vocals, guitar and keyboards, and co-produced it with Schneider (also on guitar, keyboards, and flute) and Wilson (also on guitar and keyboards). Other session musicians were Jeff de Arujo on drums and Willem New on bass guitar. Two tracks were solely written by Blasko, two co-written with Schneider and two with Wilson. She launched the EP at The Hopetoun Hotel, and by October the lead track, "Your Way", had been added to national radio station Triple J's play list. She produced the music video for "Your Way", which appeared on Channel V and rage in November. Blasko had released and promoted her material independently, with financial assistance from her then-manager, Craig New. She explained "[I was] starting to get my head around computer home recording ... I decided to put out my own EP independently. Most of it was recorded at home. I was fortunate enough to have JJJ pick up on one of the tracks almost immediately". Blasko signed to Brisbane-based label, Dew Process, which repackaged and re-released Prelusive in March 2003. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2003 she received her first nomination: as Best Female Artist for her work on Prelusive and "Your Way". 2004-2005: The Overture & the Underscore On 11 October 2004, Blasko released her debut studio album, The Overture & the Underscore, which had been recorded in Hollywood at the studio of engineer Wally Gagel during the first half of the year. She co-produced the album with Gagel and fellow songwriter Robert F. Cranny. Gagel engineered and mixed the album, with assistance from Bruce MacFarlane. Joey Waronker (Beck, Atoms for Peace) played drums and percussion on all songs, while Cranny played various instruments on the album. Blasko recalled: "I stayed in a backpackers hostel right near Hollywood Boulevard and worked on the album six days a week for two months ... I really wanted there to be something pretty classic about it. I was honestly surprised by what a 'complete' record it sounded to me when I stepped away from it". The album peaked in the Top 40 on the ARIA Albums Chart. It was reviewed by Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald, who felt "Blasko works in the territory where Ed Harcourt and Fiona Apple shine, taking some of the new acoustic framework (think Turin Brakes) and some of the folk-meets-electronica stuff that came out in the post-Portishead years and applies them to straightforward pop songs". Allmusic's Tammy La Gorce finds Blasko is "an entrancing artist who sings exceptionally well but is bent on making you guess what brews within her heart rather than pouring it out to you". Triple J declared it the Feature Album of the Week because it is "a beautiful encapsulation of her life and influences and a showcase for her truly amazing voice". Three music videos were produced for album tracks: "Don't U Eva", "Always Worth It" and "Perfect Now". Her debut EP and album were focused around acoustic guitar and utilised both live and programmed drums. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2005, Blasko received four nominations: Album of the Year, Best Female Artist, Breakthrough Artist – Album, and Best Pop Release. By 2008 The Overture & the Underscore received platinum accreditation by ARIA for shipment of over 70,000 copies. 2006-2007: What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have Blasko spent April 2006 recording her second album, What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have, in Auckland, New Zealand at Roundhead Studio, which is owned by Crowded House front man, Neil Finn. She co-produced the album with Cranny and Jim Moginie (ex-Midnight Oil); which featured musical contributions from Dave Symes, de Araujo, Moginie and Cranny, and was mixed by Victor Van Vugt. All the tracks were co-written by Blasko with Cranny. The album was released in Australia on 21 October, which debuted at No. 7 on the ARIA Albums Charts, and in 2008 it received platinum accreditation. Zuel felt the album "doesn't sound like a 15-year-old's choice. It is darker and more subdued than her debut, which sold to teens and adults and marked Blasko as an intriguing rising star; the second album is liberally spotted with regrets, plans for reconciliations and a quest to make sense of life". Susan Frances at AbsolutePunk.net rates the musicianship and production higher than Blasko's vocals, where "[she] is made up to sound more impressive than she actually is on the album ... [she has] a limited range so the tunes have a mundane drone. Her vocal melodies transform the girl next door to a femme fatale figure which may explain why so many of those radiant reviews for her album come from male writers". Frances summarises the album as "pleasant and relates to people who are going through a loss or a low point in their lives ... tailored for those going through woeful moods". The first radio-only single released from the album was "[explain]" on 11 September, with a music video previously viewable at her official website. Other videos were provided for her next single, "Always on this Line", and for "Planet New Year". "Always on this Line" was listed at No. 58 and "[explain]" at No. 79 on Triple J's Hottest 100 for 2006. In October 2006 Blasko showcased tracks from her second album with an appearance at the Legs 11 concert, a breast cancer benefit, which included Tex Perkins and Tim Rogers playing with the Sydney Youth Orchestra. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 Blasko won her first trophy: Best Pop Release; she was also nominated for Best Female Artist, Best Cover Art (with Sharon Chai); and Paul McKercher was nominated for Engineer of the Year for the album. 2008-2009: As Day Follows Night In 2008, Blasko co-composed the score, with Stefan Gregory (sound designer), for Bell Shakespeare's production of Hamlet, which ran from June to August. Diana Simmonds of Stage Noise was disappointed by an aspect of the opening night "[l]ess successful on opening night at least were the songs which open and then punctuate the action, composed and performed by [Blasko]. Her face mike and/or the sound balance muddied the lyrics and the one thing you need in Shakespeare is to hear the words". Whereas Helen Barry of Australian Stage felt Blasko was "truly sublime ... [h]er musical accompaniments add a layer of melancholy rapture to the performance which goes to the heart of Hamlet's grief, anger and loss. Ingeniously, Blasko is incorporated into the production itself as one of the players, which creates a seamless quality to her musical interludes". While working on the Hamlet score, Blasko also began composing for her third studio album, As Day Follows Night. She had written all the tracks on her own – except "Over & Over", which was co-written with David Byrne – without input from long term co-writer and co-producer, Cranny. From late January 2009 Blasko recorded it in Stockholm, Sweden, and blogged on her official site about her experiences. She decided to record in a simpler and more straight forward manner – without electric guitars and keyboards. The album was produced by Bjorn Yttling (of Peter Bjorn and John) and was released in Australia on 10 July, peaking at No. 5 on the ARIA Albums Chart. It appeared in the Top 100 on European albums charts: Belgium, France, Sweden, and Switzerland. Jason Treuen described the album for Rolling Stone as "a bold step in [her] journey as an artist and one that strips off the layers of her previous work to expose both her startling talent and her most naked emotions and fears". Adam Greenberg for Allmusic felt it followed "a more piano-driven path. The result is a surprising one. [Her] voice is at once fragile and careful, holding a lot of breathy similarities to contemporary female singer/songwriters (including Feist and Sara Bareilles), while the music incorporates many contemporary touches from the meeting points between electronica and folk. Though there are pieces of tinkling, lilting modernity throughout, there are also massive throwbacks to sounds that, in today's world, are seemingly lost and gone". The lead single, "All I Want", appeared ahead of the album in May but did not reach the Australian top 50. Its third single, "We Won't Run", peaked at No. 44 on the ARIA Singles Chart, and No. 21 on the Belgian Ultratip Chart. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2009 Blasko won her second trophy: Best Female Artist; her album was also nominated for Album of the Year, Best Pop Release, and Best Cover Art (with Sharon Chai); while "All I Want" was nominated for Best Video – directed by Head Pictures, Damon Escott, Stephen Lance. By the end of the year the album had received platinum accreditation. In October 2010 it was listed at No. 19 in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums; the authors noted that it "turned on emotional subtlety and instrumental clarity. It sounded like little else in 2009, or most any other year". In July 2009 Blasko had also released a live album, Live at the Forum, which had been recorded during a performance at the Melbourne venue, Forum Theatre. During mid-2010 she repackaged As Day Follows Night with Live at the Forum for a 2× CD album. Nick Mason of The Dwarf website felt that although "[the live disc] showcases without doubt a faithful recreation of her latest work", it was "a fairly flimsy bonus to an album that can easily stand alone in its brilliance". 