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+{"metadata":{"id":"002f94a1a49e09eed1f036ffcc917a29","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/44942e5b-2800-49c8-8306-8cc192d7a8ae/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries Agriculture and nutrition series 33 CTA Technical Brief","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Development of local food crops and fishery value chains for sustaining food systems and enhancing incomes and nutrition in PICs hinges on an enabling environment for the agro-industry -and the private sector as a whole. The potential of agro-based MSMEs to harness innovation, increase economic activity and create employment in support of socio-economic development in the region is undisputed. But, to unleash the potential of these agribusinesses, a conducive and business-friendly environment that promotes entrepreneurship, growth and development is key."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The procedures for starting and operating a business in PICs range from following simple to extremely daunting and costly processes, irrespective of size, economic status, and geographic location. The level of complexity depends on the policy, regulatory and legislative environment of the particular country. These factors not only govern how businesses are formed, operate, grow and evolve; they also determine the way business agreements and contractual arrangements are structured and enforced; the way debt recovery, lending and costumer protection are administered; and how property rights are ascertained."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"The World Bank's Ease of Doing Business comparative analysis for 2018 and 2019 (World Bank, 2019) shows a slight improvement for the Solomon Islands, no change for Fiji, and increasing difficulty for Kiribati, RMI, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu (Table 1). The assessment indicates a need for reform to make business creation, operations and evolution more attractive to public and private investment, and to support sustainable economic development and growth and social inclusion and improvement."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries  Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries represent up to 88.27% of all enterprises in Samoa 10 and these private businesses play a vital role in supporting ongoing economic development in the country."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"As part of the Innov4AgPacific project, the Innovation Grant Facility (IGF) was launched in 2018 through two competitive calls across the seven PICs, targeting fully or majority owned Pacific agro-based SMEs with successful business models. The IGF was designed to help the enterprises speed up the way they access and use knowledge to conceive and develop new and improved products, processes and services that can increase their earnings, create more jobs and build more resilient societies. Sixtyfour SMEs applied for the IGF with their businesses registered as either Sole Proprietor, Limited Liability Companies, Cooperatives, Charitable Trust or Industrial Association. The annual turnover of these SMEs ranged from USD 1,000 to 1 million and the number of employees ranged from 1 to 36 full time employees and from 1 to 30 part time employees."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"The business development needs identified through the IGF for use of the funds included: product development, feasibility studies, business and technical advice/"}]},{"head":"Profiling MSMEs and agribusinesses in PICs","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"There is variation in the categorisation of MSMEs among the seven PICs (Table 2). Formal SMEs contribute more than 50% of global employment and up to 40% of GDP in developing countries 5 . These figures would be significantly higher if the unrecorded informal sector, in which many agroenterprises fall, was also considered. In many of the PICs, there is no legal framework that specifically defines agribusiness, although they are referred to within national MSME frameworks. They are generally defined by the number of employees, annual sales turnover and asset size, and also sometimes described as formal and informal."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Across the region, most farmers and fishermen are classified as micro enterprises while middlemen, logistic agencies, agro-food processors and exporters, and wholesalers and retailers are categorised as SMEs. The vast majority of market vendors are classified as micro enterprises and exist mainly in the informal sector. For example, agribusinesses in Fiji are classified under the SME Act 6 . There are 24,486 formal MSMEs in Fiji but this does not include the informal sector 7 , of which 50% 8 are women-owned and managed 9 . MSMEs Figure 1 shows a breakdown of the proposed use of funds. Grant funding was awarded to 23 SMEs."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Having a clear, legally binding definition of MSMEs -and agro-enterprises in particular -is important for designing policies and programmes and planning tailored interventions that benefit these enterprises. It would also enable benchmarking, nationally and regionally."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"One example of the positive return on investing in the MSME development under the IGF can be seen in the experience of Nature's Way Cooperative (NWC). As part of their modernisation programme, NWC introduced a more efficient digital traceability system for growing their export market (see Figure 2). They digitised the grower's supply form and developed a webbased traceability system, which is essential to the export process, thus giving them a competitive edge. "}]},{"head":"Standardising registration procedures for agro-based SMEs to reduce costs for doing business, and more innovative funding mechanisms to support SMEs and farmer organisations to improve value chain and agri-business performance are needed.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Ease of Doing Business:"}]},{"head":"Starting a business","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Starting a business in the seven PICs has its challenges as summarised by the comparative analysis against New Zealand (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Agro-food processing, retailing and sales enterprises often require a more stringent process for business licensing, including inspection by a certified health inspector to ensure hygiene and food safety procedures are in place, endorsement by the National Fire Authority on fire proofing and safety, and the approval of the town and rural authorities/municipalities. There is a lack of harmonisation between different municipalities and rural authorities, and a high cost associated with the licensing procedures."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"The geographical challenges and dispersed population of the PICs present other constraints. In Kiribati, accessing the government agencies based in South Tarawa, the capital city, is a major challenge for rurally based businesses. Similarly, in Vanuatu, there is minimal access to business development services for the majority of the population (approximately 75%) that is based in rural areas."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Recommended solutions to some of these challenges include harnessing new technologies and digital platforms for facilitating business registration and licensing, strengthening capacity of business development service providers, and developing agribusiness acceleration/ incubation programmes especially for the benefit of rural and remote areas. PICs can also consider leveraging the experience and knowledge of retirees who are communitybased to provide coaching, mentoring and financial management services to MSMEs and agribusinesses at reasonable fees."}]},{"head":"Dealing with construction permits","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Dealing with construction permits can be a cumbersome exercise for agribusinesses and other MSMEs in PICs. Besides the number of procedures and vetting institutions, the turnaround time for processing can be as long as 6 months, delaying business commencement. For large-scale poultry, piggery, butchery and food processing factories, special approvals regarding environmental impact assessments, health compliance and waste management plans also need to be incorporated into the master plan for the construction permit to Agriculture and nutrition series"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries be approved. For agro-exporters and food processors, proposed building designs need to align with international standards such as the HACCP certification requirements as a prerequisite for entry into certain markets."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"To help address the challenges, PICs need to simplify the business licensing requirements and procedures to minimise the costs for companies and reduce the turnaround time for issuing building permits. Having one agency to process building permit applications would alleviate some of the constraints. In addition, the processes can be automated in a shared online/digital platform which allows electronic submission by applicants, issuance "}]},{"head":"Access to electricity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Accessing a consistent supply of electricity is extremely expensive for agribusinesses and other MSMEs (particularly in Fiji, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu). Normal grid power connection is not possible for the Pacific archipelago setting and thus represents a unique challenge. This is a problem for agro-based companies that process and store fresh, raw materials and chilled and frozen products, and thus require a consistent power supply. The unreliability of supply can therefore hinder the expansion of such enterprises."}]},{"head":"Registering property","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Land ownership is one of the most complex and sensitive issues throughout PICs due to the traditional significance and value it holds as a symbol of heritage and customary ownership. Registering property can facilitate access to finance as it can be used as collateral when applying for bank loans."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"In consultation with landowners, governments should consider establishing native and customary digital land registration systems that support individuals and communities interested in using available lands as collateral."}]},{"head":"Access to credit","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"High   "}]},{"head":"Ensure to increase savings into emergency funds and always be in constant communication with your financier.\"","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"There is critical need for innovation in the financial sector in support of the development of agribusinesses and other MSMEs. This can be achieved if certain regulations are passed to prompt commercial banks to lend a portion of their deposits portfolio to the agriculture and MSME sectors, to support a robust credit/loan ecosystem."}]},{"head":"Paying taxes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Tax policy shapes the business environment."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"It generates the revenue needed to fund essential public goods and services. At the same time, it can serve as an incentive or a deterrent to the development and growth of enterprises. Most MSMEs in the PICs are overwhelmed by the number of different taxes and mandatory payments, as well as the total taxes and contribution rates they are required to comply with and the post-filing processes (Table 6)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Some PICs offer tax incentives to encourage development within the agricultural sector. For example, Tonga offers import duty and consumption tax exemptions for agricultural tools, live animals, stock feed, packaging material, insecticides, pesticides, fungicide, agricultural equipment, seeds, fertiliser and implements including hand tools 12 . In Fiji, MSMEs in the agricultural and fisheries sector with an annual gross or sales revenue below USD 228,500 are exempt from income tax. Tax reforms in the PICs must achieve the revenue, equity, efficiency and simplicity needed for MSME sustainability."}]},{"head":"Trading across borders","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Exports are a vital source of economic growth in PICs, impacting foreign exchange earnings, employment creation and income generation. PICs also rely heavily on imports of goods including fuel, machinery and other inputs for manufacturing and services. There are challenges associated with the time, cost and logistical processes of exporting and importing goods and services."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Exporting from RMI is relatively cheap and easy with the total cost of border and documentary compliance averaging USD 318 and the time for completion of the process, estimated to take 84 hours. These are well below the regional averages of USD 491.60 and 144 hours respectively. In May 2017, Fiji ratified and implemented the World Trade Organization Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which contains provisions for expediting the movement,"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries "}]},{"head":"Enforcing contracts","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"A country's legal process can impact enterprise development in the way the national judicial system resolves civil disputes and overseas enforcement of binding contracts. Table 7 compares the factors involved in enforcing contracts, such as the time taken to file a complaint and the costs incurred, as an indication of the quality of the judicial processes in the seven PICs. As shown, the judicial process can take between 350 and 660 days in the seven PICs."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"In Samoa, it takes on average 455 days to enforce a contract and the cost is approximately 24.4% of the value of the claim. The same process in Tonga takes less time at 350 days and costs 30.5% of the value of claim, however, the difference in quality of the judicial process is marginal."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"There is need to streamline commercial dispute resolutions and increase the efficiency of enforcement procedures for the benefit of investors and entrepreneurs. Introducing electronic payments and instituting simplified procedures for small claims, as well as setting time limits, should be considered by PICs."}]},{"head":"Resolving insolvency","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Reducing the time and costs associated with recovery after insolvency is also important."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Fiji demonstrates a relatively high recovery rate of 43.77%, and the process takes up to 1 year and 10 months. In Vanuatu, recovery takes on average 2.6 years but the recovery rate is slightly higher at 45.2%. In Tonga, recovery takes 2.7 years and the recovery rate is only 28.3%. The recovery cost as a percentage of the estate value is 10% for Fiji, 22% for Tonga and 38% for Vanuatu."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Pacific MSMEs and especially those operating in the agro-sector play an important role in value chain development and food system sustainability in PICs, but, to realise their full potential, they need an enabling environment that nurtures and facilitates the business set-up and operation."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Harmonising MSME classification is recommended, as well as harnessing new technologies, including digital platforms to simplify various processes for establishing and operating agribusinesses. Greater coordination between the relevant authorities and streamlining the number of agencies involved is also expected to benefit MSMEs by reducing the costs and turnaround times associated with business start-up and operation processes. Reforming the tax regime to make it simpler and to achieve greater efficiency and equity will also favour MSME development and growth."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Increasing funding opportunities for agro-MSMEs is encouraged to provide these businesses with financing for upgrading facilities and products, increasing process efficiencies and accessing technical support. Such funding can facilitate innovation, business modernisation and competitiveness, as seen in the example of Innov4AgPacific's IGF. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Breakdown of 64 Innov4AgPacific IGF applications and the proposed use of funds "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Innov4AgPacific Innovation Grant Facility: Meeting export certification requirements "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Ease of Doing Business 2019 and 2018 ranking Economy Ranking  Ease of Doing # Reforms  EconomyRankingEase of Doing# Reforms    Business score implemented Business scoreimplemented  DB2019 DB2018 DB2019 DB2018 DB2018 DB2019 DB2019DB2018DB2019DB2018DB2018DB2019 Samoa 90 87 63.77 63.76 0 0 Samoa908763.7763.7600 Tonga 91 89 63.59 63.56 0 0 Tonga918963.5963.5600 Vanuatu 94 90 62.87 63.08 0 0 Vanuatu949062.8763.0800 Fiji 101 101 61.15 61.11 1 0 Fiji10110161.1561.1110 Solomon Islands 115 116 59.17 58.84 0 0 Solomon Islands 11511659.1758.8400 RMI 150 149 51.62 51.61 0 0 RMI15014951.6251.6100 Kiribati 158 157 49.07 48.74 0 0 Kiribati15815749.0748.7400 Source: World Bank, 2019      Source: World Bank, 2019  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Classification of SMEs across the seven PICs Country Business size # Employees Annual turnover or total assets CountryBusiness size # EmployeesAnnual turnover or total assets Fiji 1 Micro 5 USD 13,788 Fiji 1Micro5USD 13,788  Small 6 -20 USD 13,788 -45,970 Small6 -20USD 13,788 -45,970  Medium > 20 USD 45,970 -229,802 Medium> 20USD 45,970 -229,802 Solomon Islands 2 Micro 1 -5 < USD 36,450 Solomon Islands 2 Micro1 -5< USD 36,450  Small > 5 -25 USD 36,450 -1.215M Small> 5 -25USD 36,450 -1.215M  Medium > 25 -50 USD 1.2M -6.075M Medium> 25 -50USD 1.2M -6.075M Tonga 3 Micro 1 -5 < USD 12,896 Tonga 3Micro1 -5< USD 12,896  Small 6 -15 USD 12,896 -42,985 Small6 -15USD 12,896 -42,985  Medium 16 -25 USD 42,985 -85,970 Medium16 -25USD 42,985 -85,970 Vanuatu 4 Micro 1 -5 USD 34,500 Vanuatu 4Micro1 -5USD 34,500  Small 6 -20 USD 430,000 Small6 -20USD 430,000  Medium 20 -50 USD 1.7M Medium20 -50USD 1.7M Kiribati, RMI, Micro   Kiribati, RMI,Micro Samoa Small No data No data SamoaSmallNo dataNo data  Medium   Medium Source: Innov4AgPacific Project Report, 2019. Unpublished  Source: Innov4AgPacific Project Report, 2019. Unpublished  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Comparative analysis -starting a business in the seven PICs versus New Zealand Country              Country  Ranking out of 190 countries Total score Cost (% of income per capita) Number of procedures Time (days) Number of agencies involved Ranking outof 190countriesTotal scoreCost(% of incomeper capita)Number ofproceduresTime(days)Number ofagenciesinvolved New Zealand 1   99.98 0.2%  1  1  1  New Zealand199.980.2%111 Samoa 41   92.56 7.2%  4  6.9 4  Samoa4192.567.2%46.94 Tonga 58   90.88 6.5%  4  16  3  Tonga5890.886.5%4163 RMI 75   88.64 10.6% 5  17  4  RMI7588.6410.6%5174 Solomon Islands 98   85.52 28.1% 7  9  6  Solomon Islands9885.5228.1%796 Vanuatu 132  81.52 20.5% 7  18  5  Vanuatu13281.5220.5%7185 Kiribati 149  78.2 13.5% 7  31  6  Kiribati14978.213.5%7316 Fiji 161  73.39 8.7%  11  40  9  Fiji16173.398.7%11409  "},{"text":"Table 4 : A comparative analysis of the factors involved with business construction permits in the seven PICs versus New Zealand                HACCP Certified HACCP Certified                NISHI Trading NISHI Trading                Facility, Tonga Facility, Tonga Country Rank Total score Cost (% of warehouse value) Number of procedures Time (days) Building quality control index (0-15) Number of agencies involved CountryRankTotal scoreCost (% ofwarehousevalue)Number ofproceduresTime (days)Buildingquality controlindex(0-15)Number ofagenciesinvolved New Zealand 6 86.4 2.2%  11  1 15.0   5   New Zealand686.42.2%11115.05 Samoa 16 81.05 1.8%  13  6.9 12.0   4   Samoa1681.051.8%136.912.04 Tonga 53 73.6 1.2%  13  16 8.0   4   Tonga5373.61.2%13168.04 RMI 73 71.23 2.1%  7  17 1.0   4   RMI7371.232.1%7171.04 Solomon Islands 90 68.7 0.8%  18  9 6.0   7   Solomon Islands 9068.70.8%1896.07 Vanuatu 102 67.72 0.5%  15  18 7.0   7   Vanuatu10267.720.5%15187.07 Kiribati 117 65.73 0.3%  15  31 6.0   8   Kiribati11765.730.3%15316.08 Fiji 147 58.09 7.3%  14  40 5.0   9   Fiji14758.097.3%14405.09 Source: World Bank, 2019               Source: World Bank, 2019  "},{"text":"Table 5 : A comparative analysis of the factors involved when accessing electricity in the seven PICs versus New Zealand Country Rank Total score Number of procedures Time (days) Cost (% of income per capita) Reliability of supply and transparency of tariff index (0-8) Number of agencies involved CountryRankTotal scoreNumber ofproceduresTime (days)Cost (% of incomeper capita)Reliability ofsupply andtransparency oftariff index (0-8)Number ofagencies involved New Zealand 5 83.98 5  58 68  7.0   3  New Zealand583.98558687.03 Samoa 65 79.7 4  34 615.1 4.0   1  Samoa6579.7434615.14.01 Tonga 90 73.18 5  42 83  3.0   2  Tonga9073.18542833.02 Solomon Islands 92 72.5 4  53 1238.9 3.0   1  Solomon Islands 9272.54531238.9 3.01 Fiji 93 72.45 4  81 1307.7 4.0   1  Fiji9372.454811307.7 4.01 Vanuatu 107 69.05 4  120 1035.1 4.0   1  Vanuatu10769.0541201035.1 4.01 RMI 132 59.47 5  67 606.2 0.0   1  RMI13259.47567606.20.01 Kiribati 170 44.05 6  97 3196.1 0.0   3  Kiribati17044.056973196.1 0.03 Source: World Bank, 2019             Source: World Bank, 2019  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Comparative analysis of paying taxes in the seven PICs versus New Zealand Country            Country  Rank Score Number of payments (annually) Time (hours per year) Total tax and contribution rate (% of profit) Post-filing index (0-100) RankScoreNumber ofpayments(annually)Time (hours peryear)Total tax andcontribution rate(% of profit)Post-filing index(0-100) New Zealand 10 91.08 7   140 34.60 96.9 New Zealand1091.08714034.6096.9 Solomon Islands 38 83.71 34   80  32.00 100 Solomon Islands 3883.71348032.00100 Vanuatu 58 77.85 31   120 8.50  69.04 Vanuatu5877.85311208.5069.04 RMI 70 76.21 9   56  65.70 0.0 RMI7076.2195665.700.0 Samoa 74 75.71 37   224 19.30 86.55 Samoa7475.713722419.3086.55 Kiribati 96 71.42 11   168 32.7  26.68 Kiribati9671.421116832.726.68 Fiji 98 71.02 38   247 32.2  81.62 Fiji9871.023824732.281.62 Tonga 100 70.56 30   200 27.5  52.53 Tonga10070.563020027.552.53 Source: World Bank, 2019           Source: World Bank, 2019  "},{"text":"My key messages for businesses include: minimise unnecessary costs, maximise the use of traditional knowledge and skills. It is important that you seek technical advice where necessary.   "},{"text":"Table 7 : A comparative analysis of the factors involved when enforcing contracts in the seven PICs versus New Zealand Country Rank Score Time (days) Cost (% of claim value) Quality of judicial processes index (0-18) Claim value (in USD) CountryRankScoreTime (days)Cost (% of claimvalue)Quality of judicialprocesses index(0-18)Claim value(in USD) New Zealand 21 71.48 216 27.2 9.5  -  New Zealand2171.4821627.29.5- Samoa 86 58.59 455 24.4 5.5  7727 Samoa8658.5945524.45.57727 Tonga 94 57.32 350 30.5 4.5  7110 Tonga9457.3235030.54.57110 Fiji 96 57.05 397 42.6 7.5  9472 Fiji9657.0539742.67.59472 RMI 103 55.93 616 32.1 8.0  8943 RMI10355.9361632.18.08943 Kiribati 120 53.39 660 25.8 6.0  4462 Kiribati12053.3966025.86.04462 Vanuatu 136 49.27 430 56  6.5  5340 Vanuatu13649.27430566.55340 Solomon Islands 156 43.49 497 78.9 9.0  5133 Solomon Islands 15643.4949778.99.05133  "}],"sieverID":"48fae635-f9ed-4f30-a69a-e9fa2b704607","abstract":"n Establishing and running a business, especially an agro-based micro, small and medium-sized enterprise (MSME) in Pacific Island countries (PICs) is not easy. There are multiple procedures to be followed; some simple and others very complex. Agro-enterprises also have to conform to stringent hygiene and food safety standards.n The majority of agro-based MSMEs operate in the informal sector despite their contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of PICs.n For the seven PICs featured in this brief, the country that faces the most difficult challenges in terms of doing business is Kiribati, followed by the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Vanuatu, Tonga, and Samoa, according to the 2019 World Bank ranking.n Across all PICs, several institutions are involved in registering a business, and the process can take 9-40 days to complete. The policy and legislative frameworks governing MSMEs need to be reformed.n The relatively high interest rates for accessing a loan, especially from commercial banks, is also a major barrier to MSME development and growth. Novel financial instruments, such as innovation grants, offer opportunities for enhancing agroenterprise performance.Agriculture and nutrition series Improving the business environment for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Pacific Island countries Key recommendations n Harmonise classification and tailor policies, regulations, standards and procedures governing the type of MSMEs, especially of agribusinesses, at the national and regional levels, taking into consideration the difference in size and scope and contribution to GDP. For instance, the cost for obtaining and renewing a business license for MSMEs should be lower than for large corporate entities. n Consider government subsidies for meeting the high cost of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and other certification schemes to meet export requirements. n Enable better collaboration between the relevant government agencies and departments involved in registering, monitoring and certifying business premises. Facilitate electronic submission of applications to accelerate processing procedures, with special attention for rural enterprises. n Adopt innovative policies and mechanisms that reduce taxation and strengthen business incubation programmes. n Increase access to financing, especially for agro-based MSMEs to foster growth. Incentivise financiers to offer small grants to MSMEs. The Innovation Grant Facility of the Innov4AgPacific Project has shown that small investments assist SMEs to innovate and take their businesses to the next level. n Stimulate the development and implementation of innovative ICT applications (e.g. mobile money apps, farm traceability apps etc.) to assist MSMEs in capturing data and recording business transactions to build financial profiles, product traceability systems and trust with financiers, suppliers and consumers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"008ef38fb33fece2e160b83c73996d4c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7338ec6c-546f-4ed5-aab2-3b764e1d8d7b/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":" Innovation platforms: Equitable, dynamic space bringing actors together (Thiele, et al. 2011)  Conceptual framework for impact evaluation of innovation platforms (Cadilhon, 2013)  Institutional evolution: The theoretical level, The intermediate level, Empirical and policy level (Aoki, 2011) Literature Review  Information sharing -exchange of data and knowledge  Information asymmetry, high transaction costs, and increased risks along the value chain (Sun and Yen, 2005)  Nurturing -supporting smaller innovation platforms to achieve their objectives  DDF remains neutral in its interactions with regional platforms 12. The DDF remains neutral in its interactions with the activities of working groups and taskforces to ensure they achieve their goals democratically .806"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"11. The DDF remains neutral in its interactions with the activities of regional IPs to ensure they achieve their goals democratically .802"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Regression: Structure -Conduct In the past 2 years, we have changed things (e.g. Practices, techniques) in our production, production process, or management."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"3.750 3.650"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"In the past 2 years, we have gained knowledge and skills applicable in our activities from stakeholders outside DDF. "}]},{"head":"DDF nonparticipants","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"We have faced constraints in accessing markets in the past two years 3.593 3.541"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Within the past two years, we have adhered to national or international quality or safety standards schemes 4.115 4.226"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Our geographical location has an impact on our access to markets 3.542 3.440"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"The DDF actively facilitates the establishment of regional innovation platforms* 2.707 1.825"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"The DDF is involved in capacity development of members involved in managing regional innovation platforms* 2.829 2.410"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"The DDF is involved in capacity development of members involved in managing working groups and taskforces 3.024 3.000"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"The DDF engages experienced advisors and consultants to guide regional innovation platforms in their development* The DDF remains neutral in its interactions with the activities of regional IPs to ensure they achieve their goals democratically* 3.439 3.154"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"The DDF remains neutral in its interactions with the activities of working groups and taskforces to ensure they achieve their goals democratically* 3.415 3.000"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Establishment phase can be challenging when building consensus (Pali and Swaans, 2013) Definitions Research objectives  Field Validation of Aoki's framework  Testing and refining Cadilhon's conceptual framework for monitoring and evaluation of innovation platforms  Breakdown of complex multi-stakeholder system data into simple categories: Structure, Respondents: 41 DDF participants and 42 Non-participants  A proportional stratified sample (by type of stakeholder) was drawn randomly from the DDF meeting participation lists  Paired sampling was used for Non- "},{"text":" In the past 2 years, we have had a better access to the market. new products and services to respond to new market demands in the past two years 3 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Dependent Variable: inf1. Dissemination of information to regional platforms and stakeholders by DDF     Standardized   Standardized  Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients   Unstandardized CoefficientsCoefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. ModelBStd. ErrorBetatSig. (Constant) -3.207 .942  -3.403 .002 (Constant)-3.207.942-3.403.002 Mem_1a Attendance in DDF meetings .332 .159 .313 2.095 .047 Mem_1a Attendance in DDF meetings.332.159.3132.095.047 Actor: input supplier -.359 .461 -.162 -.780 .444 Actor: input supplier-.359.461-.162-.780.444 Actor: producer .260 .584 .103 .445 .660 Actor: producer.260.584.103.445.660 Actor: Development partner .462 .847 .144 .546 .590 Actor: Development partner.462.847.144.546.590 Actor: Academic / Research -.008 .616 -.003 -.013 .990 Actor: Academic / Research-.008.616-.003-.013.990 Actor: Policy maker -.136 .596 -.059 -.228 .822 Actor: Policy maker-.136.596-.059-.228.822 Funding : operation generated 1.554 .888 .806 1.750 .093 Funding : operation generated1.554.888.8061.750.093 Funding: Government Funded 1.993 .806 1.010 2.473 .021 Funding: Government Funded1.993.8061.0102.473.021 Funding: Membership Fees 3.099 1.188 .849 2.609 .016 Funding: Membership Fees3.0991.188.8492.609.016 Organization: Government .867 .526 .433 1.650 .113 Organization: Government.867.526.4331.650.113 Organization: NGO 1.591 1.200 .548 1.326 .198 Organization: NGO1.5911.200.5481.326.198 Organization: Private .494 .666 .242 .742 .466 Organization: Private.494.666.242.742.466 Organization: Association -1.035 1.042 -.323 -.993 .331 Organization: Association-1.0351.042-.323-.993.331 Regions: Dar es Salaam .247 .464 .127 .532 .600 Regions: Dar es Salaam.247.464.127.532.600 Regions: Tanga .182 .478 .076 .381 .707 Regions: Tanga.182.478.076.381.707 Regions: Others -.788 .452 -.368 -1.745 .094 Regions: Others-.788.452-.368-1.745.094 Gender: Male .702 .355 .317 1.978 .060 Gender: Male.702.355.3171.978.060  "},{"text":"Dependent Variable: Nurtactor_1 Nur1. DDF Nurtures regional platforms    Rotated Component Matrix a  Rotated Component Matrix a Model  Cadilhon's (2013) conceptual framework is validated Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t B Std. Error Dissemination of information to regional 8. DDF facilitates information sharing on .940 1 Beta (Constant) -4.748 1.665 -2.851 platforms and stakeholders by DDF establishment and management of regional Con1_3 3a. The information we get from the other platform partners/ organization is reliable. 1.769 .449 1.047 3.942 innovation platforms  DDF is influencing information sharing 7. The DDF facilitates flow of dairy industry .905 information to regional innovation platforms  Information sharing in DDF has some impact on nurturing regional Sig. 2 .007 3 .000 Con2_2 5. We use contacts with other platform/ organization actors to get information -.475 .240 -.292 -1.977 .055 dairy platforms 6. We get enough information from DDF .765 .349 Model  Cadilhon's (2013) conceptual framework is validated Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t B Std. Error Dissemination of information to regional 8. DDF facilitates information sharing on .940 1 Beta (Constant) -4.748 1.665 -2.851 platforms and stakeholders by DDF establishment and management of regional Con1_3 3a. The information we get from the other platform partners/ organization is reliable. 1.769 .449 1.047 3.942 innovation platforms  DDF is influencing information sharing 7. The DDF facilitates flow of dairy industry .905 information to regional innovation platforms  Information sharing in DDF has some impact on nurturing regional Sig. 2 .007 3 .000 Con2_2 5. We use contacts with other platform/ organization actors to get information -.475 .240 -.292 -1.977 .055 dairy platforms 6. We get enough information from DDF .765 .349 relevant to our activities. Con2_3 6. We are satisfied with the communication frequency we have with other Quality and reliability of information  We can break down complex DDF system data into simple -.304 .160 -.284 -1.906 2. The information we get from value chain disseminated by value chain actors partners is reliable meaningful categories 3a. The information we get from the other platform / organization members. platform partners/ organization is reliable. Con5_1 13. We plan our activities together with our platform/ organization partners .403 .142 .393 2.843 1. We are satisfied with the quality of .371 .729 .929 .798 .335 .064 .007 relevant to our activities. Con2_3 6. We are satisfied with the communication frequency we have with other Quality and reliability of information  We can break down complex DDF system data into simple -.304 .160 -.284 -1.906 2. The information we get from value chain disseminated by value chain actors partners is reliable meaningful categories 3a. The information we get from the other platform / organization members. platform partners/ organization is reliable. Con5_1 13. We plan our activities together with our platform/ organization partners .403 .142 .393 2.843 1. We are satisfied with the quality of .371 .729 .929 .798 .335 .064 .007 to regional platforms and stakeholders by DDF Infosactor_1 inf1. Dissemination of information .643 information we get from value chain partners .138 .589 4.651 .000 to regional platforms and stakeholders by DDF Infosactor_1 inf1. Dissemination of information.643 information we get from value chain partners .138 .5894.651.000 Infosactor_2 Inf2. Quality and reliability of information disseminated by value chain actors -.661 .274 -.583 -2.416 .020 Infosactor_2 Inf2. Quality and reliability of information disseminated by value chain actors-.661.274-.583-2.416.020 Infosactor_3 Inf3. Information sharing between value chain actors -.244 .160 -.237 -1.522 .136 Infosactor_3 Inf3. Information sharing between value chain actors-.244.160-.237-1.522.136   R 2 = 0.464 Sig: 0.000 16 R 2 = 0.464Sig: 0.000 16  "},{"text":"Information sharing between value chain actors 2a . The information we get from the other platform/ organization -partners is useful. Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics: Structure Information sharing & Communication  Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics: Structure Information sharing & Communication  (Count or Mean) (Count or Mean)  (Count or Mean) (Count or Mean) Variable Variable Number of interviews DDF participants DDF 41 participants DDF non-DDF non-participants 42 participants  Variable Variable Number of interviewsDDF participants DDF 41 participantsDDF non-DDF non-participants 42 participants Men Women We usually share information about our activities with other stakeholders. Age* The information we get from the other platform/ organization -partners is useful. 31 10 4.122 51 4.024 31 3.905 11 46 3.881  Men Women We usually share information about our activities with other stakeholders. Age* The information we get from the other platform/ organization -partners is useful.31 10 4.122 51 4.02431 3.905 11 46 3.881 Completed primary school The information we get from the other platform partners/ organization is reliable. 0 3.634 3 3.500  Completed primary school The information we get from the other platform partners/ organization is reliable.0 3.6343 3.500 Completed high school Completed certificate We attend periodic meetings of stakeholders to discuss common problems about our activities. Completed university degree We use contacts with other platform/ organization actors to get information relevant to our activities.* 0 4 3.829 13 3.927 6 3.405 6 17 3.500 .908 Completed high school Completed certificate We attend periodic meetings of stakeholders to discuss common problems about our activities. Completed university degree We use contacts with other platform/ organization actors to get information relevant to our activities.*0 4 3.829 13 3.9276 3.405 6 17 3.500.908 1a. We usually share information about our activities with other stakeholders. 3 20 We are satisfied with the communication frequency we have Completed PhD Completed post-graduate degree with other platform / organization members. 2.829 2 8 2.643 .854 1a. We usually share information about our activities with other stakeholders. 3 20 We are satisfied with the communication frequency we have Completed PhD Completed post-graduate degree with other platform / organization members. 2.8292 8 2.643.854 Other education level 1 0  Other education level10 Kago, Cadilhon, Maina & Omore 2015    Kago, Cadilhon, Maina & Omore 2015  "},{"text":"We can express our views freely in exchanges with our platform/ organization partners.* 4.122 3.738  Descriptive statistics:  Descriptive statistics: Trust & Coordination  Trust & Coordination  (Count or Mean) (Count or Mean) Variable DDF DDF non- VariableDDFDDF non-  participants participants participantsparticipants Our trust on products/Services provided by platform / organization partners has increased in the past 2 years 3.585 3.429 Our trust on products/Services provided by platform / organization partners has increased in the past 2 years3.5853.429 We have greater trust in our partners if they are also part of a group (cultural, social, religious) we are part of. 3.390 3.357 We have greater trust in our partners if they are also part of a group (cultural, social, religious) we are part of.3.3903.357 We exchange information with our platform/ organization partners about our on-going activities. 3.878 3.524 We exchange information with our platform/ organization partners about our on-going activities.3.8783.524  "},{"text":"Our platform/ organization partners exchange information about their on-going activities with us.* 3.463 3.000  Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics:  Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics: Joint planning & Information sharing Information sharing & Performance Joint planning & Information sharing Information sharing & Performance  (Count or Mean) (Count or Mean) Variable DDF DDF non- VariableDDFDDF non-  participants participants participantsparticipants Joint planning of activities with our platform/ organization partners has improved in the past 2 years. 2.902 2.762 Joint planning of activities with our platform/ organization partners has improved in the past 2 years.2.9022.762 We are satisfied with the quality of information we get from value chain partners 3.439 3.095 We are satisfied with the quality of information we get from value chain partners3.4393.095 The information we get from value chain partners is reliable 3.683 3.476 The information we get from value chain partners is reliable3.6833.476 We use the information shared with us in our activities 3.878 3.833 We use the information shared with us in our activities3.8783.833 We plan our activities according to the activities of our platform/ organization partners. We get too much information from DDF* 2.683 2.024 2.429 1.417 We plan our activities according to the activities of our platform/ organization partners. We get too much information from DDF*2.683 2.0242.429 1.417 We plan our activities together with our platform/ organization partners Information on the market is easily accessible to value chain actors 2.683 3.050 2.500 2.690 We plan our activities together with our platform/ organization partners Information on the market is easily accessible to value chain actors2.683 3.0502.500 2.690 Our viewpoints are taken into account by our Platform / organization partners when they plan their activities. We get enough information from DDF* 3.268 2.341 3.024 1.417 Our viewpoints are taken into account by our Platform / organization partners when they plan their activities. We get enough information from DDF*3.268 2.3413.024 1.417  "},{"text":"or Mean) Variable DDF participants DDF non- participants The DDF facilitates flow of dairy industry information to regional innovation platforms* 2.683 1.703 DDF facilitates information sharing on establishment and management of regional innovation platforms* 2.659 1.649 Representatives of the DDF facilitate innovation at the national level.* 3.780 2.917 Platform members communicate their achievement in other organized groups.* 3.366 2.538 The DDF lobbies for policy changes on national level  .* 3.659 2.892 .*3.6592.892  "},{"text":"participants DDF assists to advocate concerns of regional innovation platforms at the national level  Descriptive statistics:  Descriptive statistics: Nurturing platforms  Nurturing platforms  (Count or Mean) (Count or Mean) Variable DDF DDF non- VariableDDFDDF non-  participants  participants * 3.268 2.744 *3.2682.744 DDF encourages regional platforms to change their focus of discussion   DDF encourages regional platforms to change their focus of discussion from time to time 2.878 2.575 from time to time2.8782.575 DDF provides a   DDF provides a  2.951 2.050 2.9512.050  "},{"text":"platform for regional innovation platforms to learn from other successful examples of working IPs* 3.317 2.775 DDF enables regional innovation platforms to expand their knowledge of dairy innovations.* 3.341 2.650  DDF guides working groups and task forces on solving funding challenges   DDF guides working groups and task forces on solving funding challenges  2.659 2.966 2.6592.966 DDF guides regional innovation platforms on solving funding   DDF guides regional innovation platforms on solving funding challenges* 2.415 2.758 challenges*2.4152.758  "}],"sieverID":"259ebd38-e280-4792-9af6-584439aac2ba","abstract":""}

data/part_2/00c06ea2c06eff582d5e9ee65a7fc14b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00c06ea2c06eff582d5e9ee65a7fc14b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ed9349b-f37a-4468-8ff5-946ea28775c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Climate-smartness Categories","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In the 15 climate-smart villages established by CGIAR in Western Kenya for example, a farm is only counted as climate smart if it applies practices that are strong in all climate-smartness categories: The World Bank in collaboration with international partners has developed three indicator sets to support CSA implementation at the national and sub-national levels. The indicators will guide CSA invest ment decisions, and assist national govern ments, agricultural specialists and natural resource managers in evaluating the productivity and climate benefits of sustainable land management operations."}]},{"head":"What is climate change?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Climate change (CC) is the long-term or permanent shift of average climatic conditions (FAO 2015). They result in changes of weather patterns and directly affect agricultural production. Kenya is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Some of the most visible changes are:"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• Increase in mean temperature; • Shifts in the onset and end of the rainy seasons; • Changes in duration, amounts and intensity of rainfall; • Higher frequency of droughts and floods; • Changing strength and direction of winds; • Higher temperatures and stronger solar radiation; • Occurrence of more and new pests and diseases (FAO 2015, Worldbank 2015)."}]},{"head":"Why CSA?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Therefore CSA is a basket of agricultural practices and techniques that not only aims at increasing profits and resilience for farmers but does so without harming, often even bettering, environmental parameters. It improves input efficiency, soil quality and benefit-cost returns for farmers while limiting the expected negative effects of climate change on Kenyan agriculture for producers and consumers (Worldbank 2015, FAO 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"For Kenya adapted practices include:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Soil and Water conservation measures increase ground cover and use little water."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Manure and compost can decrease use of chemical fertilizers and adequate manure management for biogas production can reduce methane release. • In agroforestry systems trees and crops coexist and benefit from each other."}]},{"head":"Activities that amplify Climate Change effects include:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Inadequate tillage practices that expose the soil release carbon stored in the soil."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Indiscriminative use and wrong timing of agrochemicals harm the ecosystem."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Clearing land and burning plant biomass for farming releases carbon stored in the soil."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"1 However, more positively, such climate change projections suggest that, in some places, opportunities for crop diversification and intensification may emerge, including options for expanding into places where cultivation is not currently possible. 2 Kenya's agriculture is especially vulnerable to climate changes 1 because of its large dependence (98%) on rainfed agriculture (Worldbank 2015). Depletion of water and pasture resources are expected consequences under which mainly smallholder farmers will suffer. They might lose income and livelihoods through crop failure and livestock losses. A 30% drop is expected for the productivity of crops, livestock,forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, endangering Kenya's foodsecurity and rural livelihoods (FAO 2015)."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"Mankind is, however, not only negatively affected by CC, they also contribute to it by emitting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere. Agricultural production is next to industry and transportation a key contributor to CC. Several activities, such as clearing land, burning of biomass or wood, some tillage practices or indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals all amplify the effects of CC by releasing GHG (FAO 2015, Worldbank 2015). On the other hand, agriculture has the potential to contribute to reducing GHG emissions. A variety of adapted agricultural practices, summed up under the term \"climate smart agriculture\", minimize harmful effects or even reduce emission or absorb GHG."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Water harvesting is the harnessing of rain or groundwater for agricultural purposes. A vast number of techniques allow flexibility and adaptability to site-specific situations to best fight water scarcity and make agricultural production more resilient (FAO 2015)."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Zai Pits are shallow, wide, circular pits that combine water harvesting and conservation of moisture and fertility in the pit. Zai Pits are adequate for growing cereals (e.g. maize, millet or sorghum) or fodder in drier areas."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"Retention Ditches are about 50 cm wide and 50 cm deep ditches dug along a contour, often used for growing banana but in bigger ditches also tree growing is possible. If the ditch is long, it may be graded to allow water to flow to the furthest end."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"Retention Ditches and Basins allow to trap water and enable it to sink laterally into the soil."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Catch pits of size 1 x 2 x 0.25 m are dug at suitable sites in slope areas. During rains, rain water is collected in the pits along with the silt."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"Catch pits enhance moisture availability to the crops by catching and retaining rain falls and run offs. Thereby they also prevent erosion."}]},{"head":"Technology Benefits/Why water Harvesting? What is it?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Zai Pits are useful for rehabilitating barren, crusted soils, and gentle clay slopes (below 2%), where infiltration is limited and tillage is difficult."}]},{"head":"Catch pits Retention Ditches and Basins","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Zai Pits 3"}]},{"head":"Water harvesting for drip irrigation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Water is collected and stored in a raised tank. When needed it is released through tubes with small holes placed directly at the plants."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Are preferred because of the abundance of water in some and scarcity in other seasons as they allow to store water for the dry season. Drip irrigation also saves a lot of water by well targeted water application and avoids evaporation (FAO 2015, FAO 2016)."}]},{"head":"Drum Drip Kit","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bucket Drip Kit","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Water is collected (e.g. from a river or well) and put in the buckets to drip irrigate the field."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Are preferred because of the abundance of water in some and scarcity in other seasons as they allow to store water for the dry season. Drip irrigation also saves a lot of water by well targeted water application and avoids evaporation (FAO 2015, FAO 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"The great advantage of rainwater harvesting is its ability to better use the available rainfalls. By storing the water or by facilitating its infiltration into soil, the soil moisture content can be improved and even re-accumulation of ground waters is possible by lowering the need to ex-tract groundwater e.g. with wells (FAO 2015)."}]},{"head":"How does water harvesting contribute to CSA?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Water harvesting practices' contributions to the three pillars of climate change differ significantly."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"1. Increasing agricultural productivity and income: Harvesting water for irrigation helps crucially to increase production efficiency and yields per unit. It thereby provides yield stability throughout the year because water is normally the most limiting production aspect."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"2. Enhancing resilience or adaptation of livelihoods and ecosystems towards climate extremes: Water harvesting and adequate irrigation enables crops or fodder to be grown despite inadequate rains, or outside growing seasons. Thereby it contributes significantly to strengthening resilience."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"3. Reducing and removing GHG emissions from the atmosphere: Water harvesting and adapted irrigation can reduce methane emissions compared to inadequate ways to irrigate. For rice production in Kenya for example, FAO expects a high positive impact on carbon emissions through water-efficient irrigation techniques (Worldbank 2015, FAO 2016, FAO 2015). "}]},{"head":"Main sources:","index":11,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Soil and water conservation structures • Integrate perennial and annual crops • Improved livestock enterprises • Diversification of enterprises • Readiness of a farm plan Sometimes it is difficult to assess how climate smart a specific agricultural technology is in a certain context. Climate-smartness indicators, divided in three categories, try to indicate this and thereby support implementation. • CSA-Technology indicators evaluate beforehand how well technologies will achieve CSA goals. • CSA-Policy indicators asses to which extent the enabling environment (e.g. policies) support the implementation of CSA. • CSA-Result indicators monitor the short term impacts of CSA interventions (Rawlins 2015). "},{"text":"In Cooperation with: Authors: Michaela Schaller, Elena Barth, Darinka Blies, Felicitas Röhrig, Malte Schümmelfeder (SLE, Berlin, 2017) Eastern Africa Climate-Smart Agriculture Scoping Study: Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. By Njeru, E., Grey, S. and Kilawe, E., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, FAO 2016 Climate Smart Agriculture. Training Manual for Extension Agents in Kenya. FAO, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries -State Department of Agriculture. FAO Kenya, 2015 Climate-smart agriculture in Kenya. CSA Country Profiles for Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean Series. CIAT, World Bank, The World Bank Group, Washington D.C., 2015 http://www.fao.org/docrep/U3160E/u3160e07.htm Page 1: CSA Pillars, CaICAN 2010; http://calclimateag.org/what-is-climate-smart-agriculture/ Page 2: Projected impacts of climate change on main crops in Kenya by 2030, Tegemeo Institute 2010 Page 3: Climate Smart Agriculture. Training Manual for Extension Agents in Kenya. FAO, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries -State Department of Agriculture.FAO Kenya, 2015, pp. 36, 37, 38     Rawlin, Maurice, Abstract: http://csa2015.cirad.fr/layout/set/resume/submission/l2_1_developing_and_ Rawlin, Maurice, Abstract: http://csa2015.cirad.fr/layout/set/resume/submission/l2_1_developing_and_ evaluating_climate_smart_practices/developing_indicators_for_climate_smart_agriculture_csa evaluating_climate_smart_practices/developing_indicators_for_climate_smart_agriculture_csa Diagrams: Diagrams:  "}],"sieverID":"96d35d2d-c3c4-4f97-acfa-af18426e16d2","abstract":"Climate Smart Agriculture addresses the challenges which climate change (CC) poses to agricultural production. It is a pathway towards sustainable development and food security and is built on three pillars: • Increasing agricultural productivity (crops, livestock and fisheries) and income • Enhancing resilience or adaptation of livelihoods and ecosystems towards climate extremes • Reducing and removing GHG emissions from the atmosphere (FAO 2016) An agricultural technique or practice that contributes to the achievement of these pillars can be considered climate smart. But often, different techniques perform differently over the three pillars, and therefore have to be combined in an integrated CSA approach to complement each other and maximize their benefits (Worldbank 2015, FAO 2015)."}

data/part_2/010bcaec45a5c8eacabf365768c42298.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"010bcaec45a5c8eacabf365768c42298","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040609.pdf"},"pageCount":15,"title":"1 Water Pricing in Tadla, Morocco","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"In 2002, Morocco had a population of 29.6 million of which 43% lived in rural areas; about 35% of the population are farmers. Agriculture accounts for 16.1% of the GDP, and average per capita income was $1190 (World Bank, 2003). The total area of Morocco is 71 million ha (including 26 million ha of Sahara), of which only 9 million ha are utilized as the agricultural area (13%). The average annual rainfall is less than 300 mm, but is variable in time and space (50 mm in Saharan zones and 2000 mm in mountainous regions)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Morocco's climate makes rain-fed agriculture uncertain and of generally low productivity, especially in the southern areas where rainfall is highly variable and, on average, far less than potential evapotranspiration. Production from rain-fed arable land consequently varies widely. About 1.6 million ha can be potentially irrigated, and 1.2 million ha (75%) are currently irrigated, of which 55% is government-managed, 30% owned and managed by local communities and 15% (mostly irrigated with groundwater) privately developed (FAO, 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Irrigated areas produce 45% of agricultural value added and 75% of agricultural exports (Ait Kadi, 2002). Irrigation currently accounts for 88% of water withdrawals (domestic and industrial use account for 8% and 4%, respectively). The average availability of water is just 1045 m 3 /person/year and projected increases in population are expected to reduce this value to about 750 m 3 /person/year by 2020 (El Yacoubie and Belghiti, 2002)."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"In 1990, the estimated national water balance showed an availability of 11 Bm 3 with demand at 10.9 Bm 3 . The supply of water is expected to rise to 16.8 Bm 3 by 2020 (as a result of dam construction and the development of additional aquifers). Demand for water is expected to be higher at 17.6 Bm 3 , with irrigation accounting for 4.8 Bm 3 (70%) of this increase (Ait Kadi, 2002). Although these values are estimates, they indicate that Morocco's currently developed resources are fully utilized."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"An additional concern is the deteriorating water quality, with increasing amounts of water needed to flush and dilute pollution loads (particularly high salinity and sediment)."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"This chapter focuses on the Tadla region. In Tadla, because of the increasing deficit of surface water farmers use groundwater. Water tables are falling and the water is often highly saline, prompting concern over the sustainability of groundwater development."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"Overall, the main factor constraining agricultural production is the availability of water. With scarcity of canal water and overexploitation of groundwater, a number of policy-relevant issues have emerged:"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• Reducing overall water consumption in agriculture;"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Increasing the productivity of the water consumed;"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"• Balancing the supply of, and the demand for, groundwater;"},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"• Avoiding soil and water salinization;"},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"• Providing a sustainable water service through better maintenance and cost recovery."},{"index":13,"size":63,"text":"The role that volumetric water pricing can play in addressing these issues in Tadla is not clear. The main aim of this chapter is to assess the potential role of the water pricing policy. To achieve this aim the way water is currently allocated will be described and insight will be provided into the price, costs and returns to irrigation water in Tadla."},{"index":14,"size":48,"text":"First, the Tadla scheme is described. Next, the price, cost and returns to water are studied. An analytical framework is applied to assess the value of production and contribution of water to that production. Then the pos sible impact of policy options is described. Finally, conclusions are drawn."}]},{"head":"The Tadla Scheme, Policies, Infrastructure and Institutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"The Tadla scheme"},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The Tadla region is a plain 70 km long and 40 km wide. The cultivated area covers 255,000 ha, including 137,500 ha of rain-fed land and 117,500 ha of irrigated land. The Tadla irrigation system is the oldest largescale scheme in Morocco. First operated in 1929, it consists of two separate subnetworks of lined open canals which receive water by gravity from two dams. These subnetworks are:"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Beni Amir, right bank of river Oum Er-Rbia, 27,500 ha, irrigated from the Ahmed El Hansali dam (670 Mm 3 );"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Beni Moussa, left bank, 69,600 ha, irrigated from the Bin el Ouidane dam (1.30 Bm 3 )."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"According to the initial project design, Beni Amir needs 420 Mm 3 of water and Beni Moussa, 710 Mm 3 . However, since the 1980s, considerably less water has been allocated to the scheme (see section under Water allocation at regional level and within the scheme). In 2003, only 150 Mm 3 were available for Beni Amir and 350 Mm 3 for Beni Moussa (36% and 49% of the original allocation, respectively). As a result of this deficit, private groundwater development is widespread."}]},{"head":"Water in national policies","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Irrigation-sector development","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Government policy in the agriculture sector has favoured investments in irrigation since 1968, when King Hassan II decided that 1 million ha should be irrigated by the end of the 20th century (this is referred to as the 'million hectares' policy). These investments have accounted for more than 65% of the total public investments in agriculture since 1965 (Herzenni, 2001). The objectives of this investment policy and irrigation it has supported are:"}]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"To improve self-sufficiency through a better coverage of basic food needs;"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• To find an equilibrium in the 'trade balance' through the development of exports;"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• To improve the living conditions of the rural population;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• To add value to agricultural products through the development of agroindustries."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Morocco has adopted an integrated approach to large-scale irrigation development. Nine modern large-scale irrigation schemes have been established; they are government planned and financed, and each is managed by a Regional Office for Agricultural Development (ORMVA). The basic philosophy is that 'to attain the desired objectives, it is not sufficient to construct irrigation infrastructure as rapidly as possible, the state must also create the conditions enabling development to take place.' A comprehensive framework for this policy is defined by a variety of laws grouped in the Code of Agricultural Investments of 1969. The code is regarded as a contract between the state and the country's farmers to improve the national economy through irrigation development (Ait Kadi, 2002):"}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The state finances the dams, the irrigation network and necessary on-farm development. Through ORMVA, it provides credit, selected seeds, fertilizer, farm equipment, etc. Finally, it guarantees the prices of certain crops (mainly sugarbeet and sugarcane) through contracts."}]},{"head":"•","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"In turn, the farmer is obligated to farm his irrigated land in the national interest and to repay the state 40% of the investment costs and 100% of the O&M costs through a land-improvement tax and volumetric water charges."}]},{"head":"Water allocation and management","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The original concept of irrigation in Morocco assumed relatively plentiful water, managed at project level, and provided for controlled cropping patterns, so that irrigation schedules could be set in relation to a known crop demand determined in advance by the government. This practice was abandoned in the 1980s, and farmers are now free to choose their own cropping patternsgenerally increasing the potential demand. In parallel with this liberalization, water availability has declined significantly to schemes such as Tadla, and Morocco has adopted a policy of basin-level allocation of water among competing uses. Water management at scheme level is now based primarily on a rationing system, with each farmer given an entitlement of water, which the farmer may use, but there is generally less water than the farmer would wish to receive. A national program launched in 1993 aimed to increase the size of existing irrigation schemes and encourage more efficient water use."}]},{"head":"The Water Law","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"A major step in water policy was achieved through the Water Law that was passed in September 1995. This law establishes institutions and defines rules for the sustainable use of water resources. Seven financially autonomous River Basin Agencies were created as a result of this law. The Agencies prepare a management plan for all water resources in their basin and implement it, deliver authorizations for any use of the public domain, and are responsible for the quantitative and qualitative monitoring of the resources."}]},{"head":"Irrigation infrastructure and water distribution in the Tadla scheme","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Water allocation at regional level and within the scheme"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Among the nine large-scale irrigation schemes, the annual planned average water use is 5100 m 3 /ha, but varies between 3000 m 3 / ha/year (Tafilalet and Ouarzazate) and 7100 m 3 /ha/year. (Tadla) (Benjelloun Touimi, 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"The amount that can be delivered to farmers depends on the water allocated to the scheme; this is decided each year at the level of the River Basin Agency. The amount to be released is calculated according to the projected inflows and available reserves in the two upstream dams; the amount released may be adjusted during the year depending on the actual rainfall. This release is shared between Tadla and other downstream irrigation schemes. As a result of the chronic droughts, irrigation expansion and the demand from other schemes, the allocation to Tadla is substantially less than the amount initially designed. In 2001In -2002, only 27% , only 27% of what was initially designed (710 Mm 3 ) was delivered to the scheme (Fig. 11.1)."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"As a result, irrigation in Tadla faces a severe shortage of water and the distribution rules have been adapted to deal with a shortage situation. Now that demand largely exceeds supply, no demand-oriented management can be carried out, and water allocation among farmers is based on a rationing system."}]},{"head":"Water distribution","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"While the total seasonal allocation to the farmer is fixed, the schedule of delivery and the amount of water delivered at each water turn are based on the crops. In case of unexpected water scarcity during the season, priority of water delivery is given to specific crops. Farmers cannot transfer unconsumed water to another turn, so most of them take all the water they can get at each turn. Actual management therefore is effectively quota-based."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The infrastructure was designed for a specific situation, namely the irrigation of an obligatory cropping pattern at the farm level, with crops organized in homogeneous blocks served by a common watercourse. The system was logical when cropping patterns were enforced so that Plot A (Fig. 11.2: the tertiary channel is the bold line at the top; watercourses are indicated by the vertical double lines) for each farm was under the same crop and could be provided with a water delivery schedule suited to that crop (Cornish and Perry, 2003). Known as the Trame B model, this system simplified water scheduling and management because each  watercourse was operated to serve a specific crop and its specific water requirements."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"However, in the 1980s cropping patterns were liberalized to enable water to be distributed on a farm basis rather than on a crop basis, with the result that the 30-yearold design no longer corresponds to the current management situation. However, the ORMVA management still issues clear 'guidance' on feasible cropping plans prior to each season, based on the anticipated water availability per hectare, and the demand of individual crops (so that farmers opt for a larger area of less water -or a smaller area of more water-demanding crops)."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Each farm has six plots, arranged horizontally. The left-most watercourse first serves Farm 1 Plot A, followed by Farm 2 Plot A, through to Farm 5 Plot A. Irrigation then continues to Farm 1 Plot B on to Farm 5 Plot B, through Tertiary 2, and so on. In any given irrigation turn, a farmer would have to come back as many as six times to irrigate his farm. This operating pattern is matched by the design of the infrastructure, which has division structures at each level to ensure accurate provision of the proper discharge to each area."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In recent years, a provisional allocation has been established at the beginning of the irrigation season (September) and farmers are informed about it. During the year, the actual volume delivered to a farmer is calculated by multiplying the number of hours of his turn by the flow rate (generally 30 l/s). This rationing provides a relatively transparent and equitable means of allocating water, ensuring that consumption of water is controlled."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"In such a constrained system, the volumetric water fees paid by farmers (see section on Price paid by farmers) serve predominantly as a means of cost recovery."}]},{"head":"Irrigation at scheme, farm and plot level","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"From the dam, water is conveyed by gravity through a system of concrete-lined channels, divided into a primary, secondary and tertiary levels (see Table 11.1). At the tertiary level, channels are suspended on pillars and can carry 120 l/s before branching off into 30 l/s earthen watercourse channels from which the farmers take water. At each branch-ing point, there are modules à masque (stepwise or baffle distributors), which provide supplies to offtaking channels, relatively independent from the upstream water level in the parent canal."