2010-2011: Seeker Lover Keeper During August 2010, Blasko recorded an album, Seeker Lover Keeper, in New York for the group of the same name with fellow founding members and Australian singer-songwriters, Sally Seltmann and Holly Throsby. The group's debut album peaked at No. 3 on the ARIA Albums Charts in June 2011, Blasko's highest chart entry. The trio embarked on a national tour to promote the album in June and July that year. Of the album's 12 tracks each of the artists had an equal share of four tracks, however Blasko takes lead vocal on five tracks including "Rely on Me" written by Throsby, Blasko described "I was reluctant to do it but the girls kept asking me. I couldn't hear myself singing that one until Holly made me do it. I enjoyed it because the song has real generosity to it". Greenberg felt Blasko's lead vocals were on the "most memorable tracks, using her signature form of lilting power". By year's end all three artists had returned to their respective solo careers. 2012-2014: I Awake On 26 October 2012 Blasko issued her fourth studio album, I Awake, which reached No. 9 on the ARIA Albums Chart. To start recording tracks she had travelled first to Sweden earlier in the year and then in May went on to Sofia where she was backed by the Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra with strings arranged by Nicholas Wales. Blasko produced the album on her own as her preferred choice, Yttling, was unavailable. Beat Magazine's Chris Girdler noted "[it] has a completely different feel to [Seeker Lover Keeper] ... [and] is an insular, soul-searching piece that gets its balance from Blasko's gorgeous vocal guiding us through the trials and tribulations, as well as a sympathetic symphonic instrumentation". Craig Mathieson at The Age noted her last two albums were "starkly personal song cycles, staffed by jazz-inflected rhythms, sparsely exotic textures and a relentless sense of an artist getting to grips with her life. But if the previous record embraced solitude as a means of self-control, then the new one tackles coming to grips with the outside world". To promote the album, in February the next year, she toured every Australian state: where she invited the local capital city orchestra to accompany her on stage. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2013 Blasko was nominated for Best Female Artist and Best Contemporary Adult Album. 2015-2016: Eternal Return In 2015, Blasko collaborated with Nick Wales, a Sydney-based composer, to co-create the soundtrack for Emergence, a theatre dance performance. The album of the same name was issued in May 2015 by Blasko and Wales. In August 2015 Blasko announced that her fifth studio album, Eternal Return, was due for release in November with a preview in September–October at the Sydney Opera House. On 6 November 2015 Eternal Return was released. The album debuted on the Australian ARIA charts at #6. In the same week of Eternal Return's release Blasko announced a tour in support of the album that would take place in April 2016. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2016 Blasko was nominated for Best Female Artist and won for Best Adult Alternative Album. 2017-present: Depth of Field On 10 November 2017, Blasko announced her sixth studio album called, Depth of Field. This came with the announcement of the first single from the album "Phantom" and accompanying video directed by Mclean Stephenson. Much of Depth of Field was written and recorded during a two-week artist residency at Campbelltown Arts Centre in Sydney, Australia, alongside long time collaborator Nick Wales, David Hunt, and Ben Fletcher. The album was released on 23 February 2018. During the writing and recording process of Depth of Field, film maker Brendan Fletcher filmed the process and turned the footage into an upcoming documentary called Blasko, Narrated by Blasko herself, the documentary is an intimate portrait of the artist as she composes the new album. The documentary aired on 14 November 2017 on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Touring Sarah Blasko has toured extensively in Australia, as well as the US, Canada, UK and Ireland. Although the exact configuration varies, she performs with a five or six piece band usually consisting of drums, electric and synth bass, acoustic and electric guitar plus keyboards and various samplers/ effects units. Due to the breadth of arrangement most of the touring musicians are multi-instrumentalists. She also performed in a duo with Cranny accompanying on guitar and keyboards. In both formats, Blasko plays acoustic guitar and occasional keyboards. She has toured with folk/roots artists such as Ray LaMontagne and played outdoor rock festivals. In March 2005 she appeared at the South by Southwest festival where she wanted to "give some people who don't have a clue who you are, or those who have maybe heard a little about you, the chance to see what you do with their own eyes & ears. More than anything, you've just got to be yourself". Blasko has toured the UK and Ireland with Tom McRae, and US and Canada with Ray LaMontagne, James Blunt and Martha Wainwright. She has played at Woodford Folk Festival, The Falls Festival, Homebake, Splendour in the Grass, Festival of the Sun, WOMADelaide festival and in 2006 joined the national Big Day Out tour. In March 2007 Blasko performed a special concert in Perth, Western Australia in the Octagon Theatre of the University of Western Australia. Blasko supported by a string quartet and a local guitarist. In January 2009, Blasko played to thousands at the Southbound festival in Busselton, Western Australia. In May 2010, Sarah Blasko toured the UK supporting The Temper Trap. Later that year she also toured through the rest of Europe. In 2012, Blasko performed with Snow Patrol at their acoustic shows in Melbourne (30 September) and Sydney (1 October). She joined lead singer Gary Lightbody for the duet "Set Fire to the Third Bar". During 2013 Blasko toured Australia, in February she was supported by a different state symphony orchestra at each capital city, as well as her regular backing band: Ben Fletcher (ex-Bluebottle Kiss, The Devoted Few) on guitar and other instruments; David Hunt on piano and ukulele; Fredrik Rundqvist on drums; and David Symes on bass guitar. By July she was touring with her backing band and Fletcher was also her support act. In 2015, at her preview show of Eternal Return, Blasko introduced an entirely new backing band. She was joined by Lawrence Pike on drums, Donny Benet on bass, Sarah Belkner on keys, autoharp and backing vocals, Neil Sutherland on keyboards and synthesizer and David Hunt on guitar and keyboards. In 2017, Blasko embarked on an extensive tour around metro and regional areas of Australia, performing solo to audiences. Blasko states that she "hopes to reimagine material from all of my albums and premiere some new songs as well," and that it "feels like the right time to challenge myself, take the leap and finally do some headline shows on my own." Personal life Blasko married Cameron Semmens in 1998. Semmens is a performance poet and, in the latter years of being a member of Acquiesce, Blasko performed under her married name, "Sarah Semmens". Blasko and Cameron each had a complementary Shinto tattoo on their respective shoulders. The marriage lasted three years; Blasko told Zuel in 2006 that she had "an early unsuccessful marriage". Album notes for Blasko's debut solo EP, Prelusive, acknowledge Cameron as her muse. From early 2004 Blasko worked with fellow musician, co-composer, and co-producer Robert F. Cranny, including on her first two albums. Prior to her third album being recorded in January 2009 their creative and personal relationship "had ended some time back." She appeared at a breast cancer benefit concert in October 2006 as "[other] forms of cancer have affected my family, and I have friends whose families have been impacted by breast cancer. It made sense to me to play at such an event". Blasko has vintage taste in clothes, music, and art; in 2009 she revealed in a Rolling Stone Australia interview: "I like things that are old and have been lived in. It probably started as a kid when my family shopped at Vinnies because we hardly had any money. I like things that stand the test of time". Blasko gave birth to a son in July 2015, with her partner Dave Miller. Discography The Overture & the Underscore (2004) What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have (2006) As Day Follows Night (2009) I Awake (2012) Eternal Return (2015) See also Seeker Lover Keeper Awards and nominations APRA Awards The APRA Awards are held in Australia and New Zealand by the Australasian Performing Right Association to recognise songwriting skills, sales and airplay performance by its members annually. Blasko has been nominated for one award. |- | 2010 | "All I Want" | Song of the Year | ARIA awards Blasko has won three Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Music Awards from 19 nominations. |- | 2003 || Prelusive || Best Female Artist || |- |rowspan="4"| 2005 || rowspan="4"|The Overture & the Underscore || Album of the Year || |- | | Best Female Artist || |- | | Best Pop Release || |- | | Breakthrough Artist – Album || |- | rowspan="4"|2007 || rowspan="2"| What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have || Best Female Artist || |- | | Best Pop Release || |- | | Sharon Chai, Sarah Blasko – What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have || Best Cover Art || |- | | Paul McKercher – What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have || Engineer of the Year || |- |rowspan="5"| 2009 ||rowspan="3"| As Day Follows Night || Album of the Year || |- | | Best Female Artist || |- | | Best Pop Release || |- | | Sharon Chai – As Day Follows Night || Best Cover Art || |- | | Head Pictures, Damon Escott, Stephen Lance – "All I Want" || Best Video || |- |rowspan="1"| 2010||rowspan="1"| Krozm (Chris Hill, Ewan Macleod and Lachlan Dickie) - "Bird On A Wire" || Best Video || |- |rowspan="2"| 2013 ||rowspan="2"| I Awake || Best Female Artist || |- | | Best Adult Contemporary Album || |- |rowspan="2"| 2016 ||rowspan="2"| Eternal Return || Best Female Artist || |- | | Best Adult Alternative Album || Australian Music Prize The Australian Music Prize (the AMP) is an annual award of $30,000 given to an Australian band or solo artist in recognition of the merit of an album released during the year of award. The commenced in 2005. |- | 2006 | What the Sea Wants, The Sea Will Have | Australian Music Prize | |- | 2009 | As Day Follows Night | Australian Music Prize | |- | 2015 | Eternal Return | Australian Music Prize | |- Australian Women in Music Awards The Australian Women in Music Awards is an annual event that celebrates outstanding women in the Australian Music Industry who have made significant and lasting contributions in their chosen field. They commenced in 2018. |- | 2018 | Sarah Blasko | Songwriter Award | J Awards The J Awards are an annual series of Australian music awards that were established by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's youth-focused radio station Triple J. They commenced in 2005. |- | J Award of 2006 |What the Sea Wants, the Sea Will Have | Australian Album of the Year | |- | J Awards of 2009 |As Day Follows Night | Australian Album of the Year | |- | J Awards of 2012 |I Awake | Australian Album of the Year | Other awards References External links Interview from Fasterlouder, 2004 Radio Interview. Nov 2006, 3SYN 90.7FM Melbourne, Australia Sirens of Song: Sarah Blasko 1976 births Living people ARIA Award winners Australian women singer-songwriters Australian indie rock musicians Australian indie pop musicians Australian multi-instrumentalists Australian people of Bulgarian descent Australian people of German descent Singers from Sydney 21st-century Australian singers 21st-century Australian women singers

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Ten of the first twenty confirmed COVID-19 cases in the United States occurred in California, the first of which was confirmed on January 26, 2020. All of the early confirmed cases were persons who had recently travelled to China, as testing was restricted to this group. On January 29, 2020, as disease containment protocols were still being developed, the U.S. Department of State evacuated 195 persons from Wuhan, China aboard a chartered flight to March Air Reserve Base in Riverside County, and in the process may have contributed to spread within the state and the US at large. On February 5, 2020, the U.S. evacuated 345 more citizens from Hubei Province to two military bases in California, Travis Air Force Base in Solano County and Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, San Diego, where they were quarantined for 14 days. A state of emergency was declared in the state on March 4, 2020, and as of February 24, 2021 remains in effect. A mandatory statewide stay-at-home order was issued on March 19, 2020, that was ended on January 25, 2021. On April 6, 2021, the state announced plans to fully reopen the economy by June 15, 2021. As of December 6, 2021, the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) has reported 4,845,295 confirmed cumulative cases and 74,209 deaths in the state, the highest number of confirmed cases in the United States, and the 41st-highest number of confirmed cases per capita. It has the highest count of deaths related to the virus, and the 35th-highest count of deaths per capita. , California administered 40,669,793 COVID-19 vaccine doses, the largest number of doses nationwide, and currently 11th of 50 states in terms of per capita dose administration. The slow initial rollout of vaccinations, along with the timing and scope of state COVID-19 restrictions, triggered a wide-scale effort to recall Governor Gavin Newsom in 2021. California is the origin of the Epsilon variant of SARS-CoV-2, which as of March 2021, accounted for 35% of all confirmed cases of COVID-19 in the state. Timeline On January 26, 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirmed the first case in California. The person, who had returned from travel to Wuhan, China, was released from the hospital in Orange County on February 1 in good condition to in-home isolation. On January 31, the CDC confirmed the state's second case, a man in Santa Clara County, who had recently traveled to Wuhan. The man recovered at home and was released from in-home isolation on February 20. On January 29, 2020, the U.S. Department of State evacuated 195 of its employees, their families, and other U.S. citizens from Hubei Province aboard a chartered flight to March Air Reserve Base in Riverside County. On February 2, the CDC confirmed the state's third case in a woman in Santa Clara County, California, who had recently traveled to Wuhan. On the same day, the CDC reported the country's tenth and eleventh cases in San Benito County, including the second instance of human-to-human transmission. On February 5, the U.S. evacuated 345 citizens from Hubei Province and took them to two air bases in California, Travis Air Force Base in Solano County and Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, San Diego, to be quarantined for 14 days. On February 6, 2020, a woman from San Jose, California, became the first COVID-19 death in the U.S., though this was not discovered until April 2020. The case indicated community transmission was happening undetected in the state and the U.S., most likely since December. On February 15, the government evacuated 338 U.S. nationals stranded aboard the cruise ship Diamond Princess, which had been held in quarantine in Yokohama, Japan. Fourteen of those repatriated people were infected with the virus. Five more nationals who were also reported as being infected were evacuated from the ship the following week, and were quarantined at Travis Air Force Base; several more cases among the evacuees were later confirmed. On February 26, 2020, a case of unknown origin was confirmed in a resident of Solano County. The UC Davis Medical Center in Sacramento said that when the person was transferred there on February 19, the medical team suspected it was COVID-19 and asked the CDC to test for SARS-CoV-2. The CDC initially refused since the person, who had no known exposure to the virus through travel or close contact with a known infected individual, did not meet the criteria for testing. The person was ultimately tested on February 23; the test results returned positive on February 26. After this first confirmed case of community transmission in the U.S., the CDC revised its criteria for testing patients for SARS-CoV-2, and on February 28, 2020, began sending out the new guidelines for healthcare workers. On March 2, 2020, amidst concerns over the spread of coronavirus in the state, Governor Gavin Newsom declared a State of Emergency in California. March 4 the first reported coronavirus fatality in the state of California happens in Placer County. On March 24, a teenager who tested positive and died in Lancaster, part of Los Angeles County, appeared to have become the first individual in the U.S. under the age of 18 to die of COVID-19. It was initially reported that the 17-year-old boy was denied health care at an urgent care clinic because he did not have health insurance; he was then transported from that clinic to Antelope Valley Hospital, during which time he went into cardiac arrest. In reality, the boy did have insurance and contacted Kaiser Permanente who told him to instead go to Antelope Valley Hospital. In transit, the patient coded and six hours of efforts in the emergency room were ultimately not successful in reviving him. Los Angeles County Public Health officials said they asked the CDC to investigate alternative causes of death. On June 18, 2020, Newsom ordered a statewide mask mandate due to the rising number of cases and deaths, requiring citizens to wear masks or other coverings in most public spaces with a few exceptions. Many local governments had previously dropped mandatory mask-wearing measures. On July 9, he reported a new record number of COVID-19-related deaths in the state. By July 22, California surpassed 409,000 COVID-19 cases, surpassing New York for the most in the nation. On August 19, 2020, Dr. Sonia Y. Angell resigned as the CDPH Director and State Public Health Officer. Governor Gavin Newsom indicated Angell's resignation was related to data issues with the California Reportable Disease Information Exchange (CalREDIE) system that resulted in nearly 300,000 backlogged COVID-19 test results. On August 10, 2020, Sandra Shewry was appointed as acting director and Dr. Erica Pan, California state epidemiologist, was named acting state public health officer. By September 3, 2020, Hispanic and Latino Americans comprised up to 60 percent of COVID-19 cases in the state, ostensibly due to the large population of the demographic and many of them being a part of the essential workforce. Filipino Americans were the second-most affected, in part due to a high percentage of workers in healthcare on the frontlines, and as well as having a very high percentage of essential workers much like Latino Americans in California. On October 26, 2020, San Francisco and Oakland phased out Google's sister company Verily's COVID-19 testing system following concerns about patients’ data privacy and complaints about its funding, which despite intention to boost testing in low-income Black and Latino neighborhoods was benefiting higher-income residents in other communities. On December 30, 2020, a confirmed case of a new, more contagious SARS-CoV-2 variant from the United Kingdom was reported in California. The patient is from Southern California, according to the announcement from Newsom. On January 6, 2021, the CDC announced that it had found at least 26 confirmed cases of the more contagious SARS-CoV-2 variant in California. As of March 2, 2021, 189 sequences in the B.1.1.7 lineage have been detected in California since the lineage was first identified. As of March 2, 2021, 1,608 sequences in the B.1.427 lineage and 3,903 sequences in the B.1.429 lineage have been detected in California. Equipment shortage California formerly had a strategic stockpile of medical supplies for responding to epidemics. In 2006, then-Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger ordered creation of an epidemic-ready medical equipment stockpile, including three 200-bed mobile hospitals with 50 million N95 respirators, 2,400 ventilators, and 21,000 additional patient beds.  