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Field observations indicate that while individual modules can be adjusted to various flow rates (30, 60 or 90 l/s), most are fixed at a particular rate, ensuring consistent patterns of delivery. Since the water demand schedule for the various crops is different, the watercourses are arranged to run at right angles to the ownership boundaries so that each watercourse can be operated to serve the needs of a specific crop (Fig. 11.2)."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The most frequently used irrigation technique at field level is the traditional robta. A plot is divided into several small basins, each one of about 10 m 2 , irrigated via seguias (earthen watercourses) that convey water through the farms. The initial landlevelling has been gradually degraded as a result of the agricultural practices and the manual digging of the irrigation basins and watercourses in the fields."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"The ORMVAT estimates irrigation efficiency (including internal conveyance) at farm level to be 50%; that is, only half of the delivered water is directly used by the crop. Taking distribution losses into account, the overall system efficiency is even lower, namely less than 45%. However, much of this wasted water is reused in the system: many drains are tapped through individual pumping, and the infiltrated water is the major inflow to the underlying aquifer, from which a large number of farmers pump water to complement surface supply. In a way, the fact that water tables are generally falling and large-scale waterlogging is not reported suggests that the estimated losses are already being fully exploited through local reuse. This issue is important, given the claim that reducing losses may improve availability only if 'losses' are not already being recaptured, although this particular reuse is accompanied with a decrease in water quality (Seckler, 1996;Cornish and Perry, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Groundwater use","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"All the latest studies (Hammani et al., 2004) show that irrigation losses account for the major part of the inflow to the shallow aquifer. In the 1980s, severe and repeated droughts led many farmers to invest in pumping devices; they were encouraged to do so by the state, which provided subsidies and technical support. Nowadays, about 10,000 wells are used in the schemes and approximately 40% of the farms have wells."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Most of the pumps are powered by diesel engines, with an average discharge of 10-15 l/s. Farmers generally use groundwater to supplement surface water. As groundwater is generally more saline than surface water, conjunctive use at plot level may be necessary to avoid soil degradation and yield losses. However, farmers are much more concerned with quantity issues, and these medium-term risks are outweighed by the demand to increase the present supply (Petitguyot, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"There has been a regular decline in the level of the shallow aquifer for 20 years now, and there is no regulation to control withdrawals of groundwater. As a result, many wells have dried up. Farmers who can afford new investments now deepen their wells or sink deeper tube wells (wells still represent 89% of the total but 25% are non-functional). Whereas shallow resources are of bad quality and may only be used for agriculture, deep aquifers are exploited by urban and industrial users, which will result in competition."}]},{"head":"Institutions and governance","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water allocation in the river basin","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"According to the Water Law, River Basin Agencies (which are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Public Works) are in charge of developing and allocating water resources. Each year, the agencies and the basin's stakeholders agree on a programme for water allocation. Urban and industrial needs have priority over the agriculture sector. In the Tadla area, water use for electricity production has the lowest priority, and water for irrigation is released according to agricultural needs only."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Although farmers are represented on the agency board which sets up the annual programme, their influence is negligible (2 members out of 35 on the board) and only the ORMVA may interact with a significant power to negotiate agricultural allocation."}]},{"head":"Organization of the ORMVAT","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Morocco's nine major irrigation systems are operated by ORMVAs, which are semiautonomous, regional public institutions under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. They are in charge of agricultural development (in both the irrigated sector and the surrounding rain-fed areas), including irrigation design, O&M and fee collection. About 1000 people work at the ORMVA in Beni Mellal, which is responsible for Tadla (400 on water management, 300 on extension and agricultural development, 300 on administrative tasks)."}]},{"head":"Pricing and cost recovery","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The ORMVAs' financial resources come from fees paid by users, particularly irrigation water fees, and from state subsidies (investment subsidies and/or subsidies to balance operating budgets). An ORMVA accountant (who works for the Ministry of Finance) is responsible for supervising the collection of water fees. There are two forms of cost recovery:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• Recovery at source: This method applies to farmers who have production contracts with agro-industrial units, such as sugar mills. Here, the mill pays the ORMVA any water fee due, before paying the farmer for his crop."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"• Direct payment: Farmers are individually invoiced every quarter using a cus-tomer code, with invoices delivered by the aiguadier (ditch rider or water guard). Payment is due twice a year. Farmers incur penalties for late or nonpayment (after 1 month, suspension of supply; after 2 months, an 8% increase in the amount due; after 1 year, there should be a court action). In reality, the issue of non-payment is strongly related to land status, as farmers who share the same undivided property receive only one invoice and face difficulties with respect to the division of the bill. Instead of court action, water supply pipes to many farmers in this situation are disconnected from the network. It is worth noting that in Tadla, the rigorous management of non-payers (they are quickly disconnected) means that the level of invoice payment is very high (more than 90%)."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"Between 1995 and 1998, a novel system was introduced for water accounting by farmers. In pilot areas, each farmer received a water consumption 'cheque book'. For each water turn, the farmer filled in a cheque for the ditch rider, and kept a copy for his own records. A part of the annual volume was allocated to each farmer for the season but the schedule of deliveries was variable, based on individual demand (within reason and subject to competing demands). The cheque book kept a running account of the total amount of water used. This approach was an innovative means of combining rationing with flexibility (the infrastructure allows for flexible delivery of the allocated quota), but proved difficult to manage during the severe drought of 1998. However, in 2002, this system was reintroduced, and is used as an incentive for farmers who use modern irrigation techniques and are able to irrigate a larger area per unit of water delivered."}]},{"head":"Water user associations in the Tadla area","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"At the beginning of the 1990s, the government decided to develop participatory irrigation management, giving farmers a greater role in irrigation management. In Tadla, farmers showed little interest in the incen-tive offered to participate (i.e. a reduction in water fees), according to Papin (2003). Farmers also lack the historical experience in (organizing) irrigation that exists in other parts of the country. A law passed in 1990 provided a legal basis for establishing water user associations (WUAs), with responsibility for managing irrigation at the tertiary level. Tadla has 29 registered WUAs (11 in Beni Amir and 18 in Beni Moussa), representing 41% of farmers in an area covering 44,540 ha. However, most of these associations are not operational. A study carried out in 2001 (ENGREF, IAV Hassan II and_ CNEARC, Tadla, 2001, unpublished data) reported that only one WUA was active in Beni Moussa, and that this could be explained by a diversification of its activities to other sectors (road construction, basic education). The WUAs did not prove to be successful, and many farmers refused to pay the charges to finance a WUA. This could be seen as a compliment to the operation of the irrigation schemes by the ORMVAthe farmers found this satisfactory and did not see the need to add an additional layer of management."}]},{"head":"Price, Costs and Returns to Water Price paid by farmers","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Surface water","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Canal water fees are based on the Agricultural Investment Code of 1969 -a general law on agricultural water management, water pricing and service fee recovery. The Code provides a comprehensive cost recovery structure, including the full recovery of O&M costs (through water fees) and the partial (40%) recovery of capital costs (through the water fee), indexed over time to inflation. Water is charged on the basis of quantity received, which is metered in the case of pressurized systems and calculated on the basis of time and the nominal flow rate in the case of surface systems. Water fees can be increased, but the new fee must be approved by the Ministers of Public Works, Agriculture, and Finance as well as by parliament."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Actual water charges in Morocco are rela tively high by international standards and charged according to the volume of water delivered (although payment for at least 3000 m 3 /ha is obligatory). In Tadla, the canal water fee in 2002 was $0.02/m 3 ($1.00 = MAD8.9). This was the lowest in Morocco because, unlike other areas, Tadla canal systems do not involve pump-lifts. In some regions, the rate is as high as $0.062/m 3 (Ben Abderrazik, 2002). None the less, the canal water fee in Tadla has steadily increased over time, from $0.005/m 3 in 1980, to $0.01/m 3 in 1987-1988, and to $0.015/m 3 in 1992, but this is, of course, also partly the result of inflation (El Yacoubie and Belghiti, 2002). In regions where pumping is a significant part of operational costs, 1 farmers do not pay the full O&M costs. Instead, these ORMVAs rely on an annual transfer of funds from the central government in order to meet operational expenses, and farmers are not charged for capital costs."}]},{"head":"Groundwater","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The pumping of groundwater from wells is a private undertaking of the farmers. Well owners pay the full cost of development and O&M. The energy cost can be estimated according to the discharge of the pumps (generally 15 l/s). Various sources indicate an average of $0.03/m 3 (Papin, 2003;Petitguyot, 2003;Le Grusse et al., 2004). The full cost of groundwater extraction (i.e. including energy costs, amortization and pump maintenance costs) is more difficult to estimate, as it depends on the actual utilization of the pump, the head and other parameters. According to the same sources, the total cost in Tadla is around $0.06/m 3 , with a high variability between farms. Some comments should be made about this value. First, it is not certain that farmers consider this total cost in their daily decisions whether to irrigate or not: investment costs are sunk costs and the marginal costs might be more relevant. Second, Le Grusse et al. (2004) note that many tube wells are shared by neighbouring farms, who may thus share the investment burden and reduce the total (and hence unit) cost. Also, compared to surface water, these costs integrate neither qualitative differences such as salinity (lower in canal water) nor an insurance value (groundwater protects farmers against network deficiencies in critical growing stages) that may greatly influence farmers' choice."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Groundwater is generally regarded by farmers as a supplementary resource to be used in the case of a deficit. The gap between the groundwater and surface water tariffs is not much wide and an increase in surface water tariffs might trigger the exploitation of groundwater."}]},{"head":"Costs of water delivery","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The costs incurred by the supplier in the provision of irrigation water services in Tadla are summarized in Tables 11.2 and 11.3. Annual O&M costs are $11.5 million (for an area of 92,000 ha), which is $125/ha/ year. Annual total costs are $13.5 million, which is $147/ha/year including depreciation on capital. This relatively small difference between the O&M and the full costs is because Tadla is an old project -the first large irrigation project to be built in Morocco -and was (in current prices) therefore comparatively cheap at the time of construction. It requires, however, more maintenance. For a water delivery of 7400 m 3 /ha, O&M costs are $0.017/m 3 and full costs are $0.02/m 3 ."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Official statistics indicate that current water charges cover more than the O&M costs (Table 11.4), which is consistent with the estimated farm payment for water ($145-155/ha). If full water fee collection is achieved -i.e. if all users pay their bills in Tadla -more than 100% of the O&M expenditures are covered. The data indicate that system delivery losses (between diversion and delivery to farmers) are relatively low."}]},{"head":"Returns to water","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Agricultural production in Tadla consists predominantly of cereals (mainly wheat), sugarbeet, fodder and olive trees (Table 11.5)."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"A consistent analytical framework was applied to assess the returns to water for the typical cropping patterns observed for various farm sizes. The returns to water are calculated as the value of production, net of input costs, divided by the volume of irrigation water used. The appendix shows the results of a farm survey for three farms in Tadla, ranging in size from 4.8 to 7.7 ha. The first three tables show farm income assuming that irrigation is fully from canal water, while the last three tables show farm income assuming that irrigation is fully from groundwater. In fact, however, most farms use a mixture of sources. The exact mix could not be accurately assessed, so the calculations estimate the extreme cases."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The main crops grown on these farms include wheat (including seed multiplication), fodder crops (lucerne, berseem) and olives. The returns to wheat and broad bean are relatively high compared to the returns to lucerne, which may be explained by the relatively low price of lucerne, as it is often used as fodder for livestock. The appendix shows that the net return to water is about $0.10/m 3 ."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The key data for this study, summarized in Table 11.6, are gross income per hectare, net income (before water charges) and the proportion of net income (before deduction of water charges) accounted for by water charges. It is important to note that agricultural income given in Table 11.6 relates to crop production only."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"These data indicate that farmers in Tadla spend a substantial proportion of their net income (10-23%) on canal irrigation services and even more (20-49%) if they irrigate entirely with groundwater. These results should be considered with care as they do not represent the high variability of production systems in Tadla. They are, however, consistent with other results found by Petitguyot (2003)."}]},{"head":"Discussion of price, costs and returns to water","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"The O&M cost of water delivered at the field in Tadla is $0.017/m 3 , while the full cost is $0.02/m 3 . The current volumetric canal water fee is high ($0.02/m 3 ) compared to other similar case studies and covers the O&M costs. The marginal cost of groundwater is $0.03/m 3 . The costs of canal and groundwater are, however, less than the return to irrigation water ($0.1/m 3 ). As farmers spend a substantial proportion of their income on canal water, it is likely that current prices discourage wastage and give an incentive to concentrate usage on product ive crops. It is, however, not likely that it will balance water supply and demand."}]},{"head":"Possible Impact of Policy Options Groundwater","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"As far as groundwater is concerned, the principle of state ownership of water has been in place since 1914. To stabilize groundwater extraction, the sustainable aquifer yield and the demand for groundwater need to be balanced. However, there are currently no defined entitlements for the use of groundwater. There is a restriction on the pumping of groundwater (i.e. no deeper than 40 m below the soil surface), although in practice this is rarely enforced and is therefore no effective policy instrument. The majority of farmers install wells without obtaining the required authorization."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"An alternative policy instrument aimed at limiting groundwater extraction is currently being drawn up. Under the Water Law, the River Basin Agency is empowered to impose a tax on each volume of water extracted from individual wells ('consumer pays' principle). The administrative costs and technical complexity of charging for extraction on the basis of the number of pumping hours -as currently proposed by the government -would be high, and will not guarantee a reduction in usage (although the implied increase in the unit price of water will provide some incentive to reduce usage there is no assurance that sustainable supply and demand will be properly balanced). Given the problems with the enforcement of existing regulations on the installation and operation of pumps, it is not certain whether hours pumped will be easy to measure and used as an instrument for demand management. It is likely that bribery would increase and meters would be tampered with."}]},{"head":"Canal water","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The volumetric canal water charge will not reduce water consumption substantially as the level of the charge is only 20% of the returns to water. Rationing eventually governs demand. The present system of charging for canal water would not, in the absence of rationing, achieve a balance between supply and demand. A considerable increase in the price of water would be needed to balance the supply of, and the demand for, canal water. However, such an increase would lead to a significant fall in the returns to agriculture and increased migration to cities."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"An additional threat posed by increasing canal water fees is that such an increase is likely to lead to the increased exploitation of groundwater. Moreover, although the recovery of charges is exceptionally high in Tadla, and further increases in canal water fees might reduce the rate of recovery, as has occurred in many other schemes in Morocco, where water fees have increased but not the total income of the water manager."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Further, a substantial increase in charges is likely to lead to a decrease in the rate of recovery, as suggested by El Gueddari (2002), who shows that in Morocco the rise in fees up to the O&M cost level has been paralleled by a decline of fee recovery from over 70% down to 55%. In Tadla, recovery is extremely high because of the strict application of the disconnection procedure in case of non-payment but a total of 8% of the farms are nevertheless reported to have been disconnected and only survive on groundwater (Petitguyot, 2003)."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Rationing is therefore a more suitable instrument to govern demand and to foster the productive use of water."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"A particular difficulty with volumetric water charges is that they do not ensure appropriate cost revenue levels for the scheme manager. In a dry year, there will be limited water to sell, and revenues will fall proportionately. In a year of high rainfall, demand for irrigation water will be limited, leading to revenue shortfalls. A two-part tariff (a fixed and a volumetric tariff) provides additional security of revenues to the manager."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"In summary, Tadla has a technically sophisticated surface irrigation system capable of delivering differentiated irrigation schedules to individual farmers, but simple quota-based rationing is the basis for constraining demand. Volumetric water charges are only used to achieve cost recovery. It should be noted that to overcome scarcity of surface water, many farmers have invested in private tube wells, and that the unit price of this water is more than double that of the supplied surface water. Any increase in water tariff should be considered relative to the impact on this complementary resource, the use of which is not regulated."}]},{"head":"Synthesis","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The availability of water is, and will continue to be, the key factor constraining agricultural production in Tadla. Deteriorating water quality increases this concern. The scarcity of canal water and the significant exploitation of groundwater in dry years have led to the identification of several policy objectives, e.g. to reduce overall water consumption in agriculture, to increase the productivity of water, to balance the supply of, and demand for, groundwater, to avoid soil and water salinization and to provide a sustainable water service through better maintenance and cost recovery. The main aim of this chapter was to study the potential role of pricing policy in meeting these objectives."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The volumetric canal water fees currently charged in Tadla ($0.02/m 3 ) cover the O&M costs, but are only about one-fifth of the estimated return to water ($0.1/m 3 ). Such fees will not reduce water consumption, as supply is rationed through quotas at levels well under crop requirements and which preclude significant savings."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Balancing supply and demand through volumetric charges would require a very considerable increase in the price of water. This is not desirable for two reasons: an increase in the price of canal water would significantly reduce farm incomes, and such an increase could trigger an increase in the use of groundwater. Rationing, which is already used in Tadla, seems the most suitable instrument to govern demand for canal water, and has the additional benefits of low transaction costs, equity and transparency."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Under the current system in Morocco, the regional ORMVAT is responsible for the distribution and allocation of water from the principal canal down to individual farms, and for maintaining the system. The ORMVAT also collects water fees and plays a role in planning cropping patterns and providing agronomic advice."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Thus, Morocco is already using very suitable instruments -namely rationing and some volumetric charging -to govern the demand for canal water and to recover O&M costs. However, attention needs to be paid to policies to control groundwater use in an effective way. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fig.11.1. Annual releases from the Bin El Ouidane to the Beni Moussa scheme.(From ORMVAT, 2004.)     "},{"text":" Fig. 11.2. Schematic of watercourse and farm plot layout (under which Trame B farms had the same cropping pattern). "},{"text":" Tadla farm budgets -canal irrigated. (From Hellegers and Perry, 2004intensity = 112%; utilization of family labour = 78%; proportion of family labour in total used = 70%. intensity = 116%; utilization of family labour = 77%; proportion of family labour in total used = 46%. intensity = 100%; utilization of family labour = 63%; proportion of family labour in total used = 97%.Table 11.A.2. Tadla farm budgets -groundwater irrigated. (From Hellegers and Perry, 2004intensity = 112%; utilization of family labour = 78%; proportion of family labour in total used = 70%. intensity = 116%; utilization of family labour = 77%; proportion of family labour in total used = 46%. intensity = 100%; utilization of family labour = 63%; proportion of family labour in total used = 97%. "},{"text":"Table 11 . 1 . Cumulated length of lined channels in the Tadla irrigation scheme.(From ORMVAT, 2004.)     Channel type Cumulated length (km) Channel typeCumulated length (km) Principal 200 Principal200 Primary and secondary 360 Primary and secondary360 Tertiary 1800 Tertiary1800 Total 2360 Total2360  "},{"text":"Table 11 .  4. ORMVAT budget and expenditures (in $). (From ORMVAT, 2004.)  4. ORMVAT budget and expenditures (in $). (From ORMVAT, 2004.) Year 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 Year1996-19971997-19981998-1999 Provisional budget 11,954,205 10,493,814 10,218,438 Provisional budget11,954,20510,493,81410,218,438 Actual expenditure on operations 10,355,227 9,089,175 9,040,417 Actual expenditure on operations10,355,2279,089,1759,040,417 Pumping costs 161,250 135,361 138,854 Pumping costs161,250135,361138,854 Maintenance 58,182 100,206 86,563 Maintenance58,182100,20686,563 Personnel 6,325,682 5,567,629 5,584,896 Personnel6,325,6825,567,6295,584,896 Costs of other operations 3,810,227 3,286,082 3,230,104 Costs of other operations3,810,2273,286,0823,230,104 Actual expenditure on new investment 901,136 2,342,474 2,401,667 Actual expenditure on new investment901,1362,342,4742,401,667 Total actual expenditure 11,256,364 11,431,649 11,442,083 Total actual expenditure11,256,36411,431,64911,442,083 Income (recovery from fees) 13,322,500 12,264,948 14,293,125 Income (recovery from fees)13,322,50012,264,94814,293,125  Table 11. 5. Area irrigated by crop in Tadla Table 11. 5. Area irrigated by crop in Tadla  (5-year average 1998-2003). (From Petitguyot, (5-year average 1998-2003). (From Petitguyot,  2003.)   2003.)  Crop Area (ha) % CropArea (ha)%  Cereals 46,000 39 Cereals46,00039  Sugarbeet 13,800 12 Sugarbeet13,80012  Fodder 25,000 21 Fodder25,00021  Olive 16,800 14 Olive16,80014  Citrus 8,100 7 Citrus8,1007  Vegetables 8,500 7 Vegetables8,5007  "},{"text":"Table 11 . 6. Summary data for Tadla.(From Hellegers and Perry, 2004.)     Farm 1 2 3 Farm123 Size (ha) 4.8 6.0 7.7 Size (ha)4.86.07.7 Gross income ($/ha) 1453 1971 996 Gross income ($/ha)14531971996 Net income before water charges    Net income before water charges ($/ha) 901 1470 612 ($/ha)9011470612 Water charge if 100% canal ($/ha) a 156 (17) 145 (10) 145 (23) Water charge if 100% canal ($/ha) a156 (17)145 (10)145 (23) Water charge if 100% well ($/ha) a 320 (35) 297 (20) 298 (49) Water charge if 100% well ($/ha) a320 (35)297 (20)298 (49)  "}],"sieverID":"df226a11-7761-408d-8f6a-b145232d08d9","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01205a9a0508a6f976473bd442382c38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a03c29b0-f76b-4734-ae43-5dd8b34086f5/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Community participatory inventory and prioritization of climate-smart crop-livestock agroforestry technologies / practices Techical Manual","keywords":["Community participatory inventory and prioritization of climatesmart crop-livestock-agroforestry technologies / practices. ICRAF Technical Manual. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre Adaptation","Climate-Smart","Climate change","Climate variability","Food security","Mitigation"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) is a centre of scientific excellence that harnesses the benefits of trees for people and the environment. Leveraging the world's largest repository of agroforestry science and information, we develop knowledge practices, from farmers' fields to the global sphere, to ensure food security and environmental sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"ICRAF's headquarters are based in Nairobi, Kenya, and we operate in six regional programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America. Our vision is an equitable world where all people have viable livelihoods supported by healthy and productive landscapes. Our mission is to harness the multiple benefits trees provide for agriculture, livelihoods, resilience and the future of our planet, from farmers' fields through to continental scales. ICRAF is the only institution conducting globally significant agroforestry research in and for all of the developing tropics. Knowledge produced by ICRAF allows governments, development agencies, and farmers to use the power of trees to make farming livelihoods more environmentally, socially and economically sustainable at scales."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"The geographic designation employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Agroforestry Centre concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. "}]},{"head":"Table of content","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Literature","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Babou André Bationo is a senior forestry biology and ecology scientist. He holds a PhD from the University of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). He works at the Agriculture and Environmental Research Institute (INERA), Burkina Faso. He is an associate scientist and the focal point of ICRAF in Burkina Faso. His expertise includes participatory regeneration and ecology of agroforestry tree species in agroforestry systems."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Saaka Buah is an agronomist and soil scientist with a PhD in Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition from Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA. He is currently working with CSIR-SARI, Ghana where his research activities focus on solving agricultural production problems in the savanna zone of Ghana. He also provides technical assistance to increase the availability of appropriate and affordable soil fertility management technologies to sustainably improve agricultural productivity in northern Ghana. He is currently the Head of the farming system research team based in the Upper West region of Ghana."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Diaminatou Sanogo is a senior scientist at the Senegalese Agricultural Research Institute, focal person of ICRAF in Senegal. She holds a doctoral degree in Ecology, Agroforestry at Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar (Senegal). Her research interests include Participatory Action Research in agroforestry and forestry including cultivation of high-value indigenous tree species. She is also working on developing strategies for the sustainable management of natural resources on communal lands."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Abasse Tougiani is a senior scientist at the National Agricultural Research Institute of Niger (INRAN), and is an ICRAF focal point in Niger. He holds a PhD in Biology and Silviculture from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. His research interests include agroforestry, integration of agricultural crops, livestock and tree species production system and cultivation of high-value indigenous tree species. (iii) making an inventory of key crop-livestock-agroforestry value chains and their actors. This is just a rapid identification of promising value chains and a detailed study is to follow later."}]},{"head":"Definition of key terms used in the document","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"In this guide, the terminologies such as adaptation, mitigation and ecosystem services are used as defined by Bayala et al. (2016):"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Adaptation is referred to as \"adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities\" (IPCC, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Mitigation refers to actions that limit the magnitude and/or rate of long-term climate change; it generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases and may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation (IPCC, 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Ecosystem services refers to the benefits people obtain from ecosystems which are grouped into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits (MEA, 2005)."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Climate-smart agricultural production is defined by FAO (2013) as agricultural production activities that composed of three pillars: (1) sustainably increasing"}]},{"head":"Preamble","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"This manual has been produced within the framework of the project: Building  "}]},{"head":"Team member Role","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Team Leader Introduces the workshop and the agenda for the day. Explains the objectives of the project, has the responsibility for the management of the workshop and acts as a contact point between community and the rest of the team. He/She is responsible for quality control and the final production of the workshop report."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Facilitator Explains and guides the discussion during the workshop. Ensure all participants are getting an equal chance to participate, especially women and try as much as possible to ensure that the sitting arrangements allow for interactions among the participants."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"It will be advantageous for the facilitator to understand the local language."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"2 Rapporteurs They have the responsibility of tracking and documenting in details the content of the discussions. The note takers should also record any controversies during the discussions, contentious issues, how group makes decisions or reached consensus. The note takers should remind the facilitator if any issues that are supposed to be covered have been left out. The names of the workshop participants should be recorded together with their gender and institution of origin. An example of how to record the names of the participants is given Table 2."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"agricultural productivity and incomes; (2) adapting and building resilience to climate change; and (3) reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible. Therefore, for a technology to be considered climate smart, it has to contribute to food security through increased productivity and income generation, adaptation and mitigation strategies. The technologies should also be proven up-scalable and economically viable."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"A list of crop-livestock-agroforestry technologies that could be climate-smart as adapted from the publication by IUCN (Savadogo et al., 2011) is provided in Annex to this guide. The list should not be read to the participants but should only serve as a guide. It will be good for the workshop team to familiarize themselves with this informative publication."}]},{"head":"Community participatory inventory of the climate-smart technologies/practices","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The inventory of the CSA practices/technologies should be conducted during a community workshop (Photo 1)."}]},{"head":"Identification of workshop participants","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The workshop should gather:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• At least 30 adult participants (over 18 years) from the target communities;"},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"• At least 30% of communities participants should be women who have a good knowledge of the biophysical and socio-institutional contexts of the sites; • All key social groups/ethnic groups in the community including crop and livestock farmers; • Representatives from the community should form at least 50% of the workshop participants; • At least 2 representatives (with background in agronomy, livestock and agroforestry) from:"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• research institutes,"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• development agencies (NGOs),"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• private sector and • Government agencies."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• The workshop team should consist of a team leader, a facilitator and 2 rapporteurs. Their role is described in Table 1 below."},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"(note-takers) 16"}]},{"head":"Conduct of the inventory","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The conduct of the inventory workshop entails: (i) explaining to the participants the technologies that could be considered \"climate-smart\" (Photo 2);"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"(ii) asking the participants to mention technologies that have proven successful and beneficial in terms of improving household food security, adaptation to climate change and mitigation; Attendants should be asked to bear in mind technologies/practices from all domains namely agronomic, soil and water conservation / water storage, livestock and forestry-agroforestry, social practices, etc. (Table 4a, b, c, etc.). You can start with crop-related technologies, and then followed by livestock and agroforestry."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"(iii) For each mentioned technology, the participants should be asked to elaborate on the benefits and constraints for its implementation, and reasons for being considered climate-smart;"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"(iv) At completion of the inventory, the results should be presented to the participants to ensure that nothing is missing.  "}]},{"head":"Collecting general Information on the target site","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"After introducing the project and explaining the objectives of the workshop, it is essential to collect general information on the village using Table 3. This information is necessary to better contextualize the responses of the participants regarding the inventory of climate-smart crop-livestock-agroforestry practices.  It is critical here to prevent any group from dominating in giving score for the technologies. Technologies/social practices with higher score should be considered as promising and used for the next assessment regarding the identification of the key value chains which the scaling up of the technologies/social practices should focus on. However, attention should be paid to the adaptation and mitigation score for final decision on which technology to screen for their value addition."}]},{"head":"Prioritization of the climate-smart crop-livestock-agroforestry practices/technologies","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In this session, the inventoried climate-smart crop-livestock-agroforestry practicesare to be prioritized by assessing each identified practice against seven criteria (Table 5). In the context of climate change, it is recognised that technology innovations alone are insufficient, and we suggest to include social innovations."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"In fact, social innovations emerge as networks generating innovative solutions for climate change adaptation and mitigation (Feola et Nunes, 2014).  "}]},{"head":"Rapid identification of key crop-livestockagroforestry value chains","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"This short session identifies key crop-livestock-agroforestry value chains, rank ing them and identifying the main actors together with their level of influence on the value chain. It also identifies interventions needed to make the value chain operational (Table 6).   Savadogo M., Somda J., Seynou O., Zabré S., Nianogo A. J. 2011.Catalogue des bonnes pratiques d'adaptation aux risques climatiques au Burkina Faso. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. UICN Burkina Faso. 52 pp. ISBN : 978-2-8317-1392-2."}]},{"head":"Selecting scalable technologies/social practices from the inventory","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"(Follow up of the results from the inventory and prioritization)"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Once the prioritization is completed, the cost-benefit analysis of the selected options (Andrieu et al., 2017) will help coming up with a limited number that will be up-scaled through improved understanding of farmer's perceptions and demands, by addressing barriers to adoption taking into consideration gender and social differentiation."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"This will be done either by strengthening the capacity of the key stakeholders on the short list of options retained or testing and evaluating them (fine tuning to local circumstances) through participatory action research. The stakeholders include farmers, extension services, development agencies (e.g. NGO), private sector, researchers and governmental agencies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Criteria to be used for the prioritization exercise 4.2. Procedure for conducting the prioritization 5. Rapid identification of key crop-livestock-agroforestry value chains 6. Selecting scalable technologies/social practices from the inventory (Follow up of the results from the inventory and prioritization) "},{"text":" resilient agro-sylvo-pastoral systems in West Africa through participatory action research (BRAS-PAR)\". BRAS-PAR is one of the flagship 2 projects funded by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). The flagship 2 of CCAFS, which is about climate-smart technologies and practices, addresses the challenge of how to transition to a climate-smart agriculture (CSA) at a large scale for enabling agricultural systems to be transformed and reoriented to support food security under the new realities of climate change. Led by ICRAF-WCA/Sahel, the BRAS-PAR project is being implemented by a consortium of National research institutes in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Niger and Senegal, IUCN, and ILRI. This project seeks to develop up-scalable technological and social innovations of climate-smart agriculture for integrated croplivestock-tree systems through improved understanding of farmer's perceptions and demands, by addressing barriers to adoption taking into consideration gender and social differentiation. One of the three activities of the project is to strengthen the capacity of key actors through multi-stakeholders platforms and the key element of this activity is engaging different key actors and the local communities to make inventory of promising climate-smart crop-livestock-agroforestry practices and to prioritize these practices for testing and evaluation through participatory action research. The stakeholders include farmers, extension services, development agencies (e.g. NGO), private sector, researchers and governmental agencies. 15 14 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Participants at prioritization exercise of climate-smart crop-livestockagroforestry technologies/practices. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: A facilitator explaining a point to community members during the inventory workshop. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: A woman scoring for a technology during the inventory workshop. "},{"text":"4. 1 . Criteria to be used for the prioritization exercise (i) ability to sustainably improving agricultural productivity; (ii) market value of the different products generated by the technology; (iii) viability as adaptation strategy; (iv) potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation); (v) potential for up-scaling; (vi) economic viability (cost and benefit) /income generation and (vii) impact on ecosystem services.4.2. Procedure for conducting the prioritization(i) Participants are first asked to score each identified technology/practice for each criterion on a scale of 0 (none/not at all) to 10 (Excellent/highly suitable) (Photo 3). "},{"text":"Dr. Diaminatou Sanogo [email protected] Dr. Abasse Tougiani [email protected] Dr. Robert Zougmoré [email protected] List of acronyms and abbreviations CCAFS:  Dr. Babou André Bationo 1. Introduction Dr. Babou André Bationo1. Introduction [email protected]  [email protected]   This guide describes a simple method for community participatory inventory This guide describes a simple method for community participatory inventory  Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security and prioritization of climate-smart agriculture practices/technologies and so-cial innovations. Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Securityand prioritization of climate-smart agriculture practices/technologies and so-cial innovations. CGIAR: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research  CGIAR:Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research   It aims at: It aims at: CIAT: International Center for Tropical Agriculture (i) engaging key stakeholders in inventorizing promising climate-smart CIAT:International Center for Tropical Agriculture(i) engaging key stakeholders in inventorizing promising climate-smart Dr. Saaka Buah CSA: Climate-Smart Agriculture crop-livestock-agroforestry practices that fit their local context; Dr. Saaka Buah CSA: Climate-Smart Agriculturecrop-livestock-agroforestry practices that fit their local context; [email protected]  [email protected] CSIR-SARI: Savanna Agricultural Research Institute of the Council for (iI) prioritizing the promising climate-smart technologies based on a set of CSIR-SARI: Savanna Agricultural Research Institute of the Council for(iI) prioritizing the promising climate-smart technologies based on a set of  Scientific and Industrial Research criteria pertinent to climate smart agriculture (food security, adaptation Scientific and Industrial Researchcriteria pertinent to climate smart agriculture (food security, adaptation DANIDA: Danish International Development Agency  DANIDA:Danish International Development Agency EU: European Union  EU:European Union FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations  FAO:Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ICRAF: World Agroforestry Centre  ICRAF:World Agroforestry Centre ICRISAT: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics  ICRISAT:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development  IFAD:International Fund for Agricultural Development IICT: Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical  IICT:Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical ILRI: International Livestock Research Institute  ILRI:International Livestock Research Institute INERA: Institut de l'Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles  INERA:Institut de l'Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles INRAN: Institut National de Recherche Agronomique du Niger  INRAN:Institut National de Recherche Agronomique du Niger IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  IPCC:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISRA: Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole  ISRA:Institut Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature  IUCN:International Union for Conservation of Nature MEA: Millenium Ecosystem Assessment  MEA:Millenium Ecosystem Assessment NGO: Robert Zougmoré is an agronomist and soil Non-Governmental Organization  NGO:Robert Zougmoré is an agronomist and soil Non-Governmental Organization  scientist with a PhD in Production Ecology & Re-  scientist with a PhD in Production Ecology & Re- SDC: sources Conservation, University of Wageningen. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation  SDC:sources Conservation, University of Wageningen. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation He is based at ICRISAT Bamako where he currently leads the CGIAR research pro-  He is based at ICRISAT Bamako where he currently leads the CGIAR research pro- gramme on climate change, agriculture and food security (CCAFS) in West Africa.  gramme on climate change, agriculture and food security (CCAFS) in West Africa. His work focuses on the development of climate-smart agriculture technologies,  His work focuses on the development of climate-smart agriculture technologies, practices, institutions and policies for better climate risk management in West  practices, institutions and policies for better climate risk management in West Africa.   Africa.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Roles of the Workshop team   "},{"text":"Table 2 : List of participants  Name Sex Institution NameSexInstitution  1=Male;  1=Male;  2= Female  2= Female 1.   1. 2.   2. 3.   3. 4.   4. 5.   5. 6.   6. 7.   7. 8.   8. ...   ... ...   ... ...   ...  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Preliminary information on the village (project site)  Name Name Dominant ethnic group (s) Dominant ethnic group (s) Total population Total population Total number of households Total number of households Number of female headed households Number of female headed households Proportion of households growing crops and keeping livestock Proportion of households growing crops and keeping livestock Proportion of households growing crops only Proportion of households growing crops only Proportion of households keeping livestock only Proportion of households keeping livestock only Proportion of the households engaged in agroforestry practices Proportion of the households engaged in agroforestry practices Proportion of households engaged in non-agricultural activities only e.g. commerce Proportion of households engaged in non-agricultural activities only e.g. commerce Average size of crop farm per household Average size of crop farm per household Dominant crops grown in the village Dominant crops grown in the village Dominant livestock species in the village Dominant livestock species in the village Average livestock number per household Average livestock number per household Access to market (0=Poor; 1=Fair; 2=Good; 3= Very good) Access to market (0=Poor; 1=Fair; 2=Good; 3= Very good) State of infrastructures (school, health centre etc.) State of infrastructures (school, health centre etc.) in the community (0=Poor; 1=Fair; 2=Good; 3= Very good) in the community (0=Poor; 1=Fair; 2=Good; 3= Very good) Pressure on crop land in the community (1=Low; 2=Average; 3=High; 4= Very high) Pressure on crop land in the community (1=Low; 2=Average; 3=High; 4= Very high)  "},{"text":"Table 4a : Inventory of promising climate smart agronomic practices (including soil and water)  Technology/ Benefit Constraint Reason for climate Technology/BenefitConstraintReason for climate social practices   smartness social practicessmartness 1.    1. 2.    2. 3.    3. 4.    4. 5.    5. 6.    6. 7.    7. 8.    8. 9.    9. 10.    10.  "},{"text":"Table 4b : Inventory of promising climate smart livestock practices  Technology/ Benefit Constraint Reason for climate Technology/BenefitConstraintReason for climate social practices   smartness social practicessmartness 1.    1. 2.    2. 3.    3. 4.    4. 5.    5. 6.    6. 7.    7. 8.    8. 9.    9. 10.    10.  "},{"text":"Table 4c : Inventory of promising climate smart agroforestry practices      Pass-on-the-gift (Credit in kind) sheep (Social innovation) • Easy source of up scaling livestock rearing • Poverty reduction • Source of manure • Lower mortality rates • Higher fertility rates, • Improvement in animal and herd performance • Extra income and food • Preventive health measures such as vaccinations to control disease, stress reduction (provision of shade and water) • Growth in animal-source foods • Rich and diversified diets • Inadequate veterinary services in a cost-effective manner. ties and dissemination of vaccine quality vaccines in the communi-• Challenges are scarcity of high-• High cost of treatment and housing to small ruminant production Sheep and is a major impediment infects primarily Goats and de petits ruminants) virus that • Vaccine against The PPR (peste • Healthy stock with reduced mortality risks • Food security strategy through poverty reduction. Pass-on-the-gift (Credit in kind) sheep (Social innovation)• Easy source of up scaling livestock rearing • Poverty reduction • Source of manure • Lower mortality rates • Higher fertility rates, • Improvement in animal and herd performance • Extra income and food • Preventive health measures such as vaccinations to control disease, stress reduction (provision of shade and water) • Growth in animal-source foods • Rich and diversified diets• Inadequate veterinary services in a cost-effective manner. ties and dissemination of vaccine quality vaccines in the communi-• Challenges are scarcity of high-• High cost of treatment and housing to small ruminant production Sheep and is a major impediment infects primarily Goats and de petits ruminants) virus that • Vaccine against The PPR (peste• Healthy stock with reduced mortality risks • Food security strategy through poverty reduction.     Fodder production (Cajanus cajan) • Animals do not roam far • Provide protein to animals • Provides nutrients to the land • Reliable source of animal feed • Labour intensive • Often grazed by free roaming livestock • Little or no cultivated pastures • Bulk of current forage resource are from natural rangelands • Improved quality feeds and products mitigating emissions • Forage quality improvement. • By enhancing forage produc-tion, more organic matter is returned to soils, which, in turn, increases the amount of orga-nic carbon stored in the soil Fodder production (Cajanus cajan)• Animals do not roam far • Provide protein to animals • Provides nutrients to the land • Reliable source of animal feed• Labour intensive • Often grazed by free roaming livestock • Little or no cultivated pastures • Bulk of current forage resource are from natural rangelands• Improved quality feeds and products mitigating emissions • Forage quality improvement. • By enhancing forage produc-tion, more organic matter is returned to soils, which, in turn, increases the amount of orga-nic carbon stored in the soil     Semi-intensive housing • Know where about of live stock • Manure is secured • Sick animals are easily identified • Highly protected from thieves • Lower mortality rates • Higher fertility rates, • Improvement in animal and herd-shade and water) stress reduction (provision of as vaccinations to control disease, • Preventive health measures such performance • Difficulties in bringing livestock home every evening • limited expertise • Poor feed quality (low feed digestibility). • Adaptation strategy. • Reduction in disease and pest incidence • Prevent excessive/extreme weather events • Minimizes deforestation and land degradation Semi-intensive housing• Know where about of live stock • Manure is secured • Sick animals are easily identified • Highly protected from thieves • Lower mortality rates • Higher fertility rates, • Improvement in animal and herd-shade and water) stress reduction (provision of as vaccinations to control disease, • Preventive health measures such performance• Difficulties in bringing livestock home every evening • limited expertise • Poor feed quality (low feed digestibility).• Adaptation strategy. • Reduction in disease and pest incidence • Prevent excessive/extreme weather events • Minimizes deforestation and land degradation Technology/ social practices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Benefit Constraint Reason for climate smartness Grazing management • Able to manage limited land. • Increased mobility of animals • Areas allocated for livestock are over utilized due to insufficient land. • Poor feed quality (low feed digestibility). • Vegetation loss due to overgrazing • Increases deforestation and land degradation • Deforestation is a land-use change process that can gene-rate most GHG emissions • Adaptation strategy in livestock feeding • Grassland carbon sequestration could offset emissions • The impact of better grazing management (increased mobi-lity, and a better balance bet-ween grazing and rest periods) can have a positive impact on forage production and soil carbon sequestration. • Forage quality improvement Technology/ social practices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.BenefitConstraintReason for climate smartnessGrazing management • Able to manage limited land. • Increased mobility of animals• Areas allocated for livestock are over utilized due to insufficient land. • Poor feed quality (low feed digestibility). • Vegetation loss due to overgrazing • Increases deforestation and land degradation • Deforestation is a land-use change process that can gene-rate most GHG emissions• Adaptation strategy in livestock feeding • Grassland carbon sequestration could offset emissions • The impact of better grazing management (increased mobi-lity, and a better balance bet-ween grazing and rest periods) can have a positive impact on forage production and soil carbon sequestration. • Forage quality improvement 7. 8. 9. 10.    Supplementary feeding (Acacia fruits) • Enhance faster growth of livestock • Not easily available • Adaptation strategy against limited access to feed. • Forage quality improvement 7. 8. 9. 10.Supplementary feeding (Acacia fruits)• Enhance faster growth of livestock• Not easily available• Adaptation strategy against limited access to feed. • Forage quality improvement 20       21 2021  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Framework for technology and social practices prioritization Repeat the table separately for the different categories(agronomy, livestock, agroforestry, etc.)     Technology/ Criteria (score 0 (none/not at all) to 10 (Excellent/highly suitable) Technology/Criteria (score 0 (none/not at all) to 10 (Excellent/highly suitable) social practices    social practices  Food security Adaptation Mitigation Others Score total Food securityAdaptation MitigationOthersScore total 1. 2. 3. 4. … … Productivity Income Adaptation Mitigation potential potential economic impact on for viability ecosystem up-scaling services 1. 2. 3. 4. … …Productivity Income Adaptation Mitigation potentialpotential economic impact on for viability ecosystem up-scaling services  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Template for participatory value chain analysis  Value Chain Rank Main actors Influence of Intervention Value ChainRankMain actorsInfluence ofIntervention    the main actors needed the main actorsneeded    (1. Weak; 2. Modest; 3. Strong; 4. Very strong /dominant)  (1. Weak; 2. Modest; 3. Strong; 4. Very strong /dominant) 1.     1. 2.     2. 3.     3. 4.     4. 5.     5. 6.     6. 7.     7. 8.     8. 9.     9. 10.     10.  "},{"text":"score from 0 (none/not at all) to 10 (excellent/highly suitable)  Adaptation Mitigation Others Adaptation Mitigation Up-scaling Economic Ecosystem Adaptation Mitigation OthersAdaptation Mitigation Up-scaling Economic Ecosystem Food security Productivity Income Food securityProductivity Income  "},{"text":" Zougmoré R.,Ky-Dembele C., Bationo B.A., Buah S., Sanogo D., Somda J.,  Tougiani A., Traoré K., Kalinganire A. 2016. Towards developing scalable climatesmart village models: approach and lessons learnt from pilot research in West Africa. ICRAF Occasional Paper No. 25. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre. FAO 2013. Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Rome, Italy. Feola, G. and Nunes, R. (2014) Success and failure of grassroots innovations for addressing climate change: the case of the Transition Movement. Global Envi-/doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.11.011 Available at http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/36095/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate change 2007: mitigation of climate change,B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave & L.A. Meyer (eds). Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA, Cambridge University Press. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, World Resources Institute, Washington, USA. Literature       Literature Andrieu N., Sogoba B., Zougmore R., Howland F., Samake O., Bonilla-Findji O., Andrieu N., Sogoba B., Zougmore R., Howland F., Samake O., Bonilla-Findji O., Lizarazo M., Nowak A., Dembele C., Corner-Dolloff C. 2017. Prioritizing invest- Lizarazo M., Nowak A., Dembele C., Corner-Dolloff C. 2017. Prioritizing invest- ments for climate-smart agriculture: Lessons learned from Mali. Agricultural ments for climate-smart agriculture: Lessons learned from Mali. Agricultural Systems 154: 13-24       Systems 154: 13-24 Bayala J., Zougmoré R., Dayamba S.D., Olivier A. 2017. Climate-Smart Agriculture Bayala J., Zougmoré R., Dayamba S.D., Olivier A. 2017. Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies in West Africa: learning from the ground Research for Development Technologies in West Africa: learning from the ground Research for Development experiences. Agriculture & Food Security (2017) 6:40. DOI 10.1186/s40066-017- experiences. Agriculture & Food Security (2017) 6:40. DOI 10.1186/s40066-017- 0117-5.        0117-5. Bayala J., ronmental Change, 24. pp. 232250. ISSN 09593780 doi: Bayala J., ronmentalChange,24.pp.232250.ISSN09593780doi: https:/        https:/  "}],"sieverID":"dbe141ab-8357-4f95-a61e-34b06cb384ff","abstract":"He is currently working on establishing key directions for the agroforestry research and development programme in the Sahel. His research focus is on the soil-plant-water continuum in West and Central Africa and on agroforestry species physiology in the face of climate change.Djibril S. Dayamba is a postdoctoral fellow on Climate-Smart Agriculture at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), based in Bamako, Mali. He is involved in a number of projects aiming at capacitating stakeholders in using climate Information and climate-smart practices for enhanced resilience of the production systems in West Africa. He holds a PhD degree in Forest Biology, Ecology and Management from Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.Augustine Ayantunde is a principal scientist in sustainable livestock systems at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). He holds a PhD degree in ruminant nutrition from University of Wageningen, The Netherlands. He is based at ILRI office in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. His areas of research include participatory testing and evaluation of livestock-related strategies for sustainable intensification of crop-livestock systems in West Africa, evaluation of feed resources in West African Sahel, evaluation, monitoring of natural resource use in (agro)-pastoral systems including conflict management, and participatory analysis of vulnerability to climate change in agro-pastoral systems in the Sahel.Jacques Somda is a senior programme officer with the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Central and West Africa programme. He holds a doctoral degree in rural economics at the University of Cocody, Côte d'Ivoire. His research interests include monitoring and evaluation, environmental economics, technology adoption and policy analysis.Catherine Ky-Dembele is a tree scientist based at the Sahel Node, Bamako of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-WCA/Sahel). She holds a PhD in Forest Management, Option Silviculture from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Her research interests include developing appropriate propagation methods for valuable agroforestry tree species and other activities regarding tree domestication."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"029666d7f269239fe32f37cba4c94273","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://agrumig.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2023/07/AGRUMIG-Policy-Brief-Series-No-25.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Migration governance and agrarian and rural development: Comparative lessons from China, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal and Thailand","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Migration governance and agrarian and rural development","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"This brief assembles the main findings drawn from the AGRUMIG project country reports on how different migration governance interventions mediate the relationship between migration and agrarian and rural development. Thirty intervention types are examined and organized thematically into a five-fold division, namely i) pre-departure training for migrants; ii) employment generation programs; iii) agricultural interventions to support potential migrants and returnees; iv) financial incentives for migrants and returnees; and v) rural, local and regional development initiatives (Table 1 and Box 1)  The analyses in this brief emphasize policy recommendations structured around three pillars that advance migration as a positive opportunity for harnessing the synergies between human mobility and development. "}]},{"head":"II.E Implementing existing policies","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• National and international efforts toward implementing already existing migration policies and closing the gap between policy and practice"}]},{"head":"II.F Financial interventions directly targeting migrants and returnees","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• National and international efforts toward developing financial interventions directly targeting migrants and returnees"}]},{"head":"Pillar III. Policy implementation: Content","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III.A Trainings in sync with skills required for jobs in destination and sending countries","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Develop policies ensuring alignment between the skills of migrants and labor market needs"}]},{"head":"III.B Employment generation programs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Gear national efforts toward ensuring competent and remunerative salaries through employment generation programs to attract migrants and enable their reintegration into the national economies • Strengthen national efforts toward boosting financial health and sustainability of employment generation programs."}]},{"head":"III.C Policy design","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• National and international efforts toward designing robust policies sensitive to conflicting structural, agential, and cultural political-economic dynamics • Develop 'inherently enabling' and not 'intrinsically disabling' policy architecture • Appropriate political settlement analysis to help design effective policies to deal with issues of contestation of power among multiple actors "}]},{"head":"Policy recommendations","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pillar I. Overall policy framework and configuration","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I.A Integrated development","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"National and international efforts toward developing integrated policies supporting agricultural development in migration-specific contexts Integration may entail:"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Agricultural policies and programs are sensitive to the needs of households with migrants in terms of gender or labor scarcity and can potentially harness the benefits of remittance inflows."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Agricultural programs that support potential migrants and address their challenges so they can make a more informed choice regarding investments in land or for migration."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Agricultural programs that directly support returnees and help them overcome barriers to investment in the sector."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"In this context, AGRUMIG findings reveal, for example, Morocco's oversight in mainstreaming migration in its agricultural development strategy, the Green Morocco Plan (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020).  (2004,639) argues that little attention has been accorded in international development to the relationship between \"policy models and the practices and events that they are expected to generate or legitimize.\" Li (2007) and Mosse (2004) suggest that policy models tend to be simplistic and not representative or derived from the economic, political, and cultural forces upon which policy implementation rests."}]},{"head":"National and international efforts toward mainstreaming migration as a crosscutting issue across development policies and programs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In the last few decades there has been a growing consensus that migration can contribute to international development."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"However, there has been imperceptible progress in aligning migration and international development policy and practice to date. While the Global Compact for Migration (2018) provides a potential avenue for integrating migration"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Waterwheel in an on-farm canal system in Batken region, the most remittance-dependent and arid region in Kyrgyzstan. Water access is one of the main problems for farmers here (photo: Asel Murzakulova)."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"and development (Foresti 2017)  For example, using raw materials found locally and providing skill-based training for localized production, consumption, and investment in projects with the assistance of governmental and nongovernmental agencies can incentivize returnee reintegration into the local economy. In contrast to these examples, migration policies in Morocco, modeled on principles espoused by the European Union (EU) and international organizations, are stymied by incoherence between domestic and international mandates. Further, there is no integration between international programs combining migration and development that work in parallel in the same regions."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Livestock dotting mountain pastures, Naryn region, Kyrgyzstan. Eighty-five percent of agricultural land in Kyrgyzstan is pastureland. Livestock investment is assumed to contribute to wealth enhancement. The State Program for Irrigation Development is expected to shape livestock development through increased cultivation of fodder crops (photo: Amrita Lamba)."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"For example, in the Beni Mellal-Khénifra region in Morocco, there is a EU-funded Deployment of Migration Policies at Regional Level program (DEPOMI) and a joint German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and EU commissioned Strengthening Selected Moroccan Municipalities in the Management of Migration project (RECOSA). The latter is a project to reinforce local authorities' capacity to improve reception structures for migrants. However, despite being introduced in the same field and region, there is no alignment between these two initiatives."