Governor Jerry Brown cut the budget for warehousing and keeping up the reserve in 2011, responding to the Great Recession economic downturn. Personal protective equipment for healthcare workers As early as January, 2020, a survey by the California Department of Public Health found that many Californian health care providers were having trouble obtaining adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), such as masks, gowns, and eye protection. By mid-March, 2020, when Newsom issued the first statewide shelter-in-place order, 220 of 292 California hospitals surveyed already reported that they were having to limit use of masks, often severely. Even with limitations in place, Newsom estimated that California healthcare facilities were still using about 46 million masks each month during the pandemic. As safety equipment shortages continued throughout the first months of the pandemic, many doctors, nurses and emergency medical service workers expressed fears and frustrations at being asked to reuse safety gear or wear homemade and less effective masks and at the overall lack of proper PPE, which does not provide adequate protection from COVID-19 exposure. , local agencies reported 127 deaths from a total of 23,513 confirmed positive cases among healthcare workers in California. Newsom's administration made several attempts to procure masks and other protective equipment for healthcare workers, including: multiple attempts at large-scale mask purchases, including failed deals with Blue Flame Medical, which was investigated by the US Department of Justice, and Bear Mountain Development Co., as well as a successful, if initially delayed, purchase from BYD; and a marketplace portal where individuals and businesses could offer PPE for donation or sale, attracting many small donations and fraudulent business posts that overwhelmed the site managers. , California's stockpile reached approximately 86 million N-95 masks and 111 million surgical and procedural masks. Hospitals and ventilators At the start of 2020, California had 416 hospitals, yielding a statewide capacity of about 78,000 beds. In mid-March, 2020, when the state was preparing for a surge of COVID-19 cases, Newsom submitted an unfulfilled request for 10,000 ventilators from the federal government. The state government continued to acquire ventilators, but was able to flatten the curve enough that on April 6, 2020, California donated 500 ventilators to the Strategic National Stockpile for use in other states. , hospitals statewide report that 36% of ICU beds were available still, as were 72% of ventilators. However, the hardest-hit counties were quickly reaching capacity, and reportedly borrowing ventilators from neighboring hospitals to meet demand. Community response In March 2020, there were calls for crowdsourcing on social media, to donate any masks, goggles, or other equipment to healthcare professionals. On March 22, Major Bay Area medical centers, UCSF and Stanford Health Center placed a called to action for donations of personal protective equipment. Local public health offices started coordinating donation efforts. Maker Nexus, a non-profit maker space in Sunnyvale, began making face shields to donate to local hospitals and other health care facilities, using its 3D printers and laser cutters. This effort grew rapidly as individuals in the Bay Area began using home-based 3D printers and bringing the result to Maker Nexus to complete the shields and deliver them to the recipients. By the first of April, more than 300 community members were using their home 3D printers for this effort. Together with other groups and individuals, the maker space is also making cloth face masks to substitute for N95 masks in non-critical applications and helping to coordinate face mask deliveries. California had no central coordination of informing about vaccinations, and was among the worst at vaccine distribution efficiency in the U.S., with only 37 percent of its 4.4 million doses having been administered by January 20. Volunteers created VaccinateCA, an information website, in January 2021. Government response Statistics and data Charts of medical cases by county: San Francisco County (data from Timeline) San Mateo County Santa Clara County (for tabular data, see COVID-19 cases) Alameda County (for tabular data, see COVID-19 cases) Contra Costa County Marin County Weekly all-cause deaths in California : Impact Cancellations, closures and postponements Effects on education Education in California has been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, while most students in the state have switched to distance learning as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, thousands of them lack laptops and Wi-Fi. By April 10, 2020, a school of 21 students became the only school in the state to remain open. However, by April 29, the school closed indefinitely, making it the last school in the state to do so. K–12: On March 17, 2020, the California Department of Education provided guidance for K–12 schools: This includes information regarding: Distance learning, resources that support distance learning, remote learning guidance, designing a high-quality online course, grading and graduation requirements, and internet access; school meals; Special education; child care and student supervision in the event of a school closure; and parent resources. The state also authorized $5.3 billion in the 2020-21 budget for Learning Loss Mitigation Funds, designed to help schools improve teaching and learning and access to virtual school. California Community Colleges System (CCCS) issued guidance regarding Novel Coronavirus 2019. On May 18, Chancellor Eloy Ortiz Oakley said that California's 115 community colleges will likely continue to offer their classes fully online in the fall, noting that many colleges in the system had already announced this intention. Oakley added that he fully encouraged this decision as he believes it "will be the most relevant way for us to continue to reach our students and to do it in a way that commits to maintaining equity for our students." California State University (CSU) system: On March 17, 2020, CSU issued a response to the COVID-19 outbreak, including that "the CSU is following guidance provided by the Centers for Disease Control and the U.S. Department of State". The communication also included information regarding a plan for CSU's 23 campuses to accelerate their transition to online instruction. On May 12, California State University Chancellor Timothy White announced that the CSU system would be offering fall 2020 courses primarily online "with some limited exceptions." For spring 2020 alone, the CSU system was projecting a revenue loss of $337 million due to the pandemic, as a result of losses from student housing, parking and campus bookstores, combined with costs related to cleaning, overtime and the shift to distance education. University of California (UC) system: On April 2, 2020, UC president Janet Napolitano and the chancellors of the 10 campuses gave assurances to UC employees. On April 6, 2020, the UC Health Data Initiative launched daily updates on COVID-19 tests. On the same day, the UC launched a grant program to spur COVID-19 related research. Pertinent information for students, faculty, staff, and community is available for each campus: UC Berkeley, UC Davis, UC Irvine, UCLA, UC Merced, UC Riverside, UC San Diego, UC San Francisco, UC Santa Barbara, and UC Santa Cruz. On May 20, University of California president Janet Napolitano told the UC Board of Regents that "every campus will be open and offering instruction" in fall 2020, adding that she "anticipates that most, if not all of our campuses, will operate in some kind of hybrid mode" involving a mix of online and in-person instruction. From the time that UC campuses shut down in mid-March through the end of April, the UC system experienced a $1.2 billion loss due to the pandemic. Effects on prisons Alameda County: On March 20, 2020, Alameda County officials announced that 247 people would be released from Santa Rita Jail, located in Dublin. Los Angeles County: On March 17, the county Sheriff's Department announced that it had reduced the inmate population by 600 during the previous two weeks in an attempt to keep prisoners from being infected by coronavirus. Santa Barbara County: , the county jail had released 324 prisoners. The Sheriff announced on a Friday night that one inmate has tested positive for COVID-19. San Diego County: On March 16, the Sheriff's Department said it had started reducing the number of people being accepted into the county's seven jails and had received approval for early release of some prisoners. Other measures included in-cell meals, a suspension of visitation, and suspension of jail programs. On October 11, 2020, an investigation revealed that California's prison factories continued operations even after COVID-19 outbreaks happened in the prisons. Rehab programs, religious services, and educational classes were all stopped, but the prison factories continued operating, where inmates worked for hours without wearing masks. Effects on religion Various faith organizations claim that social distancing orders issued by the state violate the constitutional right to freedom of religion and assembly. Bans of all gatherings, no matter the size, outside of places of residences put in place by local authorities have also been challenged. On March 13, the Catholic Diocese of San Jose in California closed all diocesan schools from until at least April 20. It suspended public Masses and dispensed with the obligation to attend Mass from March 14 until further notice. On March 18, the California Catholic Conference of bishops followed suit, suspending the public celebration of Mass throughout the state until further notice. Many churches are conducting services online during the time of closure. The United States Supreme Court denied to grant an emergency injunction on Newsom's May orders limiting churches to 25% capacity or 100 persons maximum ahead of the Pentecost on May 31. The denial was decided on a 5–4 vote, with Chief Justice John Roberts joining the four liberal Justices in denying the order by stating that "Although California's guidelines place restrictions on places of worship, those restrictions appear consistent with the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Similar or more severe restrictions apply to comparable secular gatherings, including lectures, concerts, movie showings, spectator sports, and theatrical performances, where large groups of people gather in close proximity for extended periods of time." In two ongoing cases, the Supreme Court granted two orders on February 5, 2021, that enjoined the state from banning religious services in the Tier 1 areas, though agreed that the state may limit capacity to 25% of the church and can ban singing and chanting under the pandemic conditions. The orders found that California may have reason to restrict capacity, but they cannot restrict that capacity to zero, and that California has shown unequal treatment of religious groups compared to other industries, particularly Hollywood. Effects on sports The first U.S. sports cancellations attributed to the pandemic occurred in California; in accordance with a local health emergency in Riverside County, the 2020 BNP Paribas Open tennis tournaments at Indian Wells were postponed on March 8, 2020. The 2021 edition of the tournament has also been postponed indefinitely, with organizers seeking to host it later in the year. After Santa Clara County banned all large gatherings larger than 1,000 people for a three-week period beginning March 11, the San Jose Sharks of the NHL and the Golden State Warriors of the NBA announced that all of their remaining home games of the regular season would be played behind closed doors with no spectators. With their game on March 12 against the Brooklyn Nets, the Warriors were to be the first professional sports team in the United States to play a home game behind closed doors due to the pandemic. However, on March 11, after Utah Jazz players tested positive for COVID-19, the NBA suspended its regular season, and almost all other professional sports leagues and college athletics programs followed suit over the days that followed. On March 16, the CCCAA also canceled the remainder of the winter seasons as well as the spring seasons. They also restored a season of eligibility to those athletes who had already participated in the early season of spring sports. The NAIA canceled their spring season on the same day. Also on March 16, the Ojai Tennis Tournament, the oldest and largest amateur tennis tournament in the United States, canceled its 2020 event; the 2021 edition was later nixed as well. At the high school level, the California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) canceled the basketball state championship tournament after the Northern California and Southern California semifinals. During the tournament, Sheldon, Archbishop Riordan, and the Menlo School withdrew from the tournament after their schools were shut down. The CIF gave their reevaluation of the situation on April 3 and cancelled all spring sports. In motorsports, the NASCAR Cup Series canceled the 2020 Toyota/Save Mart 350 in Sonoma, as Sonoma County would not allow sporting events and any other mass gathering to occur at that time. The IndyCar Series was required to cancel the 2020 Grand Prix of Long Beach, and the Monterey Grand Prix (which had initially been rescheduled as a twin race weekend to make up for other cancelled races). In December 2020, it was announced that NASCAR's 2021 race weekend (including the Cup Series Auto Club 400) at Auto Club Speedway in Fontana would be canceled (with the race weekend moved to Daytona International Speedway's road course). Accordingly, a planned reconstruction of the track was also postponed to 2022 It was also announced that the 2021 IndyCar Series schedule would be modified to move the Grand Prix of Long Beach from April to September as the season finale, with organizers stating that this would "afford us the best opportunity to provide our guests with a fun and exciting experience in a safe and unrestricted environment." The Pac-12 Conference (which includes several universities in California) delayed its college football season to November, and all games were closed to the public. On December 19, 2020, it was announced that the 2021 Rose Bowl (a College Football Playoff semi-final game) would be re-located from Pasadena to AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas due to the current surge in local cases, and inability to invite the families of players as spectators. It was the first time since 1942 (due to wartime restrictions on public gatherings on the west coast following the Pearl Harbor attack) that the Rose Bowl was not be held in Pasadena. Unemployment , over the preceding three weeks, California had processed over 2.4 million applications for unemployment assistance. A survey conducted April 17 found that fewer than half of the residents of Los Angeles County were employed, although some of this unemployment was supposed to be temporary. Effects on the economy In January 2020, California expected a $5.6 billion surplus in the state budget by the time the fiscal year ended on June 30. In May, however, the Department of Finance changed its projection, saying that the state would instead have a deficit of $54.3 billion. Some of this shortfall was caused by expenses for COVID-19 response (an unanticipated $7.1 billion for health programs and an additional $6 billion for other types of responses), but most was caused by the expectation that tax revenue—personal income, corporate, and sales—will be one-quarter lower than originally projected. However, in January 2021, California revised its earlier estimate and instead expected a $15 billion one-time budget surplus, largely due to increased tax revenues from wealthy residents who were doing better than expected. In May 2021, Governor Newsom announced that the state's budget surplus had grown to $75.7 billion. Vaccination On November 13, 2021, California expanded booster dose availability to all adults, against the recommendations of federal officials. Challenges and overall progress Following administration of the first vaccinations on December 14, 2020, the rollout of COVID-19 vaccinations in California proceeded slowly. The effort was hampered by a variety of factors, including vaccine supply shortages, poor communication between federal and state authorities, and shortages in both the supply of vaccines as well as persons to administer them. The problems were exacerbated by the state's large, decentralized structure, which resulted in a delegation of the response to 61 local health departments and resulted in a piecemeal effort with widespread regional disparities. The rollout was initially slowed by restricting it to health care workers and nursing homes: Other groups were held back while the state worked to complete vaccination of the first groups. Additional challenges included the state's large population, prioritization of the order in which groups were deemed eligible to receive the vaccine, and appointment systems throughout the state that favored tech savvy persons with smart-phones. Elderly populations in particular were disadvantaged by the vaccination rollout, experiencing long lines, lack of seating, lack of restroom facilities and in some cases requiring QR codes on cell phones or printed paper to prove eligibility. Minority residents of the state were in addition found to be receiving a smaller share of the vaccines in the initial months than their fraction of the population. In order to address these discrepancies, the governor announced in early March 2021 that the state would be setting aside 40% of its COVID-19 vaccine doses for the hardest-hit communities and establish a "vaccine equity metric". , California has administered 54,681,532 COVID-19 vaccine doses at a daily rate of 