}]},{"head":"Pillar II. Policy implementation: Process","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"II.A Coordination and cooperation between states","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Establish mechanisms in bilateral agreements fostering cooperation between governments to enforce migrant labor rights and curtail exploitative intermediaries in developing high-remittance migration pathways","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"High-remittance migration pathways can indirectly impact agricultural development through remittance-based investment. AGRUMIG project findings highlight risks due to inadequate information among migrants and their employers about human and labor rights, employers' respective obligations, and other aspects of the migration process such as legal frameworks, employment opportunities in destination countries, and so forth. Labor shortages affect agricultural practices. For example, straw is burned, as it is cheaper than harvesting it, which requires labor. In addition, there is less demand for straw due to the decline in animal husbandry as a consequence of migration (photo: Amrita Lamba)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"of understanding and bilateral agreements offer more recruitment opportunities and reduce migration costs, many migrants still use private manpower companies to find work abroad because the process is easier and faster. Migration enabled through manpower companies require high fees and often use migrants' land as collateral for private loans. As a result, migrants get unfairly paid jobs, are forced to work in poor conditions, or lose their land to these illegal companies if they cannot repay the loan."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"Coordination mechanisms between governments of sending and receiving countries for pre-departure training to reach migrants in ensuring safe migration pathways Regular and safe migration pathways have the potential to support higher investment through increased remittances received from migrants. AGRUMIG findings from Ethiopia suggest that the pre-departure trainings have significant policy implications for migration governance as they promote regular and safe migration through i) bettering relations between labor migrants and their overseas employers involving knowledge generation among migrants about employment in destination countries; ii) agreed job contracts and bilateral agreements; iii) preventing forcible apportionment of their agricultural land as collateral to borrow money from private lenders for payments to dealers facilitating irregular migration; iv) remittances channeled appropriately for family expenses and agricultural needs instead of using this money for repaying debts to release family farmland; v) savings and investment of migrants' money in appropriate ventures upon return; and vi) less expensive and more risk-averse migration avenues in comparison with irregular migration."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"However, mobility restrictions related to the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic prevented Ethiopian migrants from taking up jobs abroad despite completing pre-departure trainings. Absence of coordination between private recruitment agencies and government agencies that were involved in the pre-departure training programs and in dealing with the pandemic related disruptions further derailed the process of enabling these migrants to secure employment abroad despite easing of mobility restrictions. In the absence of effective coordination mechanisms, Ethiopian migrants have continued to opt for jobs abroad using unregulated or illegal migration routes. This has encouraged irregular migration in Ethiopia and left migrants vulnerable to exploitation by smugglers."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"AGRUMIG project findings from Nepal show that while predeparture trainings are designed to offer safe migration channels in theory, their uptake is often patchy. Examples include the Safer Migration Project and others offered through bilateral projects and governmental and nongovernmental organization initiatives. They also fail to reach irregular migrants. These migrants, who are primarily women, choose to transit through India where labor permits are not required under governmental policy. Hence exposing themselves to risks such as human trafficking, forced labor in destination countries, and loss of life. Therefore, it is imperative for predeparture trainings to reach such migrants through effective coordination mechanisms between governments of sending and receiving countries to stem the tide of irregular and risky migration trajectories."}]},{"head":"II.B Wider coverage","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Bolster national and international efforts toward a wider coverage of migration governance interventions AGRUMIG project findings reveal the need for wider coverage of interventions to achieve intended outcomes. For example, the efficacy of employment generation programs for youth and vulnerable communities, skill development trainings and the government's subsidized loan program in Nepal have been marred by weak coverage. Government policies and programs focus primarily on outgoing migrant workers and not returnees. Similarly, DOE's returnee reintegration project in Thailand is not widely known and is considered a short-term or ad hoc project which impedes its functioning. People are less aware of Thailand's Loans for Overseas Labour Migration Project, which leaves them with private loan schemes or loan sharks. The latter are also easier to access since, unlike banks, they do not require much paperwork. AGRUMIG project findings also suggest that the Moldovan program needs to be more widely disseminated, particularly to the country's peripheral areas to help support many beneficiaries."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Migrant household in Moldova taking to beekeeping family business and tailoring activities (photo: Irina Kuznetsova)."}]},{"head":"II.C Impact assessment and monitoring and evaluation","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Comprehensive impact assessment and monitoring and evaluation of interventions to improve the accuracy and pertinence of follow-up work","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"AGRUMIG project findings suggest that monitoring and evaluation of trainings in Nepal are unsatisfactory. For example, training centers have no data on the number of trainees who found employment. Poor monitoring and evaluation of the Prime Minister's Employment Programme was seen to contribute to its unsustainability and misuse of funds. AGRUMIG project findings from China also stress the need for substantive impact assessment of employment generation interventions to help improve their functioning. One of the main reasons for the success of Moldova's PARE 1+1 and DAR 1+3 is the inbuilt mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation prevalent in these programs."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"restricts the recognition of their needs and weakens the accountability of governments and service providers (Jobbins et al. 2018), and the absence of such disaggregated data can make designing migrant-specific policies difficult."}]},{"head":"II.E Implementing existing policies","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"National and international efforts toward implementing already existing migration policies and closing the gap between policy and practice Bureaucratic apathy has contributed to poor uptake of interventions. For example, the Foreign Employment Board in Nepal lacks the initiative to ensure the country gains from the skills of migrant workers. Additionally, Nepal's Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security has no information on returnees despite an initiative launched in 2020 after the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. There are no mechanisms to reintegrate migrants into the economy by providing information to develop enterprises or matching their skills with local employment opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"AGRUMIG project findings indicate that several agricultural interventions in Nepal do not meet their targets due to weak implementation. This contributes to greater migration flows from rural areas and discourages return migration. Moldova's DAR 1+3 is constrained due to the cumbersome paperwork required to access grants, discouraging potential beneficiaries from applying. Thailand's YSF program is also stymied by weak implementation leading to benefits not reaching returnees. While on paper, three-quarters of the world's migrants are allowed some form of social protection through multilateral and bilateral agreements, enforcement of these agreements is poor in practice (Hagen-Zanker et al. 2017)."}]},{"head":"II.F Financial interventions directly targeting migrants and returnees","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"National and international efforts toward developing financial interventions directly targeting migrants and returnees AGRUMIG project findings suggest that financial interventions directly targeting migrants and returnees can positively shape outcomes for migration and agricultural and rural development. "}]},{"head":"Pillar III. Policy implementation: Content","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III.A Trainings in sync with skills required for jobs in destination and sending countries","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Develop policies ensuring alignment between the skills of migrants and labor market needs AGRUMIG project findings indicate the need for mechanisms to match employment opportunities with job seekers. For example, pre-departure trainings on skill development in Nepal do not guarantee migrant workers a job in the same sector. The quality and relevance of skills-based training offered in employment generation programs in Nepal do not match the local labor market demand, and the trainings are often based on traditional curricula. Also, the duration and format of the week-long entrepreneurship training programs currently provided are far from adequate, with no longterm support for trainees to secure jobs that meet market needs. A lack of coordination between the government and the private sector has exacerbated the mismatch between skills-based training provided to workers and job demands in industries. Likewise, findings from the DOE's returnee reintegration program in Thailand highlight the necessity to create a systematic and strategic approach to facilitate the transfer of skills and knowledge of migrants working abroad and to enhance the skills and qualifications of migrants so they can receive a decent salary in Thailand. Returnees hope the program will allow them to convert their work experience into a certificate they can use when applying for jobs. By contrast, participation in the TIC bilateral program led to Thai migrants securing a job in the agriculture sector in Israel, resulting in the development of their skills and knowledge in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Migrants brought their knowledge and skills in seeding, irrigation, and fertilizing back home to apply to their own farms. "}]},{"head":"III.B Employment generation programs","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III.C Policy design","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"National and international efforts toward designing robust policies sensitive to conflicting structural, agential, and cultural political-economic dynamics AGRUMIG project findings reveal that poor design of policies contribute to their inefficacy. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"A comparative analyses of research findings from China, Kyrgyzstan, Ethiopia, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal, and Thailand, and the policy recommendations, signal that the ways in which migration governance mediate the relationship between migration and agrarian and rural development are clearly not a monolithic group. The migration agenda seems to be characterized by a divergence of needs and priorities. These disparate aspects can inform cooperation between states to strengthen the global governance of migration toward positive agrarian and rural development outcomes for sending communities to help buck the trend of 'leaving something behind'."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Irrigation system in Figuig oasis, Morocco. Date cultivation is predominant here. Most land is abandoned and dry due to property division and declined water supply. A new date orchard plantation has mushroomed here based on an agro-industrial model and drip irrigated by groundwater and the Sfeissif dam. Herder communities and returning migrants are involved in this endeavor, which is sponsored and implemented by Moroccan state elite networks (photo: Lahoucine Amzil)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Box 1 . An overview of interventions within the five-fold thematic division. 1. Pre-departure training for migrants • Ethiopia: Pre-departure training program for migrant workers • Nepal: Pre-departure training of migrants, including skill development, legal advice, and sensitization for migrants • Thailand: Pre-departure training of migrants and protection under the bilateral agreement programs 2. Employment generation programs • China: Government support for returnees, rural employment, and Covid-19; Support for migration and Covid-19 • Ethiopia: Rural job creation programs • Moldova: Free economic zones • Nepal: Employment generation programs for youth and other vulnerable communities; Supporting returnee migrants and reintegration initiatives -reintegration programs implemented by nongovernmental organizations for vocational and skills training • Thailand: Department of Employment (DOE) -returnee reintegration project 3. Agricultural interventions to support potential migrants and returnees • Kyrgyzstan: State Program for Irrigation Development of the Kyrgyz Republic for 2017-2026 • Moldova: National subsidies for agricultural producers (Ministry of Agriculture -Agency for Intervention and Payments in Agriculture [AIPA]) • Morocco: Green Morocco Plan (project development of the natural and hydraulic heritage of the Figuig palm grove and project grouping of farmers in aggregation schemes and arboricultural cooperatives, Upper Moulouya and Eastern High Atlas, Midelt Province) • Nepal: Agricultural interventions suitable for a labor-scarce economy • Thailand: Young Smart Farmer (YSF) program -agricultural interventions to integrate existing knowledge and skills with innovation and the young generation 4. Financial incentives for migrants and returnees • Moldova: Program for Attracting Remittances into the Economy (PARE 1+1); Diaspora Succeeds at Home (DAR 1+3) • Nepal: Supporting returnee migrants and reintegration initiatives -loan program for returnee migrants and returnee migrant entrepreneurship award program • Thailand: Loan schemes to support Thai overseas migrants 5. Rural, local and regional development initiatives • China: Rural revitalization (balanced development); Rural medical care; Rural education • Kyrgyzstan: Vocational trainings for people in rural areas • Moldova: Migration and local development -United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); Diaspora, Origini, Reveniri (Diaspora, Origin, Return); Summer camp for Moldovan diaspora • Morocco: Joint Migration and Development Initiative (JMDI), International NGO Porogetto Mondo-Mlal (I am a Migrant project); Deployment of Migration Policies at Regional Level (DEPOMI) "},{"text":" For example, while bilateral agreements are often legally binding, many have faced criticism due to their failure to set minimum standards for the work carried out by migrants(Hagen-Zanker et al. 2017; Go 2007; Lucci et al. 2016). They shape the work that laborers carry out and, in turn, the flow of remittances. This is often connected to power imbalances between the governments of recruiting and sending countries.This allows the imposition of strict controls by the former on migrant workers' movement and rights, as shown in the example of the Thailand-Israel Cooperation on the Placement of Workers (TIC) leading to human rights violations. Similarly, when legal migration channels are still open, ineffective cooperation between states can perpetuate exploitative working conditions or allow the private manpower sector to fill the gap in mediating between worker and employer(Malit  Jr. and Naufal 2016). Recruitment agencies tend to worsen the vulnerability of migrants, perpetuating uneven information flows between migrants and recruiters, resulting in migrants taking up work under false pretenses (ibid.). This includes, for example, false contract information about wages and the type of work.Regulations on the manpower sector are present, yet in many countries such as Nepal, their implementation is weak as evidenced in AGRUMIG project findings(Taylor-Nicholson  et al. 2014). Similarly, in Thailand although memoranda Thadi Jhijha village, Dhanusha district, Nepal. Agriculture in this area is dominated by subsistence production of paddy, wheat and pulses. Most land remains fallow outside of the monsoon season due to poor irrigation. Labor migration is prevalent. Female migration is non-existent. "},{"text":" For example, Moldova's PARE 1+1 has been an effective tool for reintegrating returnees into the national economy. The program targets labor migrants and their first-degree relatives (with Moldovan citizenship) willing to set up or develop a business in Moldova with money coming from remittances. Similarly, DAR 1+3 offers financial incentives to migrants and organizes the Moldovan diaspora to support local development. What distinguishes these two initiatives from other financial interventions are: i) PARE 1+1 and DAR 1+3 offer grants and not collateralfree or minimum-collateral loans, thus preventing further precarity and indebtedness of migrants; and ii) PARE 1+1 and DAR 1+3 have inbuilt mechanisms such as monitoring and evaluation which help ensure the efficacy and pertinence of the follow-up work. Programs that depend on offering loans are less likely to succeed due to the considerable risk associated with agricultural investments in the current economic climate.II.D Migrant databaseDevelop comprehensive national policies for improving data collection and analysis on migrant returnees and establishing migrant returnees as a separate category with specific training needs to enable their reintegration into the local economyAGRUMIG project findings suggest that Nepal's employment generation and skill development training programs do not regard migrant returnees as a separate category requiring a different kind of training aimed at their reintegration into the local economy. Nepal's Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security collects data on migrant workers abroad, but no information is obtained on the returnees. Similarly, Thailand has limited access to potential returnees to help connect them with the DOE's returnee reintegration program. Additionally, data on returnees and their social remittances are also inadequate. The limited visibility of migrants in data A tractor bought by a Moldovan migrant returnee through funding secured by the Program for Attracting Remittances in the Economy (PARE 1+1) initiative (photo: Irina Kuznetsova). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . . Five-fold thematic division of migration governance interventions and countries where these are examined. Country Country  "},{"text":"Policy implementation: Process II.A Coordination and cooperation between states  • Pillar I. Overall policy framework and configuration •Pillar I. Overall policy framework and configuration  Box 2. Summary of policy recommendations. Box 2. Summary of policy recommendations.  Pillar I. Overall policy framework and configuration Pillar I. Overall policy framework and configuration  I.A Integrated development I.A Integrated development  • National and international efforts toward developing integrated policies supporting agricultural development in • National and international efforts toward developing integrated policies supporting agricultural development in  migration-specific contexts migration-specific contexts  • National and international efforts toward mainstreaming migration as a crosscutting issue across development • National and international efforts toward mainstreaming migration as a crosscutting issue across development  policies and programs policies and programs  Pillar II. Pillar II.  "},{"text":" and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes the economic contribution of migration to development, these advances do not comprehensively map migration's contribution to development outcomes. Including migrant-specific vulnerabilities in the workplace in the 2030 Agenda, for example, will be a step in this direction(Hagen-Zanker  et al. 2017; Lucci et al. 2016). Thus, migration would be better incorporated into global development initiatives and integrated into regional, national and local development planning. AGRUMIG project findings corroborate this.For example, Moldova's Mainstreaming Migration into Local Development project (short title Migration and Local Development), led by UNDP, aims to maximize the impact of migration on socioeconomic development through an enhanced institutional framework involving the diaspora. Through this intervention, national and local public authority mandates, capacities, and resources have been enhanced to provide qualitative employment reintegration services to all returnees. The Ethiopian rural job creation strategy in the Gamo The Ethiopian rural job creation strategy in the Gamo Highlands launched in 2017 for diversifying job opportunities Highlands launched in 2017 for diversifying job opportunities and addressing desperate rural out-migration decisions and addressing desperate rural out-migration decisions can be sustained by more effectively integrating rural can be sustained by more effectively integrating rural employment and land access issues. This is because employment and land access issues. This is because uncertain access to land has impeded implementation of uncertain access to land has impeded implementation of the strategy. Similarly, in Nepal, the interventions geared the strategy. Similarly, in Nepal, the interventions geared toward supporting youth enterprises in agriculture and toward supporting youth enterprises in agriculture and the rural economy have the potential to retain youth in the the rural economy have the potential to retain youth in the country-if they are implemented and coordinated with country-if they are implemented and coordinated with other developmental initiatives. other developmental initiatives.  "},{"text":" Funding shortages challenge the otherwise moderately successful rural job creation program in the Ethiopian Gamo Highlands. Similarly, in Nepal, a paucity of funds has marred the implementation of skill development trainings to enable the reintegration of returnees into the local economy through programs such as the Youth and Small Enterprise Self-Employment Fund and the Micro-Enterprise Development Programme for Poverty Alleviation. The DOE's budgetary constraints have impacted the implementation of the returnee reintegration project in Thailand, as a consequence of which only those with connections to high-level authorities from the Ministry of Labour and a small number of migrants can avail themselves of this scheme. Gear national efforts toward ensuring competent and Gear national efforts toward ensuring competent and remunerative salaries through employment generation remunerative salaries through employment generation programs to attract migrants and enable their reintegration programs to attract migrants and enable their reintegration into the national economies into the national economies AGRUMIG project findings reveal that the Moldovan Free AGRUMIG project findings reveal that the Moldovan Free Economic Zones offer employment opportunities with Economic Zones offer employment opportunities with salaries lower than the average national salaries, thus salaries lower than the average national salaries, thus making them an unattractive avenue to pursue. Similarly, making them an unattractive avenue to pursue. Similarly, Nepal's Prime Minister's Employment Programme can be seen Nepal's Prime Minister's Employment Programme can be seen more as a coping mechanism than a meaningful alternative more as a coping mechanism than a meaningful alternative to migration. The program guarantees at least 100 days per to migration. The program guarantees at least 100 days per year instead of regular or year-round employment. While the year instead of regular or year-round employment. While the program provides a safety net for the poorest households, program provides a safety net for the poorest households, low-wage and unskilled jobs offer no substantive alternative low-wage and unskilled jobs offer no substantive alternative to migrants seeking livelihood security through overseas to migrants seeking livelihood security through overseas employment. employment. Strengthen national efforts toward boosting financial health Strengthen national efforts toward boosting financial health and sustainability of employment generation programs and sustainability of employment generation programs  "},{"text":" For example, the State Program for Irrigation Development of the Kyrgyz Republic is stymied by quality control, analysis, and planning constraints. For instance, the program envisages improvement of some 100,000 hectares (less than 10% of the current irrigated land area). However, it is unclear how the government will raise employment in agriculture by 55% (245,000 new jobs according to the program) if the irrigated land area is improved by only 10%.These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that migrants often return to the country for short durations and then engage in other short-term migration experiences to earn money for their new businesses. They are stuck in a vicious cycle, and the goal of attracting migrants back is not achieved. Moreover, the high level of financial literacy needed to access PARE 1+1 resources and the cumbersome paperwork needed to access DAR 1+3 grants discourage potential beneficiaries from applying.In Nepal, migrant workers lack the skills, training, and resources to prepare business project proposals that can be funded by local banks. The government has not made it attractive for private financial institutions to offer collateral-free or minimum-collateral loans to enterprising youth. Often, migrants are unable to repay loans and end up losing their land. Accessing loans on high interest rates for migration using Thailand's Loans for Overseas Labour Migration Project has led to indebtedness among returnees. Some returnees worry about losing mortgaged land plots if they are unable to repay their loans.Appropriate political settlement analysis to help design effective policies to deal with issues of contestation of power among multiple actorsFostering rural development and offering grants may prevent out-migration, encourage returnees' reintegration into the economy and boost agricultural investments, as illustrated in the rural and local development initiatives targeted toward migrants, returnees, and the diaspora in Moldova and Morocco. However, such successful interventions risk failure due to the conflicting interests of various actors involved in the power dynamics. For example, JMDI in Morocco offers an excellent illustration of global interagency partnerships involving UNDP, International Organization for Migration, International Training Centre of the International Labour Organization, UN Women, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Population Fund, United Nations Institute for Training and Research, and Moroccan national, regional and local partners. It is funded by the EU and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.The presence of so many actors has led to power struggles and disputes representing different interests. A political settlements analysis becomes significant in this context wherein powerful elites or actors arrive at deals on cooperation to enable more inclusive political arrangements and a just accommodation of diversity (Khan 2013; DFID 2012). Thus, the ways in which the political context determines how interventions impact (or not) development outcomes are relevant to addressing development failures. Another factor contributing to the failure of interventions Another factor contributing to the failure of interventions is the conflicting objectives of different interventions in is the conflicting objectives of different interventions in the same region. For example, in Morocco, differences the same region. For example, in Morocco, differences are noted in the objectives of the two projects linked to are noted in the objectives of the two projects linked to setting up drip irrigation and reviving polyculture in the setting up drip irrigation and reviving polyculture in the Figuig oasis. The former focuses on technical aspects and Figuig oasis. The former focuses on technical aspects and the latter on environmental considerations, sustainable the latter on environmental considerations, sustainable development, and safeguarding heritage and biodiversity. development, and safeguarding heritage and biodiversity. AGRUMIG project findings suggest that differences in the AGRUMIG project findings suggest that differences in the proposed agricultural models of these two projects have led proposed agricultural models of these two projects have led to their ineffectiveness. Moreover, conflicting perspectives to their ineffectiveness. Moreover, conflicting perspectives of actors involved in interventions can contribute to their of actors involved in interventions can contribute to their inefficacy. For example, in Morocco, ethnically based local inefficacy. For example, in Morocco, ethnically based local and diaspora associations are involved in the Figuig oasis and diaspora associations are involved in the Figuig oasis projects. This has created a coordination problem between projects. This has created a coordination problem between actors from local associations in Figuig and diaspora actors from local associations in Figuig and diaspora associations in France, and these differences in identities associations in France, and these differences in identities have impacted project outcomes. have impacted project outcomes. Develop 'inherently enabling' and not 'intrinsically disabling' Develop 'inherently enabling' and not 'intrinsically disabling' policy architecture policy architecture Despite the gains achieved through PARE 1+1 in Moldova, Despite the gains achieved through PARE 1+1 in Moldova, one of its main limitations is the financial cost, which one of its main limitations is the financial cost, which affects its financial sustainability. The incentives provided to affects its financial sustainability. The incentives provided to beneficiaries are too low to generate scaling-up of economic beneficiaries are too low to generate scaling-up of economic  "}],"sieverID":"e4f374c2-a1cb-42c8-ba42-8ead255c7dc9","abstract":"The purpose of this policy brief is to draw together key comparative lessons on different types of migration governance interventions in the AGRUMIG project research regions and examine how they support positive feedback loops between migration and agrarian and rural development. This exploration offers stories of success and omission. Moving beyond the elusive triple-win situation on the benefits of migration for destination and origin countries, migrants themselves and the highly politicized domain of the Panoramic view over Figuig oasis in Morocco, nestled near the Atlas Mountains (photo: Lahoucine Amzil). migration-development nexus, our point of departure is that there are vital prospects for augmenting the positive impacts of migration for societies globally (Nyberg-Sørensen et al. 2002; de  Haas 2010; Wise 2018; Bauböck and Ruhs 2022). This brief focuses on how migration governance interventions are potentially useful in maximizing the gains between migration and agrarian development in the sending communities in China,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02de18817148acf8734377b0522a4377","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.bulletinofinsectology.org/pdfarticles/vol60-2007-273-274alvarez.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Detection and characterization of a phytoplasma associated with frog skin disease in cassava","keywords":["Plant disease","aetiology","phytoplasmas","molecular identification","PCR/RFLP","sequencing"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the main carbohydrate sources in the tropics and it has worldwide importance as basic food for millions of persons in America and Africa."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"This root crop is affected by cassava frog skin disease (CFSD), a major disease of roots that is spreading throughout the Colombian cassava-growing areas, where yield losses reach almost 90%, and other South American countries such as Brazil, Venezuela and Panama. The major symptom is that severely affected roots are thin and not useful for consumption."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Considering the epidemic behaviour of the disease and its economic importance a study was carried out to verify possibility of phytoplasma aetiology of CFSD disease in Colombia."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Cassava samples collected from diverse tissues of symptomatic and asymptomatic plants were tested after nucleic acid extraction by nested PCR assays with three pairs of universal primers P1/P7 (Deng and Hiruki, 1991;Schneider et al., 1995), R16mF2/R1, and R16F2n/R2 (Gundersen and Lee, 1996), to amplify the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA region of phytoplasmas. Amplicons of the correct size obtained after amplification with R16F2nR2 were subjected to RFLP analyses with restriction enzymes AluI, MseI, RsaI, and TaqI. To further verify phytoplasma identity sequencing of R16F2n/R2 amplified DNA fragments was also carried out after their cloning."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Tissue preparation and embedding for electron microscope observation was performed from symptomatic cassava tissues."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Graft transmission trials from symptomatic plants were carried out on Secondinia spp., a foliar disease indicator variety of cassava."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Growing infected cassava plantlets in a chloroxytetracycline solution was also performed."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Phytoplasmas were detected in CFSD infected cassava samples by using nested-PCR assay with the three primer pairs described above. Fragments measuring 1.2 kb were amplified only from samples collected from symptomatic plants. The detected phytoplasmas were firstly identified as related to X-disease phytoplasma ribosomal group after RFLP analyses on R16F2n/R2 amplicons."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Sequence analysis of the cloned fragments confirmed that the phytoplasma present in symptomatic cassava samples was similar to phytoplasmas belonging to 16SrIII ribosomal group (X-disease and related phytoplasmas) showing a 99% sequence homology with phytoplasmas in GenBank belonging to this ribosomal group."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"After electron microscopy observations the presence of phytoplasmas was also observed in the phloem sieve tubes of roots from symptomatic plants. No phytoplasmas were detected in healthy cassava control tissues."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"By grafting in Secundina spp. plants CFSD symptoms were reproduced. In addition, phytoplasmas were detected by nested-PCR after transmission by Cuscuta spp. (dodder plant) and grafting in two cassava varieties."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Symptoms disappeared from cassava leaves when infected plantlets were grown in a chloroxytetracycline solution."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This study is the first to report a phytoplasma associated with cassava frog skin disease. Molecular identification allows referring the identified phytoplasmas to ribsosomal group 16SrIII (Lee et al., 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Several experimental evidence suggests that phytoplasmas can play also an important pathogenetic role in CFSD aetiology, moreover during preliminary studies evidence of aerial vector presence was found. Further researches are in progress to better verify epidemiological aspects of this disease."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"34ddce50-6b87-4ea0-b12b-e0c189403868","abstract":"Cassava is one of the main carbohydrate sources in the tropics, and it has worldwide importance as basic food for millions of persons in America and Africa. This root crop is affected by cassava frog skin disease that in Colombia produces yield losses of almost 90%. A phytoplasma was associated with this disease by using a nested-PCR followed by RFLP analyses, cloning and sequencing of 16S ribosomal gene. Sequence analysis showed that the phytoplasma was related to those belonging to 16SrIII ribosomal group, with a 99% sequence homology. Evidence of phytoplasma aetiology for the disease was achieved also by electron microscopy observations, grafting to specific host plants, and by its dodder transmission. Symptoms were reproduced in healthy plants. Symptoms disappearance in leaves was obtained by growing cassava infected plantlets in a chloroxytetracycline solution producing further evidence for the phytoplasma aetiology. This study is the first to report a phytoplasma associated with cassava frog skin disease."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02f89f16e30b1356a636e9f415daed86","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1631/WF_37463.pdf"},"pageCount":18,"title":"The Prospect of Co-Management in Managing Open Water Resources with Special Reference to Indonesia: A Lesson Learned","keywords":["community","resource","management","co-management","open access","Indonesia","Java"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Indonesia is basically an archipelago and an agricultural country. Nearly three quarters of its people live in rural areas and are involved with agricultural activities. People are mostly involved in agricultural and fisheries sectors."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Lately, the role and involvement of communities in development activities has become significant in Indonesia, especially after socio-political reforms. There is a policy and paradigm shift in governing activities from top-down to decentralized systems. The devolvement of authority from national government towards provincial and local government has been gradually progressing since the decentralization law (law No.22 / year 1999) was promulgated in 2001. There has been a shift in the functions, tasks, authority and responsibility from centralized government to local government. Currently, most of the designed programs are now targeted at the grassroots level. Communities and related stakeholders are expected to play their roles in development requiring participation and sharing of responsibilities as the key to success to achieve sustainable development. River management in a region is also delivered to the local government with necessary coordination with central government. There are several examples of successes and failures in managing rivers in Indonesia subject to the commitment of the authorities and stakeholders in resource conservation."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"One of the severe problems currently faced by city authorities in Indonesia, including Semarang and its surroundings is illegal unregulated and unreported (IUU) resettlements with most of them located on the banks of rivers or canals (Susilowati, 2004;2006). Consequently, the environmental quality of the rivers and canals (open water resource) are deteriorating. This situation is also taking place on almost all of the urban rivers like Kaligarang, Semarang, and Babon rivers."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"This paper attempts to compile several studies that have been conducted by Susilowati et al. (2002); Susilowati (2004;2006;2007) to provide a picture of community involvement in resource management (river). At the same time, the prospect of co-management approach and the degree of stakeholders' involvement in managing the river(s) have also been discussed in this paper."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"(1) Study Area: there are four rivers were observed in this paper, namely: Babon; Semarang, Banjir Kanal Barat (or known as Kaligarang river) and Tuntang. All rivers are located in Semarang (Municipality and Regency)."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"(2) Data and Sampling: A cross-sectional survey was designed to collect the data through face-to-face personal interviews by the trained enumerators. The respondents of each study area were varied. It depended on the characteristics of the community and the presence of competent key-persons in the field. The distribution of respondents is shown in table 1. (3) Method of Analysis: This paper aims to provide a comparison of the prospect of using a co-management approach in managing the open water resources in four rivers in Central Java-Indonesia. A research framework as outlined by Pomeroy dan Williams (1994) was applied to identify the prospect of comanagement level; and the key conditions given by Ostrom (1990Ostrom ( , 1992) ) and Pinkerton (1989) were used in this study with necessary modifications as applied in Susilowati (1999;2001a;2001b) and Susilowati et al (2002) and Susilowati (2004;2006;2007). Multivariate analysis (Hair Jr. et al.,1998) has been employed and was complemented by descriptive statistics (see Mason et al., 1999;SPSS, 1996)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resource Description","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"(1) Babon River: This river is considered as one of the strategic resources in Indonesia since it serves multiple functions especially for the inhabitants along the watershed. Many industries are placed along the Babon river stream. Because of that, the Babon river can be highly polluted. In order to achieve the goals of the clean river program (prokasih), thus clean-up program should be imposed on the business activities along the river. In order to comply with this requirement awareness among the stakeholders to conserve the river is highly recommended."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The Babon river crosses over the three regions, the Semarang District in its upstream reaches and the Semarang Municipality and Demak District further downstream. The multiple use nature of the river (e.g. water source, canal disposal, mining, etc) means that there have been many transboundary environmental problems."},{"index":3,"size":364,"text":"The research was carried out along the Babon river in the stretch under the jurisdiction of Semarang Municipality only. Further, the study areas were divided into three river segments, i.e. up stream (Rowosari village), middle stream (Penggaron Kidul village) and down stream (Banjardowo village). In the early rainy season of 1999 the water of Babon river was sampled from several intake points. The results indicated that the BOD, COD and DO are increasing and exceed the minimum standard. The BOD ranged between 18.98 -80.28 mg/l, while the DO was about 2.20 -3.80 mg/l. Water temperature was between 30-33°C. Table 2 shows the chemical indicators of Babon river water. (2) Semarang River: 'Kali' 1 Semarang is the only river that flows in the heart of Semarang city. It was famous when Semarang was a Dutch colony. At that time it was used as a transport route for Chinese and Arabic traders leading to the establishment of China-town and Arabic settlements being located near the river. The river bank was also utilized by Dutch people as a place for recreation, but since then the river-side has been used for building business and office complexes now known as 'kota-lama' or the old town of Semarang. The course of the Semarang river starts from the southern part of Semarang from Kaligarang dam, then down to east until near Kariadi General Hospital and Flower market (defined as upper-stream) and passes behind Lawang Sewu building, Mayor Semarang Office, and Jalan Inspeksi in Thamrin (defined as middle-stream). To the north it goes to China town, Johar Market, Mberok Bridge and down to Java Sea (defined as lower-stream). Until 1970's, Semarang river was still used by the community for washing, bathing and rearing fish. Even until the early 1980's many home-based producers of 'tempe-tahu' (a famous Javanese dish made from soyabeans) used this river to wash their raw materials. However, all these activities have now stopped because the river is no longer suitable for these purposes. Today, Kali Semarang is utilized by the community for sewage, disposal of garbage and drainage. The river body is becoming shallow and narrower, and the river bank is being used for illegal settlements and other purposes."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"The up-stream section is partly covered by concrete and used for streets. Semarang is built on fragile alluvial soils however during city development land was reclaimed and there has been infiltration of sea water due to water supply demands. These conditions have accelerated the process of depression of the northern part of Semarang's land below sea level resulting in flooding of this area during high-tides. Meanwhile, the drainage infrastructure, including the Semarang river, has not able to cope with water flow during the rainy season. Semarang is now known as the 'flooded city' and there is even a famous satirical song with the lyric \"Semarang kaline banjir\"."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"The results of water quality analysis indicate that the Semarang river is no longer safe for drinking water standard (class I). For the standard of class II, the DO was above the required standard in the middle-and down-stream sections (T3 and T4), while the water sampled taken in T3 showed that Nitrate (NO3-N) were excessive. The Sulfide (H2S), Nitrite ((NO2-N), BOD and COD were excessive for water quality class II at all the points sampled."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"(3) Kaligarang River: This is a natural river with its source being a spring located in the Ungaran mountain in the southern part of Semarang city. When it became a Dutch colony, the down-stream section of this river was enlarged and it functioned as a canal for flood control. This part is called Banjir Kanal Barat."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"The upstream part of the Kaligarang River flows through agricultural land (forest and paddy field) and human settlements and is considered as the water source for Semarang City. The mid-stream section of the river is dominated by gravel and sand mining industries and human settlements. This is also where Semarang Municipality's water supply company sources water for communities in the downtown and northern parts of Semarang."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"The Kaligarang River is mainly used by the community and industry to dispose of liquid waste, particularly in the down-stream section as it drains directly to the Java Sea. Agricultural irrigation and fisheries activities benefit from the river while all drainage infrastructures in the densely populated north-western part of Semarang are captured by the Kaligarang river."},{"index":9,"size":112,"text":"The Kaligarang river often overflows during heavy rains and the water quality is adversely affected from time to time due to deforestation in upstream sections and mining activities in midstream sections. High turbidity and sedimentation cannot be avoided in the downstream sections and particularly in the estuary. The local government appears to pay little attention to maintaining the river. Therefore, the river is becoming narrower and shallow and there is heavy siltation along the river in its lower reaches. There was a particularly heavy flood on 26 January 1990 with peak water flows of around 1.5 m3/second. It caused material losses of around 8.5 billion rupiah and many hundreds of people drowned."},{"index":10,"size":78,"text":"Along Kaligarang river, the BOD, COD and DO exceeded the quality standard. The water quality tended to deteriorate toward the downstream sections as shown in table 3. (4) Tuntang River: This river originates in several springs from Telomoyo and Merbabu mountains. This water accumulates in Rawa Pening (a natural dam) and is used for electric power generation. The Tuntang river then flows from Semarang and Grobogan regencies on its way to the Java Sea passing through Demak regency."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"During the monsoon the Tuntang water flow is significantly higher and sometimes overflows, particularly in downstream sections. The salinity of the Tuntang river is relatively high, therefore it is not suitable for agricultural irrigation. Despite this, communities along the river have no other options but to use its waters for their activities, particularly for farming, rearing the fish, etc."},{"index":12,"size":48,"text":"The BOD, COD and of Tuntang river are about 4282 mg/l and 22.39 mg/l, while the CO is 6.38 mg/l meaning that it is still considered safe for water supply, bathing and cultivation (farming and aquaculture). The physical attributes of the Tuntang river are shown in Table 4. "}]},{"head":"Rules and regulations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"A river is considered as a strategic resource since it performs multiple functions especially for the inhabitants along its watershed. Dense housing, business activities and industries are placed along urban rivers like Semarang and Kaligarang rivers. Due to all these activities there is high potential for pollution and environmental damage. In order to achieve the goals of clean river program (prokasih), clean-production programmes need to be imposed on households, businesses, and industrial activities along the river (in urban and rural) and this has been guided by rules, formally and informally. The formal rules related to the river management are summarized in table 5."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"In order to comply with the relevant rules it is important to increase awareness among the stakeholders to conserve the river. In general, people in the region perceived that the rivers have dual functions; as a place to get resources and to dispose of garbage and sewage. The level of knowledge of people along the rivers about technology and management skill is limited, and rules not consistently applied. Meanwhile the capacity of the government in surveillance and enforcement activities is very far from complete. Moreover, many people in Indonesia have an image that a river is a place to dispose the unused things, even dead pets, as reported by Lucas and Arief (2000). There is a need to reorientate the community's attitudes on the importance of rivers. As well as proper enforcement of existing regulations, informal rules need to be revived and strengthened to provide proper guidance for the people. "}]},{"head":"Interactions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"(1) Resource Utilisation: Rivers in Indonesia are usually used for several purposes and different communities may have different motives in utilising a river. As perceived by the respondents in the communities rivers are utilised for: human bathing, washing and sanitation; irrigation; animal bathing; to get rid of waste; and drinking water. However the pattern of river utilisation in the different river sections also vary (upper-, middle-and down-stream)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"(2) Degree of Commercialisation: In general, rivers in all the study areas are considered as an open access resource and people perceive them loosely as the common property. Although there are formal and informal rules and regulations in place, weak enforcement and surveillance, worsened by economic pressure, means that the rivers are exploited for many purposes by surrounding communities. There is no incentive for communities to comply in conserving and maintaining the river when they see others misusing the resource. Misinterpretation of the concept of decentralisation means that many of the natural resources (particularly in urban area) are potentially able be utilised by communities, government and other stakeholders for commercial purposes."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Sand, gravel, stone, clay and water from the river are extracted by several parties, while the bank of the river is utilised for agriculture and fisheries activities. Many canoes are operated as ferries for moving people from one shore to the other. People collect fish and other creatures (e.g. worms) for commercial purposes."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"(3) Pattern of interactions: Pomeroy et al. (1994) claimed that co-management involves various degrees of delegation of management responsibility and authority between the local level (resource users or community) and the state level (national, provincial, and district governments). The interaction among the stakeholders to perform the management functions (planning, organising, actuating, and controlling) in different segments of river (upper-, middle-and down-streams) are shown in the following figures."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"In the upper-stream, the role of controlling the resource is by the community themselves and followed by the academician and/ or NGO, while the government shares in planning activities. Organising activities in river management are done by all related parties with the government as the facilitator. Further, actuating activities are usually done by the community and private parties."}]},{"head":"Prospects for co-management","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Among the emerging conditions for successful co-management are that the more of these key conditions that exist in a particular situation or system, the greater the chance for successful co-management (Pomeroy et al., 1994). The key conditions outlined by Ostrom (1990Ostrom ( , 1992) ) and Pinkerton (1989) were used with necessary modifications as applied in Susilowati (1999;2001a;2001b) and Susilowati et al (2003) and Susilowati (2004;2006;2007) to evaluate the likelihood of success for co-management approaches in the rivers under study. Key conditions were evaluated on a likert scale (1 to 5) or conventional scale (1 to 10) based on observations in the field and discussions with several competent key-persons."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Total scores for the 11 key conditions required for successful co-management in each river are shown in annexed tables (see Appendix). Overall the results indicate that prospects for co-management ranged between marginal to pretty good."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"In addition, the results indicated that the sharing in understanding and responsibility among the stakeholders, as perceived by the respective communities studied, are fairly good. There is an indication that communitybased management may help them to pursue the goal of resource (river) management. There is a clear need to provide empowerment for all stakeholders who should be encouraged to develop synergistic partnerships."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The capacity and quality of the rivers studied are deteriorating due to a range of causes. Deforestation is most often claimed as the main factor in up-stream areas, while, mining and industrial activities were found to be the main activities accelerating the degradation of the mid-stream sections. Pollution from industries and domestic waste is becoming a significant problem for all the rivers. Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) resettlements near the rivers are also a problem."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Based on an initial quick assessment using criteria provided (by www.healthywaterways.env.qld.gov.au), the Babon, Semarang and Kaligarang rivers are likely to be classified as 'poor health' rivers. The chemical indicators showed that the water quality of the rivers is no longer safe for drinking water standard (class I) and results from several monitoring stations showed that the water almost no longer fulfilled the quality for recreation and gardening (class II). Hence, the involvement of the community might not be sufficient for improving the quality and capacity of the rivers. There is a need for sharing understanding, responsibility, sympathy and empathy as well as a requirement for good will from all competent stakeholders in order to build support and a sense of belonging for managing the rivers."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"It is unlikely that this recommendation will be implemented in the next few years however we do not have other options. So far, the government of Semarang Municipality and Regency are paying less attention to maintaining these resources. In fact, it is as if there has been no management in managing the rivers in the study areas (and perhaps, generally in Indonesia,) for the last five years. Thus, if we do not start doing something right now, it means we let the rivers go extinct. ----------( 2007). Romancing People in Order to Manage River: with a Special Reference to Tuntang River, Central Java -INDONESIA. Paper will be presented in Brisbane Riverfestival, 3-7 September 2007. Brisbane, Australia."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"The South East Queensland Regional Water Quality Management Strategy Team (2001). Discover the waterways of South-East Queensland. Brisbane, Australia. http://www.healthywaterways.env.qld.gov.au. The fisher group or organization has no legal rights to organize and make arrangements related to its need. 2"}]},{"head":"APPENDIX","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"No. Key-Conditions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Phenomenon in the Field Score ** However, in practice the fisher group or village organization has made its arrangement; There is no legislation from the government defining and clarifying local responsibility and authority. However, informally the government provide some support for ikan larangan although still in low degree 9"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Cooperation and leadership at community level There is an incentive and willingness on the part of fishers to actively participate with time, effort, and money in fisheries management; There is an individual or core group who takes leadership responsibility for the management process 5 10"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Decentralization and delegation of authority"},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The government has established formal policy and/or laws for decentralization of administrative functions (Regulation No. 22/1999, amendment Regulation No. 5/1974)   The community group or organization has no legal rights to organize and make arrangements related to its need. However, in practice the community group or village organization has made its arrangement; 2 4 4 8 Legal rights to organize"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"There is no legislation from the government defining and clarifying local responsibility and authority. However, informally the government provide some support for Babon river management although still in low degree 4 4 3"},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"There is an incentive and willingness on the part of community to actively participate with time, effort, and money in Babon river management; 3 2 4 9 Cooperation and leadership at community level There is an individual or core group who takes leadership responsibility for the management process 3 5 5"},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"The government has established formal policy and/or laws for decentralization of administrative functions (Regulation No. 22/1999, amendment Regulation No. 5/1974). However, delegation of management responsibility and/or authority to local government and local group organization levels has not be given "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( Cmps): A Case Study In Central Java Fisheries, Indonesia. Research Report. Presented in the Sixth Asian Fisheries Forum Seminar, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. 24 November-2 December 2001. ----------(2001b). An Application Of Fisheries Co-Management Approach Of Ikan Larangan In West Sumatra, Indonesia: The Features And Attributes. Journal of Coastal Development. Vol:4. No.2 , February, 2001. ----------(2004). Semarang River Will Long-life or Extinct? Reviving Involvement of Community Might Not Sufficient Effort. Paper presented in Brisbane Riverfestival, 27 August-5 Sept 2004. Brisbane, Australia. ----------(2006). Managing River without Management?: the experience of Kaligarang (Banjir Kanal Barat) River, Semarang -INDONESIA. Paper presented in Brisbane Riverfestival, 4-7 September 2006. Brisbane, Australia. "},{"text":" have an expectation that the benefits to be derived from participation and compliance with community-based management is exceed the cost of investments in "},{"text":" print of establishment of coordinating body of Babon river is being processed by the Government of Semarang (perhaps Bapedalda). This body is aimed to monitor the local management arrangements, resolve conflicts and reinforce local rule enforcement. Participative management provides an easy coordination and communication between the government and scale: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; U : Up stream; M : Middle stream; D: Down stream * Definition B/C is very subjective for each person. In the most of study area, people interpreted the B/C in terms of social context. ** The average score is close to 4. This can be interpreted that the prospect for successful Co-management for Babon river is good. "},{"text":"Table 1  . Distribution of respondents surveyed . Distribution of respondents surveyed No Rivers Respondents (persons) No RiversRespondents (persons) 1. Babon -Community (n=120) 1. Babon-Community (n=120)  -Key-persons (n=30) -Key-persons (n=30) 2. Semarang -Community (n=45) 2. Semarang-Community (n=45)  -Key-persons (n=30) -Key-persons (n=30)  "},{"text":"Table 2  . Chemical Condition of Babon River     . Chemical Condition of Babon River Coverage Physical Condition  Quality Standard CoveragePhysical ConditionQuality Standard  BOD (mg/l) COD DO BOD COD DO BOD (mg/l) CODDOBOD COD DO   (mg/l) (mg/l)    (mg/l)(mg/l) Upstream 18.98 28.98 2.2 6 10 >=6 Upstream18.9828.982.2610>=6 Middle stream 43.20 94.20 2.2 - - >=3 Middle stream 43.2094.202.2-->=3 Down stream 80.28 161.76 3.8 - - >=3 Down stream 80.28161.763.8-->=3 Note: water sample was taken in August 1999 (morning)    Note: water sample was taken in August 1999 (morning)  "},{"text":"Table 4  . Water Quality of Tuntang River     . Water Quality of Tuntang River Sampling      Physical Quality SamplingPhysicalQuality time Mg/l  Mg / l   Condition Standard timeMg/lMg / lConditionStandard  Station 1 Station 2    BOD COD Station 1Station 2BOD COD  BOD COD DO BOD COD DO BOD COD >6 >3 BOD COD DO BOD COD DO BOD COD >6>3 Jun 01 2.4 6.25 6.4 1.8 4.69 5.7 6 12 6 3 Jun 012.46.25 6.4 1.84.69 5.7 61263 Jul 01 9 5.37 6.4 2.5 10.7 5.6 6 12 6 3 Jul 0195.37 6.4 2.510.7 5.6 61263 Aug 01 10 11.1 6.3 10 13.8 5.8 6 12 6 3 Aug 011011.1 6.3 1013.8 5.8 61263 May 04 19.5 36 4.4 14 28 5 6 12 6 3 May 0419.5 364.4 1428561263 Jun 04 8 11 4.6 21 18 6.8 6 12 6 3 Jun 048114.6 21186.8 61263 Jul04 17.5 12 4.7 17.5 3 6.4 6 12 6 3 Jul0417.5 124.7 17.5 36.4 61263 Aug 04 13 14 5.1 13 16 8.7 6 12 6 3 Aug 0413145.1 13168.7 61263 Sept 04 18.5 22.5 5.6 14 16 7.2 6 12 6 3 Sept 0418.5 22.5 5.6 14167.2 61263 Oct 04 17 20.5 5.5 13.5 16 5.2 6 12 6 3 Oct 041720.5 5.5 13.5 165.2 61263 Source: Impact Assessment Board of Semarang Regency, 2003. Source: Impact Assessment Board of Semarang Regency, 2003.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Related rules and regulations for river management in Indonesia with special reference to Central Java Province No Rules / Regulations Description  NoRules / RegulationsDescription 1 UU No.11/ 1974  Drainage  1UU No.11/ 1974Drainage 2 UU No. 4/ 1982  Guideline for environmental 2UU No. 4/ 1982Guidelineforenvironmental    management  management 3 UU No.27/ 1997  Guideline for environmental 3UU No.27/ 1997Guidelineforenvironmental    management (amendment) management (amendment) 4 UU No 7 / 2004  Guideline for water irrigation 4UU No 7 / 2004Guideline for water irrigation 5 PP No.22/ 1982  Water management 5PP No.22/ 1982Water management 6 PP No.35/ 1991  River  6PP No.35/ 1991River 7 PP No. 20/ 1990  Monitoring of water pollution 7PP No. 20/ 1990Monitoring of water pollution 8 PP No. 51/ 1993  Environmental impact assessment 8PP No. 51/ 1993Environmental impact assessment 9 PP No. 19/ 1994  Dangerous and poisonous waste 9PP No. 19/ 1994Dangerous and poisonous waste    disposal management disposal management 10 PP No 27 Tahun 1999 Environmental Impact Assessment 10PP No 27 Tahun 1999Environmental Impact Assessment    Analysis  Analysis 11 PP No 82 Tahun 2001 Water quality and water pollution 11PP No 82 Tahun 2001Water quality and water pollution    management  management 12 Presidential Decree Conservation area management 12PresidentialDecree Conservation area management  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Key Conditions for Successful Co-management of Ikan Larangan, West Sumatra No. Key-Conditions  Phenomenon in the Field Score ** No. Key-ConditionsPhenomenon in the FieldScore ** 1 Clearly defined There are physical boundaries, so the fishers groups can have 1ClearlydefinedThere are physical boundaries, so the fishers groups can have  boundaries  accurate knowledge of them; Boundaries using natural man- boundariesaccurate knowledge of them; Boundaries using natural man-     made marks 5 made marks5 2 Membership is Individual fishers with rights to fish in the bounded fishing area 2MembershipisIndividual fishers with rights to fish in the bounded fishing area  clearly defined  and participate in area management 4 clearly definedand participate in area management4 3 Group cohesion  High degree of homogeneity in terms of kinship, ethnicity, 3Group cohesionHigh degree of homogeneity in terms of kinship, ethnicity,     religion, local ideology, customs, and belief; There is common religion, local ideology, customs, and belief; There is common     understanding of the problem and alternative strategies and understanding of the problem and alternative strategies and     outcomes 5 outcomes5 4 Existing   The fishers have some prior experience with traditional 4ExistingThe fishers have some prior experience with traditional  organization  community-based systems and with organization 4 organizationcommunity-based systems and with organization4 5 Benefit exceeds Individuals have an expectation that the benefits to be derived 5BenefitexceedsIndividuals have an expectation that the benefits to be derived  cost *   from participation and compliance with community-based cost *from participation and compliance with community-based     management is exceed the cost of investments in such management is exceed the cost of investments in such     activities 5 activities5 6 Participation by Most individuals affected by the management arrangements 6ParticipationbyMost individuals affected by the management arrangements  those affected  are included in the group that makes and can change the those affectedare included in the group that makes and can change the     arrangements 4 arrangements4 7 Management rule The management rules are simple, thus easily understood by 7ManagementruleThe management rules are simple, thus easily understood by  enforced   the community 5 enforcedthe community5 8 Legal rights to 8Legalrightsto  organize   organize  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Key-conditions for Successful Co-management of Babon River, Semarang No. Conditions Phenomenon in the Field No. ConditionsPhenomenon in the Field  "}],"sieverID":"73f88d07-9567-46e1-a399-51da058a41ef","abstract":"Indonesia is a maritime country, composed of about 17,500 islands. It has a great number of open water resources such as rivers, lakes, dams, ponds, swamps, etc. which are spread over the country. Many tribes and races are associated with these resources each with their own habits, tradition, and cultures. Indonesia is formed of thousands of islands and given such a large territory, it would be costly to set up a system for formal enforcement and surveillance for open-access resources like fisheries and access to water. Fortunately, each community has an indigenous or traditional system to manage the resources. For example: Ikan Larangan (in West Sumatra), Sasi (in Maluku), Subak (in Bali), Sedekah Laut (in Java) and so on (Susilowati, 1996;1999). Rather than waiting for a complete formal resource management system (which would need to be set up by the government) it will be more reasonable and timely to revive the traditional system of resource management belonging to the respective communities. In short, community involvement in resource management is urgently encouraged, particularly in a developing country with limited budget like Indonesia. This paper is attempt to compile an experience of applying a co-management approach to manage the open water resource by Susilowati (1999Susilowati ( , 2002Susilowati ( , 2004Susilowati ( ,  2006Susilowati ( , 2007)). An institutional analysis based on Pomeroy and William (1994)  and Pinkerton (1989)  with necessary modifications was applied to the respective studies.The results indicated that there is a fairly good prospect to empower the competent stakeholders (community, government, private, independent parties) to be involved in managing the open-access resources. However, all parties need to be encouraged in order to achieve a high degree participation and commitment, and somehow to create their sense of belonging to advocate resource management. The chances of this being achieved are helped by the high degree of commitment to conservation of the resource shown by formal and informal leaders in Indonesia."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03541a366513b5d7aea537fe1a1dbc45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/59590871-a47a-4fa6-ae0c-139d69389792/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Investigating the impacts of land use, climate and biodiversity changes on human health and wellbeing","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Types of ecosystem services available in the study sites are being mapped and quantified using Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services (InVEST) modelling tool."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"• RVF transmission model that integrates vector, host and socio-economics modules is also being developed. This involves adapting a model that has been developed by other projects (Figure 4) to analyze climate change effects.    • As a result, the incidence and impacts of infectious diseases such as Rift Valley fever, Chikungunya fever, malaria, etc. would increase if sufficient preventative measures are not implemented."