158,924 doses. Overall, 74.8% of the population has received their first dose, 61.5% has been fully vaccinated, and 6.2% has received a booster dose. 85.3% of the state's supply has been used. The state has administered the largest number of doses nationwide, and is 12th of 50 states in terms of per capita dose administration. Mass vaccination sites in certain regions continued to experience severe shortages as of March 2021. Vaccination sites , a website had been established by the state for scheduling and/or being notified of eligibility for COVID-19 vaccines, and vaccination providers expanded throughout the state to include retail pharmacies, federal mass vaccination sites, and local health clinics. , a state-government provided directory of vaccination sites had yet to be established, which has prompted the development of VaccinateCA, a crowdsourced volunteer website listing vaccination sites in the state in a dynamic manner as the number of sites and locations continuously vary. Digital vaccination cards The California Digital COVID-19 Vaccine Record has the same information as a CDC vaccine card: name, birthdate, vaccination dates and vaccine type. It will also include a QR code that can be scanned by a SMART Health Card app for proof of vaccination as an official record of the state of California. The SMART Health Card Verifier app is a free download for iOS and Android to scan and verify a vaccination record. "The Digital COVID-19 Vaccine Record is easy to use: a person enters their name, date of birth, and an email or mobile phone number associated with their vaccine record. After creating a 4-digit PIN, the user receives a link to their vaccine record that will open upon re-entry of the PIN. The record shows the same information as the paper CDC vaccine card: name, date of birth, date of vaccinations, and vaccine manufacturer. It also includes a QR code that makes these same details readable by a QR scanner." This uses the open-source SMART Health Card Framework. Mitre Corporation co-leads the Vaccination Credential Initiative coalition. Brian Anderson is the Chief Digital Physician at Mitre Corporation and a co-founder of Vaccination Credential Initiative. It is related to the CommonPass, an international standard designed by the World Economic Forum and The Commons Project. See also Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in the United States – for impact on the country COVID-19 pandemic – for worldwide impact COVID-19 vaccination in the United States Notes References External links California CDPH Office of Public Affairs, news releases by California Department of Public Health (CDPH) California COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic Articles containing video clips Disasters in California Health in California

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The Dunmanway killings, also known as the Dunmanway murders or the Dunmanway massacre, refers to the killing (and in some cases, disappearances) of thirteen Protestant men and boys in and around Dunmanway, County Cork, between 26–28 April 1922. This happened in a period of truce after the end of the Irish War of Independence (in July 1921) and before the outbreak of the Irish Civil War in June 1922. All the dead and missing were Protestants, which has led to the killings being described as sectarian by some. Six were killed as purported British informers and loyalists, while four others were relatives killed in the absence of the target. Three other men were kidnapped and executed in Bandon as revenge for the killing of an IRA officer Michael O'Neill during an armed raid. One man was shot and survived his injuries. It is not clear who ordered the attacks or carried them out. However, in 2014 the Irish Times released a confidential memo from the then-Director of Intelligence Colonel Michael Joe Costello (later managing director of the Irish Sugar Company) in September 1925 in relation to a pension claim by former Irish Republican Army (IRA) volunteer Daniel O'Neill of Enniskean, County Cork, stating: "O'Neill is stated to be a very unscrupulous individual and to have taken part in such operations as lotting [looting] of Post Offices, robbing of Postmen and the murder of several Protestants in West Cork in May 1922. A brother of his was shot dead by two of the latter named, Woods and Hornbrooke [sic], who were subsequently murdered." Sinn Féin and IRA representatives, from both the pro-Treaty side, which controlled the Provisional Government in Dublin and the anti-Treaty side, which controlled the area the killings took place in, immediately condemned the killings. The motivation of the killers remains unclear. It is generally agreed that they were provoked by the fatal shooting of IRA man Michael O'Neill by a loyalist whose house was being raided on 26 April. Some historians have claimed there were sectarian motives; others claim that those killed were targeted only because they were suspected of having been informers during the Anglo-Irish War, and argue that the dead were associated with the so-called "Murragh Loyalist Action Group", and that their names may have appeared in captured British military intelligence files which listed "helpful citizens" during the Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921). Background Political context The Irish War of Independence was brought to an end by negotiations in mid-1921. The truce between British Forces and the IRA came into effect on 11 July 1921, after talks between the British and Irish political leaders. Under the terms, British units were withdrawn to barracks and their commanders committed to "no movements for military purposes" and "no [use of] secret agents noting descriptions of movements". For its part, the IRA agreed that, "attacks on Crown forces and civilians [were] to cease", and to "no interference with British Government or private property". The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed on 6 December 1921, after negotiations between British and Irish leaders. On 7 January the Dáil (Irish Parliament established in January 1919) narrowly accepted the Treaty, by 7 votes. The Dáil was then split into two factions, those who accepted and those who rejected the Treaty. Under the terms of the treaty, a Provisional Government was set up to transfer power from the British regime to the Irish Free State. British troops began to be withdrawn from the Free State in January 1922, though they retained the option to intervene in Irish affairs should the Treaty be rejected and the Irish Republic re-established. On 26 March 1922, part of the IRA repudiated the authority of the Provisional Government on the basis that it had accepted the Treaty and disestablished the Irish Republic declared in 1919. April saw the first armed clashes between pro and anti-Treaty IRA units, including the anti-Treaty occupation of the Four Courts in Dublin, the killing of a pro-Treaty IRA officer in Athlone (Hopkinson, p. 75), and a gun attack on government buildings in Dublin. According to historian Michael Hopkinson, "the transitional [Free State] government lacked the resources and the necessary acceptance to supply effective government". In this situation, some IRA anti-Treaty units continued attacks on the remaining British forces. Between December 1921 and February 1922, there were 80 recorded attacks by IRA elements on the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), leaving 12 dead. Between January and June 1922, twenty-three RIC men, eight British soldiers and eighteen civilians were killed in West Cork, part of the area which would become the Irish Free State. In County Cork West Cork, where these killings took place, had been one of the most violent parts of Ireland during the Irish War of Independence. It was the scene of many of the conflict's major actions, such as the Kilmichael and Crossbarry ambushes. It contained a strong Irish Republican Army (IRA) Brigade (the 3rd Cork Brigade) and also a sizeable Protestant population – roughly 16%, some of whom were loyalists and affiliated to a loyalist vigilante group. The local IRA killed fifteen suspected informers from 1919–21, nine Catholics and six Protestants. They responded to the British burning of republican homes by burning those of local loyalists. British intelligence wrote that "many" of their informers in West Cork "were murdered and almost all the remainder suffered grave material loss". Republicans suspected the involvement of a local "Loyalists civil wing" in the killing of two republicans, the Coffey brothers, in Enniskean in early January 1921. The discovery of documents in Dunmanway by republicans later supposedly confirmed the existence of counter-insurgency espionage in the area, which resulted in many purported informers getting safe passage to England. British forces were withdrawn from west Cork in February 1922. The only British forces left in the county were two battalions of the British Army in Cork City. The local IRA was almost unanimously Anti-Treaty and not under the control of the Provisional Government in Dublin in April 1922. At the time of the Dunmanway killings, none of the leaders of the Anti-Treaty Cork IRA were in the county. Tom Hales and Sean Moylan were in Limerick, along with much of the Third and Fourth Cork IRA Brigades, trying to prevent the occupation of that city's military barracks by Pro-Treaty troops. Tom Barry and Liam Deasy were in Dublin attending an Anti-Treaty IRA meeting. They returned to Cork on 28 April, purportedly with a view to stopping any more killings. Paul McMahon wrote that the British Government had authorised £2,000 to re-establish intelligence in southern Ireland, especially in Cork, in early April 1922. On 26 April, the day after the raid on Hornibrook home, three British intelligence officers (Lts Hendy, Drove and Henderson) and a driver drove to Macroom with the intention of gathering intelligence in west Cork, where they entered an inn. There, the officers were drugged and taken prisoner by IRA men, taken out the country to Kilgobnet and then shot and their bodies dumped. In Dunmanway In Dunmanway itself, a company of the Auxiliary Division evacuated their barracks in the workhouse. The IRA found confidential documents and a diary they left behind: these included a list of names. The information – according to historian Meda Ryan – was so precise "only a very well informed spy system could account for some of the entries in the book". Flor Crowley, who analysed the diary, said "it was the work of a man who had many useful 'contacts' not merely in one part of the area but all over it." The list, however, did not contain any of the names of the Protestants killed. The IRA's Third Cork Brigade had killed 15 informers between 1919 and 1921, according to Tom Barry, adding "for those who are bigots" that the religious breakdown was nine Catholics and six Protestants. Ryan writes, by way of justification, that the Auxiliaries' files showed that some Protestants in Murragh had formed a group known as the Loyalist Action Group or Protestant Action Group, affiliated to the Anti-Sinn Féin League and the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland. The IRA suspected the group of passing information to British forces during the War of Independence. These included a Black and Tans military intelligence diary. This diary was reproduced with the names excised in The Southern Star newspaper, from 23 October to 27 November 1971, in consecutive editions. Photographs of the diary were published in The Southern Star, which published them again with another article on the intelligence haul in its Centenary Supplement in 1989. Killings in Ballygroman On 26 April 1922, a group of anti-Treaty IRA men, led by Michael O'Neill, arrived at the house of Thomas Hornibrook, a former magistrate, at Ballygroman, East Muskerry, Desertmore, Bandon (near Ballincollig on the outskirts of Cork City), seeking to seize his car. Hornibrook was in the house at the time along with his son, Samuel, and his nephew, Herbert Woods (a former Captain in the British Army and MC). O'Neill demanded a part of the engine mechanism (the magneto) that had been removed by Thomas Hornibrook to prevent such theft. Hornibrook refused to give them the part, and after further efforts, some of the IRA party entered through a window. Herbert Woods then shot O'Neill, wounding him fatally. O'Neill's companion, Charlie O'Donoghue, took him to a local priest who pronounced him dead. The next morning O'Donoghue left for Bandon to report the incident to his superiors, returning with "four military men", meeting with the Hornibrooks and Woods, who admitted to shooting O'Neill. A local jury found Woods responsible and said O'Neill had been "brutally murdered in the execution of his duty". O'Donoghue and Stephen O'Neill, who were present on the night of the killing, both attended the inquest. Some days later, Woods and both Hornibrook men went missing, and in time were presumed killed. The Morning Post newspaper reported that "about 100" IRA men returned from Bandon with O'Neill's comrades and surrounded the house. It reported that a shootout ensued until the Hornibrooks and Woods ran out of ammunition and surrendered. Meda Ryan claims the report in the Morning Post was "exaggerated". Peter Hart writes that the Hornibrooks and Woods surrendered on condition their lives be spared. When Woods admitted it was he who fired the shot that killed O'Neill, he was beaten unconscious, and the three hostages were "driven south into hill country", where they were shot dead. Some time later the Hornibrook home was burned, the plantation cut down and the land seized. On 13 April, Michael Collins had complained about British newspaper reports on attacks against Protestants in Ireland to Desmond Fitzgerald. Collins said that while some of the coverage was "fair newspaper comment", the "strain of certain parts is very objectionable". Alice Hodder, a local Protestant from Crosshaven some 23 miles to the south east, wrote to her mother shortly afterwards about Herbert Woods,His aunt and uncle had been subject to a lot of persecution and feared an attack, so young Woods went to stay with them. At 2:30 am armed men ... broke in ... Woods fired on the leader and shot him ... They caught Woods, tried him by mock court martial and sentenced him to be hanged ... The brothers of the murdered man then gouged out his eyes while he was alive and then hanged him ... When will the British Government realise that they are really dealing with savages and not ordinary normal human beings? The letter was forwarded to Lionel Curtis, Secretary of the Cabinet's Irish Committee, on which he appended the comment "this is rather obsolete". Matilda Woods later testified before the Grants Committee, while applying for £5,000 compensation in 1927, that her husband had been drawn and quartered before being killed and that the Hornibrooks were taken to a remote location, forced to dig their own graves and shot dead. Both Ryan and Hart note that Matilda Woods was not in Ireland when her husband disappeared and there is no record of his body ever being located. Killings in Dunmanway, Kinneigh, Ballineen, and Clonakilty Over the next two days, ten Protestant men were shot dead in the Dunmanway, Ballineen and Murragh area. In Dunmanway on 27 April, Francis Fitzmaurice (a solicitor and land agent) was shot dead. That same night, David Gray (a chemist) and James Buttimer (a retired draper) were shot in the doorways of their homes in Dunmanway. The next evening, 28 April, in the parish of Kinneigh, Robert Howe and John Chinnery were both shot dead. In the nearby village of Ballineen, sixteen-year-old Alexander McKinley was shot dead in his home. In Murragh, Reverend Ralph Harbord was shot in the leg but survived; he was the son of Rev. Richard C.M. Harbord, also from the Murragh area, who was the target for his connections to the supposed Loyalist Action Group or Protestant Action Group. Later, west of Ballineen, John Buttimer and his farm employee, Jim Greenfield, were both shot dead. The same night, sixteen-year-old Robert Nagle was shot dead in his home on MacCurtain Hill in Clonakilty, ten miles south. Nagle had been shot in place of his father Thomas, caretaker of the Masonic Hall in Clonakilty whose name was on an IRA list of enemy agents and who had gone into hiding, along with Alexander McKinley's uncle. John Bradfield was shot in place of his brother Henry. Henry Bradfield had been "wanted" by the IRA as they believed he had been providing information leading to IRA "arrests, torture and deaths". Aftermath According to Niall Harrington – a Pro-Treaty IRA officer at the time – more than 100 Protestant families fled West Cork in the aftermath of the killings. Alice Hodder in the same letter cited above wrote:For two weeks there wasn't standing room on any of the boats or mail trains leaving Cork for England. All loyalist refugees who were either fleeing in terror or had been ordered out of the country ... none of the people who did these things, though they were reported as the rebel IRA faction, were ever brought to book by the Provisional Government.</blockquote> One Cork correspondent for The Irish Times who saw those who had left go through the city noted that, "so hurried was their flight that many had neither a handbag nor an overcoat." Hodder reported that Protestants in the area were being forcibly evicted from their farms by republicans on behalf of the Irish Transport Union, on the basis that they were bringing down wages, although she conceded that the local Pro-Treaty IRA reinstated them after it was informed. Tom Hales, Commandant of O'Neill's Brigade (3rd Cork), ordered that all arms be brought under control while issuing a statement promising that "all citizens in this area, irrespective of creed or class, every protection within my power."Ryan, p. 215. Arthur Griffith echoed Hales' sentiments, although Hales was actively engaged in armed defiance of Griffith's government at this time. Speaking on 28 April in the Dáil, Griffith, President of the Pro-Treaty Irish Provisional Government, stated:<blockquote>Events, such as the terrible murders at Dunmanway ..., require the exercise of the utmost strength and authority of Dáil Éireann. Dáil Éireann, so far as its powers extend, will uphold, to the fullest extent, the protection of life and property of all classes and sections of the community. It does not know and cannot know, as a National Government, any distinction of class or creed. In its name, I express the horror of the Irish nation at the Dunmanway murders. Speaking immediately afterward, anti-treaty TD Seán T. O'Kelly said he wished to associate the "anti-treaty side" in the Dáil with Griffith's sentiments. Speaking in Mullingar on 30 April, the Anti-Treaty leader Éamon de Valera condemned the killings. A general convention of Irish Protestant churches in Dublin released a statement:Apart from this incident, hostility to Protestants by reason of their religion, has been almost, if not wholly unknown, in the 26 counties in which they are a minority. However, a deputation of Irish Protestants who met with Winston Churchill in May 1922 told him