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"• This study uses multidisciplinary approaches to identify the impacts of irrigation in the dry lands (as an intervention to increase food production) on human health and wellbeing based on the framework given in Figure 1. Rift Valley fever (RVF) is being used as a case study disease and sites that have been identified for the study are Ijara and Tana River Districts in Kenya (Figure 2)"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Expected outcome: Greater awareness established on linkages between environmental change and public health. In addition, findings generated will be used to develop policies and incentives on sustainable land use"}]},{"head":"Local system contexts and interactions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Utilizes participatory and social science methods to assess local peoples' interactions with their ecosystems and landscape and their understanding on the linkages between ecosystem change and the disease"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Builds on the work that has been done using participatory epidemiological methods (maps [e.g. Figure 3], timelines, seasonal calendars etc.) to illustrate how livelihood practices influence exposure to disease "}]},{"head":"Trans-disciplinary research themes","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Social, economic and environmental values","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"• Determines how people value health with respect to RVF, perceive economic values and trade-offs in ecosystem services, experience costs and benefits from RVF control, and adapt to some of the implications of the disease control measures."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Contingent valuation methods will be used to estimate economic values of ecosystem services and their trade-offs."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• The theme will also determine how values attached to health with respect to RVF influence the daily choices that people make to avoid exposure. These objectives will combine household surveys and assessment of public records to address most of the objectives described."}]},{"head":"Political economy of knowledge and policy","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"This theme addresses key policy questions including:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• How is RVF understood, labelled, differentiated (or not), prioritized or neglected as part of a cluster of diseases/health issues?"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Which drivers of the disease are seen as being significant?"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• What kinds of ecosystem change are seen as significant, and which are ignored?"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• What kinds of spill-over and transmission dynamics are identified as important?"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• Which groups of people are identified as vulnerable and why?"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• What poverty impacts are identified?  "}]},{"head":"References","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Outputs from an RVF transmission model showing predicted incidence in vectors and vertebrate hosts for the period Jan 1990 to December 2009 "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 1 . Figure 3. A participatory map illustrating grazing patterns in a Somali community in northeastern Kenya "},{"text":" IPCC. 2007. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 976 pp. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Washington, DC, Island Press. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Map of the study area Two sites will be used for the study: "}],"sieverID":"a3062a47-e37a-4be9-b49d-21f8df98e403","abstract":"• Uses an integrated analysis of ecosystems and disease, guided by spatio-temporal process-based models, to identify ecological drivers of RVF."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03694991c40b0825614b0ed4c6bc2f30","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a06730e8-deed-4620-8d9b-4c75efa49d08/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Local Species: Methods of Cultivation, Sorne Successes and Sorne Problems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Paddy species: 8hathi","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The paddy species called Bhathi was bought from the Uchidiha VDC from Ihe village called ltawal at the price of RS.15 per kilo. I have been planting this species of paddy for the las! 10 years. Every year, I have planted this variety of paddy in abou! one bigha of land. The return has been 18 maunds (720 kilos of rice l."}]},{"head":"Bas and Basthan","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"These species of paddy can be cultivated in areas where Ihe water is deep. Therefore, this variety needs a place where there is always water available. This type offarming can be done up to nine months only. The reason is that at the time when we sow the seeds, the land has to be dry and in the month of Chitra ( March/Aprill, the sowing of seeds is done. The harvesting season is always in the month of Mangsir (NovemberIDecember) regardless of Ihe time paddy may have been planted. The roots extend from the rice stalks on Ihe water's surface so plants seem to balance on lhe surface of the water. Therefore, there is no possibility of the paddy plants falling, however deep lhe water level may be. The other good point about Ihis paddy species is no malter how much the water level may in crease during the night, Ihe rice plants seem lo grow in equal propor!ion."}]},{"head":"External appearance","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The length of the rice stalk is almost Ihree meters high. Since the stalk is pretty thick, there is less possibility of the rice plants falling over. The leaves are broad and light green in color. The roots are quite strong so Ihat Ihe normal sor! of f100d can't drag them out and sweep away lhe plants. The rice grains are shapely and big. The rice grain is red in color and there isn't any tunda."}]},{"head":"Method of cultivation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"In the month of Chaítra ( March/April), the tractor is used to plough the land and Ihe seeds are sown. At this time of the year, the land is dry. A few days after lhe sowing of the seeds. the rain star!s and the land starts getting filled with water. As the water level rises, the length of the rice stalks grow. As the species grow in water, there is less possibility of the plants being atlacked by pests and diseases, Bul Ihe rice plants are infested wilh ínsects called gawaro. This varíety of paddy neither requires weeding out grasses nor Ihe need offertilízers. The harvesting time for Ihis species ís the month of Mangsir (November/December). In this monlh, the level of Ihe water comes up to Ihe knee and the paddy can easily be cut down wilh Ihe help of a curved knife called hasiya or kachiya. After the paddy is cut down and carried home, il is dried, beaten, threshed, and sto red wel/, ready for use."}]},{"head":"Uses and its importance","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The rice is softand delícious to eal. It is readily digested. From this rice beaten rice (chíura) can be made, and varielies of local delicades líke bread, thakuwa, fried bread, etc., are prepared The paddy of Ihis species is accepted in our sacred rituals and practices. This variety of rice is general/y used in feasts and parties."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Possibi/ity of improvíng the qua/mes of this specíes of paddy I bough! Ihe seeds oflhis species of paddy at RS.15 per kilo. Therefore, Ihe market price ofthis variety of rice can'! be less Ihan RS.18/-to RS.20/-. Duríng festival s, Ihe price of this species of rice goes up to RS.30/-. So there is no loss in cultivating this varíety of paddy in our fields. This is very advantageous, especially if Ihe land is being left unused due lo water-Iogging conditions; thus, farmers can maximize their profit. Sin ce the labor is less, any one can farm Ihis variety of paddy."}]},{"head":"Need for conservation of the specíes","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"This endangered variety ot paddy, having such odd qualities, is in Ihe process of being losl. If we do nol direct our attention in time, its extinction is certain. Now there is an increasing tendency to fil/ up the water-Iogged land and convert il into residential areas. This is a really dangerous situation because il ¡ncreases Ihe possibility Ihat Ihis species will be completely wiped oul. For Ihis reason, both the govemment and Ihe NGO must take the iniliative lo conserve this varíety of paddy and work towards helping Ihe farmers wilh Ihe technology lo improve their living conditions."}]},{"head":"Name of paddy: Amadhouj and Sakhar","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Both Ihe stalks and Ihe ríce grains of these two varieties look Ihe same. The two species are cultivated in fields that require less depth of waler than for Bhafhí, bullhe Sakhar paddy is shorter than Ihe Amadhouj species."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Both are cultivaled in a similar manner. They are sown by spreading the seeds on the prepared fields. They require less fertilizer but need to be weeded. If Ihe fertilizer is loo much, Ihen there is the possibility of the paddy plants falling. If the cultivation is done wel/, the return harvest can be as much as four to six maunds (160-240 kilos) per each ka/ha of land, The rice crop is long and the grains are fal and heavy. This year I boughl bolh Ihese species of paddy trom the village cal/ed Sonarniya in the Raulahal distríct. I cullivated Amadhouj variety on Ihree katha of land and Sakhar on one bígha of land. But in the field there was too much watercol/ected, and Ihe paddy was good only in two ka/has of land. These two varíeties of paddy are acceptable in our sacred rituals. From Ihe rice straws, we can make floor mats. The cooked rice is good and any person who is sick can ea! this rice without any problem."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"In the Amadhouj stalks, three or four grains of paddy grow together, so Iha! at a glance, Ihe paddy crop looks almosl like wheat. But there is a superstilion attached lo the cullivalion of Ihis paddy. II is believed thal iflhe paddy grows In equal measures in thefourcorners ofthe field and the produc-líon is equal in all the fourcorners, then the farmerwho has such a harvest will suffer so me evil, like some one wiU be sick or some one in the famíly may die."}]},{"head":"Species of paddy: Khera","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"In the month of Jestha (May/June), the seeds are sown, and in the month of Asadh ( June/July). the rice saplings are planted, and in lhe month of Mangsír (November/December), the paddy is harvested. As the level ofwater is less. the paddy needs to be weeded. It can also be given fertilizers. I had personally used three kilos of urea and 2.5 of DAP in Ihe paddy fields. As the paddy grains have tunda there is less possibility of disease and pest problems. But !his year, the paddy was infested wilh bolh disease and pests. and I had lo use the pesticides called che/amín and metacid. After taking all these measures, the harvest was three maund (120 kilos) per each katha of land. This variety of rice is importan! from a religious point of view. In the worship of our family God, Gobín Maharaj. this variety of rice is absolutely needed and no other variety will do. The cooked rice from this species is equally delicious. From the rice straws, the f100r mats are made and even the cattle have a special preference for lhis type of rice straw. This variety needs less fertilizer."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"3a2f9a41-d824-4c98-b0ad-2967e41dca15","abstract":"Farmer's description of paddy species. melhods of cultivation. and use."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c5a0e8ebcfee8940bb4890eb0cb8a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5c3459ca-fb43-47e4-900f-4deaebaf0f83/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Vision: NATURE+ will produce actionable science that enables the CGIAR and broader AR4D ecosystem to plan for nature-positive agricultural approaches that promote productivity in parallel with ZERO biodiversity loss, ZERO deforestation, ZERO land degradation, MINIMAL carbon and water footprint, ENHANCED water-and nutrient-cycle management, and ENHANCED equity outcomes","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Why Focus on Gender in Nature +?"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"• Landscape, natural resource degradation, climate change, etc. are bad for women (and men)-women vulnerable in particular ways • Women may be more likely to be left behind with agricultural intensification, with less access to inputs (e.g. fertilizer) and complementary services (ag and market information, finance etc.) • Introduction of Nature +solutions have (+/-) implications for women (gender roles, labor allocation, women's empowermentincluding decision-making and leadership at multiple scales) • Women play important roles in seed storage, diversification, value chains, and sourcing and preparing food • To maximize women's contribution, it is important to look for opportunities to reach, benefit and empower women, while minimizing any negative outcomes for women"}]},{"head":"Roles and Decision Making at the Household level","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":" Men still mainly involved in land preparation, women involved in planting, weeding, harvesting. \"women will do the planting and weeding, and later harvesting."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Women are the ones that generally participate in these farming activities.\""},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":" Men mostly active in cash crop farming, while women concentrate more on subsistence farming  Crops of high value enticing men to take up farming such as for beans. \"a sack of beans goes for about twelve thousand shillings so as a man you cannot accept to lose such an amount of money.\" \"Alcoholism is also identified as a major cause of conflict as alcohol consumption is perceived by women to be a misuseand mismanagement of resources that would be better spent on household welfare.\""},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":" Women make decisions on sales of vegetables and poultry: not cash crops or other livestock animals (cattle, goats, sheep)"}]},{"head":"Management of Natural Resources","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":" Community associations formed to help the government in management and conservation of natural resources  Women membership growing in community resource management associations."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":" A male participant in Kajiado explains that despite the Maasai not recognizing women's role in leadership in the past, women are more empowered now and \" there are some Community Forest Associations (CFAs) groups made of only women and I know of three.\""},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":" Despite women \"utilising\" water more than men because of their traditional gender role, men still dominate community water management associations. In Kajiado \"majority of the leadership of the Water Committees are men.\""}]},{"head":"Perception of Nature+ Uptake","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MEN","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Practices adopted by men because they own the farms • Men have the money, so they adopt faster"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Sometimes men are better placed to adopt these practices because they receive extension services as heads of the household"}]},{"head":"WOMEN","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Women are more receptive to nature+ practise and likely to implement them. • Women groups have become an avenue of training for nature+ and GAPs. Making use of water harvesting for kitchen gardens"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• If women had more training and information, they would be better placed to adopt to these practices"}]},{"head":"Constraints to adoption of Nature Positive Practices","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":" Lack of adequate access to extension services-soil conservation, soil testing, terraces building, preparation of seed beds, preparation of compost pits  Ownership of productive resources such as land, access to financial resources  Seclusion from decision making process of spending income  Traditions that exclude women from planting trees -Vihiga county \"In Bunyore, women cannot plant bananas or trees, those are considered men crops.\""},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":" Traditional gender roles-women have to divide time between household chores and agriculture (crops, livestock, fetching water, collecting firewood) "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":" Nature+ provides an opportunity for biodiversity restoration and fight against gender inequality.  Social norms have to change-some act as an impediment and slows down the process of adopting nature+ practices  Important to understand gender-differentiated roles, decision making, impediments and preferences. For better Gender responsive design and scaling.  Women have to actively participate in management, conservation and restoration of biodiversity"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" participatory resource mapping tool to capture available natural resources and infrastructure of the community/landscape based on participants' collective knowledge, followed by discussion on changes and management of these resources; 2.A seasonal calendar used to capture gender-based seasonality patterns for agriculture-based livelihoods; 3.A focus group discussion guide to capture current farming practices; issues related to nutrition/diet diversity; perceptions of, experience with, and adoption of nature-positive solutions, and the institutional landscape; and 4.A key informant interview guide to understand externalities of current unsustainable farming practices, promising nature-positive solutions, nutrition/food security, shocks, groups, and organizational efforts to promote nature-positive solutions 5.A guide for semi-structured interviews with individual farmers was prepared to get more insights into individual experiences and perceptions. "},{"text":"Incentives and Opportunities for Nature Positive Solutions in Bridging Gender Gaps  Make use of women groups as an avenue to share information, build capacities on nature positive solutions Use these groups as avenues for incentives to the communities e.g provision of water tanks, seedlings etc Make use of women groups as an avenue to share information, build capacities on nature positive solutionsUse these groups as avenues for incentives to the communities e.g provision of water tanks, seedlings etc Continue advocating for land justice -women to own land as these comes with freedom to practise nature+ solutions without restrictions Seed banks -. Provide seeds and education on planting of the seeds. Majority of the members are women Continue advocating for land justice -women to own land as these comes with freedom to practise nature+ solutions without restrictionsSeed banks -. Provide seeds and education on planting of the seeds. Majority of the members are women Institutional coordination and collaboration in conservation, management and restoration of natural resources  Institutional coordination and collaboration in conservation, management and restoration of natural resources  "}],"sieverID":"edeff637-9ce9-4f80-8b0e-cd4454e14e80","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"041a79533339fd2d203aa7ab4beb30b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/3TTD3Q/ZOCZAR"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c9b0c497-46c9-4d88-b091-caffd203a8f1","abstract":""}

data/part_2/048f576583c8d266b5b792c78364e974.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"048f576583c8d266b5b792c78364e974","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9d6bf249-221d-4f2c-81b9-6a79373e2b60/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Controlled Environment Agriculture for sustainable development: A call for investment and innovation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"n Economic agencies should invest in development of supply chains to support CEA, including growing media, equipment and seeds, and postharvest infrastructure such as cold storage, throughfor example -business support and mentoring, business incubators and tax breaks."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"n Regional and national governments should form public-private partnerships (PPPs) for the development of regional CEA clusters or tech hubs, enabling growers to share experiences, innovations and information, leverage economies of scale, and market collectively."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"n National and local governments should acknowledge CEA as a viable form of agriculture and design policy innovations to promote the sector, including in agriculture development policy; land use and planning policy; economic development and employment plans; and import regulations."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"n Technology developers should dedicate R&D spend to trialing their inventions with growers in low and lower-middle income countries, to ensure they are optimized for these contexts and to provide access to new, environmentally safe, developments as early as possible."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"The challenge: CEA needs to be a force for sustainable and equitable development "}]},{"head":"Remove entry barriers, especially for disadvantaged youth and women","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"For CEA to be a viable option for people from less affluent backgrounds, financial institutions including banks, micro-finance institutions and parastatal agricultural finance agencies should invest in people as well as equipment by designing innovative debt financing models for entry-level, small-scale CEA practitioners. These may include:"},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"n Provision of equipment to set up operations, as well as provision of welfare and living costs over an initial period, so that new starters can cover everyday expenses n A payback period that is customized to CEA growing cycles with repayments beginning after the activity starts to be profitable n In cases of contract farming, three-party agreements between lenders, borrowers and buyers, with the latter guaranteeing a market for the borrowers' produce."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Grant-making bodies, NGOs and commercial financial institutions that work in Africa and Asia should promote research and innovation through dedicated CEA agribusiness/agripreneur programs and incubators under their agricultural development programs. These may include preferential grant or loan schemes that are tailored to the needs of women, young people and applicants from disadvantaged social groups."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Opening CEA to people from a range of backgrounds and socio-economic groups will promote poverty reduction and provision of viable livelihoods for people who currently lack economic opportunities."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"In addition, locally appropriate CEA techniques should be included in educational programs at all levels, from elementary school to agricultural universities. The installation of demonstration gardens could provide produce for the local community, as well as enable students to develop valuable STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) skills, and increase the pool of potential employees for CEA businesses as they scale up, expand or replicate in new locations."}]},{"head":"Bring organization, knowledge exchange and practical support to CEA practitioners","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The self-organization of CEA practitioners into associations or cooperatives (local, regional or national), if necessary with help from development organizations and NGOs, can enable peer-to-peer support, facilitate valuechain development (ensuring availability of inputs and equipment), and allow practitioners to collectively identify their needs and lobby their governments to address them."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"It can also optimize their access to investors who are unable to deal with individuals."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Organization may also be formal, through PPPs for the development of regional CEA clusters or tech hubs where growers can work collectively or in close proximity, sharing experiences and information (e.g. on optimal technologies or disease management), leveraging economies of scale on equipment and inputs, and marketing collectively."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Clusters require significant investment in infrastructure (structures, electricity, water, etc.), innovative mechanisms to make public or private land available, and incentives for growers to move to the area (tax reduction for initial periods, business support, etc.)."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Another formal support mechanism is the provision of CEA training by agriculture departments, tailored to specific local needs, regularly updated to include emerging technologies so that the latest knowledge reaches people in low and lower-middle income countries."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Agricultural extension services should ensure agents are knowledgeable in CEA techniques so they can identify problems post-setup and know how to help. New, innovative extension models may also be developed to facilitate knowledge exchange between early adopters and extension officers, as well as formalize direct peer-topeer exchange between early adopters and new starters."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"Collectivity and dedicated support mechanisms will benefit individual CEA practitioners by helping them to overcome operational hurdles and reducing the risk of failure. These mechanisms will stimulate development of the sector as a whole, from vertical farms in slums to hightech container or rooftop farming."}]},{"head":"Create an enabling policy and regulatory environment","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"At the local level, zoning ordinances and urban agriculture regulations should include specifications on CEA so that there is clarity on what is permitted and where. CEA may also be integrated into spatial design and building codes."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"At the national and regional levels, governments can create an enabling environment for CEA adoption and mainstreaming through policy innovations in several areas. For example:"},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"n Agricultural policy can advance mainstreaming of CEA, through funding provision and extension capacity n Food security and nutrition strategies can recognize the contribution of CEA, especially for ensuring local supply that is less vulnerable to disruptions and promoting year-round stable prices n Employment strategies may recognize and promote employment opportunities in CEA, including the need to develop suitable skillsets for all supply chain roles n Land use policy can acknowledge CEA as a legitimate activity, removing any barriers to land access accordingly."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"In addition, national governments should develop evidence-based industry standards and regulations, through cooperation between relevant government departments, the private sector and NGOs to ensure they are conducive, relevant and appropriate. These will enable farmers to plan their activities and support a good reputation for the sector. Early development of standards and regulations will pre-emptively discourage harmful or fraudulent practices and help to avoid excessive or punitive regulations in the future."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Regulatory standards on the nutrients required in hydroponic growing should be used as a reference for customs inspections to avoid unwarranted import bans or tariff inconsistency. The removal of several regulatory barriers to CEA in a concerted, integrated way will create an enabling environment for practitioners to operate close to urban markets and access inputs, training, extension support and human resources."}]},{"head":"Develop sustainable, accessible CEA technologies for low and lower-middle income contexts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"There is a need for ongoing research into CEA techniques to minimize energy consumption and costs, and reduce use of synthetic or environmentally unfriendly inputs, while optimizing efficiency. As optimal techniques will vary depending on local context, such research should be carried out by local and/or international universities and agricultural research centers in partnership with local CEA growers, and funded by public institutions."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The inclusion of CEA in the official overseas trade and development programs of (high income) countries with strong CEA sectors is an innovation that would encourage private CEA companies and technology developers to invest in new (low and lower-middle income) markets, where their solutions can be adapted and adopted to suit the local contexts. This may include dedication of R&D spend to trials of new inventions by African and Asian practitioners to ensure they meet their needs and environmental regulations, and to provide access to new developments as early as possible (especially equipment to monitor or survey crops, and equipment for post-harvest processing and cold storage to reduce food waste and environmental footprint)."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Where equipment costs cannot be reduced to be immediately affordable by small-scale producers in Africa and Asia, technology companies could help by devising hire-purchase schemes that would enable operators of limited means to access equipment immediately."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"CEA is not a silver bullet for food security or agrifood system sustainability or equity. It is unlikely to replace open field agriculture, nor render urban areas self-sufficient in fresh produce, but as a form of urban farming it has potential to complement rural systems' ability to deliver fresh produce and niche commodities, for both low-end and high-end customers. With increased awareness, innovative forms of targeted investment, and supportive policies, the application of optimal, appropriate CEA techniques in each context can transform livelihoods and environmental outcomes and contribute to urban diets."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Huge technological advances on how to grow food close to consumers, where land is in short supply and conditions are inhospitable, must be made available to communities that stand most to benefit from them."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"A small but growing number of entrepreneurs are taking up CEA in urban and peri-urban areas across Africa and Asia. These pioneers often learn techniques by watching YouTube videos and apply them using a trial-and-error approach. They are generous with their knowledge, running free or affordable training courses and building their own communities of practitioners from the ground up. These pioneers, their protégés, and the sector as a whole would benefit from the concerted efforts of multiple actors to remove entry barriers and ensure operational viability of CEA, and to promote CEA cultivation of local crops that are accessible and affordable to all. For more information, see the full report at: https://wle.cgiar.org/cosai/urban-and-peri-urban-agriculture-study"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Supported by:"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" CoSAI is supported by the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems and is facilitated by a Secretariat based at the International Water Management Institute headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka. WLE is supported by the CGIAR Trust Fund and other donors. CoSAI Commissioners are independent. Salad cucumber (Photo: Chaminda Ranasinghe) "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8ec73196-2b3b-44a0-81db-6179f55d0260","abstract":"CEA) is the production of plants, fish, insects or animals inside structures, such as greenhouses and buildings, in controlled conditions. In a rapidly urbanizing world, CEA can contribute to sustainable development, e.g. through reduced use of land, water and inputs. There is a need for innovation in policy, technology and business practices to scale up CEA in the Global South sustainably and equitably."}

data/part_2/0557e5d6210d1b5c1bb377764727c3f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0557e5d6210d1b5c1bb377764727c3f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4558/96edb0aedcbbb2ee38c99b74b8d600ef.pdf"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Better management practices for tilapia broodstock conditioning and mass spawning in hapas in ponds","keywords":["Front cover, pages 2, 3, 4, Trong Quoc Trinh/WorldFish","pages 1, 8, Rose Komugisha Basiita/WorldFish","pages 2, 5, Sam Orukan/Rock Springs Fish Farms","page 4, Beenzu Gambwe/WorldFish","page 4, Janvier Mushagalusa/IITA","page 5, Tabitha Mulilo/WorldFish","pages 6, 7, Francois Rajts"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The hapa-in-pond system hatchery technique has been widely adopted and used in hatcheries throughout Asia. It has also been used in Africa, but the practice is still limited in many countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, where there is hardly any existing systematic production of quality fry and fingerlings for tilapia. In cooperation with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Bukavu and Kinshasa, WorldFish has worked to build the capacities of technicians and hatchery operators from the hatchery sites in the country. The partnership has helped increase access to high-quality aquaculture inputs-specifically seed and feed."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"These guidelines were initially developed to optimize the conditioning and spawning of fish for improved fry production used in research but also in fry and fingerling production for the two regions where the hatcheries are situated. In broodstock conditioning, it is important that fish intended for spawning are allowed to rest for a short period to give gametes (sperm for males and eggs for females) time to mature. During this period, fish must be nurtured well and fed a diet that shortens the maturation period. In addition, it is necessary to separate male tilapia from the females to allow for synchronous spawning."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Hapas suspended in a pond at RATALBI, in the DRC."}]},{"head":"Selecting and separating broodfish","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"While tilapia broodfish are being conditioned, separate the stock by sex (males and females) to allow for synchronous spawning soon after the conditioning period. For both males and females, select active and healthy mature broodfish-no deformities, fungal infections, lesions, bruises, etc. Mature males and females of Nile tilapia are easily differentiated by their genitalia and the color of their fins and chin (Plates 1A&B and Plate 2). Size is another indicator as males of the same age are usually bigger than the females). The most reliable distinguishing feature is the openings on the body around the anal region of the fish."}]},{"head":"Plate 1a. Male Nile tilapia.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Photo credit: Trong Quoc Trinh/WorldFish Plate 1b. Brightly colored male Nile tilapia."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Photo credit: Sam Orukan/Rock Springs Fish Farms"}]},{"head":"Males","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Mature males have two openings around the anal region: one is at the distal end of the papilla, which is elongated relative to what is found in females, and the other is the conspicuous oval anal opening. A mature male will release milt when slight pressure is applied to the abdomen. Generally, males can be distinguished by their red fins (Plate 1B). However, some females can also have colored fins, so it is important to confirm the sex using the genital openings to minimize errors during sexing of broodfish (Plate 2)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Photo credit: Sam Orukan/Rock Springs Fish Farms Plate 2. Female Nile tilapia."}]},{"head":"Females","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Female Nile tilapia have three body openings: the anal opening, the urethra and an additional slit midway on the papilla (oviduct) through which eggs are released. When females are ready to spawn, the belly becomes round and soft, and the papilla and openings usually become reddish. The fish will release a small amount of eggs when slight pressure is applied on the abdomen. If a female has spawned before, her chin will appear yellowish."}]},{"head":"Pond preparation and hapa setting for conditioning and spawning","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Ponds used for holding, conditioning and spawning fish should be deep and large enough to suspend the hapas and allow for adequate water circulation. In order to eliminate fish from previous production cycles, drain, dry and lime the ponds. Prior to refilling them, install a screen over the inlet and outlet pipes to prevent unwanted fish from getting into the pond. Once the pond is filled, set the conditioning hapas to make them ready to receive fish for conditioning."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Plate 3. Conditioning hapas in a pond. "}]},{"head":"Fish stocking in hapas","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"While stocking fish for conditioning, gently place males and females in separate hapas. As mentioned in section 1, this facilitates synchronous spawning when the fish are finally ready for spawning. For conditioning, stock fish in aerated ponds at densities of 5 fish/m 2 for males and 10 fish/m 2 for females. Lower stocking rates should be considered if additional aeration is not provided."}]},{"head":"Feeds and feeding fish","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"A number of companies now produce broodstock feeds in Africa. The feed requirements for broodstock are unique, so they are different from both fingerling production and general grow-out feeds, even in tilapia farming. It is best to use broodstock feed, which most commercial feed companies have already developed. For example, Novatek, AllerAqua and Skretting have broodstock feed made specifically for tilapia. The fish should be fed twice daily (09:00 and 15:00) at 2 percent of its weight."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"It is further recommended to enrich the broodstock feed with oil, because this improves female gonadal growth and subsequent fry production. Squid oil is preferable, but any other fish oil will work as well. Spray the oil over the feed using a spray bottle (Plate 5) at a rate of 3%. This will ensure that all the pellets are exposed to the oil. Less oil may be required for a well-formulated broodstock diet. However, if the feed is produced locally with low levels of oil added, then it is even more important to add oil to the feed."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"At the end of the conditioning period, fish in good condition will normally have a soft round belly, especially females (Plate 6). When slight pressure is applied to mature fish, females will expel eggs while males will expel milt. Place fish with these characteristics in newly set hapas for spawning. Any fish with sunken bellies should be put back for further conditioning. Eliminate any deformed, lesioned, bruised or sick fish from the broodstock intended for spawning. "}]},{"head":"Spawning","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"After four weeks, females and males are selected further on the basis of the characteristics of mature broodfish that are ready for spawning. Stock the fish at a density of one male per 0.8-1 m 2 because males require space to build a nest in natural conditions but still remain territorial in a hapa. In the present context, it is best to use a group mating design where several females are put together with males to spawn at a ratio of one male to three females."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"A: spawning hapas suspended in a concrete pond. B: mature male (L) and female (R) broodstock."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Photo credit: Sam Orukan/Rock Springs Fish Farms Photo credit: Tabitha Mulilo/WorldFish 5 A B"}]},{"head":"Egg and larval collection","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"With hatcheries in the two regions, eggs and larval should be extracted from females and then incubated and reared in the indoor hatchery at Kalambo in Bukavu and at RATALBI in Kinshasa. This is done by briefly herding broodfish to one side of the hapa for easy capture and handling, and then extracting the eggs and larvae from the mouths of the females. This should be done every 5 days."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Pool the collected eggs and larvae in containers, depending on the stage of development (Plate 7), and then place the eggs into the incubation jars and the larvae into rearing trays. Collect swim-up from the rearing trays and transfer them to treatment hapas and tanks for onward sex reversal."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Plate 7. Collecting eggs from females and placing them in white egg/larval collection containers."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Photo credit: Francois Rajts"}]},{"head":"Fry collection","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"In the absence of an indoor hatchery incubation facility (Plate 8), fry can be collected directly from the spawning hapas every 2-5 days and stocked in nursing hapas. This is best done early in the morning before sunrise and can continue up to 3 weeks, after which broodfish are removed and taken back for reconditioning. For successful sex reversal, collect fry from the spawning hapas (only fry of first feeding stage) and then give them hormone-treated feed to produce all males. Then, nurse them up to a suitable fingerling size for stocking in grow-out ponds and cages or for sale to grow-out farmers (Plates 9 and 10)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Plate 9. A: weighing the fry before stocking to estimate the number. B: stocking swim-up fry from the hatchery in Kinshasa into hapas. 9. All male production and sex reversal"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"For sex reversal to be successful, stock young fry of uniform size into hapas and exclusively administer hormone-treated feed, as directed, to produce all males. Given that sex in tilapia is labile, it is important to have young fish of uniform size."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Administering adequate hormone feed to fry of suitable size for 21-28 days will result in over 99 percent males. The dose rate and treatment durations vary depending on the environment and the experience of the producer."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Exercise caution while handling hormones for sex reversal. This includes but is not limited to having a dedicated space for preparing the hormone feed and a secure and lockable storage place for the hormone and the hormone-treated feed. Use protective gear (minimum of a mask and gloves) when preparing hormone feed. For smaller hatcheries where these requirements are unattainable, purchasing pre-hormone mixed feed is a suitable alternative to ensure that the right quantities are mixed."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Plate 10. Hapas for nursing fry and covered by a net for biosecurity."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Photo credit: Rose Komugisha Basiita/WorldFish"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo credit: Trong Quoc Trinh/WorldFish "},{"text":"Plate 5 . Photo credit: Trong Quoc Trinh/WorldFish "},{"text":" Photo credit: Francois Rajts "}],"sieverID":"be39ce80-e525-4d02-ae09-04a17a38f2c8","abstract":"This document could not have been produced without the technical contributions from Mr. Francois Rajts and Dr. Trong Quoc Trinh and administrative support from Dr. Paul Matungulu the project manager at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). This work was undertaken as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Fish Agri-Food Systems (FISH) led by WorldFish. The program is supported by contributors to the CGIAR Trust Fund. FISH is developing guidelines for better management practices (BMPs) at the global level and contextualized BMP resources at the country level to support sustainable and responsible tilapia, carps and catfish farming in WorldFish focal and scaling countries. This country-specific BMP document was produced as part of this approach. It is hoped that it will enhance the capacity of hatchery operators, technicians, farmers and extension service providers in the Democratic Republic of Congo to support scaling of WorldFish aquaculture technologies and packages of proper practices (e.g. BMPs)."}

data/part_2/0565d5cdf2b8e0ebbb516e436b1489b0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0565d5cdf2b8e0ebbb516e436b1489b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70e25761-d640-47a5-a014-389b886dc479/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Mainstreaming Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition into Policies and Practices: Methodologies and Lessons Learned from Four Countries","keywords":["Biodiversity","traditional and neglected edible species","multi-country","policymaking","nutrition","mainstreaming"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"A number of global initiatives -chief among them the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)have recognised the nexus between biodiversity, agriculture and nutrition and have been calling, as far back as 2006 CBD, COP 8 Decision VIII/23 (Anonymous, 2006), for greater mainstreaming of agricultural biodiversity into policies and practices targeting food and nutrition security (Hunter et al., 2015;Anonymous, 2016a) as well as increased coordination between the environment, agriculture and nutrition sectors. The same global conventions acknowledge the potential of biodiversity to help meet various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those linked to food systems (Anonymous, 2016b), as it is evident that global improvements in food production are failing to meet human nutrition needs (Anonymous, 2017a) and to feed the planet in a healthy, sustainable and environmentally-friendly manner (Anonymous, 2015a). The latest Global Nutrition Report (Anonymous, 2017b) shows that, despite global progress in reducing malnutrition, 88% of countries for which data exist are confronting high economic and health costs linked to diet-related illnesses and malnutrition. According to the report, 2 billion people lack key micronutrients like iron and vitamin A, 155 million children are stunted while 2 billion adults are overweight or obese. The report also calls for increasing and maintaining diversity in production landscapes as a means of contributing to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation. However, limited examples exist for governments to put these recommendations into practice (Hunter et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":248,"text":"Encouraging results from Bioversity International and others show that many of these collective issues can be addressed using agricultural biodiversity (Nugent, 2011;Remans and Smukler, 2013;Allen et al., 2014;Powell et al., 2015). Greater knowledge of the nutritional properties of these underutilised plant and animal species, increased policy support for their marketing and commercialisation, as well as increased awareness of their untapped potential for sustainable food and nutrition security, can contribute to furthering the achievement of many SDGs, as well as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets of the CBD. Agricultural efforts aimed at producing larger quantities of a few energy-rich staple crops (e.g. maize, wheat and rice) have gradually driven many nutritious species to disappear from people's diets and to fall into agricultural neglect, leading to huge losses in the diversity of foods available (Allen et al., 2014). The limited consumption of micronutrient-rich foods and the reduced ability of agricultural systems to provide the range of nutrients essential for human diets are key drivers of malnutrition (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006;Khoury et al., 2014). Research has shown that diet quality is often strongly linked to the number of species grown on farm (Remans et al., 2011;Romeo et al., 2016;Jones 2017;Koppmair et al., 2017), and the availability of food species in the wild (Broegaard et al., 2017). Furthermore, diversity on farm provides a range of environmental, economic, and social benefits to farming communities (Hajjar et al., 2008;Karabak, 2017) and is better adapted to local environments, including soils and climate (Stöber et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":187,"text":"The Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project (BFN) is a six-year Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded initiative that connects the issues of food biodiversity conservation and sustainable use with critical food systems challenges. Prioritising nutrient-rich indigenous species, the BFN Project has spearheaded a partnership-based approach to research and mainstream agrobiodiversity into policies and practices in Brazil, Kenya, Turkey, and Sri Lanka. \"Mainstreaming\" refers to the process identified by the CBD as \"embedding biodiversity considerations into policies, strategies and practices of key public and private actors that impact or rely on biodiversity so that it is conserved and sustainably used both locally and globally\" (Huntley and Redford, 2014). By bringing together different sectors such as agriculture, finance, transport, market and trade, nutrition, health, education and social development, mainstreaming activity is meant to integrate biodiversity conservation and sustainable use into regional planning and development for the setting of global targets, national sectoral policies and frameworks, landscape management, and production and consumption practices. Methods can comprise of changes in policies, plans or laws, public-private partnerships or communication campaigns (Anonymous, 2017c), with attention to how this activity influences financial decisionmaking processes."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"This paper draws on examples from the four target countries to outline the BFN methodology for mainstreaming biodiversity for food and nutrition into policies and programmes. The examples for each country demonstrate how the approach can be adapted and applied in a range of regions and contexts."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"Based on an analysis by the Leveraging Agriculture in South East Asia (LANSA) research partnership on measures to reduce malnutrition (Gillespie et al., 2013), the BFN Project framework (Figure 1) follows three overarching actions: providing evidence, influencing policy, and raising awareness. National project partners (Table 1) conducted activities in the three domains to garner support for neglected and underutilised species along the food value chain. On the supply side, capacity was built to analyse and recognise the value of this diversity and provide resources for its cultivation, conservation and use. On the demand side, the evidence generated by the project was communicated to consumers, who were made aware of the importance of biodiversity in nature and in diets, particularly in a local context, thereby influencing behaviour and perception including dietary habits, appreciation of food culture and understanding of biodiversity. The project also offered a platform for cross-sectoral coordination among the different sectors that impact food and nutrition security (particularly the environment, agriculture, education and health sectors), thus creating an enabling environment for the project to operate in and paving the way for the integration of biodiversity for food and nutrition in policies and programmes."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"Far from being linear in practice, the processes related to collecting evidence, influencing policies and raising awareness are more likely to happen in parallel and not necessarily in the suggested order. Partners took advantage of opportunities as they arose, guaranteeing that the approach was adapted to each new context. When considering how to adapt this methodology, helpful questions include: What platforms and policies already exist? How is biodiversity situated within the country's past and current food culture? What are major environmental and health challenges? At what scale (local, regional and national) is the model being applied? Perhaps the most variable and important factor is the nuanced process of establishing and coordinating productive partnerships. The knowledge and connections of the partners is ultimately one of the driving forces in achieving an understanding of the enabling environment in each country, and being able to implement mainstreaming activities."}]},{"head":"Country context","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The BFN approach has so far been implemented in four target countries, each with a different political environment, health status, traditional use of native species, and culture, though with similarities including both high biodiversity and malnutrition status. The following paragraphs give a brief overview of each context."}]},{"head":"Brazil","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"Brazil has a wealth of underutilised natural biodiversity (approximately 18% of global plant diversity) with the greatest number of endemic species on a global scale (Anonymous, 2016c). The country is also a major player in global agricultural production, yet malnutrition rates in the country are alarming. While a small part of the population remains undernourished (<5%), 54% of the adult population is overweight and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent, with 20% of women in reproductive age suffering from anaemia and 13% of preschool-age children diagnosed with Vitamin A deficiency (Anonymous, 2016d). Brazil carries the \"triple burden of malnutrition\", in which hunger, overweight and micronutrient deficiency coexist in Figure 1. The BFN approach builds on three main pillars: Providing evidence, influencing policies, and raising awareness to mainstream biodiversity for food and nutrition. Through each of these, a number of activities can be done to mainstream biodiversity, all with an influence on aspects related to the supply and demand. See examples on some of the activities implemented through the BFN project in the figure. the same population and often in the same individual across the lifecycle (Anonymous, 2015b), conditions caused by diets low in variety and in nutrients. The combined effect of commercial agriculture focusing on a limited number of cropssugarcane, soybean, oranges, rice, coffee and maize -and changes in consumer preferences, dietary patterns and lifestyles has reduced food system diversity, meaning that there is less variety in the food available to consumers (Anonymous, 2009). Currently, only 24% of Brazilians consume the recommended 400g (or more) per day of fruits and vegetables (Anonymous, 2018a). Food biodiversity is mostly managed by family farmers and traditional communities who own less than 25% of Brazil's agricultural land (França et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Although some of this native diversity is utilisedsuch as cassava, passion fruit, and açaí -most species with potential nutritional and economic value remain unexplored. To reveal and take advantage of the hidden potential of Brazilian biodiversity, BFN partnered with national political institutions, universities, indigenous communities and celebrity chefs to further incorporate native crops into policies, markets, school curricula and other initiatives."}]},{"head":"Kenya","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Maize, beans, banana, rice and potatoes make up the bulk of the daily energy intake of a typical Kenyan household, yet many of the indigenous species present in Kenya, especially African leafy vegetables, have been shown to be nutritionally superior to these introduced crops both in terms of energy and micronutrient content (Hajjar et al., 2008). Native crops hold untapped potential to assist the 26% of Kenyan children who currently suffer from chronic undernutrition (resulting in impaired development and growth) as well as the sizeable portion (4.1%), primarily in urban areas, who are overweight or obese. Widespread iodine deficiency disorders, iron deficiency (anaemia), and vitamin A and zinc deficiency (49% of children under five years are vitamin A deficient) (Anonymous, 2016d) could be mitigated by more diverse diets. Unfortunately, a lack of organised market channels, poor agronomic practices, and low awareness regarding production, consumption and marketing of traditional plants creates barriers to improving nutrition status, food security and overall wellbeing in local households (Ngugi et al, 2006;Abukutsa-Onyango, 2007;Gido et al., 2017). To overcome some of these barriers, BFN has taken a localised approach in Busia County, where regional partners conducted plant research and coordinated school, policymaker, and farmer meetings to improve production and create an enabling policy and market environment for underutilised crops."}]},{"head":"Sri Lanka","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Sri Lanka is listed as one of the 35 biodiversity hotspots of the world and is home to around 4,500 edible species, of which 900 are endemic (Anonymous, 2016e). Sri Lankan farmers have maintained this rich diversity in crops and gardens for thousands of years, but urbanisation, deforestation, colonial influence and generational changes in food preferences and occupations have led to changes in food production and consumption habits, resulting in a population that carries the double burden of dietary-related disease (Rajapaksha, 1998). Despite recent gains in health and social status, 22% of the population remains undernourished and 34% overweight or obese (Katulanda et al., 2010;Anonymous, 2017d)."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Using the BFN platform, Sri Lanka has revitalised research, conservation, and market-building efforts for nutritious and underutilised crops with activities that include establishing women-led traditional food businesses."}]},{"head":"Turkey","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Turkey is home to three of the world's 35 identified global biodiversity hotspots and contains almost 12,000 known species and sub-species of seed plants, of which 34% are endemic and around 10% identified as edible (Sekercioglu et al., 2011;Anonymous, 2014a;Ertug, 2014). Increasing urbanisation, habitat loss, and overexploitation threaten the unique growing grounds of many of these species, with the disappearance of endemic Mediterranean maquis, grasslands, coastal areas, wetlands, rivers, old growth forests, steppes and rangelands (Tan, 2010). Although Turkey has a tradition of harvesting and cooking edible wild plants (Tan and Taskin, 2011), their use is gradually dying out as young people migrate to urban areas and food collection from the wild is no longer possible or convenient. Furthermore, the popularity of varied traditional dishes is declining with younger generations who are attracted to more Western-style diets (Dogan, 2012). The varieties' continued conservation relies on renewing interest and knowledge of their consumption, and domesticating wild species to ensure sustainable use, which BFN has aimed to achieve through engagement with the private sector, building market capacity, and supporting initiatives in education and employment."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"This section is divided into three parts corresponding to the primary focus points of the project. Although the long-term impact of these actions cannot yet be measured, key examples demonstrate successful interventions in the respective countries."}]},{"head":"Providing evidence","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"When insufficient information is available on the nutrient content of local species or their contributions to the ecosystem in which they are traditionally grown, they are often replaced with cash crops that can lead to uniform and vulnerable farming systems (Khoury et al., 2016). Thus, continued growth, consumption, and viable commercialisation of local biodiversity are made possible by demonstrating species' nutrition benefits to the public and government (Li and Siddique, 2018). With increased research investments, it is possible to connect the limited and scattered evidence of what people are eating and how it may benefit them. This means obtaining food composition data, dietary intake data and understanding the complex pathways that link biodiversity to nutrition and health (Hunter et al., 2016). It also means collecting ecological evidence of how low-input local species can be integrated into risk-prone farming systems or agroecosystems to improve resilience to drought and other stresses (Ebert, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Two overarching activities have led the work of BFN to collect and disseminate evidence:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"1. Assess nutritional value of agrobiodiversity and associated traditional knowledge in ecosystems in the four project countries."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"2. Develop national portals on local foods, containing databases on nutritional properties of agrobiodiversity and associated traditional knowledge, and link to relevant national and global nutritional databases."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"This includes determining a baseline status of the community and documenting food-associated information such as nutrition content in local species (see example from Turkey in Table 2), indigenous knowledge, health status and development, dietary diversity, sustainable use practices for agricultural biodiversity as well as documenting the loss of options for food and nutrition security resulting from the degradation of ecosystems and biodiversity."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Within countries, there will usually be one of more agrobiodiversity nutritional data holders, which can serve as platforms for the information collected for the local crop species. Developing collaborative agreements with these is useful for information access, sharing and exchange. Global data holders such as FAO/INFOODS -the International Network of Food Data Systems monitored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations -are effective channels to the broader agriculture and food community."}]},{"head":"Surveying priority species in Turkey","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"In Turkey, shifting food habits have been detrimental both for dietary and cultural diversity, as well as a missed economic opportunity for many families (Karabak, 2017). Previous publications associated with BFN-Turkey studied the properties of wild edible species (Cinar et al., 2017;Guzelsoy et al., 2017). Selection of these priority species involved a long process, which begun with market surveys in rural and urban settings in three geographically distinct locations: the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Aegean Region (Ozbek et al., 2017;Tugrul Ay et al., 2017;Tan et al. 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Overall 2,334 questionnaires were administered to local collectors, sellers and consumers of wild foods, leading to the identification of 43 commonly-used species, including mushrooms and landraces, for further research. Samples were collected from market settings and from the wild, and food composition (Güzelsoy et al., 2017) and antioxidant activity (Ayas et al., 2017) analyses carried out."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"A custom-made sustainability index (Table 3) was used to select the most promising among the 43 species. Each species was evaluated in accordance to criteria including their environmental, economic and food and nutrition sustainability characteristics, and then ranked. Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum), golden thistle (Scolymus hispanicus) and foxtail lily (Eremurus spectabilis) were chosen to focus on in marketing strategies and activities to promote wild edibles in Turkey."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Preliminary data suggests there have been increased cultivation, use and local familiarity with the crops, including an almost six-fold increase in areas devoted to the cultivation of einkorn wheat since 2013. More research is however needed to gain a complete picture of the direct impact of targeting specific wild edible species."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Data for the 43 wild edible plant species has been included in a new national portal (www.bfn-tr.org) and are accessible in the FAO/INFOODS database (Anonymous, 2017e). "}]},{"head":"Species identification and selection in Brazil","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Although native edible plants are recognized as regionally and locally important in Brazil, agricultural production in the last three decades has focused on the cultivation and trade of introduced plant species, resulting in mass clearing of the precious and highly diverse rainforest system (Anonymous, 2015c)."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"Led by the Ministry of the Environment, in collaboration with federal universities and research organizations such as the National Institute for Amazon Research (INPA) and the Brazilian Agricultural Research Organisation EMBRAPA (Table 1), 65 native fruit species were selected for nutritional composition analysis. These species made use of the pre-existing platform established under the Plants for the Future initiative, which: i) identifies native Brazilian flora used both locally and regionally that doesn't currently fulfil its economic potential; ii) promotes the use of these native plant species by farmers and agricultural producers, and iii) creates an enabling environment for increased investment opportunities and business creation to drive the development of new marketable local products (Anonymous, 2018c). As of now, food composition analysis of more than 180 foods derived from 78 native species was generated from a review of published literature and laboratory analyses. Portfolios with general information on native edible species of fruits and vegetables are being included in the Plants for the Future book series to further share this wealth of knowledge. In addition, involved students and research partners act as multipliers within education and research institutions, building human capacity and operating as opinion leaders and policy advisors (Beltrame et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Food composition data and recipes generated by the BFN Project in Brazil are hosted in the Biodiversity Food Composition Database as part of the Information System on Brazilian Biodiversity (SiBBr) created by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation to gather information on Brazilian biodiversity and ecosystems currently scattered across databases in various government agencies and sources. Making this information available helped strengthen the inclusion of nutritious species in public policies and programs focused on food security and nutrition including public procurement and school feeding. (Hunter et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Influencing policy","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"A significant value of the evidence collected is that it can be used to influence policymakers, with the aim of building cross-sectorial policy frameworks and markets that support mainstreaming biodiversity conservation and sustainable use across sectors. This policy support is vital to building biodiversity capacity and encouraging species use across the production-consumption spectrum. Activities can be divided into three main types:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"1. Establish cross-sectorial national policy platforms for mainstreaming agricultural biodiversity conservation and sustainable use into nutrition, health and education programmes."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"2. Develop national and international policy guidelines and recommendations that promote the mainstreaming of agricultural biodiversity conservation and sustainable use into nutrition, health and education."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"3. Identify and develop new marketing options for biodiversity foods with high nutritional value."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Depending on each country's context, there are varying pathways (such as nutrition, health, and education programmes) that have offered effective ways of supporting conservation and sustainable use of biodiverse species. Influencing policy can take place on different levels from national to regional policies, with prime focus given to National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs), which reflect the individual country's vision for biodiversity and the policy, institutional measures and concrete actions that the country has taken or/and will take to fulfil the objectives of the CBD (Anonymous, 2018b)."}]},{"head":"Building off a policy framework in Brazil","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"BFN Brazil took advantage of existing crosssectorial governance mechanisms that were created or strengthened under the Zero Hunger Strategy framework. Four existing public policies-the Food Acquisition Program (PAA), the National School Meals Program (PNAE), the National Food and Nutrition Policy (PNAN) and the Minimum Price Guarantee Policy for Biodiversity Products (PGPM-Bio)-benefitted from data on the nutritional value of native biodiversity and provided entry points for improving nutrition (Hunter et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The Ministry of the Environment led the revision of Brazil's NBSAP, engaging 400 participants from institutions across the business, environment, academia, federal and state government sectors as well as indigenous peoples and traditional communities to define twenty National Biodiversity Targets for the period 2011-2020 that were closely linked to the Aichi Targets of the CBD. Some of the activities within the NBSAP now include the utilisation of native plant species with actual or potential economic value as a successful measure of biodiversity conservation (Anonymous, 2016f)."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"In May 2016, after extensive advocacy and lobbying by the BFN Project and Plants for the Future, Ordinance Nº 163 on Sociobiodiversity was published in the Union Official Journal of Brazil. Signed by both the ministers of Environment and Social Development, this Ordinance clearly articulates what defines sociobiodiversity. In July 2018, Ordinance Nº 284 replaced the earlier ordinance and brought the total number of neglected and underutilised species listed under \"Brazilian Sociobiodiversity Native Food Species of Nutritional Value\" to 100. Sociobiodiversity is defined in the Brazilian Ordinance Nº 284 as the 'interrelation between biological diversity and the diversity of socio-cultural systems (Anonymous, 2018c). The ordinance contributes to better understanding and dissemination of knowledge on these species, which ultimately enhances their promotion and sustainable use (Hunter et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Busia socio-biodiversity conservation policy process in Kenya","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"Kenya is one of the many countries in sub-Saharan Africa where political, administrative, and financial decentralisation is taking place, creating opportunities to mainstream biodiversity at the local level (Hunter et al., 2016). Unlike in Brazil, Kenya did not have a pre-existing national policy framework and BFN project partners faced obstacles to biodiversity mainstreaming including fragmented government ministries and limited funds. Therefore, it was necessary to strengthen and build off receptive parties at the local level, identifying strategic entry points into government that could assist in the policy development process. This meant approaching government ministry members who were receptive to indigenous crop integration, or traditional dietary health practices, and using them as \"champions\" who could convene other influential policymakers. The BFN Project worked closely with stakeholders from Busia County in Western Kenya to develop a Biodiversity Conservation Policy that takes into account the importance of conserving nutrient-rich traditional foods such as cowpea leaves (Vigna unguiculata), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), slender leaf (Crotalaria brevidens) and spider plant (Cleome gynandra) to increase diet quality and access to key micronutrients, particularly for mothers and children. The cross-sectoral process culminated in the March 2018 endorsement of the Busia's Biodiversity Conservation Policy, the first of its kind across Kenya's 47 counties (Anonymous, 2016g). The policy recognises the importance of traditional foods for nutrition and food security. It has allocated resources to conserve regional food biodiversity, with specific provisions for designated conservation areas and further incorporation of native species into school meals as well as linking smallholder farmers to institutional markets. This success was only possible through concerted effort that brought together multiple parties, and engaged public stakeholder groups as well as highlevel officials including a team of experts from the County Ministries of Agriculture, Health, Education, Environment, Public Health and Forestry, the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation and members of the local community-based and farmer training organisation Sustainable Income Generating Investment (SINGI)."}]},{"head":"Awareness","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"The goal of raising awareness is to build immediate and long-term capacity for biodiversity, as more people need to recognise the value of local species before they are willing to produce, consume, and invest in them. Local stigmas that regard native species as food for the poor, or to be eaten out of necessity in times of famine, contribute to their depreciation (Kepe, 2008) and must be overcome with cultural sensitivity. For policymakers and institutions, strong evidence must be shared that demonstrates tangible benefits of investing in biodiversity. Thus, raising awareness necessitates mobilising channels on different levels, with activities that can be adapted to country-specific contexts. These include: Assess and identify a set of best practices for mobilising biodiversity relevant to the context of the country in which it is applied."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Enhance capacity of producers, processors, users and researchers to deploy and benefit from nutritionally relevant biodiversity."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Conduct national information campaigns/events that foster greater appreciation of biodiversity as a resource for development and wellbeing Develop guidelines for improved use of nutrient-rich foods from local biodiversity, including processing, food safety measures, and recipes adapted to modern lifestyles based on traditional food systems."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Upscale and disseminate tools and methods for mainstreaming biodiversity into food and nutrition strategies."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Depending on the country, best practices may include gastronomic festivals, nutritional quality documentation, home and school gardens, school meal programmes, demonstration sites, value-adding, promotion, or education activities."}]},{"head":"Alaçatı herb festival","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"In Turkey's Aegean Region, wild edible plants still play a major role in people's diets and are an important source of income for rural households, especially women (Karabak, 2017). Each year the Alaçatı Herb Festival, at its ninth edition in 2018, gathers thousands of visitors to celebrate the benefits of wild edible plants, and support local cuisines and food cultures based on this biodiversity. Nature walks and competitions for all ages are organized, rewarding the gatherer of the highest number of edible plants while helping scientists gather information on the traditional use of each species. 111 species and sub-species are reportedly consumed in the region while more have yet to be identified (Tan and Taskin, 2011). The involvement of celebrity chefs during the festival has also helped popularize wild edible plants among younger generations."}]},{"head":"Online mainstreaming biodiversity course","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"As part of a global activity carried out by Brazil, BFN designed a training module on best practices for mobilising biodiversity to improve dietary diversity. The interactive e-learning modules take examples from all target countries to offer experiences and lessons, which can be adapted for use in nutrition and health programs. The audience includes policy makers, researchers, university professors, graduate or undergraduate students, nutritionists, extension workers or other professionals interested in biodiversity conservation, sustainable agriculture, nutrition and socio-economic development (find e-learning course here: http://www.b4fn.org/e-learning/)."}]},{"head":"Hela Bojun and markets in Sri Lanka","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Under the brand name \"Hela Bojun-True Sri Lankan taste\", 17 market outlets for the sale of traditional foods have empowered rural women across Sri Lanka to earn a living while conserving and protecting biodiversity and making healthy food available at competitive prices. Women enrolled in the programme were trained by the Women Farmers Extension Program of the Department of Agriculture and tutored on the nutritional value of traditional foods, food preparation and food safety. The resulting restaurants and adjoining shops in Colombo and Peradeniya have become highly popular, and the women working at Hela Bojun have become the main breadwinners in their families, earning $600-800 a month. The initiative also created market demand for traditional foods such as honey, jaggery, treacle, bananas and organic products and boosted production for smallholders. The shops promote underutilised crops identified by BFN Sri Lanka, including medicinal plants such as water lily (Nymphaea pubescens), used in Ayurvedic medicine, and pulses such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), black gram (Vigna mungo) and green gram (Vigna radiata), as well as traditional rice varieties (Oryza spp.). Linked to Hela Bojun, Wayamba University pilot tested cooking demonstrations with locally available greens to raise awareness of nutrition, hygiene, and food safety, and encourage the cultivation of diverse home gardens. Drawing on BFN's research, nutrition facts have been published for 91 traditional/local dishes at the Hela Bojun centres."}]},{"head":"Farmer business school in Kenya","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Instructed by local partner organisation SINGI, 4000 Kenyan farmers were trained on traditional crops' nutritional value and sustainable cultivation strategies, including techniques such as mandala, keyhole, and multi-story gardens. Additionally, the Farmer Business School model offered trainings to entrepreneurial farmers in Busia County on contract farming, business plans as well as the ability to respond to demands from institutional markets such as local schools and clinics. This is now being trialled through a food procurement model where local farmer groups sell indigenous produce directly to school canteens that feed students and staff. A Memorandum of Understanding is drawn up between the farmer and school regulating the arrangement and, bypassing market operators, the model allows for mutually beneficial consistent pricing agreements. This model was created in response to the specific needs of small scale agricultural entrepreneurs (mostly women and youth) living in Busia County who expressed ambitions to grow their currently small enterprises by commercialising African leafy vegetables and other nutritious crops. A facilitator's training manual was developed to extend the training to other farmers and community-based organizations."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Although this article has outlined a general methodology focused on evidence, policy and awareness, the examples from different countries demonstrate that context determines the most effective approach to mainstreaming agrobiodiversity for nutrition. In particular, the success of activities depends on partnerships that build off pre-existing demands and opportunities. Furthermore, operating in four significantly different countries has shown to be a strength, not a weakness of the BFN Project, in fact, sharing experiences and lessons learned across countries is a critical component of the initiative."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"In all countries, increased data and strong evidence of species' nutrient composition was key to the project's success. BFN's research determines further actions to take and has global relevance with contributions to the FAO/INFOODS database, in addition to national food composition tables and biodiversity strategies."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Many of the elements discussed above converge with the example of institutional procurement, as seen with school feeding in Kenya. There, an agreement was reached that simultaneously addressed consumer demand and supply constraints linked to marketing traditional crops. Formalised support, such as Busia's Biodiversity Policy or Sociobiodiversity Ordinance Nº 284 in Brazil, create an enabling environment that makes expansion of this model feasible. Both examples are based on the FAO Voluntary Guidelines (Anonymous, 2016h), offering a set of concrete tools for mainstreaming biodiversity into policies, programmes and national and regional plans of action with particular attention to the nutrition aspects."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"As the first phase of BFN concludes (2012-18), the project is sharing methods and results, for example, at COP14 of the CBD, as well as anticipating how to adapt to further regions in the future. With support from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) BFN intends to initiate more rigorous testing of the direct procurement model in additional schools and countries where it is possible to build off preestablished regional partnerships. This will be key in establishing a more quantitative analytical basis demonstrating the feasibility of up-scaling the growth, sale, and consumption of underutilised species. Additional evidence can also support further policy successes, and contribute to increased awareness and capacity."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . The BFN project's national partners in Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey. Key partners Brazil Kenya Sri Lanka Turkey Key partnersBrazilKenyaSri LankaTurkey Political -Ministry of Environment -Ministry of Health (MoH) -Ministry of Environment -Ministry of Agriculture and Political-Ministry of Environment-Ministry of Health (MoH)-Ministry of Environment-Ministry of Agriculture and partners (MMA) -Division of Human (MOE) Forestry (MAF) -General partners(MMA)-Division of Human(MOE)Forestry (MAF) -General  -The National Food and Nutrition and Dietetics -Ministry of Agriculture Directorate of Agricultural -The National Food andNutrition and Dietetics-Ministry of AgricultureDirectorate of Agricultural  Nutrition Security and National AIDS and (MOA) Research (TAGEM) Nutrition Securityand National AIDS and(MOA)Research (TAGEM)  Council (CONSEA) STI Control Programme -Ministry of Health and -Ministry of Agriculture and Council (CONSEA)STI Control Programme-Ministry of Health and-Ministry of Agriculture and  -Ministry for Agrarian (NASCOP) Nutrition (MOHN) -Dept. of Forestry -General Directorate -Ministry for Agrarian(NASCOP)Nutrition (MOHN) -Dept. ofForestry -General Directorate  Development (MDA) -Ministry of Agriculture - Health (Nutrition of Protection and Control Development (MDA)-Ministry of Agriculture -Health (Nutritionof Protection and Control  -Ministry of Social Policy Department Coordination Division) and (KKGM) -Ministry of SocialPolicy DepartmentCoordination Division) and(KKGM)  Development and Fight -National Environment Medical Research Institute -General Directorate of Development and Fight-National EnvironmentMedical Research Institute-General Directorate of  Against Hunger (MDS) Management Authority (MRI) Nature Protection and Against Hunger (MDS)Management Authority(MRI)Nature Protection and  -Ministry of Agriculture, (NEMA) -The Forest Department (FD) National Parks -Ministry of Agriculture,(NEMA)-The Forest Department (FD)National Parks  Livestock and Food  -Department of Animal -Ministry of Health General Livestock and Food-Department of Animal-Ministry of Health General  Supply (MAPA)  Production and Health Directorate of Primary Health Supply (MAPA)Production and HealthDirectorate of Primary Health  -National Supply  (DAPH) Care Services -National Supply(DAPH)Care Services  Company (CONAB)  -Ministry of Rural Industries -Ministry of National Company (CONAB)-Ministry of Rural Industries-Ministry of National  -Ministry of Education  and Self Employment Education (MEB) -Ministry of Educationand Self EmploymentEducation (MEB)  (MEC)  -Ministry of agricultural -Undersecretary of State (MEC)-Ministry of agricultural-Undersecretary of State  -Ministry of Health (MS)  Development and Agrarian Planning Organization -Ministry of Health (MS)Development and AgrarianPlanning Organization    Services -Dept. of  Services -Dept. of    Agriculture (DOA) and  Agriculture (DOA) and    Dept. of Export Agriculture  Dept. of Export Agriculture    (DEA)  (DEA) Research -Brazilian Agricultural -KALRO Socio- -Bandaranayake Memorial -Aegean Agricultural Research Research-Brazilian Agricultural-KALRO Socio--Bandaranayake Memorial-Aegean Agricultural Research partners Research Corporation Economics Division Ayurvedic Research Institute Institute (ETAE) partnersResearch CorporationEconomics DivisionAyurvedic Research InstituteInstitute (ETAE)  (EMBRAPA) -KALRO-Headquarters (BMARI) -West Mediterranean (EMBRAPA)-KALRO-Headquarters(BMARI)-West Mediterranean  -National Federation of Marketing Unit -Dept. of National Botanic Agricultural Research -National Federation ofMarketing Unit-Dept. of National BotanicAgricultural Research  Nutritionists (FNN) -National Genebank of Gardens (DNBG) Institute (BATEM) Nutritionists (FNN)-National Genebank ofGardens (DNBG)Institute (BATEM)  -São Paulo University Kenya (NGBK) -University of Peradeniya, -Central Research Institute for -São Paulo UniversityKenya (NGBK)-University of Peradeniya,-Central Research Institute for  (USP) -KALRO-Kakamega Faculty of Agriculture Field Crops (TARM) (USP)-KALRO-KakamegaFaculty of AgricultureField Crops (TARM)  -Campinas State -Kenyatta University (KU) (FOAUP) -Bursa Food Control and -Campinas State-Kenyatta University (KU)(FOAUP)-Bursa Food Control and  University (UNICAMP)  -University of Ruhuna Central Research Institute University (UNICAMP)-University of RuhunaCentral Research Institute    (Faculty of Agriculture) -The Scientific and (Faculty of Agriculture)-The Scientific and    -Wayamba University -Dept. Technological Research -Wayamba University -Dept.Technological Research    of Nutrition and Community Council of Turkey of Nutrition and CommunityCouncil of Turkey    Resources Management (TÜBİTAK) Resources Management(TÜBİTAK)    (NCRM) -Erciyes University (NCRM)-Erciyes University    -Institute of Fundamental -Selçuk University -Institute of Fundamental-Selçuk University    Studies (IFS) -Gazi University Studies (IFS)-Gazi University     -Ege University -Ege University     -Akdeniz University -Akdeniz University     -Ankara University -Ankara University     -Hacettepe University -Hacettepe University NGOs, other -Brazilian Biodiversity -National Museums of -Biodiversity Secretariat -Turkish Association for the NGOs, other-Brazilian Biodiversity-National Museums of-Biodiversity Secretariat-Turkish Association for the partners Fund (FUNBIO) Kenya (NMK) (BDS) Conservation of Nature and partnersFund (FUNBIO)Kenya (NMK)(BDS)Conservation of Nature and   -Rural Outreach -Green movement Sri Lanka Natural Resources (TTKD) -Rural Outreach-Green movement Sri LankaNatural Resources (TTKD)   Programme (GMSL) -Union of Turkish Chambers Programme(GMSL)-Union of Turkish Chambers    -Community Development of Agriculture -Community Developmentof Agriculture    Centre (CDC) -Association of Turkish Centre (CDC)-Association of Turkish    -Saaraketha Lanka Pvt. Ltd. Dieticians -Saaraketha Lanka Pvt. Ltd.Dieticians    -Sewalanka Foundation -İstanbul Commodity -Sewalanka Foundation-İstanbul Commodity    Agriculture project Exchange (İSTİB) Agriculture projectExchange (İSTİB)     -Alaçatı Art and Culture -Alaçatı Art and Culture     Association Association  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of the proximate composition and mineral element content of the edible parts of the cultivated and wild samples of einkorn wheat, fennel, cowpea and caperberries. Significant differences are highlighted. Type of Botanical name Moisture Fat Protein Dietary Ash Zinc Iron Calcium Type ofBotanical nameMoistureFatProteinDietaryAshZincIronCalcium samples of samples (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) fiber (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) samplesof samples(g/100g)(g/100g)(g/100g)fiber(g/100g)(g/100g)(g/100g)(g/100g)      (g/100g)     (g/100g) Landrace Triticum monococcum 10.96 1.83 9.86 9.72 0.98 5.00 3.89 32 LandraceTriticum monococcum10.961.839.869.720.985.003.8932 Cultivated Triticum durum* 11.80 3.95 12.08 6.79 1.03 1.05 0.98 19 CultivatedTriticum durum*11.803.9512.086.791.031.050.9819 Wild Foeniculum vulgare 88.39 0.25 2.15 3.60 1.81 0.36 2.34 270 WildFoeniculum vulgare88.390.252.153.601.810.362.34270 Cultivated Foeniculum vulgare* 84.70 0.39 3.86 4.58 2.27 0.59 11.11 243 CultivatedFoeniculum vulgare*84.700.393.864.582.270.5911.11243 Landrace Vigna unguiculata 9.28 1.52 21.57 33.50 3.48 3.34 5.56 108 LandraceVigna unguiculata9.281.5221.5733.503.483.345.56108 Cultivated Vigna unguiculata* 10.22 1.01 22.88 18.98 3.18 4.13 7.43 87 CultivatedVigna unguiculata*10.221.0122.8818.983.184.137.4387 Wild Capparis spinosa 80.58 0.52 4.10 4.29 1.09 0.78 1.19 121 WildCapparis spinosa80.580.524.104.291.090.781.19121 Cultivated Capparis spinose** 82.70 0.84 3.35 3.13 1.09 - 0.54 - CultivatedCapparis spinose**82.700.843.353.131.09-0.54-  "},{"text":"Table 3 . The Sustainable Index. The Index takes into account a number of criteria including the environment, economic and food and nutrition sustainability characteristics of each species. This index can be used to identify suitable species for further marketing. Environmental Economic Food & Nutritional EnvironmentalEconomicFood & Nutritional 1. Conservation  Ex situ/in situ 1. Collection/Production continuity  Collection/production constraints  1. Conservation  Ex situ/in situ1. Collection/Production continuity  Collection/production constraints 2. Cultivation  Ease of production  Growth rate  Distance from collection/production site  Collection/production continuity  2. Cultivation  Ease of production  Growth rate Distance from collection/production site  Collection/production continuity  High adaptability  Vegetation period  Annual growth 3. Disappearance/threat  Habitat destruction and 2. Market characteristics  Recognizable  Easily packaged  Suitable for storage 3   High adaptability  Vegetation period  Annual growth 3. Disappearance/threat  Habitat destruction and2. Market characteristics  Recognizable  Easily packaged  Suitable for storage 3 fragmentation   fragmentation  Pollution, exploitation  Destructive harvesting practices    Pollution, exploitation  Destructive harvesting practices 4. Widespread distribution   4. Widespread distribution 5. Habitat preference   5. Habitat preference  "},{"text":". Processing industry available 4. Marketing opportunities of collected/produced species 5. Distance from market (km) 1. Iron content 2. Calcium content 3. Fibre ratio 4. Antioxidant ratio 5. Vitamin A   "}],"sieverID":"15c9070d-24c5-42a3-9d26-27ead5ac44e2","abstract":"Food and Nutrition Project (BFN), a multi-country initiative led by Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey. BFN explored the nutritional properties of traditional and/or neglected native edible species, both wild and cultivated (including varieties and landraces), and used this knowledge to incorporate local agricultural biodiversity into national and global policy instruments that address food and nutrition security through the promotion of healthy, diversified and sustainable diets. Across the four countries, the project adopted a three-pillar approach for mainstreaming biodiversity for food and nutrition into policies and practices by: 1) Providing Evidence, 2) Influencing Policy, and 3) Raising Awareness. Case study examples from Brazil, Kenya, Turkey, and Sri Lanka demonstrate how the approach can be adapted to suit specific country contexts and how a multi-level, cross-sectoral partnership-based approach can create an enabling environment for mainstreaming biodiversity to improve nutrition."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b5736e77bc43dc7701b534ba6f1100","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1726/WF_951.pdf"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Efficiency of African Catfish Clarias gariepinus in controlling unwanted reproduction of Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in low input production system","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Tilapia is the main cultured fish species in Egyptian farms, in year 2004 tilapias contributed to 43 % of farmed fish production and 23% of total fisheries Production (GAFRD, 2005). The main problem facing tilapia producers is the early sexual maturity and fry production before fish reach marketable size, which lead to overpopulation in production ponds and produce smaller fish at harvest (Guerrero, 1980)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The use of 17a -Methyltesosterone (MT) for the production of all male population tilapia was widely used in Egypt to overcome this problem. But the Egyptian Government banned the use of MT hormone for mono-sex tilapia production. Therefore, there is a need for focusing on alternative methods for controlling tilapia reproduction in production ponds."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"Introduction of predator's fish for recruitment control in tilapia was reported by Guerrero, 1980;De Graaf (1996)  El-Gamal et al. (1998) and Fagbenro (2004). Among predators which could be used for biological control of tilapia reproduction is the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Lin (1996) mentioned that African catfish have been investigated as a potential aquaculture species. This species known for its high growth rate, resistance to low level of dissolved oxygen (DO), poor water quality, handling stress and excellent meat quality (El-Naggar et al., 2006). Of the major limitation for the use of predator as population control methods , is the difficulty in obtaining stock of desirable size. On other hand, the new development of catfish spawning methodology which make attaining catfish fingerlings more practical to be stocked in polyculture system with tilapia."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"This experiment was designed to determine the best stocking ration of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) as a predator to control unwanted tilapia offspring in a polyculture system and to assess the effects of that on fish growth, water quality, and total fish production under low input production system in earthen pond."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The experiment was conducted at the WorldFish Center, Abbassa, Egypt, in twelve earthen ponds of similar size (2100-m 2 ) each, from 14 th of April to the 26 th of November 2005."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Ponds were assigned into three treatments four replicates each, using a stratified random block design as follows: Treatment 1 ( T1): Pond stocked with Tilapia only (T. Only) Treatment 2 ( T2): Pond stocked with Tilapia and 7 % catfish (T. + 7% CF) Treatment 3 (T3): Pond stocked with Tilapia and 13 % catfish (T. + 13% CF)"}]},{"head":"Pre-stocking preparation and management of the experimental ponds:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"All ponds were dried for a week to eliminate wild fish before starting of preparation for the experiment. Fine mesh screens were fixed over water inlet and outlet pipes. Ten days before stocking, all ponds were treated with chlorine at the rate of 15L/1000 m 2 to eradicate their cysts and discourage the growth of harmful cyanobacteria. Ponds left for chlorine evaporation for two days and fertilized by chicken manure at rate of 400 kg/hectare. Partial filling of the ponds to 50% of target level started on the following day after applying the initial fertilization. Two days prior to stocking tilapia fry, water was added to the ponds through pipes covered with narrow mesh screen to reach the maximum target leve l in ponds of 1meter. Each pond was covered completely with bird netting supported by wood sticks, to prevent entry of natural enemy of the fish such as birds, in order to avoid fish mortalities due to bird picking of the fish. Water depth in all ponds was maintained at the same level throughout the experiment by adding water weekly to replace evaporation and seepage losses."}]},{"head":"Experimental fish:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Nile tilapia (Oreochrmis niloticus) fry were obtained from the Arabian Fisheries Company Hatchery and kept in holding concrete tanks for two days before stocking for recovery from any transportation stress or mortalities, while catfish fingerlings ( Clarias gariepinus) were obtained from previous year spawning done at the WorldFish Center facilities. Mixed-sex Nile tilapia fry (0.15 g size) were stocked at rate 2 fish m -2 in all treatments. After two months of initial tilapia stocking catfish fingerlings (223 g size) were introduced into ponds at stocking, rate 315 and 650 fish per ponds representing 7%, and 13% of tila pia number in T2 and T3, respectively. All ponds were fertilized with similar amount of chicken litter at a rate of 500 kg/hectare per week for 30 weeks."}]},{"head":"Fish Sampling and data collection and final analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"During the experiment fish samples were taken monthly where individual weight and length of 30 tilapia fish from each pond recorded. Because of difficulty in getting catfish in monthly fish sample, no attempt was done to make growth curve. Initial integrated water samples were taken two days before stocking and monthly basis afterwards. Water samples were analysed for pH, alkalinity, total ammonium nitrogen (TAN), nitrite-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, available phosphorus, chlorophyll a, and Hardness according to APHA, (1998). In addition, weekly measurement of DO, Temperature, Secchi disk, pH and NH 4 were done."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"All fish were harvested between 17 th and 26 th of November 2005 after 215 days of growing period. At harvest fish weight and number for each size group were recorded. Fish yield (kg pond -1 ), extrapolated yield (kg ha -1 ), survival, and daily weight gain (g fish -1 d -1 ), were calculated for each pond."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Data were analyzed statistically by analysis of variance using SPSS (version 8.0) statistical software package (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). Differences were considered significant at an alpha level of 0.05."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fish Growth","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The obtained result of this experiment (Table 1) showed that there were significant differences in all growth yield, tilapia production, tilapia fry biomass, tilapia fry biomass as percentage of fish yield, market size tilapia yield, market size catfish quantity and mean weight of catfish marketable size among treatments (P<0.05). The introduction of Catfish into tilapia ponds resulted in reduced survival rate, growth rate (g/d) and mean weight of market size of tilapia but there was no significant difference among treatments (P<0.05)."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Net fish yield was higher in T1 followed by T2 and T3 respectively, while on the other hand, market size fish yield was lowest in T1 then T2 and was highest (P< 0.05) for T3. The obtained tilapia fry biomass (kg/ha) and its share as a percentage of the total fish yield significantly decreased (P<0.05) among the three treatments being highest fir T1 followed by T2 then T3 respectively. The current results also showed that total production of marketable size tilapia was higher for T1 than for T2 but not significantly different from T3 (P<0.05). Mean weight of marketable tilapia inversely correlated with increasing stocking rate of catfish, but the difference was not significant (P >0.05)."},{"index":3,"size":295,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates the comparison of tilapia grades production showed that first grade tilapia ( > 200 g) was significantly higher in T1 compared to T2 and T3 (P< 0.05), While it was the reverse for second grade (100-200 g) tilapia production which was significantly lower in T1 treatment compared to T2 and T3 (P< 0.05). Tilapia growth curves during the experiment based on monthly fish samples from each pond are presented in Figure 2. It was noticed that growth of tilapia in T1 started to show an increase over that for T2 and T3 starting from the third sample, which is one month after catfish stocking into the ponds. This divergence continued all through the experimental period to the end of trial. The average weight of tilapia at harvest for the three treatments was similar to that obtained in fish sample throughout the trial. Water Quality Parameters: Among water quality parameters only pH was significantly (P<0.05) and available phosphorus differed significantly (P<0.05) between treatments. While the rest of water quality parameters measured such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), alkalinity, NH 3 , nitrite-N, chlorophyll a and Secchi disk visibility were not significantly different (P<0.05) among treatments, (Table 2).  catfish) (P<0.05) compared to T1 ponds (tilapia only), and that were opposite to available phosphorus which increased significantly (P<0.05) in presence of catfish in tilapia ponds. Inverse relationship between pH and available phosphorus was explained by Boyd (1990), who stated that available phosphorus increases when pH values decline. It was noted during the trial that catfish reduced algal bloom, but did not result in significant difference in Secchi disk visibility among the treatments. Other water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, NH 3 , nitrate and chlorophyll-a were not significantly different among treatments (P<0.05)."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"In conclusion, this study has clearly demonstrated that introduction of catfish at the rate of 13% of total Tilapia stocked has not only eliminated 70% of total Tilapia recruitment but also enhanced total pond production of marketable size fish in both of the polyculture treatments."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Average weight of Nile tilapia from fish as sampled during the pond rearing trial. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Fluctuation in mean value for the pH (± SE) during the culture period. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Fish yield, survival, growth, mean weight of tilapia marketable size, tilapia fry biomass for different treatments Parameters T. Only(T1) T. + 7% CF (T2) T. + 13% CF (T3) ParametersT. Only(T1)T. + 7% CF (T2)T. + 13% CF (T3) Gross yield (kg/ha) 2540.1 ± 72.54 a 2855.6 ± 31.99 b 3048.6 ± 86.3 b Gross yield (kg/ha)2540.1 ± 72.54 a2855.6 ± 31.99 b3048.6 ± 86.3 b Net yield (kg/ha) 2527 ± 73.62 a 2521.8 ± 31.8 a 2373.9 ± 85.68 a Net yield (kg/ha)2527 ± 73.62 a2521.8 ± 31.8 a2373.9 ± 85.68 a Survival (%) 90.2 ± 5.51 a 87.8 ± 4.56 a 89 ± 2.28 a Survival (%)90.2 ± 5.51 a87.8 ± 4.56 a89 ± 2.28 a Tilapia Growth (g/day) 0.99 ± 0.054 a 0.91 ± 0.045 a 0.89 ± 0.019 a Tilapia Growth (g/day)0.99 ± 0.054 a0.91 ± 0.045 a0.89 ± 0.019 a Tilapia Production 2528.8 ± 70.99 a 2099.67 ± 43.86 b 1970.27 ± 49.96 b Tilapia Production2528.8 ± 70.99 a2099.67 ± 43.86 b1970.27 ± 49.96 b (Kg/ha)    (Kg/ha) Market Size Fish 1887.47 ± 75.7 a 2427.3 ± 58.36 b 2804.2 ± 88.73 c Market Size Fish1887.47 ± 75.7 a2427.3 ± 58.36 b2804.2 ± 88.73 c (kg/ha)    (kg/ha) Market Size Tilapia 1865.0 ± 70.99 a 1671.3 ± 27.05 b 1725.9 ± 55.45 ab Market Size Tilapia1865.0 ± 70.99 a1671.3 ± 27.05 b1725.9 ± 55.45 ab (kg/ha)    (kg/ha) Tilapia fry Biomass 664.1 ± 12.74 c 428.4 ± 70.45 b 244.4 ± 13.76 a Tilapia fry Biomass664.1 ± 12.74 c428.4 ± 70.45 b244.4 ± 13.76 a (kg/ha)    (kg/ha) Tilapia fry Biomass as a 26.6 ± 1.2 c 14.97 ± 2.37 b 8 ± 0.54 a Tilapia fry Biomass as a26.6 ± 1.2 c14.97 ± 2.37 b8 ± 0.54 a % of total fish yield    % of total fish yield Mean weight of 208.8 ± 11.26 a 191.3 ± 9.49 a 187.3 ± 3.97 a Mean weight of208.8 ± 11.26 a191.3 ± 9.49 a187.3 ± 3.97 a marketable size tilapia    marketable size tilapia (gm)    (gm) Market Size Catfish 8.5 ± 4.9 a 755.93 ± 33.92 b 1078.36 ± 39.6 c Market Size Catfish8.5 ± 4.9 a755.93 ± 33.92 b1078.36 ± 39.6 c Yield (kg/ha)    Yield (kg/ha) Mean weight of 599 ± 299.5 a 468 ± 47.8 a 353 ± 15.3 b Mean weight of599 ± 299.5 a468 ± 47.8 a353 ± 15.3 b Marketable Catfish (g)    Marketable Catfish (g) * Values with the same letter in the row are not significantly different. All values are mean ± SE. * Values with the same letter in the row are not significantly different. All values are mean ± SE.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Recorded water quality parameters (mean ± SE) throughout the experiment. Parameters N* T1 (T. Only) T2 (T. + 7% CF) T3 (T. + 13% CF ParametersN*T1 (T. Only)T2 (T. + 7% CF)T3 (T. + 13% CF Temperature range o C 35 17.7 -28.4 17.9 -28.6 17.6 -28.7 Temperature range o C3517.7 -28.417.9 -28.617.6 -28.7 pH 26 8.76 ± 0.08 b 8.52 ± 0.04 a 8.47 ± 0.05a pH268.76 ± 0.08 b8.52 ± 0.04 a8.47 ± 0.05a DO 35 0.91 ± 0.10 a 0.92 ± 0.09 a 0.93 ± 0.03 a DO350.91 ± 0.10 a0.92 ± 0.09 a0.93 ± 0.03 a Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) 6 348.3 ± 18.36 a 371.9 ± 39.21a 397.1 ± 28 a Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) 6348.3 ± 18.36 a371.9 ± 39.21a397.1 ± 28 a NH3 26 0.15 ± 0.01 a 0.10 ± 0.02 a 0.10 ± 0.01 a NH3260.15 ± 0.01 a0.10 ± 0.02 a0.10 ± 0.01 a Nitrate-N (mg/L) 6 0.33 ± 0.09 a 0.27 ± 0.04 a 0.26 ± 0.08 a Nitrate-N (mg/L)60.33 ± 0.09 a0.27 ± 0.04 a0.26 ± 0.08 a Chlorophyll a (µg/L) 6 65.36 ± 11.47 a 70.38 ± 13.78 a 72.14 ± 7.16a Chlorophyll a (µg/L)665.36 ± 11.47 a70.38 ± 13.78 a72.14 ± 7.16a Available phosphorus (mg/l) 6 0.75 ± 0.09 a 1.04 ± 0.07 b 0.98 ± 0.06ab Available phosphorus (mg/l) 60.75 ± 0.09 a1.04 ± 0.07 b0.98 ± 0.06ab Secchi Disk Visibility 26 23.5 ± 0.59 a 24.8 ± 0.38 a 23.3 ± 0.93 a Secchi Disk Visibility2623.5 ± 0.59 a24.8 ± 0.38 a23.3 ± 0.93 a  "}],"sieverID":"b0e3ad05-5966-407a-8e67-bd0af2830ee8","abstract":"he present experiment was conducted in twelve earthen ponds 2100-m 2 at WorldFish Center research facility at Abbassa, Egypt, to assess the efficiency of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in controlling unwanted Nile tilapia (Oreochrmis niloticus) reproduction in grow out and to evaluate the performance of tilapia in polyculture system with catfish under low-input production system. Mixed sex tilapia fry (averaging 0.15 g total body weight) stocked at the rate of 2 fish/m 2 and African catfish fingerlings (223 g) were introduced two month later at stocking rates of 7 and 13% of tilapia into T2 and T3 respectively in addition to T1 which had no African catfish introduced to it. Ponds were fertilized weekly using chicken letter at the rate of 500 kg/ha. Water quality parameters were monitored weekly for measuring DO concentration, temperature, Secchi disk, pH and NH4. Also monthly water samples were taken for measuring pH, alkalinity, TAN, NO3, NO2 available phosphorus, chlorophyll a, and total hardness. Statistical analysis of the obtained fish production data at the end of the thirty-week experimental period, showed that catfish significantly (P< .05) reduced t he biomass of recovered tilapia reproduction to 14.9 and 8 % fry as percentage of the total fish yield in T2 and T3, respectively as compared to 26.6% obtained in T1. Tilapia production in polyculture with catfish was significantly lower than tilapia monoculture while, on the other hand, total fish production was significantly (P< .05) higher in the case of both of the two polyculture treatments compared to the tilapia only treatment.The overall conclusion of the present experiment showed that under such stocking rate and production system, introduction of catfish at the rate of 13% of total Tilapia stocked has not only eliminated 70% of total Tilapia recruitment but also enhanced total pond production of marketable size fish in both of the polyculture treatments."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ba8ceb13b9926cf89e52cf5dc3ea70","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1433/WF_2498.pdf"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction 5","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Why use an enclosure? 6"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"How to choose a good site 6"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Materials 7"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Preparation 8"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Lake Nasser case study (Wadi Abyad enclosure) 9"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Materials used at Wadi Abyad 0"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Setting the Wadi Abyad enclosure"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"Predator removal and fry release 3"},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"Maintenance 3"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"Cost of building the Wadi Abyad enclosure 4"}]},{"head":"Conclusion 4","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"References 5"}]},{"head":"MANuAL for eNcLosures","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODuCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"This manual is based on the experience gained by the partners of the project \"Improved Fisheries Productivity and Management in Tropical Reservoirs\" (CP34) funded by the Challenge Program on Water and Food. As part of this project, the partners designed, developed and tested in the field three enclosures in Lake Nasser in Egypt. The objective of the manual is to document for practitioners the main technical lessons gained from these experiments."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Prior experiments using enclosures in fresh-and seawater environments are described in Kutty and Campbell (987). A pen or enclosure is defined as \"a fixed enclosure in which the bottom is the bed of the water body\". A pen is distinguished from a cage, which is an \"enclosure with bottom and sides of netting or bamboo etc., whether floating at the surface or totally submerged\"."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Of the six zones of coastal waters -() shore, () interdidal, (3) sublittoral, (4) surface floating, (5) mid-water and ( 6) seabed (Milne 979) -only three are appropriate for pen culture. These are the intertidal, sublittoral and seabed zones, all using the natural bottom as the bottom of the enclosure."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"In freshwater bodies, tidal influence is relatively limited even in very large lakes, compared with the intertidal zone of the sea. Enclosures are therefore restricted mainly to shallow areas adjacent to the shore. The pen or enclosure may be completely enclosed on all four sides and placed in the middle of a bay with no contact with the shore (A in Figure ), a shore enclosure with a foreshore extending to deep water surrounded by a net structure (B), or a bay enclosure with an embankment or net structure only at the mouth (C). The type of the enclosure developed for the project was type C as described above, using natural khors (bays) on the lake with a net set up across the mouth."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"WHy uSE AN ENCLOSuRE?"},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"The main concept of enclosures is not only to ensure the growth of released fry but also sustainable significant fish catch brought by reproduction inside the enclosures. The type of the enclosure developed for CP34 was of type C as described above, using the khors (embayment) formed by the Lake's shore as the natural loch of the enclosure, while a net was set up across the entrance of the khor."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"In fisheries management, enclosures are usually set up to keep predators out and to increase the production of the selected species inside the enclosure, as was the case with the Lake Nasser experiment. The advantages enclosures offer include the following:"},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"() Intensive utilization of space. High production per unit of area is made possible by adopting intense culture practices and protection from predators. () safety from predators. Predator fish were removed from the enclosure before stocking took place."},{"index":9,"size":63,"text":"(3) Ease of harvest. Harvesting is much easier and faster from enclosures than from larger bodies of water. (4) Availability of natural food. As the bottom of the enclosure is the natural bottom of the reservoir, food and other materials are readily cycled. (5) Natural productivity. The enclosures are located in a shallow part of the lake, which is the most productive area."}]},{"head":"HOW TO CHOOSE A gOOD SITE","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The first general consideration is that the site should be in a body with good water quality that is suitable in terms of oxygen content, temperature and ambient nutrients for spawning and breeding fish. Assembling baseline data on fisheries and water quality and any trends that may affect them is recommended. The area should be easy to isolate with nets. The nets should not hinder natural fluctuation of the water level, or else the sudden changes in water level caused by storms may damage the net."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The features of the bay to consider are its depth, including any fluctuation, particularly at the mouth; surface area; water flow; bottom material; and surrounding topography. The aquatic environment in the enclosure should be compatible with the needs of the target species, in particular regarding the production of natural food through the primary production of phytoplankton and zooplankton and the presence in the water of any chemicals that may affect the fish."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Establishing the enclosure must be done in accordance with the local legal framework regarding open or licensed access and any conservation measures in effect. National legislation may require that environmental impact be assessed both inside and outside the enclosure. The enclosure must be easily accessible to users but protected from intruders or poachers. Long-term economic viability should be ensured prior to the project by conducting feasibility studies that include biological, socioeconomic and market analyses."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The following materials are necessary to set the enclosure net: nets, buoys, a weight line, a float line, a winch, iron angles and shackles."}]},{"head":"cable cramp Iron Angle Hook","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Buoy Winch"}]},{"head":"PREPARATION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"After choosing a suitable enclosure area, the precise location for the net must be determined, following these steps:"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"() A cross section of the mouth of the enclosure should be produced to document the depth and bottom profile. () Based on this cross section, the nets should be designed to close up the khor mouth completely down to the bottom, to ensure that no fish escape."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"(3) Nets should be prepared according to the design and sewn together to make one piece (photo ) with ropes at both extremities, the upper part to fix the float line and the bottom extremity to fix the weight line. (4) Buoys will ensure the buoyancy of the top extremity of the net, their number calculated according to the width of the enclosure mouth. (5) The weight line, an iron chain of a suitable diameter, should be measured out to fix the net to the bottom. ( 6) One winch with suitable capacity of not less than 5 tons should be fixed on one side of the khor mouth. The float line, a millimetre steel cable, goes through the winch to fix the upper layer of the nets. ( 7) Other materials such as iron angles, shackles and ropes to be used to fix the nets should be prepared."}]},{"head":"Photo 1","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"LAKe NAsser cAse sTudy (WAdI AByAd eNcLosure)"},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"As part of the project CP34 funded by the Challenge Program on Food and Water, three enclosures were set up in Lake Nasser to rear Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Suitable khors were selected using contour maps provided by the Egyptian general Survey that showed their depth at different water levels. The criteria used to select the suitable khors were the () total area at different water levels, () depth of the opening where the nets will be set (to control costs), (3) distance from landing harbours and (4) availability of naturally occurring food, primarily in the form of phytoplankton and zooplankton.  The annual change of water level was carefully observed. The water level was found to be lowest in July or August and to rise rapidly as the flood arrived from upstream, reaching its highest level some 4 months later, usually in early November but sometimes in October or December."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Water level fluctuations greatly affected the area of the enclosure. When the water level rose or fell the area of the enclosure increased and decreased accordingly (Figure 3). So, attention must be paid to variation in water level because a rising water level requires more netting to reach both sides of the khor mouth and the bottom. "}]},{"head":"MATERIALS uSED AT WADI AByAD","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The nets of multifilament nylon, treated with antifouling, measured 0 x 5 metres and had a stretched-mesh opening of 3 centimetres (cm). The buoys, measuring 00 x 60 x 40cm, were made of painted -millimetre (mm) iron sheet, fitted with rings and set at 5-metre intervals along the float line, as shown in photo , and held in place with two shackles per buoy. The float line was made of -mm steel cable with rope. The weight line was made of 8-mm chain twisted along a rope. The winch had a 5-ton capacity."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Photo 2."}]},{"head":"SETTINg THE WADI AByAD ENCLOSuRE","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Wadi Abyad enclosure was set up in April 007 with the following procedure:"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"() Fix the winch on one bank at a location well above the higher water level, as shown in photo 3. () Embed the iron angles in the earth on the other side of the winch, to fix the other side of the float line and the buoys (photo 4). (3) Set the buoys in the water (photo 5)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"(3) set the buoys in the water. Photo 5. Photo 3."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Photo 4."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"(1) fix the winch on one bank at a location well above the higher water level."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"(2) embed the iron angles in the earth on the other side of the winch, to fix the other side of the float line and the buoys."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"(4) Feed the float line out through the upper rings of the buoys, fix it at the other end at the iron angles and stretch straight across the enclosure mouth (photos 6 and 7). ( 5) Distribute the buoys along the mouth of the enclosure at 5-metre intervals and fix them tightly to the float line. (6) Fix the upper ropes of the nets tightly to the straight float line and the buoys."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"Tie the bottom ropes of the nets temporarily to the float line all across the enclosure mouth. (7) Transfer the bottom ropes of the nets to the weight line, tying them tightly to it. undo the loose knots on the float line to allow the weight line to sink and settle on the bottom, working along the length of the float line. Figure 3 shows the final disposition of the net."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"(5) distribute the buoys along the mouth of the enclosure at 5-metre intervals and fix them tightly to the float line."},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"Photo 6."},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":"Photo 7."},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"(4) feed the float line out through the upper rings of the buoys, fix it at the other end at the iron angles and stretch straight across the enclosure mouth."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"fig. 3. schematic view of the net drawn across the mouth of the enclosure"}]},{"head":"PREDATOR REMOvAL AND FRy RELEASE","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"To remove such predators as carnivorous fish and crocodiles, the most suitable fishing method must be used for each kind of predator. In the case of the Wadi Abyad enclosure, bottom gill nets with mesh sizes of , 4 and 0 cm were used to catch Lates niloticus, Malapterurus electricus and Mormyrus kannume."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Floating gill nets with mesh sizes of 6 and 7 cm were used for Hydrocynus froskalii and Alestes dentex."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"With the predators removed, . million fry and fingerlings of Nile tilapia were released. The number was arrived at according to several factors, including total area of the enclosure and its estimated carrying capacity. The first 00,000 fingerlings, with an average weight of 5 grams, were released in May 007. September and October 007 saw the release of a second batch of million fry with an average weight of -5 grams. A third batch of million fry with the same average weight was released in November 008."}]},{"head":"MAINTENANCE","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Check the mouth of the enclosure daily to monitor the fluctuation of water level and adjust the net accordingly, as well as checking on the condition of the float line and fixing points. The net should be checked regularly and mended where damaged. Cleaning algae from the net regularly is important, as accumulated algae can slow the flow of water though the net and damage it when the water level rises or falls quickly. Algae should regularly be removed from buoys as well. Beware that prolonged exposure to sunlight can damage ropes, and wires used to fix the net to the float line can rust and weaken, so these parts should be monitored."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"COST OF BuILDINg THE WADI AByAD ENCLOSuRE "}]},{"head":"CONCLuSION","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"As commercial fishing started only in January 009, it is too early to determine whether or not the enclosures are economically viable or if they effectively increased the productivity of the fishery."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" figure 1: Types of enclosures (modified fromKutty and campbell 1987)     "},{"text":"Figure Figure and Table show the area of the Wadi Abyad enclosure at different water levels.figure 2: Maps of a portion of Lake Nasser showing the position of the Wadi Abyad enclosure (left) and the enclosure at larger scale (right) "},{"text":"fig. 3 . fig. 3. Water depth of the Wadi Abyad enclosure in summer 2007 (a) and winter 2008 (b) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Wadi Abyad enclosure Measurements at Various Water Levels Map of Wadi Abyad region  Wadi Abyad enclosure  Map of Wadi Abyad regionWadi Abyad enclosure Water level above Change Net length Change Area Change Water level aboveChangeNet lengthChangeAreaChange sea level (metres) (%) (metres) (%) (hectares) (%) sea level (metres)(%)(metres)(%)(hectares)(%) 70  76  99  707699 75 0.03 97 0.8 56 0.58 750.03970.8560.58 80 0.03  0.6 99 0.8 800.030.6990.8  "},{"text":" Table shows the costs, in uS dollars (with an exchange rate of uS$ = 5.5 Egyptian pounds) of the materials used for the Wadi Abyad enclosure, not counting labour or maintenance. Table 2: cost of materials for the Wadi Abyad enclosure Item Unit price ($) spent for Wadi Abyad ItemUnit price ($)spent for Wadi Abyad Nets 9.9/kg 6,894 Nets9.9/kg6,894 Winch 563 563 Winch563563 Buoys 84.8 3,309 Buoys84.83,309 Chain (8 mm) .68/metre 59 Chain (8 mm).68/metre59 Cable ( mm) .8/metre 6 Cable ( mm).8/metre6 Ropes .36/kg 45 Ropes.36/kg45 Shackles .00 3 Shackles.003 Cable cramps (5 cm) 3.00 4 Cable cramps (5 cm)3.004 Iron binding wire .00/kg 3 Iron binding wire.00/kg3 Threads 0/36 6.85/kg ? Threads 0/366.85/kg? Iron angles, hooks, metal sheets, paint, cement,  57 Iron angles, hooks, metal sheets, paint, cement,57 grease, etc.   grease, etc. total  12,330 total12,330  "}],"sieverID":"c9f79fb4-2269-49d1-a966-e6c6f7dc9459","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06ada673538b3bb57f6f09febabe47eb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed8400c1-a4fa-4350-b355-7f1747c3ca7f/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"El Laboratorio de sanidad de germoplasma tiene la responsabilidad de evaluar el estado fitosanitario del germoplasma que distribuye el Programa de Recursos Genéticos y otros programas del CIAT certificando que esté libre de enfermedades cuarentenarias."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"La metodología empleada para certificar la sanidad del material genético a transferir se fundamenta en:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Resultados de la inspección durante la producción y el beneficio de las semillas."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Análisis de sanidad en el laboratorio. Hongos cuarentenarios más frecuentes en forrajes tropicales Hongos seleccionados para la estandarización de la prueba confirmatoria mediante técnicas moleculares  "}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":" Los resultados de este estudio indican el enorme potencial de la técnica molecular empleada para definir a nivel de especie, una amplia variedad de hongos de tipo cuarentenario que se habían obtenido mediante la identificación convencional."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":" Lograr la identificación de hongos de tipo cuarentenario hasta nivel de especie producirá una disminución en el porcentaje de accesiones rechazadas a causa de este tipo de patógenos."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":" La implementación de una prueba confirmatoria usando técnicas moleculares sumada al diagnóstico morfológico, generará robustés en la metodología de evaluación e identificación de hongos de tipo cuarentenario usada por el LSG."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":" Este estudio proporciona un amplio marco de referencia para la creación de un banco de cepas de referencia de hongos de tipo cuarentenario."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":" La alta sensibilidad de los métodos moleculares exige la necesidad de interpretar los resultados obtenidos mediante el uso de herramientas bioinformáticas."}]},{"head":"Expectativas","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":" Alcanzar la estandarización de la técnica de identificación molecular para convertirse en una herramienta confirmatoria en la identificación de hongos cuarentenarios, y de esta manera afinar la metodología de evaluación usada actualmente."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":" Lograr la identificación a nivel de especie mediante el uso de técnicas moleculares, de todos los hongos cuarentenarios que evalúa el LSG para las colecciones de fríjol y forrajes tropicales."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":" Crear un banco de cepas de referencia de los hongos de tipo cuarentenario evaluados por el LSG."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":" Estar a la vanguardia en la evaluación de nuevos primers universales y determinar cuál de estos puede ser aplicable para el diagnóstico de hongos de interés cuarentenario."}]},{"head":"Agradecimientos","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":" Equipo del Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma del Programa de Recursos Genéticos."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":" Área de conservación del Programa de Recursos Genéticos."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":" Área de Patología de Fríjol del CIAT, especialmente a Victoria Arredondo y Gloria Mosquera."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Diagrama de flujo de la prueba confirmatoria para la identificación de hongos cuarentenarios 5. Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa (PCR) del producto de la PCR en gel de agarosa al 1%. ITS -PCR Profile: ( * White et al., 1990; ** Glass & Donaldson, 1995.)Diagrama de flujo de la prueba confirmatoria para la identificación de hongos cuarentenarios 6. Corte y purificación de las bandas Protocolo utilizado:• QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit -QIAGEN (Cat No./ID: 28706).• Producto purificado: bandas de ADN en gel de agarosa al "}],"sieverID":"7e871766-b893-4e94-89c1-2c4620884ea6","abstract":"Accesiones distribuidas por el Banco de Germoplasma del CIAT Cantidad de accesiones distribuidas en los dos últimos años."}

data/part_2/072532e0d954a1c6e29856f9894d7313.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"072532e0d954a1c6e29856f9894d7313","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/574ed1f7-767b-4082-9716-61637250a4fa/retrieve"},"pageCount":52,"title":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"African banks on the rise","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Richard Wangwe, Stanbic Bank Uganda: \"African banks have a huge role to play in agricultural finance and their growth in this space is inevitable.\" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag At Barclays, although its Africa team sits in Johannesburg, \"we have a mandate to operate across Africa\" and go wherever our clients go, says head of structured trade and commodity finance, Francois"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Visagie."}]},{"head":"African cash","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"An estimated 85 million to 95 million households in Africa now have a disposable income of at least $5,000. \"The money is there, and that money is flowing into pension funds, it's flowing into banks, and into mutual funds,\" says Singharay. \"There's a lot of cash in the system, and that can finance the agriculture sector.\""},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"\"African banks are taking the initiative and putting more skin in the game,\" says George. For example, in a $500 million deal that Ecobank lead arranged last year for Orion Oil, \"all that money came from African banks.\""},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"It might take time to achieve something similar in agriculture -mostly be- Francois Visagie, Barclays/ABSA: \"The biggest thing we can do as local banks or international banks is to help provide training for subsistence farmers. If you can upskill these people to start thinking more commercially, Africa could well be the food basket for the world.\"  And while traders already usually partfinance their suppliers by providing seeds or fertiliser, it is \"in most cases to a limited extent,\" says Landheer. \"We would like to come in to make their farmer finance programmes larger.\" FMO and IDH have so far pooled $50 million and will target a handful of specific smallholder crops including coffee, cocoa, cotton and palm oil. This will naturally lead the programme to focus on West Africa, Central America and Indonesia, says Landheer."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"They will use the money to pre-finance farmer inputs and aim to also provide medium-to longer-term financial support by funding the replanting of trees."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"FMO is also working to build relation-  There remain huge challenges though."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"If not properly managed, warehouses remain vulnerable to everything from theft or fraud to insect infestation. And although using a collateral manager provides more comfort to banks extending the credit, there still aren't enough active in Africa."}]},{"head":"The positives","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"\"The key advantage of a warehouse receipt is it resolves a whole series of problems at once,\" says Edward George, head of soft commodities research at Ecobank. Firstly, it protects the crop -a big issue in Africa, where an estimated 20% to 40% of harvests rot before reaching market."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"It is also \"a great way of freeing up financing for the farmer,\" says George. \"It's a financial instrument that can be traded. "}]},{"head":"Warehouse receipt finance comes of age","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Focus on Warehouse finance Warehouse receipt finance also hands more negotiating power to farmers. If they don't like the price they're offered at the farm gate, they can drive their crop to the nearest warehouse, store it there until they receive a better offer and still receive instant 'payment' in the form of a loan, notes George."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Commodity exchanges are helping here -providing transparent prices that farmers can check on their phone, notes Toyoda. Previously, market prices were a \"black hole\" for smallholders."}]},{"head":"The challenges","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The warehouse receipt finance system only works if warehouses are big enough and cost-efficient, says Hans Bogaard, head of agribusiness at Rabo Development. If the costs of storing a crop and financing it are higher than the increase in price, the aggregator may be able to secure for his crop by waiting, he won't use warehousing."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"It also relies on the warehouses managers in charge of produce to take proper care of it."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"\"A warehouse receipt is only as good as the collateral it is backing,\" notes George. \"If you were to buy a warehouse receipt for 5,000 tonnes of maize, and then when you went to pick it up it was rotting or it wasn't all there, straight away word would get out and no one would want to buy warehouse receipts anymore.\" \"There are so many quality issues that you have inside warehouses -everything from the cleanliness of the warehouse to the way they store things,\" he says."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Fraud is also a huge issue. In India, for example, an estimated $1.5 billion of fraudulent warehouse receipts have been issued over the past 10 years, says George."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"\"Ultimately, it comes down to the quality of the collateral manager and ensuring that all the necessary checks and balances are in place,\" he adds. \"Because there are dozens of ways that you can defraud a warehouse, and they're [defrauders] constantly trying to think of new ways.\""}]},{"head":"Collateral managers provide comfort","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"\"The biggest challenge for the financing bank is validating those warehouse receipts,\" says Scott. \"It's one thing to get a piece of paper saying that X amount of product is at this location. But for that to have any weight, and for anyone to lend with confidence against it, they need some assurances that the warehouse receipt hasn't been written on the back of a fag [cigarette] packet.\" \"There's a variety of ways to do that."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"You make sure that you deal with a large, reputable company that has a good background and history in that,\" he says."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"\"Or you employ a third party, such as Drum Commodities, in a collateral management capacity, who will go into that warehouse, verify that the product is there in the correct quantity, being stored appropriately, and that therefore they will issue the warehouse receipts on behalf of the trader for the banks to finance against.\""},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"The IFC relies on collateral manage-"}]},{"head":"How warehouse receipt finance works","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"With warehouse receipt finance, a farmer or trader delivers his produce to a warehouse that has been approved by a bank or other lender. The warehouse, or collateral management company in charge of it, then issues a receipt vouching for the quantity and quality of produce being stored. The bank then takes the receipt and provides financing to the farmer or trader -typically up to 70% of its current market value -against it."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The receipt acts as collateral for the bank, giving it the right to take ownership of the stored produce if the loan is not repaid."}]},{"head":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Revisiting agricultural finance ment companies in countries that don't yet have an official warehouse receipt system. They are \"essential\", for countries that are in transition, for example many in West Africa, says Toyoda. And in Tanzania, even though a warehouse receipt system is in place, banks still use collateral managers for certain deals."}]},{"head":"Government intervention and price risk","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"There are risks, of course, that collateral managers can't control."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The borrower for a grain stock that Bogaard once financed in Kazakhstan refused to sell after the price crashed. \"So your borrower also has to meet its obligations. If he doesn't sell, there's no liquidation on grain and the cash is not coming,\" he says. Banks need good contacts in such scenarios so they can find an agent to sell crop quickly."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Government interference is another risk. In Tanzania last year, for example, the government set a minimum procurement price for the cashew crop, he says. This was too high for buyers, so banks were left holding cashew crops that they could not sell. Under that system, commercial banks' systems have been linked up with the country's commodity exchange, so that when a warehouse receipt is issued at a warehouse, banks can immediately see the receipt's number in their system and determine how much they are able to lend, says Toyoda."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"IFC is in the process of implementing similar systems in Malawi, Mozambique and Senegal."},{"index":5,"size":156,"text":"For countries that already have a commodities exchange but which don't yet have a warehouse receipt system, \"it's better to introduce an electronic one from the beginning,\" Toyoda says. Although it can be costly to set up, \"it provides more efficient operations to the banks, and also price transparency\". Despite a \"huge amount of talk about electronic warehouse receipts,\" they \"don't' really seem to have taken off as yet,\" says Scott. With the entire industry being intrinsically about security, \"people are naturally very distrustful of new ways of doing things\" and \"still seem to prefer the old piece of paper with two signatures\". That said, \"paperwork is old-fashioned, it's time-consuming, and I don't think it fundamentally is any more risk-proof than a secure electronic system\". Also, electronic warehouse receipts reduce costs and allow traders to get their financing much faster, he says. Because of this, \"almost inevitably, there's going to be a move towards\" them. ■"}]},{"head":"Crop receipts","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Crop receipts -or Cedula de Produto "}]},{"head":"Trickle-down effect provides smallholders with stability","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The Cocobod transaction has also provided a mechanism under which money flows down the value chain to smallholders  But that isn't the only benefit. Records like this give lenders confidence, even in the absence of traditional credit data."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"All the banks that Farmforce has spoken to since its launch in 2012 say that \"as soon as they have three seasons of verified, time-stamped, geo-tracked agricultural production data, they're happy to lend the money,\" says Morley."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"For some produce such as French beans in Kenya, that three-crop history could be available as early as next year. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"}]},{"head":"Creditinfo","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Revisiting agricultural finance matics, FarmDrive will use data it gathers on smallholder farmers to connect them with investors via a new web and mobile platform."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"To qualify for a traditional loan, a farmer needs to produce at least three months of records, detailing their input costs, output and earnings, says co-founder Peris Bosire."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"However, most don't keep precise records and many are not even aware that doing so could help them access finance. This \"locks out farmers,\" she says."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"Under the system, smallholders log de-  Banks must absolutely increase lending and finance for Africa's agricultural sector, which offers the opportunity not just to earn a significant financial return, but also to reduce unemployment and create social wealth. Africa is blessed with tremendous agricultural resources. African agribusiness offers some of the world's best investment opportunities. The other key ingredient to faster, more inclusive economic growth for Africa is greater intra-African trade. Regional trade within Africa includes a higher proportion of manufactured and value-added goods. More regional trade within Africa can help increase employment and local purchasing power."