there was, "nothing to prevent the peasants expropriating [the lands of] every last Protestant loyalist" and that they feared a repeat of the massacres that Protestants had suffered in the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and the 1798 Rebellion. Churchill remarked that the events were "little short of a massacre". The Belfast News-Letter on 28 April under the headline "Protestants Slain" spoke of "ghastly crimes of the night" and the existence of an appalling state of affairs in the south and west Cork area "where a general massacre of Protestants appears to be in progress". The Northern Whig on 1 May wrote that "it is a matter of notoriety that the murders, far from being unprecedented, are only the last in a long series which began as far back as 1641." Local Cork IRA commanders Tom Barry, Liam Deasy and Seán Moylan, returned to the county and ordered that armed guards be put at the homes of Protestants to prevent further violence. Barry, who had returned immediately from Dublin upon hearing of the killings, ensured that some of those who attempted to take advantage of the situation by stealing livestock owned by Protestants were firmly discouraged. Responsibility Recent evidence confirms that the killings were carried out by the IRA even if it is not clear who precisely ordered their execution as no member ever claimed responsibility. Historian Peter Hart has written that the killers were identified by several eyewitness sources as local IRA men. Hart concludes that from two to five separate groups must have done the killing, and writes that they were likely "acting on their own initiative – but with the connivance or acquiescence of local units". Hart's analysis of the identity of the killers has been challenged by other historians, including Rev. Brian Murphy (OSB), Niall Meehan and John Borgonovo. Hart reported that Clarina Buttimer, a relative of one of those killed (James Buttimer), based on newspaper reports and her 1927 Irish Grants Committee statement, "seem[ed] to have recognised at least one of her husband's attackers". Meehan pointed out that these newspapers reported Buttimer as asserting, "Though there were a number of men there, she only saw one, whom she did not recognise", and that her Grants Committee statement was similar. Meehan wrote that Frank Busteed, the person identified and later omitted without explanation, would have undermined Hart's sectarianism thesis as Busteed, although raised by his Catholic nationalist mother, had a Protestant father. John Borgonovo in Spies, informers and the 'Anti-Sinn Féin Society', the Intelligence War in Cork City, 1920–21, comments that Hart could "not offer any evidence of the IRA's motivations" for the killings of suspected informers in Cork other than their occupation. Meehan notes Borgonovo's detailed analysis of the IRA in Cork, and that Borgonovo disagreed profoundly with Hart's discounting the IRA's intelligence gathering capability. Borgonovo described it as "irresponsible" of Hart to discount IRA claims of the Dunmanway victims' guilt in the killing of suspected or known informers without offering an analysis of IRA intelligence-gathering operations. Commenting on Hart's work on the IRA in Cork, he wrote that "While Dr. Hart's conclusions can be suspected, I do not believe they can be sufficiently documented." At the time the press, including the Belfast Newsletter (1 May 1922), the Irish Times (29 April 1922), and The New York Times, stated that the killings at Dunmanway were in reprisal for the ongoing killings of Catholics in Belfast, such as the McMahon and the Arnon Street killings. Tim Pat Coogan suggests that O'Neill's death precipitated the Dunmanway murders. Hart wrote that the killing of O'Neill "provided the spark" which was inflamed by the "Belfast pogroms" Ryan wrote "The outrages were 'sparked' when Capt. Woods shot IRA man Michael O'Neill in the hallway of Thomas Hornibrooke's house". The motive(s) for the targeting of the victims also remains a point of contention. Niall Meehan and Rev. Brian P. Murphy (OSB) have each written that the victims were killed because they were informers on behalf of Crown forces, citing an intelligence diary left by Auxiliaries as they evacuated Dunmanway, however the diary contains none of the names of the thirteen murdered men. In 2013, that list was located in the Florence Begley collection in the Bureau of Military History. Hart posits these were primarily revenge killings, perpetrated without a clear rationale by "angry and frightened young men acting on impulse". He suggests the targets were local Protestant men whose status as enemies in the eyes of the killers was codified in "political language of the day ... landlord, landgrabber, loyalist, imperialist, Orangeman, Freemason, Free Stater, spy, and informer" and continues, "these blanket categories made the victims' individual identities ... irrelevant." Coogan concurred, writing, "the latent sectarianism of centuries of ballads and landlordism claimed ten Protestant lives" that week. Ryan claims, by way of justification, that all of those killed were described as "committed loyalists" and "extremely anti-Republican". She says that they had been in contact with the Essex Regiment based in Bandon during the conflict, supplying information on the local IRA and that it was "firmly established" later that Fitzmaurice and Gray had been informers, and that their information had done a great deal of damage to the IRA. In Gray's case—as a woman who had been a ten-year-old girl during the Troubles told Ryan—he had allegedly sought out "information from children in their innocence", hence children were warned against talking to him. According to Ryan, Fitzmaurice, Gray, Buttimer, and Harbord were associated with the above-mentioned Loyalist Action Group, based in Murragh and known locally as the Protestant Action Group, and that all four were involved in espionage. Ryan claimed to have seen, during a 1981 interview with a surviving Cork IRA flying column volunteer named Dan Cahalane, all thirteen names of the Dunmanway victims listed as "helpful citizens" in Auxiliaries' documents found by republicans after the departure of the British forces from southern Ireland. Hart writes that the term informer was used as a form of "generic abuse" and found "no evidence whatsoever" that they had been active in opposing the IRA. Meehan writes that the killings were not "motivated by either land agitation or by sectarian considerations". Rev. Murphy agrees, citing a British document, A Record of the Rebellion in Ireland in 1920–1921. Meehan and Rev. Murphy conclude "the IRA killings in the Bandon area were motivated by political and not sectarian considerations. Possibly, military considerations, rather than political, would have been a more fitting way to describe the reason for the IRA response to those who informed." because:[T]he truth was that, as British intelligence officers recognised in the south, the Protestants and those who supported the [UK] Government rarely gave much information because, except by chance, they had not got it to give. An exception to this was in the Bandon area where there were many Protestant farmers who gave information. Although the Intelligence Officer of the area was exceptionally experienced and although the troops were most active it proved almost impossible to protect those brave men, many of whom were murdered while almost all the remainder suffered grave material loss. Most recently, historian John Regan, in his paper, The Bandon Valley Massacre Revisited, argued that the killings might be best understood in light of purported IRA fears that the British were planning a reoccupation of the south of Ireland and was a preemptive move against people believed to have been informers. Regan argued that the selective use of evidence by Peter Hart in an attempt to emphasize a sectarian dimension to the killings highlights a wider problem in the politicization of Irish history. TV programme on RTÉ Cork's Bloody Secret, shown on RTÉ on 5 October 2009, dealt with the Dunmanway killings. The programme was produced by Sean O Mealoid, and included interviews with two descendants of two of the Protestant victims. It included a dialogue between two local historians, Donald Woods and Colum Cronin, and featured Prof. John A. Murphy and Eoghan Harris (who later debated the issue in the Irish Times), alongside UCC historian Andy Bielenberg. Notes Bibliography Barry Keane, Massacre in West Cork: The Dunmanway and Ballygroman Killings, Mercier Press, 2014, 288 pp., Tom Barry, Guerrilla Days in Ireland, (Cork 1997) Niall C. Harrington, Kerry Landing, August 1922: An Episode of the Civil War, Anvil Books, 1992:8; Tim Pat Coogan, Michael Collins, Arrow Books (1991); Meda Ryan, Tom Barry, IRA Freedom Fighter, (Mercier, 2005) (paper back edition); Peter Hart, The I.R.A. and Its Enemies: Violence and Community in Cork, 1916–1923, Oxford University Press (1999); Paul McMahon, British Spies and Irish Rebels – British Intelligence and Ireland 1916–1945, (Boydell, 2008); John Borgonovo, Spies, Informers and the 'Anti-Sinn Féin Society', The Intelligence War in Cork City, 1920–21 (Kildare 2007); Rev. Brian Murphy, OSB, The Month, a Review of Christian Thought and World Affairs, September–October 1998 Rev. Brian Murphy, OSB, Irish Political Review, Vol 20 No. 7 July 2005; , pages 10–11 Eoin Neeson, The Civil War 1922–23, (Dublin 1989); Mass murder in 1922 Irish War of Independence 1922 in Ireland History of County Cork Massacres in Ireland Massacres of men April 1922 events Violence against men in Europe