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Revisiting agricultural finance"},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"These capabilities are also central to financing because they not only enable efficient transfer of the receipt but also use of that receipt for collateral -to secure lending from banks. Banks will only lend against that collateral if it can be proven to be secure and not vulnerable to side-selling, theft, forgery, etc. Thus, the entire warehousing and collateral management system must be secure and reliable if the exchange is to function not just as a hub of physical trading, but also as a platform for commodity finance. Business cannot wait for everything to be perfect before we act."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"It is not feasible to wait for warehouse legislation to be enacted that would cover all warehouses in a given country -warehouses of various sizes, types and 'state of repair'. We recommend a pilot project to demonstrate the advantages of 'secure' and wellmanaged warehouses, and using that experience as an incentive for warehousing to be improved."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"We believe that this will pave the way for the introduction of national, and possibly even regional, legislation. "}]},{"head":"Traders -the strongest link","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Jacob Mwale, Grain Traders Association of Zambia: \"Small and mid-sized commodity traders have long been overlooked by banks, which are only now starting to appreciate the vital role they play in agricultural value chains. It was considered we already had money -we didn't need any help.\""},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Revisiting agricultural finance head with traders to provide finance. \"That makes financing a lot cheaper in those countries,\" says Bierman."}]},{"head":"Hands-on help","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"As well as providing financial assistance to farmers by buying their produce and sometimes supplying them with inputs, traders help small-scale farmers become more efficient in their farming methods."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Some green coffee traders have more agronomists on their payroll than traders these days, says Bierman. \"That is partly because it's the right thing to do, and partly to secure good quality of coffee, cocoa or cotton when the market is asking for more traceable products.\" "}]},{"head":"Added value","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Traders also add value in emerging markets by investing in processing and packaging plants. "}]},{"head":"Olam International announced in","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Value-added improves prospects for Pacific Islands agri sector","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Gareth Coleman at ANZ: \"When we're providing this sort of financing, we do so on the basis of the product having already been sold. And the company that we're providing the financing to has a successful track record of executing these sales orders. What gives us comfort is that there are orders in place.\""},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Case study Papua New Guinea and employs 2,000. At least two more that will employ similar numbers are well under development."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Government stipulations that fishery operators fishing in PNG waters also invest in local canneries have helped, as has the EU's granting of customs-free status to PNG canned tuna, notes Coleman."}]},{"head":"Pre-export financing on the up","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"PNG is also a significant producer of cocoa and coffee, which ANZ supports through pre-export finance transactions."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Funding against existing orders of sale is considered a palatable risk by the bank, which now aims to expand the limits it has in place for companies already trading in this space, says Coleman."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"From initially focusing on the subsidiaries of multinationals, ANZ has over the past 18 months also started extending preexport finance to nationally-owned companies that may not have big parent-company balance sheets but have a proven history."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"\"When we're providing this sort of financing, we do so on the basis of the product having already been sold. And The bank also provides pre-export finance for coffee growers in Timor -again, against confirmed orders -and for sugar in Fiji, where the nation's entire production is exported via a single body, the Fiji Sugar Corporation. "}]},{"head":"Smallholders still struggle","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Smallholders in","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agriculture gets its Act together","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Governments could also help provide more stability to farmers by setting up government-subsidised crop insurance programmes, underwritten by the private sector. These products would cover farmers against a range of risks such as drought, flood and loss of irrigation sources."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag  "}]},{"head":"Livestockmore than a commodity","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Animals have a value to rural communities beyond their market price. Animals produce dung for fertiliser, they play a key role in many religious or cultural celebrations, and they work as a live bank -something a smallholder can sell when he needs cash."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag  "}]},{"head":"Namibia targets the EU with beef","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The Namibia Meat Board has \"developed a very good export supply chain for pack-aged meat ready to be sold in European supermarkets,\" says Cadilhon."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Seeking to leverage its strong trade ties with the EU through the EU-Africa-Caribbean-Pacific programme, the government decided to focus on its beef industry."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Together with the private sector, it set up a system under which smallholders bring cattle to government-approved feeding and slaughter houses that guarantee the health of the animal."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Because of this, \"they are health and safety compliant, they are animal-welfare compliant and they have infrastructure to finish off their cattle,\" he says."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"According to Meat Board figures, www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag  The insurance -which will be offered initially to 300 to 500 farmers -insures against natural and climatic risks such as hurricanes, flooding and plant disease, according to coordinator Jean-Yves Drolet."}]},{"head":"Lower risk than crops","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pricing is still too high","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Insurance is no panacea though. Farming relies on multiple factors, all of which need to be in place. As Ferroni says: \"If you have weather insurance but the wrong seeds for the altitude or ecology, the best of insurance will not help you.\""},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Although insurers are trying to devise systems to bring agricultural insurance costs down, premiums remain too high for many farmers, according to Debar."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Crop insurance premiums in Africa can be as high as 10% -a heavy burden for farmers who are among the world's poorest, he says. This compares with around 5%-6% for combined price and yield insurance in the US, after deduction of government subsidies."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Developing an insurance system is certainly expensive, including the costs of setting up and distributing a scheme and accessing quality data. There needs there-fore to be a careful balancing act between \"having a price low enough for the farmers but big enough for the insurer,\" he says."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"The average premium for Syngenta's products is 8% to 12% of the insured value, although with its seed input tie-up, the premium is part-paid by the input company."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"\"This is a way to accelerate their gain in market share, so it's a fair deal,\" says Ferroni."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Insurance is very expensive for the pro- The current premium does not however take into account additional costs, such as for re-insurance or administration, which Syfaah is temporarily shouldering itself."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Once the programme is handed over to a"},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"Haitian public-private consortium, the premium could be raised to a more viable level that reflects all costs. Syfaah is how-Obligatory insurance schemes, where farmers are not allowed to borrow from public institutions without also taking insurance -as found in India and Brazilcould be one solution."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":11,"size":48,"text":"Revisiting agricultural finance haran Africa, it will however take time to Because the insurance product is offered through a mobile payment system, claims are paid within days. In many cases, the farmer then has a second chance to buy new inputs and plant again within the same harvest."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag"},{"index":13,"size":4,"text":"Case study Insurance systems"},{"index":14,"size":74,"text":"Haiti has found itself at the forefront of agricultural microfinance with an initiative that is shaking up misconceptions about the bankability of smallholder famers and will soon also be launched in Latin America Syfaah is now moving on to its second phase, which runs until 2018. It aims to extend the system nationwide, expand its workforce of technical and credit officers, and promote some credit officers to senior positions with higher loan disbursement targets."},{"index":15,"size":23,"text":"It will also create an institution -ideally comprising both government and privatesector partners -that will implement the system once Canada's sponsorship ends. ■"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance As media partner with CTA, TXF is proud to be involved in producing this special report on agricultural financing for the landmark Fin4Ag conference in Nairobi. The report is entitled 'Revisiting Agricultural Finance', because that is exactly what is required to first ensure finance is available for producers, traders and others involved in the agri-value chain, and second that the financial environment is conducive for producers' interests, providing them with the financial services they need and at an affordable cost. The report seeks to highlight some of the challenges and opportunities that producers, traders, banks and other financiers face in a sector that is fast transforming itself. With mobile technology, commodity exchanges and new financing tools revolutionising agriculture in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, it is time for international commercial banks, insurers and collateral managers to take a second look. In the report, we explore the rise of African commercial banks in trade and agricultural finance. With international banks edging back from the continent since the financial crisis, local players have stepped forward to plug the gap. Local banks have already proved they can go it alone with big syndications for energy. In agriculture they are using their local branches and on-the-ground knowledge to help finance agri inputs and resultant product flows further down the value chain. Keen to tap that expertise, some international banks are also looking to partner with or buy stakes in African banks. Already big in Latin America and parts of Asia, warehouse receipt finance is now making strides across Africa. Countries such as Ethiopia have led the way with commodity exchanges, and other coun-tries are poised to follow suit with exchanges. In addition, sophisticated electronic receipt systems are also making inroads in several countries. We look at the efforts that individual countries are making to implement the system and how banks, producers and traders can overcome persistent challenges like fraud and crop theft. With microfinance still one of the most available sources of credit for small farmers, we zoom in on Canada's Syfaah initiative in Haiti, which uses a three-pronged approach to improve farmers' yields: economic stability and access to finance by offering credit, insurance and technical assistance. Over in India, we learn lessons from BASIX, a longstanding provider of microfinance that is attracting more attention from local banks, keen to funnel money through it to farmers. We also look back at the history of Ghana Cocoa Board's annual pre-export finance transaction. Over nearly 21 years, Cocobod has managed to attract $15 billion worth of financing from international banks. Will neighbours like Ivory Coast ever be able to replicate this model? We hope you find the feature articles and interviews interesting and informative, and that some of the topics and issues discussed will provide further impetus to get the right sort of financing tools to the people that need it most. The work being done by CTA and others continues to play a major part in transforming the playing field for agricultural financing. The future for the provision of agricultural finance in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries is certainly looking brighter, but only with continued training, education, innovation, perseverance, and real hands-on attention to detail will agriculture in Africa be able to realise its full potential and play a key role in achieving prosperity across the region. ■ By Jonathan Bell, editor-in-chief, TXF Foreword Jonathan Bell, editor-inchief at TXF www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Focus on African banks African banks are taking the lead in financing the continent's farmers, traders and soft commodities. With more local money in the system, they are also reaching further down the value chain, though still find financing farmers directly a challenge. At the same time, international banks are snapping up stakes in local players, hoping to piggy-back on their distribution network and on-the-ground expertise. African banks have a huge role to play in agricultural finance and their growth in this space is \"inevitable,\" says Richard Wangwe, head of agriculture at Stanbic Bank Uganda. The growing role of African banks in trade finance was acknowledged by the WTO Expert Group on Trade Finance at their meeting in late April. African banks have shown greater ability to syndicate big trade finance deals, mostly in the commodity space, without external support, the group concluded, according to Marc Auboin, a counsellor in the WTO's Economic Research and Statis-tics Division. More local and regional banks have invested in trade, partly filling a gap left by the retreat of global banks since the financial crisis. However, financiers have become more selective and remain focused on top-rated customers, leaving smaller traders with less finance than before, the group found. \"Africa can finance itself,\" says Hiren Singharay, regional head of syndications, EMEA, for Standard Chartered. \"Five years ago, not a single Nigerian bank had crossed the Congo to the east. Now all major Nigerian banks have done it. And five years ago, excepting Stanbic, no South African bank had crossed the Limpopo River to the north. Now they're everywhere.\" After the financial crisis, a number of international trade finance banks pulled back from Africa, leaving a financing gap. \"They kept financing their best customers -so the Cocobods and Sonangols still got their financing -but not the smaller and medium players,\" says Edward George, "},{"text":" Revisiting agricultural finance head of soft commodities research at the pan-African bank, Ecobank. \"There's ample liquidity in the world, but not for Africa.\" Mandate to expand \"Most South African banks have a strategy to expand into Africa,\" says Zhann Meyer, Africa head, global commodity finance at Nedbank Capital. \"It's not about whether we're going to do it -we have to do it,\" he says. \"It's something that's expected by our shareholders -to work in the African space, and assist the continent in growing.\" Nedbank's mission for Africa is to follow its existing clients as they too make inroads in the continent, he says. \"They're going into Africa and we're following them in areas and footprints where they're comfortable.\" Banks on the continent need to increase their on-farm exposure, making sure they get into the supply chain at ground level, Meyer adds. The bank's next step is to identify countries with conducive government policies in place and then the corporate players it could assist in growing the industry. Local banks including governmentowned landbanks, \"have always had a dominant market share in South Africa when it comes to agriculture finance,\" says John Hudson, agriculture manager at Nedbank. That said, Nedbank only got serious about agriculture five to six years ago as the financial crisis triggered a greater appreciation of the returns that it could generate compared with other asset classes, he says. Agriculture, commodities and, more recently, fixed assets like land and infrastructure, suddenly started attracting investment. \"Agriculture became flavour of the month,\" Hudson says. The bank now has dedicated agricultural teams that engage with commercial farmers in South Africa. "},{"text":" cause of the larger physical volumes involved in soft commodities and the longer value chains -but energy is a good first step, he says. \"It's really shown that Richard Wangwe at Stanbic Bank Uganda www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Focus on African banks African banks are taking more initiative and that they can pool their own capital.\" Partnerships and acquisitions International banks are also striking up more partnerships with African banksand in some cases acquiring them -as a lower-risk way of extending their reach into the continent. Partnerships allow international banks to put their expertise and bigger balance sheet to work using a regional bank's relationships, distribution network and local knowledge, says George. \"A lot of the multinational banks often don't want to have operations on the ground [in Africa] because it's expensive, but they want to do business there,\" he says. \"If you are a pan-regional bank, you can get the money that last mile, and you have the physical presence on the ground.\" Ecobank has an alliance with Nedbank in South Africa as well as partnerships with Barclays Africa, ABN Amro and Citi. \"We help them do business in markets they have an appetite for but where they don't have a presence,\" says George. Nedbank has until the end of November 2014 to convert a $285 million loan it made to Ecobank in 2011 into an equity holding, and then expand the stake to as much as 20%. It also owns MBCA Bank in Mozambique and in June completed its acquisition of a 36.4% stake in Mozambique's Banco Unico for $24.4 million. Rabo Development (Rabo) has also taken the acquisition path to expand its presence in Africa. Over the past nine years it has invested in five local banks. These include National Microfinance Bank (NMB), Zambia Commercial National Bank, Banco Terra in Mozambique, Banque Populaire du Rwanda (BPR) and, more re-Edward George, Ecobank: \"A lot of the multinational banks often don't want to have operations on the ground [in Africa] because it's expensive, but they want to do business there. If you are a pan-regional bank, you can get the money that last mile, and you have the physical presence on the ground.\" Edward George at Ecobank www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance cently, DFCU Bank in Uganda. By taking large minority stakes, typically around 40%, Rabo also gains the right to install its own management -usually the CEO, head of risk management and head of retail -at banks it invests in. Through its Rabo's advisory unit, RIAS, it also provides them with technical assistance and risk solutions. \"The important thing is that we are not a silent or passive investor,\" says Hans Bogaard, head of agribusiness. RIAS also advises other banks on how to implement their agrifinance strategy. Clients include Ethiopia's Cooperative Bank of Oromea, the Development Bank of Ethiopia and Kenya's Chase Bank. Rabobank also opened a Nairobi branch in June, serving commodities clients. Distribution and risk assessment \"Where local banks have an advantage is their actual presence on the ground, close to the primary farming community,\" says Visagie. \"The cash that has to be disbursed can be done via the normal banking network.\" \"We have branches across the continent so we're pretty much seen as a local bank in most markets,\" he says. While its West Africa footprint is limited to Ghana and a representative office in Nigeria, \"in East and South Africa we're pretty much everywhere we should be.\" Stanbic is present in 17 countries across sub-Saharan Africa and is in the process of extending its branch network to Rwanda and Congo, says Wangwe. On top of its South African branch network and its partnership with Ecobank across West and Central Africa, Nedbank has an office in Kenya. \"That is really the raison d'etre of a regional bank in Africa,\" says George. \"It is their presence on the ground and it is being able to use the networks they have to service the trade and the business of international companies and multinational banks.\" "},{"text":" horticulture and coffee sectors. African banks need to work more though with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and microfinance institutions (MFIs) to help them develop products that can be extended into more rural regions, he says. They can also help subsistence farmers commercialise their operations. Nedbank focuses on financing export traders across Africa, supporting their efforts to \"integrate backwards\" and provide technical support to the smallholders they buy from and to add value on the continent by investing in cotton gins, crushing mills and other processing facilities, says Meyer. \"Smallholder farmers pose a challenge,\" even for banks with a local footprint, he says. The lack of a land ownership model in much of Africa means \"you can't take a vanilla approach and say you will take a mortgage over the land as collateral,\" he says. Side selling too is a \"massive\" risk for us. \"So we wouldn't directly loan to smallscale farmers,\" he adds. \"We would use a contract manager to sub-contract the farmers and manage the portfolio on our behalf.\" Rabo Development's BPR finances the inputs for rice cooperatives in Rwanda based on offtake contracts with Australia's ICM, which has invested in a rice milling joint venture in the country. Another model that banks are generally comfortable financing is the commercial farming hub, says Meyer. Here, a commercial farmer who leases land contracts other farmers and supplies them with seeds, insecticides and, if mechanised, diesel. If the commercial farmer has processing capacity too, another benefit for him is increased throughput. Kenya is a leader in terms of improving the bankability of cooperatives, especially in its moves to encourage collective payment obligation, says Meyer. This gives banks a legal entity that they can define as obligor. \"If you as a small-scale farmer decide to side-sell your crop, it puts at risk the access to finance of the cooperative. So they check each other, which is the best policing you could ask for,\" says Meyer. Barclays Africa has partnered with the private sector to facilitate the flow of value chain finance to subsistence farmers in Kenya and Ghana. With one project, smallscale farmers in Ghana supplied grain to Ghana Breweries, which also supported the farmers with inputs. Barclays then discounted the sales on the strength of the brewery's balance sheet. By financing intermediaries who provide farmers with the tools to start a sustainable farming practice, \"you can actually run the chain right through to the primary farmer,\" says Visagie. With farming making up 64% of Africa's workforce, \"the biggest thing we can do as local banks or international banks is to help provide training for subsistence farmers,\" he says. \"If you can upskill these people to start thinking more commercially, Africa could well be the food basket for the world.\" ■ Sign up for your free newsletter at http://ictupdate.cta.int www.facebook.com/always led the charge in sweetening deals in emerging marketsusing their own liquidity, quasi-sovereign rating or willingness to lend for longer tenors as a way to attract banks to the table. But now the DFIs are experimenting with new strategies and structures to get funding to the small farmers and traders who need it most. Channel through the traders The Netherlands' development bank Nederlandse Financierings-Maatschappij voor Ontwikkelingslanden (FMO) is currently setting up a funding programme in cooperation with the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH) to finance farmers via supply chain managers. It expects to conclude its first transaction with a major trader very soon and is also in talks with several other traders, according to Marjolein Landheer, manager of agribusiness, food and water. \"We cannot provide small, single loans for farmers,\" she says. But by channelling funds through supply chain managers like traders, FMO can \"go one step further along the value chain than we have up until now\". "},{"text":"$Finance 65 million loan to support the bank's private-sector lending, including to smalland medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in agribusiness.Giving local banks the comfort to lend at longer tenors is another key benefit that DFIs can bring, says Landheer.\"Sometimes, if you as a DFI provide the longer term, they're also inclined to push their limits a bit, and also provide funding,\" she says. \"Where they normally only provide three-year limits, now they can go to five years because they know there is another party involved giving an even longer tranche.\"Target the long-termA lack of long-term financing is indeed one of the biggest challenges that agricul-ture faces, says Paola Bazan, senior investment officer at the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB). By its nature, agriculture needs longterm investment to pay for regular field maintenance and support continued crop productivity, but this is still relatively scarce in most Latin American and Caribbean countries, she says. \"The bank's response to this challenge is to provide long-term financing to the private sector,\" she says. Key agribusiness projects supported by the IADB include a $92 million facility for CAIASA for soya in Uruguay, $80 million of finance for Adecoagro in Argentina for land transformation, rice mills, biogas and free stalls in dairy, and $10 million of finance for Nicaragua's Agricorp in the rice and bean sectors. IADB's agribusiness portfolio is bigger than $600 million and growing. Islamic innovation Development banks are also using more innovative financing structures to fund agriculture, while leveraging their strong credit ratings to mobilise funds from other banks. The Islamic Trade Finance Corporation (ITFC) hopes in the fourth quarter of this year to launch a major international syndication for a structured commodity trade deal, according to Nazeem Noordali, general manager, corporate and structured finance. It is in talks with several banks in the European maket who \"need a reliable partner\" in emerging markets and are attracted by ITFC's preferred creditor status, he says. The bank's shareholders are member governments and its structured trade finance portfolio has an excellent track record, he notes. As well as experimenting with ways that traditional Islamic finance products can be applied to agriculture, ITFC is also developing Sharia-compliant versions of structures that are already widely used. It has already concluded a handful of import financings for African agriculture under Islamic Murabaha structures, in Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Gambia and Senegal, says Noordali. It also expects by Q4 of 2014 to have launched its first Islamic discounting in either the Gulf region or Indonesia. Technical assistance As with most DFIs that include sustainability as part of their mission, FMO and IADB both prioritise technical assistance for farmers in their agricultural finance programmes. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) is also currently working with the UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) to raise $25 million for a technical assistance facility targeting African agribusiness and agro-industry development, according to Calvin Miller, senior officer and group leader for agribusiness and finance. \"We're trying to raise awareness about how important it is to look at the whole value chain,\" he says. With this approach, the organisations will look at ways to strengthen the weakest links such as agri marketing and storage, rather than simply focusing on production. ■ www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance In addition to the work of development finance institutions, there is a growing army of private funds dedicated to agriculture, soft commodities and trade finance. These are tapping cash from investors who see the potential in agriculture, possibly have more knowledge of the sector and, by investing through a fund, don't face the credit committees and regulatory capital requirements that can tie bankers' hands. Private sector investment is increasingly being targeted at agriculture, says the FAO's Calvin Miller, who is also founder of MicroVest, a $250 million family of microfinance and SME investment funds. The financial crisis boosted the attractiveness of investment funds among increasingly risk-averse investors at the very time that reports of looming global food shortages were hitting the press, he says. For an investor who recognises the opportunity in agriculture, funds offer a relatively straightforward way to invest without over-exposure, Miller says. By pooling investors and investments, investment funds help spread risk. And the fact that they are overseen by a fund management team also gives investors confidence to take on specific country or sector exposure without having on-the-ground experience. That said, private investors can be more \"skittish\" about investing in smallholder organisations in times of political turmoil. And while some investment funds are targeting harderto-reach parts of the agri-value chain, they do need more assistance from governments or donors, in the form of policy development, infrastructure or addressing capacity needs, to help attract private investors, he adds. One fund that has a large concentration in Latin American agriculture and says it is \"very comfortable\" with the risk is IIG Trade continue to be by far the biggest players in trade finance, funds like IIG play an important role by financing small-and medium-sized traders, according to managing partner David Hu. After its CLO, for example, a number of multinational traders contacted IIG. Although it was ultimately too expensive for them, one major European trader introduced it to its own suppliers -exactly the point in the agri-value chain that IIG feels it best adds value. So while funds like IIG are unlikely to take over from banks in financing names like Glencore, the big traders remain important partners and sources of business leads. \"As offtakers in the business, the ABCDs are great counterparts to have when financing exporters in emerging markets,\" says Hu. Private funds bring additional resources www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance Warehouse receipt finance is spreading fast, giving smaller traders and bigger farmers or cooperatives the chance to tap finance immediately while they protect their produce and hopefully negotiate better prices for it. "},{"text":" But also, you can lend against it.\" Without warehouse receipt finance, many commercial traders would not have enough collateral to meet banks' requirements, given the huge quantities of grain that they are dealing with, says Richard Wangwe, head of agriculture at Stanbic Bank Uganda. Warehouse receipt finance is especially helpful for smaller traders who might struggle to borrow otherwise, agrees Chris Scott, business development manager at Drum Commodities, a collateral manager with 18 subsidiaries across Africa, covering everything from cashew nuts, cocoa and coffee to frozen fish, tobacco and fertilisers. In a number of instances: \"We've been told by the banks that certain people would only get access to finance with this type of structure in place and with the collateral management company giving greater weight and authority to warehouse receipts.\" \"It reduces the risk for the bank if they can have a third party there, essentially saying 'If it's not there, we accept responsibility for that',\" he says. And even for bigger traders or exporters that already have easy access to finance, the fact that banks can use the stored produce as collateral means that warehouse receipt finance does not eat into their existing unsecured borrowing limits, says Makiko Toyoda, leader of the International Finance Corporation's (IFC's) Global Warehouse Finance Programme. \"The banks can shift their risk from the borrower's balance sheet to the commodity itself.\" And because banks' risk is lower, they can lend at more attractive rates. "},{"text":" The success or not of a warehouse receipt finance initiative can also depend on whether warehouses are put under the control of the public or private sector.A lack of business acumen among farmer cooperatives operating warehouses has been a challenge in Uganda, according to Wangwe. When warehouse receipt finance was launched in collaboration with the Uganda Commodity Exchange, cooperatives were put in charge of running a string of warehouses across the country. However, many did not understand the system and failed to market it aggressively. Instead, \"they followed the old system of just sitting back and waiting for farmers to come and deposit,\" he says.Two warehouses in Uganda are however operated commercially and have been \"a tremendous success,\" Wangwe says. Stanbic also discounts warehouse receipts outside the Uganda Commodity Exchange for businesses exporting grains to neighbouring countries or selling locally to breweries and millers. \"These are doing tremendously well,\" he says. The bank has so far financed more than $12 million through this method. In comparison, the two private warehouses under the exchange have facilitated $6 million of finance. For farmers to get the full benefit from warehouse receipt finance, forming cooperatives is crucial, says Toyoda. Even with a warehouse receipt it is difficult for individual smallholders to get bank finance, she says. Local banks also need to upskill, says Toyoda. As well as introducing transactional or commodity finance capabilities, they need to implement a risk-management framework and train staff. IFC offers a training programme in some African counwww.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Focus on Warehouse finance tries but banks remain cautious about investing in new methodologies. \"We encourage them to make that investment,\" she says. \"Their effort would be paid off after one or two years.\" Commodity exchanges and e-receipts To be most efficient, warehouse receipt finance usually requires a smoothly functioning commodity exchange. This has partly triggered a rapid roll-out of commodity exchanges across Africa, in Ethiopia, Kenya and most recently in Ghana. It is a symbiotic relationship though, with each relying on the other. Warehousing systems \"form the backbone to commodity exchanges,\" says George. This is well demonstrated in Ethiopia, where government-run warehouses dot the countryside. Nigeria's lack of a good warehousing system was however a big factor in the collapse of the country's cocoa exchange. South Africa has a model that many African countries seek to replicate. Its commodity futures exchange allows automatic clearance, notes Bogaard. \"For a bank, that's very nice because you know there is a guaranteed exit and you do not have to worry about the marketing of the goods.\" Rabo Development also advised the IFC and the Ethiopia Commodities Exchange on how to implement that country's electronic warehouse receipts initiative. "},{"text":" Rural (CPR) as they are known in frontrunner Brazil -appear a natural progression from warehouse receipts. With a crop receipt, a farmer can access finance for his future crop, allowing him to re-invest immediately in inputs required for this or the next harvest.The IFC is currently working with theFood and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) to study the feasibility of launching crop receipts in Africa, says Makiko Toyoda, leader of the International Finance Corporation's (IFC's) Global Warehouse Finance Programme. It will pilot the product -a version of which is widely known in Brazil as Cedula de Producto Rural (CPR) -in three African countries with a view to implementing the first within 18 months. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance There is a huge variation in how different countries have implemented warehouse receipt finance, and how successful it has been. Although opinions differ on how much governments should intervene in the process, the support of regulators is key. Establishing warehouse receipt finance successfully in a new country requires a push from the government, plus the involvement of a major organisation such as a commodities exchange to drive it forward, says Edward George, head of soft commodities research at Ecobank. \"Just dropping a few warehouses here and there isn't going to help mattersthey have to be part of a network that feeds into a value chain.\" Regulatory direction is vital for a well-functioning warehouse receipt market, says Makiko Toyoda, leader of the International Finance Corporation's (IFC's) Global Warehouse Finance Programme. \"Without rules and regulations, commercial banks will not come to the market.\" It is also important that central banks get on board early in the process and recognise warehouse receipts as collateral. Government licensing and inspection of warehouses is also essential so that banks trust warehouses. Ethiopia is often cited as a model for its rapid implementation of a commodity exchange and electronic warehouse receipts. The country is a \"unique case\" and demonstrates how important regulatory direction is, says Toyoda. Because Ethiopia's government made warehouse receipt finance a top priority, it was pushed through quickly. \"In some countries, it comes from the bottom up -from the market. But in the case of Ethiopia, it was initiated by the government.\" Tanzania is another good African example of how banks and the government can work together, she says. It passed legislation to support warehouse receipt finance in 2005 and is now amending the law to make the market more efficient. Latin America has some of the world's most advanced warehouse receipt finance systems, with Paraguay presenting a good example of how even small countries like Malawi could benefit. Its central bank has led the initiative and strictly regulates warehouse operators, which boosts banks' willingness to lend, says Toyoda. Kazakhstan provides another model that African, Caribbean and Pacific countries could seek to replicate when implementing warehouse receipt finance, says Nazeem Noordali, general manager, corporate and structured finance, at the Islamic Trade Finance Corporation (ITFC). The country has a robust grain law, which has helped attract $2 billion of finance per year, half of it from international banks. Warehouses are government-licensed and physically checked on a monthly basis, warehouse receipts are printed by the ministry of agriculture, meaning \"it's a recognised document -it's enforceable,\" and the country is now moving towards electronic receipts. \"It's a brilliant system,\" Noordali says. \"If we can develop something similar in Africa and other countries in Asia, that would give a lot of comfort to banks,\" he says. \"Banks will invest much more in countries where they have these laws and, most importantly, the law is enforceable.\" Regulation is key www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Case study Pre-export finance Now in its 21st year, the annual pre-export financing of Ghana's cocoa harvest is an example of how African agriculture really can attract big international banks -and increasingly cheaply -given the right mix of government involvement, industry organisation and deal structure. The annual Ghana Cocoa Board (Cocobod) transaction is a \"historic legacy structure\" that was born out of Ghana's resistance to the wave of IMF-ordered privatisation reform that swept Africa in the 1980s and 1990s, says Julian Madgett, head of commodity and structured finance at ICBC Bank in London. Unlike other countries, which followed the IMF's commands to the letter, \"Ghana did a very slick thing,\" says Hiren Singharay, regional head of syndications, Europe, for Standard Chartered in London. Although cocoa production and distribution was privatised, the government-owned Cocobod was kept in place as a final link in the value chain -a crucial point of contact between the domestic industry and international buyers and banks. In Ghana, a handful of private companies with a government license are responsible for inspecting and buying smallholders' cocoa. They then deliver the cocoa to Cocobod, which buys it from them and stores it in government-owned warehouses. By the time banks step in to finance the purchase of the cocoa by big international companies like Nestle, the risk of everything from crop disease to transportation has already been stripped out of the equation. Instead, they are dealing with quality-checked cocoa, a multinational corporate buyer and a quasi-sovereign seller, says Singharay, who was involved in Cocobod's first pre-export financing and comments here in a personal capacity. This has proved a \"lynchpin\" to the syndicated deal, which effectively draws together thousands of three-acre farmers into one bankable body that credit committees accept as Ghana risk, he says. As a result, the deal is nearly always oversubscribed and the cost of financing for Cocobod continues to fall. It has enabled Cocobod to raise over $15 billion since its first such transaction in 1993, notes Madgett. "},{"text":" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4AgCase study Pre-export financeAs the world's biggest cocoa producer, the Ivory Coast would seem an obvious candidate for a Cocobod-scale structured syndication. However, despite on and off discussions, no deal has ever got off-the-ground. And nor is it likely to with the industry organised as it is, bankers say. Indeed, across African soft commodities in general, only Mali's cotton industry has ever managed to pull off anything similar.Changing of the guardsSixrelative newcomers were named in May 2014 as bookrunners for this season's crop financing, which as usual should close in September 2014. Unusually, German banks dominate as the mandated lead arrangers (MLAs), with Commerzbank, Deutsche Bank, DZ Bank and KfW IPEX-Bank being joined by Barclays and Natixis. Most of the usual suspects for African agriculture lost out in the bidding. Some of the MLA banks in this year's deal have previously not participated in the transaction and, if they have, not in a leading position, acknowledges a banker at one of this year's bookrunners. It is not hard to see the attraction though, he says. As well as this being the African agriculture syndication, banks appreciate the open tender process, which allows them to club together and pitch their proposal, without much interference from Cocobod. Also, Cocobod \"acting as a fronting body\" gives banks a degree of confidence that has proved justified over time, he says. The transaction has an \"excellent track record\" and Cocobod has never repaid late. At $1.6 billion, the one-year deal is bigger than 2013's $1.2 billion transaction. Pricing is also believed to have fallen yet again -to a rumoured 55 basis points (bp) over Libor, from 75bp last year. Even if pricing falls further, Cocobod will probably continue to attract big banks, and especially those who don't otherwise have a strong Africa presence but want to 'tick boxes,' says Singharay. In this way, Cocobod is similar to Angolan oil company Sonangol, which historically has been the only other African commodity risk that many banks will touch. Meanwhile, banks with a deeper presence in Africa, \"are all either walking away or reducing our exposure\" to Cocobod, Singharay says. \"Our common view is let other people play in this field.\" ■ www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance One of the biggest challenges small farmers face when they try to access finance is that they are an unknown risk. More farmers in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries have a mobile phone than a bank account, and even when they have tapped credit, it tends to be in a non-traditional form that passes through the net of mainstream credit data collection. This is changing. Internet start-ups, credit bureaus and even development projects are using new technology to help smallholders create their own 'credit' history, or at least a clearer picture of who they are and how well they run their businesses. With the collection and sharing of everything from utility and mobile phone bills to records of input purchases and crop yields, farmers are finally gaining a financial identity -and one that banks or MFIs are increasingly prepared to lend against. Farmforce \"A big part of the problem of giving credit to smallholder farmers is that their economic life is informal,\" notes Spencer Morley, implementation manager at Farmforce. \"There's basically no formal record of what they're doing.\" And without the ability to make a credit assessment, banks and other financiers are reluctant to lend. Where Farmforce steps in is by offering a mobile web system that helps more than 16 contract farming schemes in Guatemala, the Philippines and sub-Saharan Africa improve their management and record keeping. Field agents employed by the schemes use an Android mobile app on their visits to smallholder suppliers to record every-Farmforce: \"As soon as [banks] have three seasons of verified, time-stamped, geo-tracked agricultural production data, they're happy to lend the money.\" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Focus on Credit-data thing from the quantity and frequency of pesticide application to how much crop a farmer ultimately produces from how much seed. The creation of real-time records that are geo-specific and are automatically relayed back to head office means schemes can ensure that their produce complies with export market requirements and that they are alerted immediately to potential inefficiencies and other risks like fraud or side-selling. "},{"text":"\" One of the biggest things holding back agriculture in many developing countries is access to finance,\" says Shane Moldenhauer at Creditinfo, a credit information and credit risk management solutions provider. \"They're completely out of the financial grid -they're unbanked.\" Creditinfo helps address this by gathering non-traditional data -ranging from company invoices and bills to registrar data -to build a bigger picture of individual farmers and the companies they supply. It then sells that data to banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs) and also works to educate farmers on ways they can improve their ability to borrow. \"We're trying to say to farmers that you actually have a financial identity that you can create,\" says Moldenhauer. \"And if you have a financial identity you can get access to credit.\" In the five years since Creditinfo en-tered Georgia, financial inclusion in the 15 to 70 age range has grown from 800,000 people to 1.7 million. It aims to replicate this success in Jamaica and Guyana, where it launched last year. In Africa, it already has operations in Tanzania and Cape Verde andthrough a joint venture formed this February with biometrics company VoLo -in Gambia and Senegal. The company's near-term target is to double the number of countries it operates in, with many of those new markets likely to be in Africa and the Caribbean, Moldenhauer says. FarmDrive Formed this year by a group of students at Nairobi's School of Computing and Infor-Pesa allow farmers to carry out safe, cash-free banking and access small loans from MFIs like Musoni. Ventura Associates, for example, aims to have two million farmers connected by the end of this year to a banking platform it is launching in Mali. Mobile banking already means that claims against some Syngenta Foundation crop insurance products can be paid out within days. And from August 2014, an e-Bay style digital trading house called Agrocentral will even put farmers in Jamaica in direct contact with potential buyers, all via their mobile phone. "},{"text":" markets by reversing these policies (eg export bans and import restrictions). And, as much as possible, governments must refrain from fixing prices and distorting markets with subsidies, and generally creating red tape that prevents the private sector from managing supply and demand gaps. Such reforms in agriculture policy could go a long way toward attracting investment, and increasing the productivity of this critical economic sector. That said, business cannot just stand idly by and wait for things to be perfect, or we will be waiting forever. We must forge ahead regardless and be catalysts for change. The premise of Africapiself-sufficiency and fill the void with private investment and strategic partnerships, as we have done at EAX with our partnership with NASDAQ. We cannot rely on 'develop-Banks must absolutely increase lending and finance for Africa's agricultural sector, which offers the opportunity not just to earn a significant financial return, but also to reduce unemployment and create social wealth. Africa is blessed Entrepreneur and philanthropist Tony Elumelu* shares his vision for African agriculture, including the growing role of local banks and the future of commodity exchanges. value chain, from production to processing, to distribution and sales. Currently, Africa faces a deep supply-demand imbalance: consumer demand is growing rapidly, but the agriculture sector suffers from low pro-diversity of available product. We fully expect that as confidence in the sector increases, and as it demonstrates an ability for sustainable growth, banks will step in and provide the necessary financing. In specific terms, stronger contract laws, as well as adequate guarantees and insurance covers, have helped us secure financing for AFEX's warehouse receipts from United Bank of Africa, which had operations in 19 countries across Africa. We are also working with Equity Bank and KCB for the same purposes. In practice, such banks rely on the balance sheet strength of the securing and guaranteeing company, as obligor risk can be quite high when financing farmers and traders. A strong counterparty, such as AFEX, can provide peace of mind for financial institutions, that inventory in secure warehouses can be "},{"text":" We envision the AFEX network of exchanges to include both regional and local hubs. EAX Rwanda was the first node of a reof an exchange is to ensure settlement by acting as a counterparty to buyers and sellers. Without secure storage and warehouse receipts with integrity, this will never happen. "},{"text":"* We absolutely see an increased need for all players across the value chain to work together to get the exchanges running, and create an efficient market system that adds value to all its stakeholders, inclusive of farmers/producers. An efficient agriculture sector -which produces value-added goods for domestic consumption -is a critical component of African growth and serves the interests of the entire continent. It should not be seen as the sole responsibility of any group, whether that is businesses, governments, market participants, or development partners. As I have said before: if Africa fails, we all fail. We cannot afford to let the agriculture sector languish, given its potential to create jobs and address high unemployment, fill the supply-demand gaps that exist across the continent, and create social wealth that can help us solve so many persistent health and welfare challenges. Economies of scale are particularly relevant in the exchange environment, and we believe regional exchanges will benefit each individual country far more than a series of smaller, less liquid national exchanges. Regional exchanges can accommodate higher volumes of product, a higher number of market participants, and greater scale in financing, given the larger scale of regional operations. The broader regional view will not only uplift the individual economies of each country, but through inter-regional trade will also serve the food security objectives of the region by facilitating the flow of agricultural products from surplus areas to deficit areas. Governments in particular need to create enabling environments for private capital and skill to set up or revamp exchanges across Africa, and run them in the most equitable manner. And government has a regulatory function to play to manage the interest of the larger society and the parties to transactions. But business must be an equal partner in driving reform, leading the way by creating opportunity, jobs, and wealth, which will demonstrate the potential rewards of policy reform and pressure governments to act for the benefit of all Africans. ■ is also founder of The Tony Elumelu Foundation, a philanthropic organisation that supports entrepreneurship across Africa. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Focus on Traders The love affair between banks and traders is sometimes resented by producers, who struggle to access bank finance directly. But traders are the arteries and veins of agricultural finance, helping money flow right across the value chain, adding value with processing plants, and supporting smallholders with technical assistance. Trickle-down effect Bank financing \"trickles down\" to smallholders through traders, who often tap pre-export financing to pay their suppliers, notes Hans Bogaard, head of agribusiness at Rabo Development. Traders are also helping modernise small-hold farming and providing a link in the value chain. \"I think that's the best guarantee for the future,\" he says. \"Because these value chains need to be bet-ter organised.\" Like most international banks, ING does not have a wide presence on the ground in Africa so is cautious about directly lending to individual farmers says Geert Bierman, director of commodity finance. Traders however are one channel through which international banks can help money flow to smallholder producers. ING is, for example, part of a club deal with two other banks in Africa, focused on sustainably grown coffee beans. ING and its partners lend to the trader, which onlends to producers. \"By having a trader financing a wide portfolio of farmers, the risk is mitigated,\" he says. And in markets such as Brazil, where agricultural and commodity markets are sophisticated and well-regulated, ING sometimes finds itself competing head to "},{"text":" schemes or sourcing from smallholders. The bank's sustainable lending team looks closely at all deals as they come in and opens a dialogue with clients to see if there are any ways it can help make their transactions more sustainable.Clients have responded well and are keen to share the efforts they are making, she says. Sustainability is of course an "},{"text":" the company that we're providing the financing to has a successful track record of executing these sales orders,\" saysColeman. \"What gives us comfort is that there are orders in place.\" ANZ earlier this year provided its first pre-export finance facility in the Solomon Islands, to a small Asia-based cocoa trading company. As well as giving the trader access to finance that might not otherwise be available, the facility allows it to borrow in US dollars at a lower interest rate than if it borrowed in local currency, says Coleman. "},{"text":" Pacific Islands face similar challenges to those in Africa and the Caribbean. Ninety seven percent of PNG's land, for example, is held on a 'customary' basis by clans or tribes and is therefore untitled. This ambiguity creates challenges for banks, which cannot use land as security to finance farmers directly, notes Coleman. But while microfinance remains at an \"early stage\" in PNG, organisations like National Development Bank \"do have an appetite to go a little deeper in terms of providing grower loans,\" he notes. The central bank also launched early last year a microfinance project that targets both urban and agricultural customers. The variable size of PNG's coffee and cocoa production also introduces a risk to lenders, with many smallholders producing only as much as they need to cover household expenses, rather than trying to optimise income. When the government introduced free education in the early 2000s, for example, production dipped suddenly as smallholders needed to earn less money. ■ PNG concentrates on core agri products Coffee, cocoa, oil palm/kernels and coconuts make up more than 90% of PNG's agriculture exports by value. Arabica coffee is its most important crop, with more than 250,000 household farmers accounting for 70% of production. Cocoa production is once again increasing, having faced steady decline since the mid-1970s, as estates replant with higher-yielding hybrids. In only 20 years, oil palm has become PNG's third biggest agricultural export by value and is viewed by some as a potential future rival for coffee. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance Governments in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries have a huge responsibility to support agriculture, which in many cases employs more than half the population and is a foundation for the economy. The legislative and regulatory environments in many emerging countries remain, however, among the biggest concerns banks have about financing agriculture and soft commodities there. Even where rules are in place, enforcement is sometimes a different issue. And with land ownership in many countries either ambiguous or non-existent, the concept of taking collateral becomes problematic. Progress is certainly being made though, with a careful balancing act underway in many countries. While some countries such as Zambia or Nigeria seek to support local farmers with anything from guaranteed crop prices to import bans, others such as Ethiopia or Kenya are trying to attract banks with sophisticated commodity exchanges underpinned by regulations that give substance to financing tools like warehouse receipts. So which countries are leading the way in both supporting farmers and winning financiers' confidence, and what more could they do?The lawyer's viewThere are a number of steps that governments in emerging markets could take to help support their agricultural industries and stimulate bank lending, according to Nicholas Budd, retired partner and head of the trade finance group at White & "},{"text":" Focus on RegulationCase and consultant to the WTO.Many of these focus on supporting tools like warehouse receipt financing, which help banks find a way to finance traders and farmers whose only collateral are the crops they produce.Setting up a government-regulated commodities exchange that allowed for the trading of futures as well as spot contracts would inject transparency and liquidity into the market, as well as providing hedging possibilities, he says.Allowing members of the exchange to offer financing to customers would also create more competition for banks that currently provide secured working capital loans to traders and other players.To help facilitate the development of warehouse receipt finance, governments should establish a network of warehouses that are regulated and licensed by either the government or the commodity exchange, Budd advises. These would have to meet minimum standards in terms of regular inspections and financial management. Laws should also be adopted governing negotiable and non-negotiable warehouse receipts. This would make it easier to pass on the title of goods and for the bank holding warehouse receipts as collateral to enforce its rights. \"The country that is probably the most famous in developing countries for their adoption of legislation regarding commodity exchanges is Ethiopia,\" he says. \"It has its critics and its supporters. But it's a vigorous and very heavily governmentsponsored effort that has achieved some level of activity almost overnight.\" Governments should also look at adopting a new law to allow the creation of security rights over future and growing crops. \"The real pioneer of that is Brazil, with its CPRs,\" he says. Elsewhere, creating a central bank loan discounting mechanism would encourage international banks to lend to local banks, which could use that money to provide short-term, self-liquidating, secured loans to finance agricultural commodities. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance Relaxing banks' reserve and capital requirements for some structured assets in the short-term trade and agriculture sectors would also allow more money to flow, he says. Governments could also help provide more stability to farmers by setting up government-subsidised crop insurance programmes, underwritten by the private sector. These products would cover farmers against a range of risks such as drought, flood and loss of irrigation sources, Budd says. "},{"text":"Funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the threeyear scheme will offer six-month loans to rural traders, who will use the money to buy cattle and pay fatteners to prepare them for slaughter. \"The problem in developing countries is that traders, and often also farmers, don't have collateral and often don't own the land they are working on,\" says Nadhem Mtimet, agricultural economist -policy, trade and value chains at ILRI. The loans will be channelled through a bank or microfinance institute and a number have already expressed interest in participating. The idea is that once they have experience of lending to traders with the project money, they will gain confidence to lend with their own money when the project ends. The initiative aims to connect players in the value chain and improve livelihoods for traders as well as smallholders who either work in dry, remote locations or who do "},{"text":" Somalia is another example of an Africancountry taking the initiative to develop a thriving export market, this time for live animals rather than meat. Historically a big supplier of goats and sheep to the Middle East, Somalia's livestock industry was struck in the late 1990s by an outbreak of the Rift Valley Fever disease, leading Saudi Arabia to ban imports from the country. The government and private sector re-sponded by setting up a quarantine station that checks the health of animals before shipping them to the port of Jeddah. The country is now exporting three million to four million head of sheep and goats per year from Berbera port, and has even become a re-export market, shipping animals that are brought in from landlocked Ethiopia as well as from northern Kenya. \"It's an interesting example of how the government is trying to help Somalian smallholders and livestock keepers improve the quality of animals so that they can get more income from livestock activities,\" says Mtimet. ■ Cattle in Kenya (courtesy of ILRI) www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance India's microfinance industry has been through the mill in recent years. One microfinance institution (MFI) that has also faced its share of problems -but has weathered them better than many -is BASIX. Since it was formed in 1996 as a forprofit MFI, BASIX has provided credit to 1.05 million agricultural customers, disbursing $230 million with a repayment rate of 97%, according to managing director Arijit Dutta. Its relative success lies in its collaborative and sub-sectoral approach, he says. BASIX focuses on strengthening value chains for a handful of key crops and partnering with organisations and companies that either introduce it to potential customers or help provide them with technical assistance, business development services, insurance or inputs like seeds. BASIX has so far focused its attentions on rice, groundnuts, cotton, soya bean, vegetables and dairy, conducting extensive studies with each to identify areas where its intervention would benefit low-income producers. \"We try to understand what is the subsector, who are the players involved, how the different stakeholders contribute and what are their problems,\" says Dutta. One initiative in which BASIX helped improve local livelihoods and safeguard essential infrastructure was in its support of the dairy sub-sector in Andhra Pradesh. BASIX helped prevent the closure of the loss-making and under-used Wanaparthy milk-chilling plant by extending loans worth INR6.6 million ($75,000) for the purchase of buffaloes by 600 small dairy farmers, nearly a third of which were women. By October 2000, milk production at the plant had risen from 500 litres per day to 6,000, a local milk pouch packaging machine was installed and milk was sold locally for the first time in nearly two decades. Since 2001, BASIX has also teamed up with private insurers to co-develop and market products like crop insurance. This move was triggered by the release of a research report that claimed 23% of BASIX customers said their financial health had deteriorated since taking credit from BASIX: \"We try to understand what is the sub-sector, who are the players involved, how the different stakeholders contribute and what are their problems.\" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Case study Microfinance it. The findings proved an important learning experience though, and helped BASIX hone its mission of not simply extending credit but supporting the overall livelihoods of rural communities, says Dutta. It also launched more comprehensive technical assistance and business development services, helping customers through its so-called Comprehensive Programme of Livelihood Promotion, he says. Still, not all its interventions have been successful. A partnership with PepsiCo related to the multinational's potato contract farming scheme in the state of Jharkland was abandoned in 2008, leaving BASIX with large volumes of unrecovered loans. Farmers became angry about a number of issues, claiming that contracts were biased in favour of PepsiCo, which was sourcing from them to produce potato chips. The US company had a destabilising effect on local farmers by seeming to vary its procurement standards depending on the availability of potatoes. It would, for example, sometimes accept lower-quality potatoes and then sell them back to the market for a higher price when supply was scarce, Dutta says. ■ Diversity of investment sources One area where BASIX stands out from other microfinanciers is in its ability to attract a diverse and sustainable pool of investments. The MFI has tapped everything from Indian commercial banks to multilateral investors like the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and convertible loans. Indian central bank requirements that agricultural lending account for 18% of commercial banks' portfolios has also in recent years seen more Indian banks seeking to funnel money through BASIX to help them meet those targets, Dutta says. Unlike many MFIs, BASIX is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India as a non-bank financial institute. "},{"text":" Agricultural insurance can also be based on the actual yields of a specific farm -as with the public scheme in place in Senegal -or based on an index.Most pilot projects inAfrica favour the index approach, as not having to visit individual farms in the event of a claim is much cheaper in terms of administration. It is also less open to fraud. With an index scheme, data from satellites or on-the-ground weather stations are used in algorithms to predict whether farmers in a given region will likely have lost some or all of their crop. These predictions are based on historic average yields under a variety of weather conditions. The Syngenta Foundation offers weather-index insurance products in Kenya and Rwanda and intends to soon roll them out in Tanzania and other countries. Because of the lower cost -and therefore lower premiums -index-based insurance is far more feasible than conventional insurance for smallholder farmers, says Ferroni. \"The need for loss adjustment in the field would make it impossible to spread insurance on a massive scale to farmers because it is too expensive,\" he says. One weakness of index-based products is basis risk. This is the risk that an index does not accurately reflect the actual experiences of farmers, either because of technical problems or because some farmers faced highly localised weather conditions that were not reflected in the index. \"Suppose you have an insurance index which does not trigger when farmers do have a loss,\" says Debar. \"The second year, you will not have a lot of farmers purchasing the insurance product again.\" Within index-based insurance, products tend to rely on satellite data, on weather stations or a mix of both. The industry is generally moving more towards satellites, which are able to provide more locationspecific data. The weather data gathered can be anything from rainfall or evaporation rates to wind or even hail. Jean-Christophe Debar, Foundation for World Agriculture and Rurality: \"By providing income stability and a safety net if the weather fails, insurance can give farmers the confidence to invest more in their farms. Paradoxically, it can also encourage them to take a little more risk -for example experimenting with a new crop or agricultural technique -which can ultimately boost their yields.\" www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag Revisiting agricultural finance Finally, insurance schemes can be individual or collective. The latter type is often offered to cooperatives who all farm in the same region. The more farmers signed up to a scheme, the cheaper it tends to be. The Canadian-sponsored System of Agriculture Financing and Insurance in Haiti (Syfaah) is this year piloting a collective index-based crop insurance programme for rice producers in Haiti's Artibonite valley. "},{"text":" ducers who need it most, says Hans Bogaard, head of agribusiness at Rabo Development. If, for example, they have a drought once every five years, the premium starts at 20%. This is, of course, relative. Because most agriculture insurance products are based on the value of inputs, which are often roughly 20% of the crop value, \"the insurance premium is 20% of 20% of your crop output.\" After extensive research into weather and yield data, Syfaah is piloting its rice insurance in Haiti with a preliminary premium of just 3.8% of the crop value, says Drolet. This will cost farmers the equivalent of around $45 per hectare. Although Haiti may be perceived as a country prone to climatic risk like hurricanes, the lower part of the Artibonite valley is partially sheltered and the 3.8% premium reflects this. "},{"text":" schemes, possibly supported by international organisations like the World Bank or IFAD, he says. Of course, they should only back welldesigned, viable products, \"but I'm a bit sceptical about the possibility of reaching a large scale without some type of public support,\" he says. \"There are still cases to be made to some governments in West Africa.\" Pilot projects are already working hard to experiment with new insurance products and get farmers on board. Technology is helping bring costs down and make insurance easier to deliver. To move agricultural insurance to the next stage, governments now need to lend their weight. ■ "},{"text":"(Financière scheme, and is also piloting an indexbased crop insurance programme to cover farmers. The interplay of these three associations is crucial to Syfaah's success in Haiti, says Dufour. Having agricultural experts working "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"ships with local banks in emerging markets.  Development banks Development banks and private funds and private funds find new ways to find new ways to plug the gaps in plug the gaps in agricultural value agricultural value chains that chains that commercial banks commercial banks can't or won't reach. can't or won't reach. It has a strong relationship with National It has a strong relationship with National Microfinance Bank (NMB) in Tanzania, and Microfinance Bank (NMB) in Tanzania, and last year arranged and part-financed a last year arranged and part-financed a  "},{"text":"Funds fill gaps in the value chain  Focus on Funds Focus on Funds ITFC has already concluded a handful of ITFC has already concluded a handful of import financings for African agriculture import financings for African agriculture under Islamic Murabaha structures; in Ivory under Islamic Murabaha structures; in Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Gambia Coast, Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Gambia and Senegal. It also expects by Q4 of 2014 and Senegal. It also expects by Q4 of 2014 to have launched its first Islamic discounting to have launched its first Islamic discounting in either the Gulf region or Indonesia. in either the Gulf region or Indonesia. www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag www.txfnews.com/special/Fin4Ag  "},{"text":" Our work with farmers starts with train- Agroindustrial Corporation. Agroindustrial Corporation. \"Roughly a quarter of our sales are now \"Roughly a quarter of our sales are now under one of the certification schemes, under one of the certification schemes, and we reach more than 250,000 farmers and we reach more than 250,000 farmers around the world with our agronomy serv- around the world with our agronomy serv- ices,\" he says. \"With that as a basis and a ices,\" he says. \"With that as a basis and a track record, then we can provide access track record, then we can provide access to inputs and credit.\" to inputs and credit.\" \"We do this not out of charity, but out \"We do this not out of charity, but out of shared interest,\" he says. When farmers of shared interest,\" he says. When farmers produce more and better produce, Ecom produce more and better produce, Ecom has more and better product to sell to its has more and better product to sell to its clients. clients. ing in good agricultural practices that usu- ing in good agricultural practices that usu- ally takes them to one of the ally takes them to one of the internationally recognised certification internationally recognised certification schemes,\" says David Rosenberg at Ecom schemes,\" says David Rosenberg at Ecom  "}],"sieverID":"1b2f5b1a-9785-4a7d-be0f-b85d0576d4b5","abstract":"By Jonathan Bell, editor-in-chief, TXF."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0773e20344632e3ff7d52492484fb88c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c62233b-5272-44ff-bbc7-edf40652fb98/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Diversity","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Poor-quality feed and fluctuating feed supplies with seasonal feed shortages are major constraints to increase livestock productivity in many tropical countries. Understanding and managing forage diversity is essential for the development of new forage resources to alleviate these constraints and to maintain diversity in forage/pasture ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The knowledge generated from this work allows scientists to identify genotypes that have potential as livestock feed. It also allows them to conserve essential forage biodiversity for current and future generations as global public goods."}]},{"head":"Genebank","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"ILRI 's genebank holds a securely-conserved diverse collection of forage accessions, and related information. It makes this available as part of a global system of genetic resources conservation and sustainable use."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The genebank in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia conserves about 19,000 accessions from over 1,000 species. This is one of the most diverse collections of forage grasses, legumes and fodder tree species held in any genebank in the world; it includes the world's major collection of African grasses and tropical highland forages."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"At the active and base genebank, seeds are stored in laminated aluminum foil packets at 8°C for medium-term storage, research and distribution of seeds and at -20° C for longterm storage. Quality of the collection is ensured through monitoring of germplasm viability and health. ILRI also manages field genebanks for grasses that rarely produce seeds or whose seeds are short-lived at Zwai and Debre Zeit in Ethiopia. Seeds of ILRI's own collections are duplicated at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Colombia and at the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"In 1994, this germplasm held by ILRI was placed in trust under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as part of an international network of ex situ collections. ILRI claims no ownership nor seeks any intellectual property rights over the germplasm and related information. In October 2006, ILRI signed an agreement to include this material under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"The major focus of forage research is to characterize the forage resources in terms of their use as livestock feeds. This involves assessing variation in phenotype and nutritional traits, as well as resistance to diseases and pests. Genetic diversity is also studied using molecular techniques. Research also covers disease and drought tolerance studies. Recent work focuses on the identification of Napier grass accessions with tolerance to Napier grass stunt disease and drought. Information generated from this research is used to identify superior accessions or best bets for further agronomic evaluation and utilization as part of sustainable farming systems."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"For example, two accessions from the ILRI collection of Napier grass with resistance to smut disease are being used widely in Kenya, and accessions of the fodder tree Sesbania have been widely adopted by farmers in the highlands of sub-Saharan Africa, especially as part of smallholder dairy systems."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"Beyond their uses as feeds for livestock, forages have a key role to plan in enhancing natural assets. They do this through positive effects on soil fertility, by increasing ground cover with associated benefits (biodiversity, carbon sequestration) leading to improved system resilience. They are an important land use strategy for marginal lands and steep slopes that are not suitable for crop production."}]},{"head":"Sharing knowledge","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"To promote use and adoption of forages, ILRI has posted information about the accessions held in the genebank on the internet and, in collaboration with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and CIAT, has developed an interactive information and selection tool for tropical forages. ILRI has also produced information sheets on some key forage species for translation into local languages."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The team at ILRI has been involved in the development of a knowledge sharing platform for genebanks (Crop Genebank Knowledge Base), a forage registry of available forage accessions in the world's forage genebanks and development of a web site to share information on Napier grass stunt and smut diseases."}]},{"head":"Distribution and training","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Every year, ILRI freely distributes about 3,000 samples of germplasm globally for evaluation and further development and use by smallholder farmers. ILRI also maintains the Herbage Seed Unit which focuses on providing a source of tropical forage seeds and planting material of selected bestbet species at cost for use in establishing national forage seed production, including 33 species of herbaceous legumes, 10 species of grass and 5 species of fodder trees."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"ILRI has laboratories in Ethiopia to support its research in seed processing, germination, taxonomy, cytology, disease diagnostics, nutrition and molecular studies. These facilities are available on a cost recovery basis to other projects, partners and ILRI graduate and technical associates. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The genebank also provides group training for national programme scientists in germplasm management and seed production and individual training for associates and interns. Training manuals for forage seed production and seed handling in genebanks have been developed to support these activities.Reports can be downloaded from http://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/228 Contact: Alieu M. Sartie Forage genebank manager, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [email protected] For more information http://www.ilri.org/node/125 Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"da642289-2624-4b90-a94f-b2d62ac053d9","abstract":"Forage diversity activities at ILRI are part of the Feed and Forages Biosciences program. The main objective is to conserve, study and maximize uses of the biodiversity of forage genetic resources. These activities are part of collaborative work financed through the CGIAR Genebank Platform. They also contribute to the feeds theme of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock."}

data/part_2/07d025e1fbb4436ca9fa7338dfa4c705.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07d025e1fbb4436ca9fa7338dfa4c705","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.ajfand.net/Volume14/No4/Adelphe11510.pdf"},"pageCount":13,"title":"DIAGNOSIS OF SEEDS SUPPLY OF LEAFY VEGETABLES IN YAOUNDÉ, CAMEROON","keywords":["leafy","vegetables","seeds","supply","quality"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Cameroon is an agricultural country. Agriculture is practiced by 70% of the working population and contributes 30% to GDP. However, it remains the main economic activity on which people rely [1]. Yaoundé, Cameroon city, illustrated with a growth rate estimated at 6% per year and its population may exceed four million by 2020. This growth, due (among other reasons) to migratory flow of young people from villages to urban centers, results in lack of employment creating unemployment and declining agricultural production in rural areas supposed to supply the cities with food [2,3]. In Yaoundé, due to unemployment estimated at 30%, many urban residents are engaged in agriculture around their house in the suburbs where the density of buildings is still low. An urban and peri-urban agriculture area contributes to the creation of employment, income diversification and strengthening of food selfsufficiency. It is mainly characterized by vegetable crops and more than 2000 such producers live in Yaoundé [3]."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Vegetable crops in the area are characterized by the culture of traditional leafy vegetables that are practiced mainly in the inland valleys where water access is easy. The development of this type of agriculture is often limited by access to inputs [4].The seeds of traditional leafy vegetables are still sold in the informal sector. Production techniques of these seeds are still very poorly controlled and produced seeds are subject to numerous problems [3][4][5]."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"To help improve the seed system of traditional leafy vegetables, this study was conducted. The objectives were to characterize the production systems of leafy vegetables, identify the species of traditional leafy vegetables grown in the inland valleys of Yaoundé, identify sources of supply and quality of seed produced, and analyze the constraints on production and the distribution of quality seeds in this sector."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"This study was conducted in the urban and peri-urban area of Yaoundé. Yaoundé is located between 3°50' north latitude and 11 o 31' east longitude at an altitude of 760 m covering an estimated surface area of 256 km 2 . The climate is Equatorial Guinea characterized by four seasons: a long dry season from December to February, a short rainy season from March to June, a short dry season from June to August and a long rainy season from September to November. The annual rainfall of Yaoundé is 1600mm with average temperatures varying between 17 o C and 30 o C. Soils are lateritic, characterized by high clay content. The population of Yaoundé is approximately 1.5 million."}]},{"head":"Data collection and sampling procedure","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Data for the study were collected using semi-structured questionnaires administered to 133 producers of leafy vegetables in the inland valleys of the peri-urban area of Yaoundé. Field visits were also conducted to observe farmers' fields. The survey was conducted in seven (7) inland valleys of the city. Farmers were selected according to criteria described by Temple-Boyer [6] where the cultivated land area of the inland valley and the intensity of gardening are used to determine the sample sizes. Thus, in areas with high gardening activity, the number of producers surveyed was higher than in areas of low activity (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Data collected included socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, the seed supply system, factors influencing the decision of choice of varieties produced, methods of seed production and the quality of seeds produced."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Collected data were codified and analyzed using SNAP 9 software (Survey Network Adjustment Package). A simple frequency analysis in Microsoft Office Excel was used for the description of the sample and especially to determine the different types of vegetables grown for each site."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socioeconomics profile of the producers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The results show that the production of leafy vegetables is practiced by both men and women in the inland valleys of Yaoundé. The majority of producers are women (64.7%). The ages of producers are in the range of 17 to 65 years. Most of the producers are young, in the age range of 20-40 years old. Leafy vegetable producers are generally married individuals (63.9%) who manage their own farms. Only 25.6% of the producers are single and very few are either widows or divorced (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Traditional leafy vegetables grown","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Nightshade (Solanum scabrum), amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) and Jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) are the three most grown vegetables in the peri-urban area of Yaoundé. These leafy vegetables are produced respectively by 98.5%, 97.7% and 84.2% of the respondents. Bitter-leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) and leafy eggplant (Solanum macrocarpum) were produced respectively by 60.2%, 36.1% and 31.6% of growers surveyed (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Factors influencing the choice of vegetables to grow","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"In this study, the reasons for growing leafy vegetables were identified (Fig. 1). Producers are directed by consumers' preference (85.7% of respondents) and yield (66.2% of respondents). Seed availability appears to be a factor not as much of importance for these producers as only 3% of respondents found seed as an important production factor. "}]},{"head":"Sources of seed supply","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The sources of seed supply are indicated in Figure 2. The vast majority of respondents (76.7%) produce their own seeds. Markets and agricultural input stores are other sources of seed supply. Thus, 40.6% of producers buy their seeds from the market and 10.5% from agricultural inputs stores. Only 7.5% of producers obtain their seeds from other producers. It was also observed that producers used several sources of seed supply as a mean to diversify their seed stock and also as a measure of security for seed availability."}]},{"head":"Production systems and seed conservation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Two seed production techniques are practiced by vegetable producers in Yaoundé."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The first method, practiced by 47.4% of respondents, consists of leaving some plants in the field after the first or second harvest for seed production. The second technique is practiced by 36.8% of respondents, where the most vigorous plants are selected to produce seed (Fig. 3a). The leaves of those selected plants are not harvested, but left in the field and only harvested for planting during the next growing season. The majority (70.7%) of the vegetable producers interviewed produce their own seeds each growing season (Fig. 3b). Thus, the seeds produced are stored for the next planting cycle."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Seed storage is still rudimentary. Seeds are stored in several types of containers generally without the addition of chemicals to control pests. The results show that 58.7% of respondents keep their seeds in bottles and plastic bags sealed hermetically."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"A relatively large part of respondents (41.4%) store their seeds by leaving the entire plant on the farm. This mode of conservation is especially used for amaranth seeds."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"The preserved seed is used immediately in the next season."}]},{"head":"Quality of seed produced","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The survey revealed that the quality of seed produced is a major concern for most (79.7%) of the producers. The majority of respondent (81.1%) indicated that poor germination of seeds is the major setback of the seed production by farmers. Nonuniformity of the seed (size, mixture) and diseases such damping off and seed rotting are two other factors that depreciate seed quality. The study shows that seed availability and conservation are not limiting factors in the production systems of leafy vegetables in Yaoundé. Of the major vegetable species produced in the inland valleys, the seeds of nightshade and Jute mallow are affected the most by the problems of low germination and non-uniformity (Fig. 4)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Market gardening is an activity practiced mainly by women and youth. Studies have shown that women and young people in search of social and economic independence seek to overcome their adverse conditions by engaging in market gardening. Market gardening is a way to raise their purchasing power with regular income and also expand their power within the family [7,8]."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In Yaoundé, market gardening is where many traditional leafy vegetables are produced. The main traditional leafy vegetables grown are nightshade, amaranth and jute mallow. The survey revealed that consumer demand and the productivity of cultivars guide the choice of production of the producers. In a recent study conducted in Yaoundé, those vegetables: nightshade, amaranth and jute mallows are among the most consumed vegetables by all socio-economic groups [9]. Vegetables ensure a balanced diet for many consumers, adds great value to diets as they are rich in vitamins, iron, calcium and protein [10,11]. Additionally, these vegetables have a short production cycle and their culture has a low demand for inputs [12,13]. Moreover, the cultivars produced are generally well adapted to the immediate biotic and abiotic conditions [14]."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"The main source of seed supply is producers' own stock. This stock is produced by the producers and shared with neighboring producers and/or sold in the market. The seed production system remains informal. Very little commercial seed of traditional vegetable is used in this system. Trommetter et al. [15], working on indigenous crops, reported similar results. The authors explained that such seed production systems are mostly designed to satisfy the needs of producers. Thus, the production techniques are based on local indigenous knowledge."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Urban vegetable producers select and/or keep part of the production as seed for future planting. According to Moustier and David [13], seeds produced in this sector play a capital role because these farmers are maintaining crop diversity while storing and using traditional varieties. The authors also found that the small size of the available cultivated area per farmer justifies the seed system whereby the seed is produced and stored by farmers at a local level [15]."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Storage methods used by the market gardeners of Yaoundé include conservation in plastic bags and tins or bottles hermetically sealed. The seeds are conserved for shorter durations from 3 to 12 months at the most. Seed conservation in hermetically sealed containers is a good method [16] that preserves seed viability and longevity. The method prevents seeds from absorbing moisture and losing their ability to germinate. Other studies have indicated that seeds can be stored in plastic bags, but for shorter periods, because plastics deteriorate seed quality [4]. This clearly indicates that the indigenous knowledge of the farmers is practical and suitable."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"The low quality of seed produced (low germination of seed, non-uniformity and diseases susceptibility) may be caused by the fact the cultivars are not pure lines and no phytosanitary measures are taken by the producers. Lack of uniformity may have several causes including cross-pollination because the crops are not isolated [4]. Immature seeds, mechanical damage during extraction of seeds, seed moisture content,temperature and place of storage of seeds are other causes of non-uniformity of the seeds. In the tropics, seeds kept under natural conditions quickly lose their quality and vigor. Indeed, these seeds are exposed to several risk factors that promote physical, chemical and biological deterioration [17]. Lack of improved seed production technology is the reason for the poor quality of seed used for traditionally produced vegetables in the urban production system of Yaoundé."},{"index":7,"size":101,"text":"The species most affected by bad quality factors are nightshade and jute mallow. These two species show higher levels of dormancy. That dormancy in nightshade is due to the use of inadequate extraction methods while the seed dormancy in jute mallow is caused by the impermeability of the mucilaginous coat surrounding the seed [5]. In a recent study conducted at AVRDC Cameroon, it was demonstrated in a laboratory test that pre-soaking seeds in hot or cold water significantly improved the germination percentage of jute mallow. A little sensitization/training of the producer could thus improve the seed system of the traditional vegetables."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"This study on the supply of seeds for the production of traditional leafy vegetables identified the sources of seed supply and seed production systems in the peri-urban area of Yaoundé. A diversity of species is cultivated in the lowlands. Amaranth, nightshade and jute mallow are the most cultivated species. The main source of seed supply is farmer-produced seeds with traditional techniques of production and storage. Seed quality from this system is limited by several constraints including low germination, non-uniformity and diseases. The species most affected are nightshade and Jute mallow. This study calls for strengthening the technological capacity of the farmers regarding seed production in order to improve the seed production system of traditionally produced vegetables in the urban area of Yaoundé.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Factors influencing the choice of vegetables cultivated. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Inland valleys in Yaoundé and the estimating degree of market gardening  Order Name of the town District in Yaoundé Estimate degree of market gardening * Area in hectare Current status of gardening* Number of persons surveyed Order Name of the townDistrict in YaoundéEstimate degree of market gardening *Area in hectareCurrent status of gardening*Number of persons surveyed 1 Cradat-olezoa 3 1  13.2 1 8 1Cradat-olezoa3113.218 2 Quartier du Lac 3 1  14 0 - 2Quartier du Lac31140- 3 Etam Bafia 4 1  14.2 0 - 3Etam Bafia4114.20- 4 Mendong 6 2  25.4 2 15 4Mendong6225.4215 5 Kodengui 4 2  24.7 2 8 5Kodengui4224.728 6 Oyom-Abang 7 2  20.9 2 15 6Oyom-Abang7220.9215 7 Mballa 1 2  51.9 0 - 7Mballa1251.90- 8 Nkolodom 1 3  14.3 3 24 8Nkolodom1314.3324 9 Présidence Bastos 2 3  8.9 0 - 9Présidence Bastos238.90- 10 Ekounou/Ekoumdoum 4 3  14.7 3 22 10Ekounou/Ekoumdoum 4314.7322 11 Nkolbisson 7 3  29.5 3 41 11Nkolbisson7329.5341  * : No activity : 0 Low activity : 1 Average activity : 2 High activity : 3 * : No activity : 0Low activity : 1Average activity : 2High activity : 3  Source : TEMPLE-BOYER (2002).    Source : TEMPLE-BOYER (2002).  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Sociodemographic characteristics of producers Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%)  Number of producers 133 100 Number of producers133100 Number of women 86 64.7 Number of women8664.7 Number of men 47 35.3 Number of men4735.3 Married 85 63.9 Married8563.9 Single 34 25.6 Single3425.6 Widower 7 5.3 Widower75.3 Divorced 5 3.8 Divorced53.8 Separed 2 1.5 Separed21.5  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Inventory of vegetables  Types of vegetables cultivated  Number of Percentage Types of vegetables cultivatedNumber ofPercentage Scientific name Common name Botanical family respondents (%) Scientific nameCommon nameBotanical familyrespondents(%) Abelmoschus esculentus Okra Malvaceae 48 36.1 Abelmoschus esculentus OkraMalvaceae4836.1 Solanum macrocarpon Leafy eggplant Solanaceae 10 7.5 Solanum macrocarponLeafy eggplantSolanaceae107.5 Corchorus olitorius Jute mallow Tiliaceae 112 84.2 Corchorus olitoriusJute mallowTiliaceae11284.2 Solanum scabrum Nightshade Solanaceae 130 97.2 Solanum scabrumNightshadeSolanaceae13097.2 Amaranthus cruentus Amaranth Amaranthaceae 131 98.5 Amaranthus cruentusAmaranthAmaranthaceae13198.5 Vernonia amygdalina Bitter-leaf Asteraceae 80 60.2 Vernonia amygdalinaBitter-leafAsteraceae8060.2 Solanum macrocarpum Eggplant Solanaceae 42 31.6 Solanum macrocarpumEggplantSolanaceae4231.6 Hibiscus sabdariffa Sorrel Malvaceae 10 7.5 Hibiscus sabdariffaSorrelMalvaceae107.5  "}],"sieverID":"f60c0949-8261-4987-a466-b228bae025ce","abstract":"The traditional leafy vegetables play a major role in the Cameroonian diet. In the metropolitan zone of Yaoundé, these vegetables are produced year round in family and commercial exploitations. The quality of the seeds, their mode of production and their system of distribution are little known. With the aim to better understand the seed system of traditional vegetables, a study on the supply, the production and the quality of these seeds was carried out. The data were collected using questionnaires on a sample of 133 traditional leafy vegetable producers of the urban and peri-urban zone of Yaoundé. The data were analyzed using SNAP 9 software. The study showed that the most produced species are amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus), nightshade (Solanum scabrum) and jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius). The market-gardeners are influenced in their choice of vegetable to cultivate by the preference of the customers (85.7% of the respondents) and the productivity of the cultivars (66.2% of the respondents). More than 40% of the respondents buy seeds in the markets while 7.5% buy seed from other producers and 10.5% in the agricultural inputs stores. About half (47.4%) of the respondents produce seeds by leaving plants in the field after the first or the second harvest while 36.8% of the market-gardeners select the most vigorous plants for seed production. On average, 58.7% of respondents preserve the seeds in hermetically closed bottles and plastic bag. Storage on field is practiced by a significant part of market-gardeners (41.4%). A total of 79.7% of the producers reported constraints with the produced seeds. Poor seed germination (81.1% of respondents) and the non uniformity of the seed (48.1% of the producers) were reported as the major constraints. The principal source of seed supply in the metropolitan zone of Yaoundé is the self production with rudimentary production and storage techniques subject to many qualitative constraints."}

data/part_2/07ea334726682a49255e065b4ac250ab.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07ea334726682a49255e065b4ac250ab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e503aee-aa56-437c-87f0-4d2162c5497e/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"VOLUME 62 2019 xxii COMMON BEANS AND LIMA BEANS IN THE NORTHERN ANDES: EVOLUTIONARY RIDDLES AND POTENTIAL UTILITY","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The geography of the western hemisphere is a determining factor in the evolution of Phaseolus, and its multiple wild species, and is the context for interpreting genetic evidence from various sources. The geographic setting of NW South America was established about 80 million years ago (Graham 2011), and the Isthmus of Panama could have closed the gap between the northern and southern continents some 13-15 million years ago (Montes et al. 2015). The genus Phaseolus is about 8-10 million years old (Delgado-Salinas et al. 2006), and has diversified in Mesoamerica, where most species are distributed today (Freytag & Debouck 2002). The age of P. vulgaris and P. lunatus as independent species and their separation from related species are very difficult to define but have been estimated at 2 and 1 mi years, respectively (Gepts et al. 2000, separation from P. dumosus; and Serrano-Serrano et al. 2010, separation from P. augusti -P. pachyrrhizoides). While speciation is an ongoing process, the var. mexicanus and the var. aborigineus of P. vulgaris are living examples of it (Delgado-Salinas et al. 1988)."},{"index":2,"size":247,"text":"The presence of wild Phaseolus vulgaris was initially reported independently for Argentina (Burkart 1941) and Guatemala (McBryde 1947); and of wild P. lunatus for Mexico to Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and Peru (Piper 1926) (but in contrast with the former two, without any specific location). Germplasm collections carried out in 1960-2019 in the American tropics xxiii and subtropics have since notably expanded our knowledge and shown that wild common bean is present in mid-to-high altitude forests from Chihuahua, Mexico (Nabhan 1985) down to Córdoba, Argentina (Drewes 2006). The range of wild Lima beans extends from northern Mexico (Sonora, Tamaulipas) to northern Argentina (Chaco, Formosa) (Debouck 2018). Note that because of the altitude requirements of wild common bean, its distribution is discontinuous, less so for wild Lima bean, and thus the range of the latter is wider. Molecular markers applied to seed storage proteins (Gepts et al. 1986) and later to mitochondrial (Khairallah et al. 1992) and nuclear DNA (Kwak & Gepts 2009;Tohme et al. 1996) have shown higher diversity in the wild forms as compared to the cultivated ones. These works have demonstrated that the two gene pools existing in the cultivated common and Lima beans, traditionally observed on seed traits (Evans 1976;Kaplan 1971), pre-date domestication (estimated at about 7-8,000 years before present: Chacón-Sánchez & Martínez-Castillo 2017; Mamidi et al. 2011). The same organization into gene pools found in the associated pathogens (anthracnose, angular leaf spot: Pastor-Corrales 1991; Guzmán et al. 1995, respectively) also supports that hypothesis."}]},{"head":"Migration:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":309,"text":"The presence of wild common and Lima beans in natural vegetation of both North and South America raises the question on how this situation has come about. Keeping in mind that humans came into the Americas through Beringia some 20,000 years ago (Wells 2003), this means that wild common and Lima beans were already present in the American tropics and subtropics of both continents. So, returning to the question of how to explain the presence of wild common bean in South America, given the number and diversity of species in Mesoamerica, one logical scenario would be that of an early migration of P. vulgaris into the Andes from Mesoamerica through the Isthmus of Panama, and some analyses would support that hypothesis (Bitocchi et   Tohme et al. 1996) may account for that early split, evidencing a migration of P. vulgaris both north-and southwards from its primordial cradle in the northern Andes. A more recent southward migration from Mexico accounts for much of the genetic diversity seen in Central America (Ariani et al. 2017;Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007) and ending up in Colombia (with the 'B' and 'CH' phaseolins). As expected, the wild common beans in the central and southern Andes show less genetic diversity as compared to Central America because they could not expand in longitude (Ariani et al. 2017;Bitocchi et al. 2013;Schmutz et al. 2014). Also, one should note that during the two migrations southwards through the Isthmus P. vulgaris migrated alone without other species of the Phaseoli that could have enriched its gene pool (Lioi & xxiv Hammer 1989; Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a). In this regard, the migration of P. dumosus into Andean South America, namely the humid interandean valleys and eastern slope where it is feral (Schmit & Debouck 1991), would have been too recent to enrich its gene pool with the exception of a few natural hybrids."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"A similar scenario exists for Lima bean. From an ancestral stock in Mesoamerica the tertiary gene pool of Lima bean would evolve and after a first migration into the Andes this stock had time to diversify into two closely related species: P. augusti and P. pachyrrhizoides (Caicedo et al. 1999), and an insular off-type: P. mollis. A group of wild Lima beans was found in SW Ecuador and NW Peru (Debouck et al. 1987), and analysis with different markers showed it to be the ancestral wild form of large-seeded cultivated Lima bean (Gutiérrez-Salgado et al.  (Seigler et al. 1989), it is not fully clear why migratory birds or long-range moving mammals would look for them as food, drop them in the right habitats thousands of miles from the original ones, assuming that the seeds would survive after passing through the digestion track. The diversity displayed by the markers again favor the slow accumulation of mutations through time because of migration and drift. Local extinction of many populations because of unsuitable growing conditions also played a prominent role in the two complex patterns observed today."},{"index":3,"size":615,"text":"It might be relevant here to recall the breeding systems of the six species related to P. vulgaris, which are genetically autocompatible outbreeders with active nectaries on the floral disk. The seed set is significantly increased if the flowers are visited by bees and bumblebees (Darwin 1858). The terminal stigma is variously shaped, from extrorse in P. coccineus (Webster et al. 1980) to capitate in P. albescens (Ramírez-Delgadillo & Delgado-Salinas 1999) to introrse in P. debouckii (Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017b). As a consequence, allogamy can be high in wild forms, explaining the genetic diversity within populations (Rodriguez et al. 2016). In wild Lima beans where the flowers are much smaller, nectaries on bracteoles may play a role, and outcrossing rate as high as 47% has been reported (Baudoin et al. 2004). Domestication: Amerindians confronted a distribution of the wild forms of both species not dramatically different from the one known today since we are still in the same interglacial period (Clark et al. 2009). The primitive hunter-gatherers at some point stopped observing and making periodical harvests, and started planting wild forms in what is today Mexico and in the Central Andes. The exact location of the domestication process has been much investigated, under the afore-mentioned assumption, showing two independent foci for the common bean (Bitocchi et   (Debouck 2016). Through this process Amerindians selected for bigger seeds and pods, although the transition to fully modern sizes has not appeared yet in the archaeological record (Kaplan & Lynch 1999). But they did not alter the breeding system, and thus crosses between the wild forms and the quasi-domesticated forms continued to occur. As a result, intermediate or weedy forms continued to appear in the contact zone, in some regions of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Mexico until today (Beebe et al. 1997  (Félix et al. 2014). So, admixtures continue to cause headaches to scholars trying to count the number of migrations or to locate the domestication spots! Weedy types in Colombia perhaps give a window on this past activity and likely human intervention. These weedy types have a vigorous climbing habit to compete in a thicket environment or in coffee groves. While attributed to spontaneous hybridizations within a breeding complex, evidence also suggested human intervention in selection and dissemination. One type known as 'Vagamundo'or 'Vagabundo' with 'CH' phaseolin has pink seed with red stripes. It is widely distributed in Colombia in the Cauca river valley and in valleys leading to the eastern plains. This grain color would not occur readily in crosses with wild bean, nor would a wild-weedy complex alone result in wide distribution. We suggest that some weedy types might be remnants of an incipient agriculture (beans were used 8,600 years before present in the Middle Cauca Valley: (Dickau et al. 2015)), whereby weedy types were spread by early cultivators in thicket environments that permitted production and collection at seed maturity, with no additional crop management. This scenario invites reflection on what we understand by \"domestication\" and what assumptions are implicit in that understanding. One view is comparable to a pedigree breeding system whereby the parentage of a domesticate can be traced linearly to some unique original ancestor that was selected for valuable spontaneous mutations by plant domesticators (primitive plant breeders). Over years additional mutations would have been selected within this parental's progenies and maintained in linear pedigree fashion. An alternative view suggested here is more similar to a recurrent selection system, whereby occasional outcrossing led to introgression of genes and new genetic constitutions and phenotypes. This latter model must be included in our conceptualization of domestication to explain how the genetic composition of wild Phaseolus and indeed, that of our modern germplasm came to be."}]},{"head":"Potential utility of northern Andean Phaseolus: While specific classification of native","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"Colombian germplasm remains ambiguous and depends on the method and the germplasm under study, a recognition of the role of the northern Andes in the evolution of wild species of Phaseolus raises questions about the possible utility of this germplasm including those domesticated accessions that are unique to this region. Early work on the genetic structure of the species using phaseolin seed protein led to the suggestion that domestication had occurred in Colombia based on type 'B' phaseolin in local wild and cultivated populations (Gepts and Bliss 1986) (although we had difficulty in distinguishing type 'B' consistently from type 'S'). However, phaseolin types 'CH' and 'L' were more distinctive and were found in both local wilds and cultivars, further contributing to the hypothesis of local domestication activity (Toro et al. 1990;Tohme et al. 1996; unpublished data, CIAT). The designation of 'L' phaseolin was derived from the landrace 'Labrancero', a local climbing bean. Bush cultivar G4691 with type 'CH' is unique in presenting flowers with no wing petals. A study of CIAT's bean core collection suggested a North Andean cultivated gene pool, but this again was heavily influenced by xxvi variation in seed proteins: phaseolins, lectins, and α-amylase inhibitors (Islam et al. 2001). This should now be viewed as too narrow an information base to posit a unique gene pool, however, other evidence on the unusual nature of this germplasm emerged from pathological studies. While presenting a Mesoamerican morphological phenotype, accessions that classed in this group presented disease reactions similar to Andean beans, suggesting a long-term evolution in situ (Islam et al. 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The potential of this germplasm for breeding is largely unexplored, and few examples exist that are indicative of its value. One striking example resulted from the use of a Colombian wild bean in a breeding scheme that had been suggested to obtain introgression of unique genes from wild ancestors (Tanksley et al. 1996). Breeding line 115M was derived from the backcross of a Colombian wild accession to cultivar 'Negro Tacaná' (DOR 390 in CIAT's coding system) and presented excellent yield (Wright and Kelly 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Following the analysis of wild accessions of common bean for phaseolin type, purified phasolin protein was extracted from seed and subjected to in vitro hydrolysis, imitating the digestive process in the gut. Phaseolin of one such Colombian accession with type 'L' presented 93% hydrolysis versus 58% in 'S' type and 71% in 'T' type, suggesting the potential to employ this phaseolin for the nutritional improvement of common bean (Montoya et al. 2008). Crosses and selections have been advanced, although a test of such phaseolins with potential for high digestibility has not been carried out in mammals and is lacking."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"A cultivated accession with Mesoamerican phenotype from Nariño department in Colombia was identified for excellent adaptation to low soil phosphorus, and exhibits unusually good photosynthate remobilization under other types of stress as well. A QTL study highlighted segments contributing as much as 100 kg/ha to yield (Diaz et al. 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"G19833 or Chaucha Chuga was collected by one of the current writers in northern Peru, and subsequently was recognized to be unusually tolerant to low soil phosphorus (Yan et al. 1995a and b). So unusual was G19833 that it was selected to develop a reference genome of the species. Later sequencing revealed that in fact it has significant introgression from a Mesoamerican genome -an observation that highlights the dynamism of the evolution of local cultivated germplasm (Lobaton et al. 2018)."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Other accessions from this region (G23818B, G23823E, 23834E) have presented high concentration of iron in grain and have served as sources of this trait in breeding for nutritional value of common bean. These appear to be intergene pool crosses that have occurred naturally in farmer's fields where Andean and Mesoamerican types have been cultivated side by side or in mixtures."}]},{"head":"Unfinished work and conclusions:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Regarding collections, Colombia lies squarely on the northsouth pre-colonial routes of trade that moved germplasm in both directions. Thus, local common bean germplasm is heavily influenced by that of both Mesoamerica and the southern Andes. To have a clearer picture of wild common bean in NW South America, it might be easier to tackle first those similar questions on the Lima bean model. With the increase of rural transportation in the 20 th century, seed movement of Lima bean could have been less important than with common bean. With less long-distance transportation of Lima bean landraces and cultivars, there could be less blurring due to gene flow between cultivated forms and the wild (Beebe et al. 1997;Papa & xxvii Gepts 2003). In this regard, areas well outside the main stream of seed movements (e.g. the eastern extreme of the Andes in Venezuela) might be worth visiting, as wild beans are known to be present there (Aymard 1999). Also, within Colombia true wild beans are reported by local residents in Antioquia for a possible transition with Panama and Costa Rica, and could exist in Nariño department for a transition with the sibling species (Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017b). In order to take full benefit of the advances in genomics to solve the puzzle, a much better sampling of the wild forms in South America is urgently needed. These collections remain to be accomplished. Finally, there is little knowledge of Phaseolus germplasm in the western extreme of the Guyana shield, which has an environment that should be amenable to bean cultivation, and which has been largely isolated. Common bean is reported here (Aymard 1999), but little or nothing is known about cultivars there."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1995; Motta-Aldana et al. 2010; Fofana et al. 1997). Thus, speciation resulted in the formation of the Andean gene pool of Lima bean, and 0.5 mi years ago the formation of the so-called Mesoamerican gene pool (it has colonized the tropical lowlands of both Mesoamerica and South America however) quickly splitting into two branches MI and MII (Serrano-Serrano et al. 2010). In addition, a slightly different group of wild Lima beans related to the Andean pool seems present in Boyacá, Colombia (Chacón-Sánchez & Martínez-Castillo 2017). While migratory birds have been called upon to explain the trans-isthmic migrations of wild beans (Ariani et al. 2017; Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a), an alternate scenario is the one of beans moving through natural seed dispersal and reproduction in favorable conditions under climatic variations since the late Tertiary period. Because wild beans have toxic seeds (Sotelo et al. 1995), particularly true for wild P. lunatus "},{"text":" al. 2012; Blair et al. 2012; Mamidi et al. 2013; Schmutz et al. 2014). Anaya et al. 2017a, b). Later this ancestral stock of P. vulgaris underwent another speciation event: the formation of the two major gene pools (Ariani et al. 2017; Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007; Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a). A few DNA polymorphisms shared between Mexico and the Southern Andes (Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007; Khairallah et al. 1992; However, a collection (DGD-1956) of August 1986 in San Pablo, Cajamarca, Peru, changed the However, a collection (DGD-1956) of August 1986 in San Pablo, Cajamarca, Peru, changed the picture dramatically, and a group of wild common beans was disclosed in SW Ecuador and NW picture dramatically, and a group of wild common beans was disclosed in SW Ecuador and NW Peru (Debouck et al. 1993). Further analysis with different markers constantly showed the Peru (Debouck et al. 1993). Further analysis with different markers constantly showed the uniqueness of this group as compared to the other wild gene pools (beebmcb et al. 2017; uniqueness of this group as compared to the other wild gene pools (beebmcb et al. 2017; Bitocchi et al. 2013; Blair et al. 2012; Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007; Freyre et al. 1996; Kami et Bitocchi et al. 2013; Blair et al. 2012; Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007; Freyre et al. 1996; Kami et al. 1995; Khairallah et al. 1992; Koenig et al. 1990; Kwak & Gepts 2009; McClean et al. 2004; al. 1995; Khairallah et al. 1992; Koenig et al. 1990; Kwak & Gepts 2009; McClean et al. 2004; Mina-Vargas et al. 2016; Tohme et al. 1996). Assumed to have strayed from its home in Mina-Vargas et al. 2016; Tohme et al. 1996). Assumed to have strayed from its home in Mesoamerica in the distant past, it was found to be ancient (Kami et al. 1995), with a separation Mesoamerica in the distant past, it was found to be ancient (Kami et al. 1995), with a separation from the rest of wild P. vulgaris about 0.6 mi years ago (Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007) or 0.9 mi from the rest of wild P. vulgaris about 0.6 mi years ago (Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2007) or 0.9 mi years ago (cpDNA) (Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a), and eventually interpreted as a sister species of years ago (cpDNA) (Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a), and eventually interpreted as a sister species of common bean (Rendón- common bean (Rendón-  "},{"text":" al. 2013; Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2005; Kwak et al. 2009) and the Lima bean (Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2012; Chacón-Sánchez & Martínez-Castillo 2017). At the beginning this activity was limited to xxv planting and harvesting wild forms  "},{"text":" ; Freyre et al. 1996; Hoc et al. 2006; Zizumbo-Villareal et al. 2005, respectively), and similarly in Lima bean  "}],"sieverID":"71222d17-22f2-4008-b115-da4d19904d79","abstract":"Introduction: Genetic variability of the Phaseolus genus in the northern Andes is complex and intriguing. Colombia was the crossroads of Mesoamerican (e.g. maize, common bean), Amazonian (e.g. cassava) and Andean (e.g. potato, common bean) crops. While cultivated common bean has two major gene pools, and the wild ancestor presents much wider variability (Chacon et al. 2005), unique germplasm in the northern Andes is reported: wild populations in Ecuador and N Peru with 'I' phaseolin (Rendón-Anaya et al., 2017b); and wild and cultivated germplasm from Colombia. The region has seen the precursor of the species coming from Central America, then the migration of its wild form to give birth to the Mesoamerican and Central-Southern Andean genepools (Chacon et al. 2007;Rendón-Anaya et al. 2017a). Landraces intercrossed with each other and with their sympatric wild relatives. These facts make the northern Andes a scenario of migration, extinction, local evolution, introduction and genetic interchange. This review reflects on the evolutionary role of the region, and possible implications for genetic improvement."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"083579a45745f135d69d75ccf7396324","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://earthinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Profile_WESTPAPUA_Pulungan_2020_ENG.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"LOW-EMISSION RURAL DEVELOPMENT (LED-R) AT A GLANCE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Forests cover 90% of West Papua (WP) with lowest historical deforestation rates in Indonesia; WP commits to maintain at least 70% as protected areas through Manokwari Declaration (MD) & Special Regulation on Sustainable Development   "}]},{"head":"TIMELINE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS MANOKWARI","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"SRAP REDD+) 3 Regional Action Plan for GHG Emissions Reduction (RAD-GRK) 2 Rio Branco Declaration 1 ◆ Special Regional Regulation on Sustainable Development 4 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to UNFCCC 5 ◆  SPOTLIGHT ON INNOVATION   SPOTLIGHT ON INNOVATION Following commitment to be a Conservation Province (CP) and the MD, the WP ecosystem services, IP rights, and livelihoods, while reducing risks for investors. Following commitment to be a Conservation Province (CP) and the MD, the WPecosystem services, IP rights, and livelihoods, while reducing risks for investors. Development Partners Forum brought together various stakeholders to address  Development Partners Forum brought together various stakeholders to address increasing threats from industrialization and development to WP's high forest  increasing threats from industrialization and development to WP's high forest cover/biocultural diversity. Further in 2019, WP declared itself the world's first  cover/biocultural diversity. Further in 2019, WP declared itself the world's first Sustainable Development Province (SDP) and issued the Special Regional  Sustainable Development Province (SDP) and issued the Special Regional Regulations on Sustainable Development (Perdasus 10/2019) & Recognition  Regulations on Sustainable Development (Perdasus 10/2019) & Recognition of IP & Customary Rights (RIPCR; Perdasus 11/2019). SDP integrates actors  of IP & Customary Rights (RIPCR; Perdasus 11/2019). SDP integrates actors from diverse sectors into provincial development planning and recognizes  from diverse sectors into provincial development planning and recognizes the importance of Indigenous peoples (IP) in protecting forest areas. As a new  the importance of Indigenous peoples (IP) in protecting forest areas. As a new province with relatively low socio-economic development nationally, SDP  province with relatively low socio-economic development nationally, SDP aims to balance economic development with maintenance of biodiversity and  aims to balance economic development with maintenance of biodiversity and    WP was declared a CP Green Investment WP was declared a CPGreen Investment   Provincial Spatial Draft regulation on acknowledging customary Master Plan & Provincial SpatialDraft regulation on acknowledging customaryMaster Plan &   Plan 2013-2033 land rights under discussion in WP Parliament Commodity Plan 2013-2033land rights under discussion in WP ParliamentCommodity  Papua granted SA status (carried over to WP) WP created by splitting Papua into 2 provinces Joined Governors' (RTRWP) formalized Climate & Forests Task Force (GCF) Draft regulation on SDP created as a follow up to CP declaration MD signed -MoU between WP & Papua to collaborate towards SDP Jurisdictional performance monitoring system established for WP; district-level mapping of nutmeg farmers initiated Provincial Strategic Area (KSP) protecting Mahkota Permata Tanah Papua (The Papuan Crown Jewel) launched Special Regulations on SDP & RIPCR approved Development Roadmap (defining & developing 6 deforestation-free export commodities) launched at the Green Investment High Level Meeting of Papua & WP Provinces Papua granted SA status (carried over to WP) WP created by splitting Papua into 2 provincesJoined Governors' (RTRWP) formalized Climate & Forests Task Force (GCF)Draft regulation on SDP created as a follow up to CP declaration MD signed -MoU between WP & Papua to collaborate towards SDP Jurisdictional performance monitoring system established for WP; district-level mapping of nutmeg farmers initiated Provincial Strategic Area (KSP) protecting Mahkota Permata Tanah Papua (The Papuan Crown Jewel) launched Special Regulations on SDP & RIPCR approvedDevelopment Roadmap (defining & developing 6 deforestation-free export commodities) launched at the Green Investment High Level Meeting of Papua & WP Provinces 2000  2010 2020 2030 2040 20002010202020302040     PLEDGES & PLEDGES &     COMMITMENTS COMMITMENTS JURISDICTIONAL Provincial REDD+ Strategy & Action Plan (◆ Part of international agreement or forum JURISDICTIONALProvincial REDD+ Strategy & Action Plan (◆ Part of international agreement or forum NATIONAL     NATIONAL  "},{"text":"• Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), International Climate Initiative (IKI) of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, & Nuclear Safety (Germany). 7 Fakfak District Plantation Agency. 8 Provincial Plantation Agency. 9 Institut Penelitian Inovasi Bumi (INOBU) & Yayasan AKAPe. 10 Provincial Forestry Agency. 11 Norad via UNDP. 12 Sources vary between KPHs but generally include collection of funds from nature tourism management, collections from companies utilizing NTFPs within limited parts of the KPH, &/or international financial assistance given to stakeholder collaborative programs for conservation Working Group on Accelerating Social Forestry (Pokja PPS) in state-owned & customary forests secures LC management rights & creates incentives for managing forests (esp. NTFPs) • Pokja SDP, informally established under Balitbangda, involves IP, LC, WP govt, NGOs, universities WP govt initiatives exist to sustainably develop industries (e.g., cocoa, coffee) & target IP for increasing income via local commodities (e.g., sago, nutmeg), but IP participation is low • Govt periodically runs technical assistance & extension services but limited funding, staff capacity, & infrastructure limit reach; also IDH's FarmFit Fund provides farmers funds & technical services to sustainably increase productivity• SDP Regulation expands on IP rights & allows IP to propose allocation of specific areas to meet livelihood & conservation/protection needs through the MRPB (established through SA Law) • RIPCR, developed with support of MRPB, NGOs, & international finance, provides detailed protocols for IP & customary land claims LED-R finance • Most funds supporting LED-R are from national govt; WP govt seeking increased support through MD • Significant SA Funding from national govt, mainly for education, health & infrastructure development, could strengthen local economies & improve living standards in WP, including for IP NATIONAL PUBLIC 2    NATIONAL PUBLIC 2 PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1, 10 BILATERAL OTHER 11   LC & IP PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1, 10 BILATERAL OTHER 11LC & IP OTHER 12   AREA 98,593 km 2 OTHER 12AREA 98,593 km 2    POPULATION 937,500 (2018) POPULATION 937,500 (2018)    HDI 62.99 (2017) HDI 62.99 (2017) PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1   GDP USD 4.38 billion (2016, base year 2010) GINI 0.390 (2017) WP govt agencies 3, 10, 15,21 , NGOs, private sector, LC, & IP PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1GDP USD 4.38 billion (2016, base year 2010) GINI 0.390 (2017)WP govt agencies 3, 10, 15,21 , NGOs, private sector, LC, & IP    MAIN ECONOMIC Manufacturing & MAIN ECONOMICManufacturing &    ACTIVITIES other industry ACTIVITIESother industry     Extraction of Extraction of     non-renewable resources non-renewable resources     Public services Public services    RURAL/URBAN 68/32% (2015) RURAL/URBAN68/32% (2015)    POPULATION POPULATION PROGRESS TO JURISDICTIONAL SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES & PROGRESS TO JURISDICTIONAL SUSTAINABILITYCHALLENGES & EARLY INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED OPPORTUNITIES EARLYINTERMEDIATEADVANCEDOPPORTUNITIES Integrated LED-R Strategy Spatial plan  • Regional Medium-Term Development Plan 2017-2022 (RPJMD) emphasizes CP strategy across sectors; under revision based on MD & SDP Regulation • SDP Regulation serves as provincial strategy, developed & governed by multi-stakeholder input • SDP Regulation will serve as legal basis to revise RTRWP, incl. the new conservation targets & KSP • RTRWP allocates areas for infrastructure but no mitigations proposed for environmental damages CHALLENGES • Dependence on extractive activities limits capacity to develop other sectors (e.g., agriculture), impeding rural economic growth & poverty reduction • Tensions around past land conflicts Integrated LED-R Strategy Spatial plan• Regional Medium-Term Development Plan 2017-2022 (RPJMD) emphasizes CP strategy across sectors; under revision based on MD & SDP Regulation • SDP Regulation serves as provincial strategy, developed & governed by multi-stakeholder input • SDP Regulation will serve as legal basis to revise RTRWP, incl. the new conservation targets & KSP • RTRWP allocates areas for infrastructure but no mitigations proposed for environmental damagesCHALLENGES • Dependence on extractive activities limits capacity to develop other sectors (e.g., agriculture), impeding rural economic growth & poverty reduction • Tensions around past land conflicts Performance targets  • SDP Regulation sets quantitative targets but no specific plan for achieving targets yet • RAD-GRK & SRAP set provincial emissions reduction targets in line with national target (RAN-GRK)/regional development priorities & the REDD+ mitigation action scenario, respectively complicate mapping of traditional lands  spatial land use data are collected through participatory means but do not always Performance targets• SDP Regulation sets quantitative targets but no specific plan for achieving targets yet • RAD-GRK & SRAP set provincial emissions reduction targets in line with national target (RAN-GRK)/regional development priorities & the REDD+ mitigation action scenario, respectivelycomplicate mapping of traditional lands  spatial land use data are collected through participatory means but do not always Monitoring, reporting & verification (MRV) • National Forest Monitoring System monitors land cover, deforestation & fire hotspots annually; data not available to public & WP govt • Simtaru (Spatial Planning Information System) is being developed for monitoring & spatial planning -to include information on water catchment areas, erosion, land use & forest changes influence decision-making • TransPapua road, planned by national government, under construction aims to improve connectivity of WP & Papua but may Monitoring, reporting & verification (MRV)• National Forest Monitoring System monitors land cover, deforestation & fire hotspots annually; data not available to public & WP govt • Simtaru (Spatial Planning Information System) is being developed for monitoring & spatial planning -to include information on water catchment areas, erosion, land use & forest changesinfluence decision-making • TransPapua road, planned by national government, under construction aims to improve connectivity of WP & Papua but may Policies & incentives Multi-stakeholder • WP Regulations on SDP & customary land rights, & national focus on infrastructure & agricultural development, represent competing interests within & between provincial & national govts • EFT incentives proposed to promote sustainable development & conservation of forests impact forests, wildlife, & conservation • Conflicts between national & WP govt interests pose challenges for implementing SDP, conservation & LC Policies & incentives Multi-stakeholder• WP Regulations on SDP & customary land rights, & national focus on infrastructure & agricultural development, represent competing interests within & between provincial & national govts • EFT incentives proposed to promote sustainable development & conservation of forestsimpact forests, wildlife, & conservation • Conflicts between national & WP govt interests pose challenges for implementing SDP, conservation & LC governance    OPPORTUNITIES governanceOPPORTUNITIES Sustainable agriculture • National & Indigenous peoples & local communities  • SDP Regulation could serve as a model for other provinces & increase finance/ investment opportunities • IP land rights through regulations on SDP & RIPCR could improve livelihoods, streamline benefit distribution, strengthen institutions, & encourage local participation in national development planning • Developing fisheries & marine industries Sustainable agriculture • National & Indigenous peoples & local communities• SDP Regulation could serve as a model for other provinces & increase finance/ investment opportunities • IP land rights through regulations on SDP & RIPCR could improve livelihoods, streamline benefit distribution, strengthen institutions, & encourage local participation in national development planning • Developing fisheries & marine industries     could reduce pressure on forests, support could reduce pressure on forests, support     ecotourism, & expand fisheries products' ecotourism, & expand fisheries products'  "},{"text":"term action plan for reducing emissions across sectors Local communities (LC); District governments; Producers Regional Action Plan for GHG Emissions Reduction (RAD-GRK) PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1 NATIONAL PUBLIC 2 PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 3 NATIONAL PUBLIC 4 IP District-Wide Deforestation-free Commodities Forest Management Units (KPH) with Indigenous Forest Community Models Development Partners Forum (Incl. Working Group -Pokja on SDP) Small-scale economic opportunities benefitting IP (currently in 5 districts) Management of production & protected forests based on regional needs Support & operationalize WP's SDP commitment (incl. development of investment & financing models) & other issues  PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1 PRIVATE OTHER5 MULTILATERAL OTHER6 DISTRICT PUBLIC 7 PROVINCE PUBLIC 8 NATIONAL NON-PROFIT 9 PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 1 PRIVATE OTHER5 MULTILATERAL OTHER6DISTRICT PUBLIC 7 PROVINCE PUBLIC 8 NATIONAL NON-PROFIT 9  PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 13 PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 13  PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 3, 14, 15 PROVINCIAL OTHER 16, ACADEMIA 17 NATIONAL 18 & INTERNATIONAL 19, 20 NON-PROFIT PROVINCIAL PUBLIC 3, 14, 15 PROVINCIAL OTHER 16, ACADEMIA 17 NATIONAL 18 & INTERNATIONAL 19, 20 NON-PROFIT  "}],"sieverID":"677b8c62-372e-4863-bc87-1f3da84ab0de","abstract":""}

data/part_2/085206c3af1e4ea97c295479883d9f25.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"085206c3af1e4ea97c295479883d9f25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/650a16fe-ce8f-4ac3-b355-447c09d9106a/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme Final Progress Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"C. Final progress report","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Period covered in this report","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"October 2008 -March 2009 9. Summary of progress in reporting period A final project workshop held on 30-31 January in New Delhi reviewed achievements with all partners and the SLP coordinator. All data collection and data entry was finalized. Substantial efforts went into creating a common database in Microsoft Access and cleaning and standardizing datasets across sites and various survey rounds. Queries have been developed to analyze and synthesize the data per site and across sites. In view of delays in completing data entry, data cleaning and data integration of the individual site and synthesis reports are only now being written and compiled and expected to be available for wider sharing by year's end. The new SLP research grant will analyze and complement the already rich data set, from which several journal paper submissions are envisaged over the coming years."}]},{"head":"Implemented work programme and results per output and activity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Data collection of the four rounds of enterprise survey was completed in all nine sites. The 4 th round was not foreseen originally and tried to estimate residue retention levels in farmers' fields directly after wheat establishment as the earlier attempt to do so had not been consistently applied across sites. Substantial efforts went into creating a common data entry form for the enterprise surveys in Microsoft Access to avoid confusion and to streamline subsequent processing of data across nine sites. All data from the household surveys and the various enterprise surveys has been entered at each site and is now linked within one database. Substantial efforts went into the cleaning and standardizing of datasets across sites and various survey rounds. Various surprises emerged during the cleaning, linking and preliminary analysis which proved rather time consuming to address. In June, each Indian partner came to New Delhi to address final data issues whereas Bangladesh partners were visited by Nils Teufel."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Queries have been developed to analyze and synthesize the data from the Access database. Each site will run the queries on the subset of data that corresponds to their site. A report outline and dummy tables have been shared and will now be filled and written up using the output generated by the queries. In addition, cross site analysis will be conducted to synthesize findings across sites and clusters. So far, emphasis has been placed on having exactly the same data set at the site and central level to facilitate interaction and consistency. Data sets were thus repeatedly exchanged between sites and centre. Now that we have a reasonably consistent data set, we envisage that the respective sites and centre can continue to work independently on the datasets as needed. To facilitate this, both the sites and centre have a complete set of hardcopies of all the questionnaires to address subsequent queries."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The endeavor for a consistent data set across sites and centre did imply that analysis and synthesis was hampered by the slowest partner. In view of the delays in completing data entry, data cleaning and data integration, the individual site and synthesis reports are only now being written and compiled and expected to be available for wider sharing by year's end. The qualitative survey findings were however written up and now available as draft report (Samaddar et al 2009, copy attached)."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"A final project workshop on 30-31 January in New Delhi reviewed achievements with all partners and the SLP coordinator. The workshop was linked to the World Congress of Conservation Agriculture and the technical review meeting of the Rice-Wheat consortium to provide partners with increased exposure to the scientific community. Partners were stimulated to submit papers to the Congress. Several posters were based on the SLP project findings (see outputs below)."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Project principal investigators also contributed a new proposal to the 2008 SLP research grant (\"Optimizing livelihood and environmental benefits from crop residues in smallholder croplivestock systems: South Asia regional case study\") and participated in the SLP harmonization workshop in Addis Ababa, 15-17 April 2009. The new SLP research grant will analyze and complement the already rich data set, from which several journal paper submissions are envisaged over the coming years."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"As a side activity and linked to another ILRI project in Eastern India, we conducted a year long residue market survey with monthly visits to residue traders in three major urban agglomerations (New Delhi, Patna and Kolkatta). June 2009 was the last month of data collection and data are being analyzed for write-up."},{"index":7,"size":262,"text":"The household sample composition across the 9 sites is presented in Table 1. In the end, 1051 households were surveyed during the various rounds. There were some surprises in terms of envisaged sample strata and actual household type. For instance, the table shows that various zero/reduced tillage (ZT/RT) adopter households in the sampling frame proved non-adopters and vice versa. Similarly, some landless were found to be cultivating crops and some supposed farmers were not cultivating. Some households were also replaced where the original sampled household proved irrelevant or problematic. Some site characteristics of the 9 sites are summarized in the Annex. 13. Implications of research outputs and achievements -Reassessment of farmer perceptions of conservation agriculture-based technologies -Reassessment of adoption based on quantitative results over a wide area and contrasting sites -Highlighting of differences between rice-and wheat-oriented systems -Influence of mechanization trends (labour costs) on cropping technologies -Better understanding of partner capacities, more effective communication 14. Problems and measures taken -High staff turn over with some partners -called for repeated training visits -Quality of staff for data collection and entry with some partners -constant follow-up needed to show that we were seriously interested in real data -Time demanding nature of repeated supervision and training of nine geographically spread sites -led to more cluster-wise trainings and reduced monitoring visits but active continuous telephonic follow-up. -Inconsistencies in data sets required cumbersome cleaning and exchange visits 15. Linkages with other research SLP 2008 research grant and South Asia proposal (\"Optimizing livelihood and environmental benefits from crop residues in smallholder crop-livestock systems: South Asia regional case study\")"},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA), a mega multi-institutional project funded by Gates Foundation and USAID. Includes IRRI, CIMMYT, IFPRI and ILRI, and envisages follow up work -specifically on conservation agriculture based technologies and food-feed crops in intensive cereal-based systems An ILRI-led study on mitigating feed scarcity for resource poor livestock keepers through improvement of fodder markets and identification of crop varieties with improved fodder characteristics in selected disadvantaged areas of India"}]},{"head":"D. Summary of research plans for follow up","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Complete data analysis and documentation, including several journal paper submissions, facilitated by and linked to the SLP 2008 research grant for South Asia Annex 1: SLP sites characteristics, Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), India and Bangladesh "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 Household sample composition across nine SLP sites Nine sites completed with consistent data collection and data entry including village survey, household survey and enterprise surveys -NARS staff in each site trained on data collection, data entry, data handling and analysis, presentation and write-up -A comprehensive common access data base across nine sites and survey rounds -Straw market and qualitative survey completed 12. Outputs: a) products, b) people trained, c) technology transferred, d) reports and publications, d) presentations in conferences Comprehensive database containing and linking various survey rounds (household and 4x enterprise surveys based on forms, and village survey tables from Excel) in nine project sites.Basu, D., Baksh, M.E., Sarkar, N., Erenstein, O., Teufel, N., Samaddar, A. 2009. Conservation Agriculture and its implication over livelihoods in lower Gangetic plains of India and Bangladesh: Communalities and Differences. Abstracts 4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture, Febuary 4-7, 2009, New Delhi, India. WCCA, New Delhi, pp. 484-485. Samaddar, A., Teufel, N., Erenstein, O. 2009. Conservation Agriculture and Livestock: Farmer perceptions and experiences in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India and Bangladesh. Working paper. CIMMYT, New Delhi. Samaddar, A., Teufel, N., Erenstein, O. 2009. Conservation Agriculture and Livestock: Farmer perceptions and experiences in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Abstracts 4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture, February 4-7, 2009, New Delhi, India. WCCA, New Delhi, pp. 455. Teufel, N., Erenstein, O., Samaddar, A. 2009. Resource conserving technologies and croplivestock interactions in the Indo-Gangetic plains: Implications for crop residue management and R&D. Abstracts 4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture, February 4-7, 2009, New Delhi, India. WCCA, New Delhi, pp. 67-68. Samaddar, A., Teufel, N., Erenstein, O. 2008. Report of the Progress Review Workshop, September 22-25 2008, New Delhi. Teufel, N., Erenstein, O., Samaddar, A. 2008. Impacts of technological change on crop residue management and livestock feeding in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Presentation at Tropentag 2008, Stuttgart-Hohenheim, Germany, 07-09/10/2008. Teufel, N., Erenstein, O., Samaddar, A. 2008. Will conservation agriculture harm livestock? Poster at ILRI Annual Programme Meeting 2008, Nairobi, Kenya, 31/03 -04/04/2008 Teufel, N., Erenstein, O., Samaddar, A. 2007. Perceptions and potential of resource Conserving technologies in the crop-livestock systems of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Poster at Tropentag 2007, Kassel-Witzenhausen Germany, 09-11/10/2007. Erenstein, O., Tarawali, S., Fernandez-Rivera, S. 2006. Report of the inter-project planning workshop, November 11-12, 2005, New Delhi. CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme research grants: Strategic issues on tradeoffs and synergies between feed resources demand and conservation agriculture strategies. CIMMYT, New Delhi, India. Kannan, E. 2006. Stakeholder Consultation, June-July 2006. Project report -CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme research grants: Conservation agriculture, livestock and livelihood strategies in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia: Synergies and trade offs. CIMMYT, New Delhi, India. Kannan, E., Erenstein, O. 2006. Report of the Project Inception Workshop, April 25-26 2006, New Delhi. Project report -CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme research grants: Conservation agriculture, livestock and livelihood strategies in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia: Synergies and trade offs. CIMMYT, New Delhi, India. expected expected  "}],"sieverID":"3a7eaaca-d23f-4c9e-9b09-0f131ff93050","abstract":"Conservation agriculture, livestock and livelihood strategies in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia: Synergies and tradeoffs"}

data/part_2/08c27acc30b8964f9743eedd9e425e24.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08c27acc30b8964f9743eedd9e425e24","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a4d78d10-4291-48bb-9168-c604d8be632d/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Nutrient deposition during the harmattan dry season across the northern region of Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Dry atmospheric nutrient deposition is an essential source of soil nutrient replenishment in the northern region of Ghana during the harmattan dry season (Kugbe et al. 2012). The source of the nutrient is attributed to external dust, aerosols, and the redistribution of nutrients from local soils (Baker et al. 2006). The quantities of nutrient deposits are mostly estimated at single sites or in a single direction (e.g., north to south). Though such estimates are representatives of the sampled sites, there are no detailed studies on the two-dimensional-geospatial and temporal deposition of these nutrients. Given that dry nutrient deposition is a fundamental component of the underlying nutrient balance of the West African region, filling this knowledge gap is essential in understanding the holistic cycle of each nutrient element."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The aims in this study were to quantify the dry nutrient deposition (concentration, quantity), and how the deposition varies with month of deposition and geographical space, and relate these to the potential sources of the deposited nutrients."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"A 24 cm surface-diameter dry-deposition sampler was used to collect the monthly deposits using the water-filled basin method. A complete description of the sampler, sampling sites and sampling process is provided in Kugbe et al. (2012). In summary, a modified stratified contiguous unit-based spatial sampling technique was used in this study, where the study area was stratified into 15 strata (three longitudinal zones and five latitudinal zones, Figure 1). Data collected from any point within a stratum were deemed representative of that stratum and different from data collected from any other strata. The technique is based on Tobler's First Law of Geography, which argues that for a given parameter, nearby units are more related to each other and hence share similar information compared to units that are far apart, especially so if the information is spatially correlated. There were three replications per sampling site. Nutrient extraction and chemical analyses follows the procedure described in Kugbe et al. (2012)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Statistical comparisons were made by the ANOVA and pair-wise t-testing procedure at alpha level of 0.05. Post hoc tests were run with the Duncan's multiple range test. Temporal and geospatial linear relations in nutrient concentrations and depositions were analyzed using Spearman's correlation."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Temporal nutrient concentration and deposition","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":396,"text":"The estimated average dust fall rate during the harmattan season was 0.4-1 g m -2 day -1 . This value is higher than the 0.25 g m -2 day -1 reported by Lyngsie et al. ( 2011) at a single location (Nyamkpala), and is attributed to the variations in geospatial dust fall rate across the study area. The concentration of individual nutrients varied from one month to another (Figure 1). Besides nitrate-N which showed significant (P < 0.01) differences in inter-monthly mean concentrations in the order November > December > January > February, there were no significant monthly differences (P > 0.05) in the mean nutrient concentrations for all other nutrients. Contrary to the results of Chineke and Chimeka (2009), who observed high Ca concentrations in harmattan-dust across Nigeria of magnitude ~21 times the concentration of K, this study shows that K concentration in the dry deposits was consistently higher than that of Ca. Elemental concentrations then followed the order Ca>Mg>nitrate-N>P as observed by Breuning-Madsen et al. 2012 (excluding nitrate-N). The mean nutrient concentrations of the dry deposits were multiples the concentration of soils sampled at same geographic site and extracted similarly. Unlike the soil-available nutrients, which did not show any wide variation or peculiar outliers in nutrient concentration, the dry deposits showed wide variations in elemental concentration, and suggest differences in the sources of the deposited nutrients. The high elemental concentrations compared to those of the soils (Figure 1), and to soils of harmattan dust sources (Goudie and Middleton 2001), suggest other sources for the elements than harmattan-dust and the redistribution from the local soils: or that harmattan picks up the finer particles of soil that are richer in nutrients than the bulk soil. An estimated area of 45-60% of total land of the northern region is annually burned during the harmattan dry season (Kugbe et al. 2012). The concentrations of all extracted nutrients of the dry deposits were consistently lower than the corresponding concentrations in ash of burned vegetation across the study area in the same period (Bagamsah 2005). This observation suggests the return of a mixture of fire-induced transferredelements and low-nutrient source materials (probably external harmattan-dust) into the system. Though these high nutrient-concentrated materials are added to the soil, the net supply to the soil's available pool is minimal, given the low amounts of total dry deposits (53 -122 Mg km -2 )."}]},{"head":"Spatio-temporal distribution of dry deposits across northern Ghana","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The month of deposition had higher influence on the concentration of dry deposits than the geospatial location of sample collection. Latitude was a greater geospatial predictor of deposited dust/nutrients, with more dust falling closer to the Saharan dust source in the north due to the influence of gravity, and less dust as one approaches the equator (Table 1). The total dry deposits and the concentration of phosphate (PO 4 3-"},{"index":2,"size":344,"text":") increased with increasing latitude, while potassium (K) magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and nitrate (NO 3 -) concentrations were not significantly affected by geographical space (Table 1). The positive inter-nutrient concentration correlation between Ca and Mg suggests a potentially common source for these nutrient elements. So, also was the relation between Na and K. The negative relations between Ca and Mg concentrations on the one hand with that of Na and K on the other for all sites suggest that substantial amounts of Na and K may not have come from same sources as Ca Mg. The deposit of individual nutrients should follow similar temporal trends as those of total dry deposition (January> February> December> November) if the nutrients come from the same source. Nutrient concentration should be about the same if the source is same while they may vary for different nutrient sources (e.g., burned debris, aeolian transport from external sources, local dust redistribution). If the bulk of nutrients deposited in a given month is from different sources, then the concentration of the various nutrients in the different sources will be the predominant determining factor of the quantity of each nutrient deposited as well as the total dust deposit collected in that month. In this case, the relative fraction of total dry deposits from the different nutrient sources will be a predictive factor for the quantity of each nutrient deposited in the given month. The period of dominance for the different sources of nutrients during the harmattan dry season subsequently defines the major nutrients that are deposited across the region in a given month. For instance, fire activity is highest during the last week of December (Kugbe et al. 2012). One would expect that redistribution of fire-transferred particulate elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Na) and the debris from burned vegetation will contribute to high nutrient deposition between December and January. On the other hand, local dust redistribution and external aerosol deposits will be the major sources of nutrient deposits in early November and late February when there are relatively fewer fires."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Outlook","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The differences in order of monthly dry-deposits for different nutrients compared to the trend in total dry deposition show that all nutrients were not from the same source, and that the different sources of nutrients dominate deposition at different periods during the harmattan dry season. Redistribution of nutrients transferred into the atmosphere during vegetation burning might be the major source of the high nutrient concentrations of dry atmospheric deposits."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Study region showing the sites (*) for collection of deposited samples (upper left). The figure also shows the monthly concentration (upper right) and deposition (lower left) of nutrients in the dry deposits, and the comparison of nutrient concentration of the dry deposits with that of soils sampled at same site (lower right). "},{"text":"Table 1 : Pearson's correlation matrix for the spatial distribution of dry atmospheric nutrient concentrations in the northern region of Ghana during the 2010-2011 harmattan dry season. N = 60, 3 n = 44. Values are coefficients, significant level (two-tail) in brackets.    Ca Mg K Na NO 3 - PO 4 3- Longitude Latitude CaMgKNaNO 3 -PO 4 3-Longitude Latitude Dust (Mg km -2 ) -0.26 -0.21 -0.045 **0.40 -0.22 0.13 0.22 **0.66 Dust (Mg km-2 )-0.26 -0.21-0.045 **0.40 -0.220.130.22**0.66    (0.05) (0.11) (0.72) (0.00) (0.13) (0.32) (0.09) (0.00) (0.05) (0.11)(0.72)(0.00) (0.13) (0.32)(0.09)(0.00) Ca   1 **0.77 -0.05 *-0.31 0.01 0.03 -0.24 -0.15 Ca1**0.77-0.05*-0.31 0.010.03-0.24-0.15     (0.00) (0.73) (0.05) (0.97) (0.83) (0.06) (0.27) (0.00)(0.73)(0.05) (0.97) (0.83)(0.06)(0.27) Mg    1 -0.08 -0.18 -0.03 0.02 -0.22 -0.10 Mg1-0.08-0.18 -0.030.02-0.22-0.10      (0.55) (0.27) (0.82) (0.99) (0.09) (0.44) (0.55)(0.27) (0.82) (0.99)(0.09)(0.44) K     1 *0.31 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.12 K1*0.310.080.100.070.12       (0.05) (0.58) (0.47) (0.61) (0.35) (0.05) (0.58) (0.47)(0.61)(0.35) 3 Na      1 -0.17 -0.05 *0.30 0.14 3 Na1-0.17-0.05*0.300.14        (0.34) (0.70) (0.02) (0.39) (0.34) (0.70)(0.02)(0.39) NO 3 -      1 -0.03 0.08 -0.12 NO 3-1-0.030.08-0.12         (0.86) (0.58) (0.40) (0.86)(0.58)(0.40) PO 4 3-       1 -0.20 *0.23 PO 4 3-1-0.20*0.23         (0.15) (0.04) (0.15)(0.04)  "}],"sieverID":"75bb3bc7-3e91-4d98-a8e7-1542c14df292","abstract":""}

data/part_2/08c730b81c04adcc643493aa1ee4368d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08c730b81c04adcc643493aa1ee4368d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/91/3986_MFP-05-Aquaculture.pdf"},"pageCount":6,"title":"t\"d u oH k ;oyf wif j ycs uf rs m","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Bud rf cef h xk wf vk yf &&S d Ed k if ygonf / • yx0D taetxm;t& ig;arG ;jrLxk wf vk yf jcif ; tcsuf tcsmusaoma'orS m &ef uk ef ES if h teD ; qk H ;jzpf aom {&m0wD wd k if ;a'oBuD ;jzpf NyD ;? pk pk aygif ; ig;uef {&d ,m\\ 90% wnf &S d ygonf / uk ef rS a'owG if ;tjcm;ae&mod k h o,f ,l yd k h aqmif &mwG if w&m;0if vd k if pif ud k if aqmif xm;aom uk ef onf rsm;om o,f ,l cG if h &S d ygonf / xd k h tjyif tcsd ef uk ef ouf omaom tjref um;rsm;jzif U o,f ,l yd k h aqmif cG if U tm; wm;jrpf xm;jcif ;rS m juD ;rm;aomtcuf tcJ jzpf apygonf / od k h jzpf í jynf e,f ES if U wd k if ;a'ojuD ;rsm;twG if ; aps;uG uf wif yd k h aom ig;rsm;twG uf uef h owf csuf tm;vk H ;ud k z,f &S m;í vG wf vyf pG m o,f ,l yd k h aqmif apjcif ;jzif U jref rmh a&owå 0g arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;wG if tpmaps;EI ef ;rS m tm&S wd k uf wG if tjrif U qk H ;jzpf aeygonf / tpmxk wf vk yf rI vk yf ief ;wG if vk yf ud k if ol rsm;jym;vmNyD ; ,S Of Nyd Kif xk wf vk yf apjcif ;jzif U t&nf taoG ;jrif U tpmrsm;eS if U uk ef xk wf vk yf rI wd k ;wuf vmrnf jzpf NyD ;? vk yf ief ;wG if jynf wG if ;jynf y &if ;eS D ;jr § Kyf eS H rI rsm;&S d vmygu xk wf uk ef trS ef wd k ;wuf vmrnf jzpf ygonf / ;pd k uf aom v,f ajrrsm;ü ig;uef wl ;azmf jcif ;ud k wm0ef &S d ol rsm;u cG if U rjyKyg/ Department of Fisheries. Myanmar Fisheries Statistics (2015) • Edwards, P. Rural aquaculture in Myanmar (2005) • Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). FAO and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (2016) Nzd K;rI yef ;wd k if ud k xd a&muf pG m yH h yd k ;ay;Ed k if jcif ; ig;arG ;jrLa&; vk yf ief ;onf qif ;&J jcif ;ES if U rnD rQ rI wd k h ud k avQ mU csa&;? tvk yf tud k if tcG if U tvrf ;ud k wd k ;yG m;apjcif ; ES if U a&&S nf cd k if cH U aom pD ;yG g;a&; zG H h Nzd K;rI ud k taxmuf tyH U jyKapjcif ;jzif U a&&S nf zG H h Nzd K;rI yef ;wd k if ud k xd a&muf pG m yH h yd k ;ay;Ed k if jcif ; &nf &G ,f cs uf þtqd k jyKcsuf onf aus;vuf a'ozG H h jzd K;wd k ;wuf apa&;eS if U pm;eyf &d u© m zl vk H rI twG uf ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@ taejzif U tqif ajyacsmarG h pG m t\"d u aqmif &G uf oG m;&rnf U vk yf ief ;rsm;tm; a&G ;cs,f azmf jyxm;ygonf / tqd k ygazmf jycsuf rsm;rS m-1) jref rmh ig;arG ;jrLa&; vk yf ief ;tajctaeeS if U ta&;ygrI rsm;/ 2) ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@ wd k ;wuf a&; tvm;tvmrsm;ud k azmf xk wf jcif ;jzif U aus;vuf a'o 0if aiG wd k ;wuf jcif ;? tvk yf tud k if rsm; zef wD ;ay;jcif ;ES if h jynf wG if ; pm;eyf &d u© mzl vk H rI tm; &&S d apjcif ;wd k h jzpf ygonf / tvS L&S if tjcm;axmuf yH U ol rsm; jref rmU ig;vk yf ief ;rd wf zuf tzG J Y ed 'g ef ;   ed 'g ef ; jref rmed k if iH wG if qef pyg;NyD ;aemuf ig;onf 'k wd ,ta&;ygaom tm[m&u@wG if yg0if ygonf / ig;pm;ok H ;rI jrif h rm;vmonf eS if h trsS ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ; jref rmed k if iH wG if qef pyg;NyD ;aemuf ig;onf 'k wd ,ta&;ygaom tm[m&u@wG if yg0if ygonf / ig;pm;ok H ;rI jrif h rm;vmonf eS if h trsS ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ; vsif jref pG m zG H h Nzd K;vmaomaMumif U 0if aiG &&S d aponf U vk yf ief ;wpf &yf tjzpf &yf wnf vmygonf / obm0rS zrf ;qD ;&&S d NyD ; jzeh f jzL;ay;aomu@eS if U rwl nD bJ xyf rH í vsif jref pG m zG H h Nzd K;vmaomaMumif U 0if aiG &&S d aponf U vk yf ief ;wpf &yf tjzpf &yf wnf vmygonf / obm0rS zrf ;qD ;&&S d NyD ; jzeh f jzL;ay;aomu@eS if U rwl nD bJ xyf rH í tmqD ,H pD ;yG g;a&;tod k uf t0ef ;wG if yg0if jcif ;jzif U Oa&myed k if iH rsm;eS if U tar&d ued k if iH rsm;od k h aps;uG uf wif yd k h &&S d apjcif ;jzif U 0if aiG yd k rd k &&S d aponf U tcG if U tvrf ;opf rsm; tmqD ,H pD ;yG g;a&;tod k uf t0ef ;wG if yg0if jcif ;jzif U Oa&myed k if iH rsm;eS if U tar&d ued k if iH rsm;od k h aps;uG uf wif yd k h &&S d apjcif ;jzif U 0if aiG yd k rd k &&S d aponf U tcG if U tvrf ;opf rsm; &&S d vmygonf / ¤if ;tcsuf rS m arG ;jrLa&;xG uf uk ef rsm;tay: txl ;jynf U pk H aomtcG if U tvrf ; zef wD ;rI wpf &yf tjzpf jref rmU pD ;yG g;a&; OD ;armU vmaprnf jzpf ygonf / &&S d vmygonf / ¤if ;tcsuf rS m arG ;jrLa&;xG uf uk ef rsm;tay: txl ;jynf U pk H aomtcG if U tvrf ; zef wD ;rI wpf &yf tjzpf jref rmU pD ;yG g;a&; OD ;armU vmaprnf jzpf ygonf / 1/ vk yf xk H ;vk yf enf ;rs m;j yk j yif aj ymif ;vJ j cif ;/ a&owå 0garG ;jrLjcif ;vk yf ief ;onf wef zd k ;jrif U vk yf ief ;wpf ck jzpf í tjcm; v,f ,mpd k uf ysd K;a&; vk yf ief ;rsm;xuf 0if aiG yd k rd k &&S d apaomaMumif U jref rmEd k if iH wG if ajrmuf rsm;pG maom qnf wrH rsm;ES if U qnf a&oG if ; ajrmif ;rsm;&S d aomf vnf ; wd usaom pnf ;rsOf ;pnf ;urf ;rsm;eS if U w&m;0if csrS wf xm;jcif ;r&S d aom qnf wrH rsm;twG if ; ig;arG ;jrLjcif ;tm; uef h owf csuf rsm; &S d aeygonf / tqd k yg uef h owf csuf rS m tjcm; a'orsm;wG if yk H rS ef arG ;jrLaeusjzpf aom avS mif td rf pepf jzif U ig;arG ;jrLjcif ;pepf zG H Y Nzd K;wd k ;wuf a&;tm; twm;tqD ;jzpf apygonf / vuf &S d jref rmEd k if iH \\ ig;arG ;jrLa&;wd k ;wuf rI rS m tjuD ;pm;ig;arG ;jrLol rsm;tusd K;twG uf tpd k ;&rS yd k rd k tm;ay;rI rsm;&S d NyD ; tao;pm;awmif ol rsm;twG uf rl jref rmU a&aeowÅ 0garG ;jrLa&; tcef ;u@tusOf ; wd k ;yG m;vQ uf &S d aom vl OD ;a&twG uf ab;uif ;pG m jynf wG if ;aps;uG uf wif yd k h jcif ;tm; tqif ajyacsmarG Y apNyD ; tvS rf ;uG ma0;aom iH wumrS aqmif &G uf aeaom taumif ;qk H ;enf ;vrf ;rsm;jzif h vd k uf emjyKjyif aqmif &G uf oG m;ed k if &ef ,ck tcsd ef rS m toif U awmf qk H ;jzpf ygonf / tao;pm;? tvwf pm;vk yf ief ;&S if rsm;tm; twd k ;EI ef ;ouf omaom acs;aiG rsm; wd k ;jr § if h &&S d ap&ef aqmif &G uf ay;jcif ;rS m jynf U pk H aom ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@ zG H h Nzd K;wd k ;wuf vmaprnf U t\"d utaMumif ;t&if ; jzpf ygonf / tqd k yg aps;uG uf jzef h jzL;a&;u@wG if acs;aiG rsm;wd k ;jr § if U &&S d ed k if jcif ;? &moD Owk d u OD ;pm;ay; vd k tyf csuf jzpf ygonf / Edwards, 2005 ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;wG if tawG h tBuH K&S d aom uR rf ;usif onf U vk yf om; tif tm;rsm; &&S d a&;rS m t\"d u ta&;tBuD ;qk H ;jzpf aomaMumif U tpd k ;&eS if U yk *¾ vd u u@rsm;rS xd a&muf aom yH h yd k ;rI rsm; jyKvk yf ay;&ef vd k tyf rnf jzpf ygonf / uH raumif ;pG mjzif U ,aeh jref rmU ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@wG if uR rf ;usif vk yf om;tif tm;&S m;yg;jcif ;? ynma&;ES if h ok awoevk yf ief ; aqmif &G uf rI tm;enf ;jcif ;? tajccH oG if ;tm;pk rsm; rjynf U pk H jcif ; ponf wd k h BuH KawG h ae&ygonf / wuú od k vf rsm;wG if vnf ; ig;arG ;jrLa&;eS if h quf pyf aom oif cef ;pmbmom&yf tm;enf ;jcif ;? vuf awG h oif jum;rI tcsd ef enf ;yg;jcif ;ES if U ouf qd k if &m Xmersm;eS if U quf oG ,f rI vd k tyf csuf rsm; &S d aeygonf / od k h jzpf ygí wuú od k vf rsm;\\ oif &d k ;nG ef wrf ;rsm;ud k uk ef xk wf vk yf rI vk yf ief ;rsm;eS if U ud k uf nD ap&ef eS if U t&nf taoG ; jr § if U wif apa&;wd k h twG uf wuú od k vf rsm;tMum;? yk *¾ vd u u@? ig;vk yf ief ;OD ;pD ;Xme? jrd K Y jytzG Jh tpnf ;rsm;tMum; yl ;aygif ;í aqG ;aEG ;nd  § Ed I if ;jcif ;rsm; jyKvk yf &ef vd k tyf rnf jzpf ygonf / Photo by Ben Belton AQUACULTURE aus;Zl ;wif vT m • Ben Belton, Michigan State University • Manjurul Karim, WorldFish • Kevin Fitzsimmons, University of Arizona • Aye Aye Lwin, WorldFish • Michael Phillips, WorldFish • Nilar Shein, Department of Fisheries • Max Troell, Stockholm Resilience Center • Soe Tun, Myanmar Fisheries Federation usrf ;ud k ;um; DECENT WORK AND ECONOMIC GROWTH ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;wG if xk wf vk yf a&;ES if U wef zd k ;uG if ;quf rsm; tquf rjywf zef wD ;jyKvk yf ay;jcif ;jzif U trsd K;orD ;rsm;\\ tvk yf tud k if tcG if U tvrf ;rsm; azmf xk wf ay;jcif ; GENDER EQUALITY ig; yd k rd k pm;ok H ;jcif ;jzif U usef ;rma&;aumif ;apNyD ; vl rI b0ud k wd k ;wuf apjcif ; GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING vl wd k if ; tvG ,f wul pm;ok H ; Ed k if aom ig;rsm;ud k xk wf vk yf ay;jcif ;jzif U pm;eyf &d u© m wd k ;yG m;apNyD ; iwf rG wf jcif ;ud k tqk H ;owf aped k if jcif ; ZERO HUNGER v,f ,21% ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;onf qif ;&J jcif ;eS if U rnD rQ rI pm;ok H ;ol rsm;xH uk ef usp&d wf ouf ompG m yd k h aqmif a&muf &S d Ed k if rnf jzpf ygonf / 2/ arG ;j rLa&;pcef ;rs m;\\ oG if ;tm;pk ES if U enf ;ynmrs m;j r § if h wif j cif ;/ ig;arG ;awmif ol rsm;tm; w&m;0if aiG xk wf acs;jcif ;rsm; r&S d í jyif yyk *¾ vd u aiG acs;rI rS m twd k ;EI ef ; tvG ef rsm;aomaMumif U awmif ol rsm;taejzif U tqif ajyrI r&S d aMumif ; od &S d &ygonf / tao;pm; ig;arG ;awmif ol rsm;eS if U wd k h ud k avQ mU csa&;? tvk yf tud k if tcG if U tvrf ;ud k wd k ;yG m;apjcif ;ES if U a&&S nf cd k if cH U aom pD ;yG g;a&; zG H h Nzd K;rI ud k taxmuf tyH U jyKapjcif ;jzif U a&&S nf POVERTY a&&S nf zG H Y Nzd K;wd k ;wuf a&; &nf rS ef ;csuf rsm;tay: zG H h NO t\"d u taxmuf ul jyKrl rsm; (SDGs) 1/ vk yf xk H ;vk yf enf ;rs m;j yk j yif aj ymif ;vJ j cif ;/ a&owå 0garG ;jrLjcif ;vk yf ief ;onf wef zd k ;jrif U vk yf ief ;wpf ck jzpf í tjcm; v,f ,mpd k uf ysd K;a&; vk yf ief ;rsm;xuf 0if aiG yd k rd k &&S d apaomaMumif U jref rmEd k if iH wG if ajrmuf rsm;pG maom qnf wrH rsm;ES if U qnf a&oG if ; ajrmif ;rsm;&S d aomf vnf ; wd usaom pnf ;rsOf ;pnf ;urf ;rsm;eS if U w&m;0if csrS wf xm;jcif ;r&S d aom qnf wrH rsm;twG if ; ig;arG ;jrLjcif ;tm; uef h owf csuf rsm; &S d aeygonf / tqd k yg uef h owf csuf rS m tjcm; a'orsm;wG if yk H rS ef arG ;jrLaeusjzpf aom avS mif td rf pepf jzif U ig;arG ;jrLjcif ;pepf zG H Y Nzd K;wd k ;wuf a&;tm; twm;tqD ;jzpf apygonf / vuf &S d jref rmEd k if iH \\ ig;arG ;jrLa&;wd k ;wuf rI rS m tjuD ;pm;ig;arG ;jrLol rsm;tusd K;twG uf tpd k ;&rS yd k rd k tm;ay;rI rsm;&S d NyD ; tao;pm;awmif ol rsm;twG uf rl jref rmU a&aeowÅ 0garG ;jrLa&; tcef ;u@tusOf ; wd k ;yG m;vQ uf &S d aom vl OD ;a&twG uf ab;uif ;pG m jynf wG if ;aps;uG uf wif yd k h jcif ;tm; tqif ajyacsmarG Y apNyD ; tvS rf ;uG ma0;aom iH wumrS aqmif &G uf aeaom taumif ;qk H ;enf ;vrf ;rsm;jzif h vd k uf emjyKjyif aqmif &G uf oG m;ed k if &ef ,ck tcsd ef rS m toif U awmf qk H ;jzpf ygonf / tao;pm;? tvwf pm;vk yf ief ;&S if rsm;tm; twd k ;EI ef ;ouf omaom acs;aiG rsm; wd k ;jr § if h &&S d ap&ef aqmif &G uf ay;jcif ;rS m jynf U pk H aom ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@ zG H h Nzd K;wd k ;wuf vmaprnf U t\"d utaMumif ;t&if ; jzpf ygonf / tqd k yg aps;uG uf jzef h jzL;a&;u@wG if acs;aiG rsm;wd k ;jr § if U &&S d ed k if jcif ;? &moD Owk d u OD ;pm;ay; vd k tyf csuf jzpf ygonf / Edwards, 2005 ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;wG if tawG h tBuH K&S d aom uR rf ;usif onf U vk yf om; tif tm;rsm; &&S d a&;rS m t\"d u ta&;tBuD ;qk H ;jzpf aomaMumif U tpd k ;&eS if U yk *¾ vd u u@rsm;rS xd a&muf aom yH h yd k ;rI rsm; jyKvk yf ay;&ef vd k tyf rnf jzpf ygonf / uH raumif ;pG mjzif U ,aeh jref rmU ig;arG ;jrLa&;u@wG if uR rf ;usif vk yf om;tif tm;&S m;yg;jcif ;? ynma&;ES if h ok awoevk yf ief ; aqmif &G uf rI tm;enf ;jcif ;? tajccH oG if ;tm;pk rsm; rjynf U pk H jcif ; ponf wd k h BuH KawG h ae&ygonf / wuú od k vf rsm;wG if vnf ; ig;arG ;jrLa&;eS if h quf pyf aom oif cef ;pmbmom&yf tm;enf ;jcif ;? vuf awG h oif jum;rI tcsd ef enf ;yg;jcif ;ES if U ouf qd k if &m Xmersm;eS if U quf oG ,f rI vd k tyf csuf rsm; &S d aeygonf / od k h jzpf ygí wuú od k vf rsm;\\ oif &d k ;nG ef wrf ;rsm;ud k uk ef xk wf vk yf rI vk yf ief ;rsm;eS if U ud k uf nD ap&ef eS if U t&nf taoG ; jr § if U wif apa&;wd k h twG uf wuú od k vf rsm;tMum;? yk *¾ vd u u@? ig;vk yf ief ;OD ;pD ;Xme? jrd K Y jytzG Jh tpnf ;rsm;tMum; yl ;aygif ;í aqG ;aEG ;nd  § Ed I if ;jcif ;rsm; jyKvk yf &ef vd k tyf rnf jzpf ygonf / Photo by Ben Belton AQUACULTURE aus;Zl ;wif vT m • Ben Belton, Michigan State University • Manjurul Karim, WorldFish • Kevin Fitzsimmons, University of Arizona • Aye Aye Lwin, WorldFish • Michael Phillips, WorldFish • Nilar Shein, Department of Fisheries • Max Troell, Stockholm Resilience Center • Soe Tun, Myanmar Fisheries Federation usrf ;ud k ;um; DECENT WORK AND ECONOMIC GROWTH ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;wG if xk wf vk yf a&;ES if U wef zd k ;uG if ;quf rsm; tquf rjywf zef wD ;jyKvk yf ay;jcif ;jzif U trsd K;orD ;rsm;\\ tvk yf tud k if tcG if U tvrf ;rsm; azmf xk wf ay;jcif ; GENDER EQUALITY ig; yd k rd k pm;ok H ;jcif ;jzif U usef ;rma&;aumif ;apNyD ; vl rI b0ud k wd k ;wuf apjcif ; GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING vl wd k if ; tvG ,f wul pm;ok H ; Ed k if aom ig;rsm;ud k xk wf vk yf ay;jcif ;jzif U pm;eyf &d u© m wd k ;yG m;apNyD ; iwf rG wf jcif ;ud k tqk H ;owf aped k if jcif ; ZERO HUNGER v,f ,21% ig;arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;onf qif ;&J jcif ;eS if U rnD rQ rI pm;ok H ;ol rsm;xH uk ef usp&d wf ouf ompG m yd k h aqmif a&muf &S d Ed k if rnf jzpf ygonf / 2/ arG ;j rLa&;pcef ;rs m;\\ oG if ;tm;pk ES if U enf ;ynmrs m;j r § if h wif j cif ;/ ig;arG ;awmif ol rsm;tm; w&m;0if aiG xk wf acs;jcif ;rsm; r&S d í jyif yyk *¾ vd u aiG acs;rI rS m twd k ;EI ef ; tvG ef rsm;aomaMumif U awmif ol rsm;taejzif U tqif ajyrI r&S d aMumif ; od &S d &ygonf / tao;pm; ig;arG ;awmif ol rsm;eS if U wd k h ud k avQ mU csa&;? tvk yf tud k if tcG if U tvrf ;ud k wd k ;yG m;apjcif ;ES if U a&&S nf cd k if cH U aom pD ;yG g;a&; zG H h Nzd K;rI ud k taxmuf tyH U jyKapjcif ;jzif U a&&S nf POVERTY a&&S nf zG H Y Nzd K;wd k ;wuf a&; &nf rS ef ;csuf rsm;tay: zG H h NO t\"d u taxmuf ul jyKrl rsm; (SDGs) a&aeowÅ 0garG ;jrLa&; {&m0wD ES if U  a&aeowÅ 0garG ;jrLa&;{&m0wD ES if U 1 ruf x&pf wef(oef ;) &ef uk ef wd k if ; ig;xk wf vk yf rI 1 ruf x&pf wef(oef ;)&ef uk ef wd k if ;ig;xk wf vk yf rI  wG if ;arG ;uef 70% ig;jrpf csif ; wG if ;arG ;uef70% ig;jrpf csif ;  90% 6% yk pG ef 90%6% yk pG ef a&owÅ 0g bH k ig;zrf ;vk yf ief ; 22% arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ; jref rmed k if iH \\ a&owå 0g arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;rS m a&S h quf wd k ;csJ Y aqmif &G uf oG m;&ef tvG ef tvm; tvmaumif ;aom &nf &G ,f arQ mf rS ef ;csuf rsm; &S d ygonf / ed *H k ; ig;xk wf vk yf rI aygif ; a&owÅ 0g bH k ig;zrf ;vk yf ief ; 22% arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ; jref rmed k if iH \\ a&owå 0g arG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;rS m a&S h quf wd k ;csJ Y aqmif &G uf oG m;&ef tvG ef tvm; tvmaumif ;aom &nf &G ,f arQ mf rS ef ;csuf rsm; &S d ygonf / ed *H k ; ig;xk wf vk yf rI aygif ;  "}],"sieverID":"e34cc432-4b71-46f3-aaf2-2d7dc2ba233c","abstract":"jref rmEd k if iH wG if a&owå 0garG ;jrLa&;vk yf ief ;onf aus;vuf a'o 0if aiG wd k ;wuf vmapa&;? jynf wG if ;pm;ok H ;ol rsm; vd k tyf csuf eS if U aps;uG uf wif yd k h ed k if rI tajctaersm;rS m tvm;tvmaumif ;rsm;pG m &S d ygonf / • tBuD ;pm;ig;arG ;ol rsm;? tao;pm;ig;arG ; awmif ol rsm;ES if U wef zd k ;jr § if U tvwf pm;? tao;pm;vk yf ief ;&S if rsm;rS vk yf ief ;vnf ywf Ed k if rI onf ? a'ozG Hh Nzd K;rI ud k aumif ;pG mjzpf xG ef ;Ed k if ygonf / tus Of ;cs K yf jref rmed k if iH wG if ig;onf tvG ef ta&;ygaom tm[m&u@wG if yg0if NyD ; ig;pm;ok H ;rI yrmPrS m vsif jref pG m wd k ;wuf vmí t\"d u 0if aiG &&S d aom vk yf ief ;wpf &yf tjzpf ajymif ;vJ vQ uf &S d ygonf / aus;vuf a'o&S d tao;pm; ig;arG ;awmif ol rsm; tusd K;pD ;yG g;wd k ;wuf a&;eS if U jynf wG if ; pm;ok H ;rI &d u© m zl vk H apa&;twG uf tjynf U t0yH U yd k ;ay;Ed k if rnf U ta&;ygaom ig;vk yf ief ;qd k if &m rl 0g'rsm; (3) csuf tm; twd k csKyf azmf jytyf ygonf / 4if ;wd k h rS m (u) awmif ol rsm;qEt& pd k uf ysd K;ajrtm; ig;arG ;uef tjzpf ajymif ;vJ tok H ;jyKvd k ygu yk H rS ef cG if U jyK&ef (c) ta&;ygaomoG if ;tm;pk eS if h cd k if rmaom arG ;jrLenf ;pepf rsm;tm; wd k ;wuf &&S d ap&ef (*) acwf ES if h avsmf nD aom arG ;jrLa&;qd k if &m enf ;pepf rsm;tm; ouf qd k if &mu@tvd k uf ynmay;vk yf ief ;? pG rf ;&nf jr § if h wif vmapjcif ; vk yf ief ;rsm; t&S d ef t[k ef jr § if h aqmif &G uf oG m;ap&ef wd k h jzpf ygonf / j ref rmh a&aeowÅ 0g arG ;j rLa&;vk yf ief ;\\ oabmobm0 a&owå 0g arG ;j rLa&;vk yf ief ;rS m ig ;? yk pG ef ? uPef ;paom tcG H rmrs d K ;rs m; tyg t0if c&k urmrsd K;rsm;vnf ; yg0if ygonf /"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08ee7812a44776cb0933c946562e8072","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6820dfb0-dfdc-49f0-ab9a-01f6b228c7ce/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"What future for banana-based farming systems in Uganda? A participatory scenario analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Food insecurity and poverty remain major challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2020). At the same time, climate change effects threaten food production (FAO, 2015;IPCC, 2022), while increases in production are needed given the expected doubling of the population by 2050 (Godfray et al., 2010;Van Ittersum et al., 2016;United Nations, 2022). The options for expansion of agriculture into uncultivated areas are limited and often undesirable in already densely populated areas, which implies that, largely, intensification of agriculture is needed on land currently under production (Pretty et al., 2011;Vanlauwe et al., 2014;Van Ittersum et al., 2016). There is consensus, however, that this intensification needs to happen in a sustainable way, with minimal negative environmental impact and with due attention for social and human wellbeing (Godfray, 2015;Smith et al., 2017;Reich et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"One of the countries facing ongoing population pressure, land scarcity and encroachment of nature reserves is Uganda (Adonia and Kakurungu, 2014;Mwesigye et al., 2017). In Uganda, 80% of the population are smallholder farmers (UBOS, 2020). One of the most widely grown staple crops in Uganda is East African Highland banana (Musa spp., hereafter referred to as banana), grown by >75% of all farmers in the country (Promusa, 2020). Major growing areas are concentrated in the south and southwest of the country (UBOS, 2020; Ochola et al., 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"Especially in the southwest of Uganda, banana cultivation has expanded over the past decades (Ochola et al., 2022). The area under banana has increased and its management has improved, resulting in marked increases in production volumes and incomes (Gold et al., 1999;Rietveld et al., 2021). However, while the increases have generally improved the economic performance of the farming system, this has largely been at the expense of other dimensions of sustainability: the banana area increase has been at the expense of other (food) crop, livestock and forest areas (Rietveld et al., 2021;Ochola et al., 2022), with implications for food and nutrition security and environmental services (Wairegi and van Asten, 2010;Den Braber et al., 2021;Rietveld et al., 2021). Moreover, the expansion of banana and changes in its agronomic management have resulted in social implications with respect to gender relations and labour division (Rietveld et al., 2021;Rietveld and van der Burg, 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"In western Uganda, banana is part of a more diverse farming system (FEWS NET, 2013;Ochola et al., 2022). This diversity favours the farming system's sustainability attributes with respect to food security, environmental services and resistance to shocks. However, population increase has led to expansion of agricultural land into the original primary forest (GFW, 2021), and improved market integration is driving this system towards intensified banana production and expansion as well. Besides, in the farming systems of both southwestern and western Uganda, the use of fertilizer and manure remains highly limited, resulting in soil fertility depletion (Wairegi and van Asten, 2010;Den Braber et al., 2021;Rietveld et al., 2021). Hence, looking towards the future of the systems in both regions, increased vulnerability to climatic and market shocks as a result of the increased dominance of banana, soil fertility loss, deforestation, and changing social relations are important sustainability concerns."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"While a transition of these systems towards a more sustainable future seems necessary, the perceived need for this transition, the desired state of the future system and the preferred pathways of getting there may differ among actors involved. Envisioning future transition pathways therefore requires involvement of a wide range of stakeholders, to elicit their perspectives on the most important local needs and priorities, and to create the necessary ownership, commitment and joint social learning to foster the transition towards the desirable future (Walz et al., 2007;Reed et al., 2013;Schneider et al., 2019). To facilitate such a process, participatory visioning and backcasting can be employed to guide discussion and convergence of views of different actors through imagining a successful outcome in the future, and identifying the steps needed to reach that outcome (Quist and Vergragt, 2006;Robinson et al., 2011;Kanter et al., 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":144,"text":"Transition pathways need to be planned under uncertainty about the future (Quist and Vergragt, 2006;Larkin et al., 2020), which can be catered for by combining backcasting with the use of exploratory scenarios (Kok et al., 2011;Robinson et al., 2011;Vervoort et al., 2014). In participatory scenario planning, stakeholders imagine plausible futures in the form of scenariosdefined here as \"plausible descriptions of what the future might hold\" (Reed et al., 2013) -often ranging between the worst and best imagined futures; identify the most relevant issues to be considered in the scenarios; and define uncertainties around planning for the future (Williams et al., 2023). The qualitative development of scenarios is sometimes followed by a quantitative scenario analysis, in which future uncertainties are simulated, impacts of the identified scenarios quantified and emerging trade-offs between different sustainability domains reconciled (Walz et al., 2007;Soste et al., 2015;Williams et al., 2023)."},{"index":7,"size":141,"text":"Only a minority of backcasting and participatory scenario planning studies took place in Africa (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2015;Bourgeois and Sette, 2017;Thorn et al., 2020), where data scarcity, limited digital skills and limited experience with the concept of scenarios pose challenges. Even fewer studies focus on a local, smallholder farming setting (with Vervoort et al., 2014 as an exception), while this level comprises the actors most directly affected (Giller et al., 2021b;Ortiz-Miranda et al., 2022). Moreover, while the choice of indicators to quantify in scenario analyses is often guided by the models used (cf. Walz et al., 2007;Starkl et al., 2013;Soste et al., 2015;Chopin et al., 2021;Homann-Kee Tui et al., 2021), explicit involvement of stakeholders in the identification of locally relevant criteria and indicators for assessment happens less frequently (exceptions are e.g. Reed et al., 2013;Starkl et al., 2013;Vervoort et al., 2014)."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"The objective of our study was therefore to combine participatory visioning and backcasting with the use of exploratory scenarios, to codesign potential transition pathways for banana-based farming systems in Uganda, and to assess the effects of these pathways for farm households on different sustainability indicators co-identified by stakeholders. Specific objectives were to: 1) identify the steps needed to reach an envisioned desirable future for two banana-based farming systems in Uganda; 2) develop plausible scenarios to unpack uncertainties in future developments and quantify the effects of the scenarios on sustainability indicators at the household level; and 3) explore synergies and trade-offs between indicators in different sustainability domains with stakeholders to inform their future decision-making. We refer to the entire process as a participatory scenario analysis, and also reflect on the methodological aspects of conducting such participatory scenario analysis in a smallholder farmer setting."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study regions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Southwestern and western Uganda were selected for their importance as banana producing areas within Uganda, and for their contrasting soil, climatic and farming systems conditions. Within southwestern Uganda, the study took place in Birere and Rugaaga subcounties in Isingiro district; and in western Uganda in Rwimi subcounty in Bunyangabu district. All sub-counties had been involved in previous interventions around banana and were considered as representative study sites for the region."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"The sites in the southwest are located at an altitude of 1350-1500 m above sea level (masl) and have moderately fertile loamy soils. The southwest receives rainfall of 800-1100 mm year − 1 , which is marginal for banana production. The expected increased drought incidence due to climate change will make production more vulnerable in future (Wichern et al., 2019). Banana production in the region is dominated by the cooking type, and as much as 70% of the rural population in this region indicates that the production of cooking banana is their sole source of income (ACORD Uganda, 2010). Monocultures and the increased dependence on income solely from banana make the system increasingly vulnerable to outbreaks of pests and diseases (Blomme et al., 2013;Blomme et al., 2019;Fan et al., 2022), and to market or climatic shocks (Rietveld et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The sites in western Uganda are located at an altitude of 1100-1200 masl and receive moderate to good rainfall (1200-1500 mm year − 1 ). The region has fertile, black, volcanic ash soils. The west has a shorter history of banana cultivation than the southwest (Gold et al., 1999;Ochola et al., 2022), yet the continued cultivation without external nutrient inputs is threatening soil fertility in the longer term."}]},{"head":"General approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The participatory scenario analysis consisted of three steps, directly related to the three objectives (Fig. 1). Step 1 focused on the visioning of a sustainable and desirable future for the two different farming systems by stakeholders, and the identification of the steps needed to reach that vision through backcasting. In step 2, researchers used the results from step 1 to develop plausible future scenarios, and quantified these scenarios to assess the effects on sustainability indicators at the household level. In step 3, synergies and trade-offs between sustainability domains were identified and reflected on with stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Step 1: Envisioning a sustainable and desirable future","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"In both regions, workshops were held with stakeholders along the two regional banana value chains. These stakeholders had been identified in a preceding Net-Map exercise (Schiffer and Hauck, 2010;Uckert et al., 2022), and consisted of representatives of farmer groups, cooperatives, processors, transporters, NGOs, extension agents, researchers, financial institutions and the local government. One to two representatives (and three in the case of farmer groups) of each stakeholder category were invited. A detailed overview of participants per workshop is given in Table S1.1. A team of researchers and implementing project partners facilitated the workshops."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"A first two-day workshop late 2019 focused on visioning and backcasting, to develop a shared vision for sustainable farming systems and banana value chains in the \"near future\": 10 to 20 years from now. This is a period that can be foreseen, yet allows participants to dream big and not feel restricted by a short time frame, in line with e.g. Vervoort et al. (2014) and Kanter et al. (2016). Four sustainability domains were selected beforehand by the project partners: the food security, economic, social and environmental domain. These domains were verified with stakeholders, which led to no changes in the southwest, and a combination of the economic and food security domain in the west, as stakeholders argued that these should be considered together."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"After an introduction to participatory visioning, stakeholders discussed the question: \"What will farming in this region look like in a sustainable future?\". The participants were divided randomly into groups per sustainability domain. The smaller groups served to allow all stakeholders to give their view and to minimize the dominance of certain (powerful) actors (cf. Reed et al., 2013). Each group addressed the question by writing down their 'hopes and wishes' for the future on post-its and placed these on a sheet per sustainability domain. The groups then selected their top-five hopes and wishes, which we refer to as 'elements of a sustainable future' in the remainder of this study. A second round focused on the banana value chain in the same way. Next, backcasting was introduced as the steps needed to reach the vision. Backcasting started by the identification of obstacles that could arise when aiming to reach the vision for the elements of a sustainable future per domain. This exercise was done for the banana value chain only."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"On the second workshop day, stakeholders identified opportunities to overcome the obstacles. As there were similar, cross-cutting obstacles across sustainability domains, the obstacles were regrouped into obstacles related to production, processing/ value addition and marketing. New groups were formed around these three categories, and each group picked out the three main obstacles in their view. The groups listed opportunities that would help to overcome the obstacles, and possible project interventions. Then, the groups rotated twice and added to the findings of the first group. The process aimed to go from the collection of different perspectives in the visioning part, to consensus among stakeholders on the most important topics to focus on."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"In a second two-day workshop early 2020, stakeholders from both regions were invited together. In this workshop, four potential project interventions from the first workshop, gauged as most feasible by the project partners, were presented to the participants. Through pairwise ranking (by each individual stakeholder), two project interventions were selected per region. For the two selected interventions, groups per region identified a set of locally relevant indicators, to monitor anticipated effects of the interventions. Finally, a number of past trends and changes, gathered from literature and reports, was presented to the participants. The participants reflected on the applicability of these trends and their effect on people's livelihoods in their respective regions. This was done in a qualitative way. The magnitude and potential effects of the trends were quantified as part of Step 2."}]},{"head":"2.4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Step 2: Developing and quantifying plausible future scenarios"}]},{"head":"Developing future scenarios","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"In Step 2, researchers reviewed the results of Step 1 for the two regions, and identified elements of a sustainable future (workshop 1) and trends influencing people's livelihoods (workshop 2) that were listed and prioritised by stakeholders in both regions. Researchers then combined these trends and elements to develop distinct, plausible future scenarios which are detailed in Section 3.1. Scenarios were the same for both regions to reduce complexity, and as warranted by the overlap in trends and elements in the two regions."}]},{"head":"Quantification of the baseline situation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The scenarios were compared with the current, baseline situation of farm households in the two study regions. The baseline situation was based on data from several farm surveys conducted between 2017 and 2020. These surveys included a general socio-economic and bio-physical survey describing farming systems and banana production practices, and additional surveys on specific topics including banana bunch weights, market prices and input use (Table S1.2). The sampling strategy allowed for representing the farming population in the study sites, and resulted in a complete dataset of 114 households in southwestern and 54 households in western Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Variables quantified to assess the baseline situation were: available farm land, crop production, input use and costs, market prices, labour available and required, and nutrient offtake and input. Currently available farm land was based on farmers' estimates in the socioeconomic baseline survey. The production of banana (t farm − 1 year − 1 ) was derived from the biophysical baseline survey, based on allometric relations (Wairegi et al., 2009; more detail in S3.1). Banana yields were farm specific, as also reflected in varying input use between farms. The production of other crops was based on farmers' estimates from the socio-economic baseline survey. For these crops, mean yields were calculated per crop per region and allocated to all farms growing this crop, assuming no differences in input use between farms."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Input use per crop was derived from the socio-economic baseline survey based on a yes/no indication of the use of improved seed, manure, mulch, mineral fertilizer and pest control measures. For banana, inputs were considered per farm. For other crops, inputs were allocated to all farms when the majority of farmers used this input in a particular crop. This was only the case for use of improved maize varieties in western Uganda. Input quantities and prices were estimated from different sources (Table S1.3). Market prices for crops were based on the average farmer-reported market price per crop per region from the socio-economic baseline (Table S1.4). All financial data were converted to 2017 price levels and expressed in 2017 US dollar Purchasing Power Parity ($PPP) (World Bank, 2020b)."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Family labour available was estimated from the indicated full time (365 days per year) or part-time (56 days, equalling 8 weeks of school holidays) availability of each household member in farming, and their estimated labour productivity (adults > 16 years old = 1; kids 4-16 years old = 0.5). Labour use data per crop per farm was collected in the socio-economic baseline survey. Nutrient offtake from banana fields as N, P and K was calculated by multiplying banana yields by their dry matter fraction of 0.15 g/g (Taulya, 2015), and the NPK content of banana bunches (Table S1.5). Nutrient inputs were assumed from manure, mineral fertilizer, banana peels and indigenous soil supply (details in S3.2). Mulch was not assumed to contribute any nutrient inputs (G. Taulya, personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Quantification of scenarios","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The same variables were used for the quantification of scenarios, based on the survey data and literature. The time horizon of the scenario analysis was set to 2040, in line with the stakeholder workshops."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Available farm land in future was assumed to change as a result of a population growth of 3.0% per year and an urbanisation rate of 5.2% per year (World Bank, 2020a). Additionally, in one of the scenarios we assumed that a number of farmers would leave agriculture. This was based on farmers' attitude towards farming gauged in the socioeconomic baseline through the extent of (dis)agreement with statements such as \"I would prefer if my children do not end up working as farmers\", \"If I had a choice I would not be a full time farmer\" and \"There is no better investment than farming\" (more detail in S3.3)."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Crop production in the scenarios was assumed to be affected in two ways: through climate change, and through the application of good agronomic practices. Climate change in Uganda is predicted to result in an increase in temperature of 1 to 3 • C by mid-century, and a concentration of rainfall in heavier and less frequent events (McSweeney et al., 2010). This results in a larger evaporative demand and an increased occurrence of droughts, combined with heat stress and increased pest, disease and weed pressure (Adhikari et al., 2015). Crop-specific assumptions about the effects of these changes were based on average values from existing literature, based on the range of projected crop yield changes under different models and scenarios (see details of values found in different studies in Table S1.6)."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"The effects of the application of good agronomic practices on banana yields were specific for the study sites, and are explained in detail in Section 3.3.2 and further. For other crops, more general trends in Uganda and/or Sub-Saharan Africa were considered with no differences between the sites. For these other crops, expected changes in yield were based on IFPRI's International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) (IFPRI, 2019). This model simulates changes in crop yields in Sub-Saharan Africa up to 2050, combining projected effects of climate change, investments in agricultural research and other developments compared with a reference scenario (IFPRI, 2019). IMPACT data points were only available for 2030 and 2050; expected changes in crop yields for 2040 were obtained through linear interpolation."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"The scenario-specific changes in input use, market prices, labour, and nutrient offtake and input are described in Section 3.3."}]},{"head":"Assessing sustainability indicators","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"To assess the current and future sustainability under the different scenarios for farm households in the two regions, researchers selected one indicator in each sustainability domain, derived from the larger set of indicators defined by stakeholders in Step 1. The selection was needed to match the availability of data in the baseline surveys and to ensure relevance of the indicators in relation to the scenarios. Also, some indicators selected by stakeholders related more narrowly to the project interventions and therefore focused on banana production alone instead of the farm level, and did not cover all four sustainability domains. The selected indicators were: food self-sufficiency (food security), gross margin from crop farming (economic), labour sufficiency (social) and nutrient balances of banana fields (environmental)."},{"index":2,"size":295,"text":"Food self-sufficiency was calculated as the percentage fulfilment of a household's energy needs by on-farm production of calories (Falconnier et al., 2018). The crop produce per farm was converted to calories, based on a food composition table for Uganda (Hotz et al., 2012). We assumed an average requirement of 2250 kcal per day for adults, and 1850 kcal per day for children <18 years (FAO, WHO, and United Nations University, 2001). Farm gross margin resulted from the value of the total crop produce (crop produce multiplied by market prices) minus the total input costs per farm. Farm gross margins were compared to the poverty line of 1.90 USD (2.07 $PPP) per adult equivalent per day, and to the living incomethe minimum amount of money required for a \"decent living\" -of 3.82 $PPP in (south)western Uganda (Van de Ven et al., 2020). To get an indication of the relative effect of labour on farm gross margins, annual labour costs were also added to farm input costs. All labour, both family and hired, was costed at 5.51 $PPP per day equivalent to the price paid for rural casual labour. Labour was expressed as a sufficiency ratio between the family labour available and the labour required. All labour data was collected in hours ha − 1 , but converted to 8hour working days for ease of reference. A partial nutrient balance was composed for individual banana fields on each farm, resulting from NPK inputs minus offtake. Nutrient balances were also converted to nutrient use efficiencies (nutrient input/ nutrient offtake) for ease of interpretation based on the EU Nitrogen Expert Panel (2015). To assess synergies and trade-offs between the indicators measured in different units, indicators were translated into standardised scores of either − 1, 0 or 1 (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"We also conducted a sensitivity analysis, in which we varied the main variables by 50% (in line with variations in e.g. climate change predictions and market prices), and assessed the effect of this variation on the four sustainability indicators."}]},{"head":"Step 3: Exploring synergies and trade-offs between indicators with stakeholders","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"In a one-day feedback workshop early 2021, researchers presented the baseline and quantitative scenario analysis to stakeholders, after which the results were discussed and verified. Initially, a mid-term workshop was planned to reflect on the scenarios developed by researchers. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic this was not possible. Therefore, only the effects of the scenarios on the different sustainability indicators were discussed, with a focus on banana. After a brief recap of the process followed in Step 1, a simplified explanation of the scenarios was given as: \"How will [the selected indicators] change in future if we were to achieve [the prioritised elements of a sustainable future], taking into account the effects of [the identified trends]\". Or as an example: how will banana yields change in future, if we had irrigation, taking into account the effects of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Stakeholders first reflected on the representativeness of the baseline values for the selected sustainability indicators, and then on the indicator values under each of the scenarios. Some indicators were presented as opportunities, for instance: will irrigation (future element) allow us to achieve desirable banana yields (indicator); others as prerequisites or trade-offs, for instance: \"we may reach an increased banana yield, but it also means we will have to hire additional labour. How feasible and desirable is this?\". The reflection on the synergies and tradeoffs allowed to identify priorities for decision-making for farmers, policy makers and other stakeholders: what opportunities and challenges arise in the different scenarios to reach the desired future, and which tradeoffs should be avoided/ minimized?"}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Step 1: Envisioning a sustainable and desirable future","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Step 1 started with the participatory visioning exercise. In the southwest, the visions for agriculture in general and the banana value chain had a large overlap, as participants argued that banana played such an important role that in a vision for agriculture they automatically pictured banana. Despite the division of groups around the four sustainability principles, a number of topics were cross-cutting (Table S1.7): the wish for processing of and value addition to banana and by-products like banana peels; the need to apply good agricultural practices to improve production and productivity, including access to water for irrigation to reduce vulnerability to drought; and wellfunctioning cooperatives. In the west, stakeholders agreed that in a desirable future, banana would be the main enterprise and other crops would be grown in support and contributing as food crops. The topics mentioned above were also considered important in the west, as well as diversified income sources and job opportunities outside farming (Table S1.7)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"In the backcasting exercise, the main obstacles to reach the desired future in both the southwest and the west related to a lack of knowledge, skills, technologies and investment capacity for production, processing/ value addition and marketing; and a lack of well-functioning cooperatives (Table S1.7). Opportunities to overcome these common obstacles included trainings on good agricultural practices, processing/ value addition and the re-use of banana waste. Opportunities for improved marketing included collective marketing and trainings to improve the functioning of cooperatives. A detailed report of the entire visioning and backcasting process is available in Ronner et al. (2019a) and Ronner et al. (2019b)."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"In the second workshop of Step 1, stakeholders voted for two concrete interventions from a shortlist of four, judged by project partners as the most feasible among the opportunities: 1) training and exchange visits on an identified training need, 2) packaging of banana for improved marketing, 3) improved access to knowledge on Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) and mineral fertilizer in banana and 4) training on banana-beverage making with improved access to planting material for these banana varieties. Interventions 3 and 4 were selected in both regions. For each of the selected interventions, stakeholders identified locally relevant sustainability indicators and discussed baseline values and desired future levels."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The main trends identified were population growth & urbanisation, climate change, agricultural technology development (new varieties, use of inputs, pest and disease management, water management) and value chain development (improved access to information, contracts with buyers, cooperation in farmer groups/ cooperatives, access to finance), and were largely similar between the two regions. Detailed results of the second workshop are available in Ronner et al. (2020)."}]},{"head":"Step 2: Developing plausible future scenarios","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Researchers selected the future elements for a sustainable banana value chain that were roughly similar in both regions:"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"− Food security: focus on banana as main crop for food and cash; other crops contribute − Economic: application of good agronomic practices in banana cultivation including ISFM and irrigation; improved market linkages and collective marketing − Social: equal participation of men and women in banana value chain (labour division); opportunities outside farming"}]},{"head":"Table 2","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Main trends and elements of a desirable future in the different sustainability domains, identified in the participatory visioning workshops, and their translation into four plausible scenarios. Text in bold represents the response to trends and the elements of the future that were used as main differences between scenarios (corresponding to bold text in Fig. 2). − Environment: re-use of waste products from banana; enough water for production"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"These elements served as focus for the development of contrasting future scenarios (Table 2). The elements that were not suitable to apply or quantify at the household level were adjusted, e.g. 'enough water for production' was considered as on-farm irrigation; 'equal participation of men and women in the banana value chain' was translated into the labour division between men and women in banana production. Some elements were not incorporated as explicit differences between scenarios; only their effects at household level were assessed, such as the effects of continued specialisation in banana in the southwest. Researchers combined the elements to form coherent story lines, for instance assuming that production intensification also requires improved marketing, or that agricultural intensification is enabled by increased per capita land availability for some households through the creation of opportunities outside farming for others."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"From the main trends identified by stakeholders, researchers considered population growth & urbanisation and climate change as external trends in the scenarios: they were assumed to happen in all scenarios. However, researchers let the responses of households to these trends vary between scenarios (Table 2): because of population growth & urbanisation, an increasing proportion of the people migrating to the city was assumed to sell the remaining land, resulting in differences in available farm land between scenarios (see Section 3.3.1). The response to climate change differed in the use and adaptation of agricultural practices to deal with the effects of climate change, resulting in differences in crop yields (see Section 3.3.2). Researchers combined the trend \"agricultural technology development\" with the future element of \"application of good agronomic practices\", resulting in varying degrees of application of good practices between the scenarios. We also combined the trend \"value chain development\" with the \"improved marketing\" element, with various degrees of collaboration and collective marketing between the scenarios."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"The combination of elements and trends resulted in four scenarios (Table 2): Marginalisation, in which we assumed a stagnation compared with the baseline situation; Business as usual, in which we extrapolated historic trends in agricultural development (e.g. with respect to the use of good agronomic practices) and value chain development (establishment of collection centres for banana, better access to price information). In Intensification, we included elements of a sustainable future and assumed that all households apply ISFM in banana and market their banana produce collectively. In Transformation, we assumed that all households apply irrigation in banana, further improve crop nutrient management, market their banana produce through cooperatives, and some households abandon agriculture as a result of improved opportunities outside farming."}]},{"head":"Step 2: Quantifying scenarios","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The scenarios were quantified to assess their effects on farm households in the study regions. The quantification is schematically represented in Fig. 2, in which the elements in bold correspond to Table 2 and allude to the main differences between scenarios. In the following paragraphs we describe how the variables depicted in Fig. 2 were assumed to be affected by the different scenarios."}]},{"head":"Available farm land","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Available farm land in future was assumed to change as a result of the trend population growth & urbanisation. At the moment, few people moving to the city sell their land, implying ongoing land fragmentation despite people leaving rural areas. However, it was assumed that the selling rate will increase in future as a result of increased land pressure and land prices. In the scenarios (except in Transformation, see below), we translated this into the assumption that the total farm land for a household remained the same in future (reflecting the notion that  2, comprising the main differences between scenarios. X indicates that the combination of the two intersecting lines influences a certain variable. household members generally do not sell their land at present as confirmed by stakeholders), and divided this land equally among all future household members (reflecting land inheritance within the household), who double based on the 3.0% annual growth rate. From the household members migrating to the city, based on the 5.2% annual urbanisation rate, none would sell their land in Marginalisation, resulting in ongoing land fragmentation (Fig. 3). In Business as usual, half of the migrating household members would sell their land to the household members staying behind, reflecting expected trend of an increasing number of people selling their land. In Intensification all migrating household members would sell their land, assuming an increased value of the land."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"In Transformation, we assumed that in addition to urbanisation, a number of rural households would find opportunities outside farming and sell all their land. The households leaving farming were selected based on their attitude towards farming (details in S3.3). The land of farmers with a negative attitude (30%) was redistributed among farmers with a positive attitude (21%), proportional to the size of their current land in their attitude group. A neutral group (49%) kept the same farm size as in the baseline. This resulted in a total of 74 and 34 households remaining in agriculture in Transformation (and hence used in the analyses), in the southwest and west respectively. All the acquired land was assumed to be devoted to banana farming in southwestern Uganda, and proportionally to banana and other crops in western Uganda based on current land use."}]},{"head":"Crop production","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Future crop production was assumed to be affected through climate change and through the application of good agronomic practices. In Marginalisation, we only applied crop-specific climate change effects to the baseline crop production. No further change in the application of good agronomic practices was assumed (Table 2). This resulted in negative effects on yields (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":228,"text":"In Business as usual, Intensification and Transformation, climate change effects were combined with the application of good agronomic practices, resulting in a joint effect on crop yields. For banana, under Business as usual, this combination was expected to result in an increased use of improved drought and disease tolerant varieties and increased investments in pest and disease management as a response to climate change. Fertilizer use was expected to increase following historic trends (Africa Fertilizer, 2018; more detail in Section 3.3.3). These changes were assumed to increase banana yields up to the 75th percentile baseline yields in both regions, which is a relative increase of a factor 1.14 compared to the baseline (Table 3). In Intensification, the additional application of ISFM practices (mulch, manure and mineral fertilizer) resulted in an expected increase in banana yield to the 90th percentile baseline yields (in line with Den Braber et al., 2021), a relative increase of a factor 1.41 compared to the baseline. In Transformation, an additional increase in banana yield was expected as a result of the use of drip irrigation (see S3.4); a relative increase of a factor 1.72 compared to the baseline. The change in yield for other crops was based on the IMPACT reference scenario for Business as usual, the \"high R&D scenario\" for Intensification and the \"comprehensive investment scenario\" for Transformation (Rosegrant et al., 2017;Fig. S2.1)."}]},{"head":"Input use and costs","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Input use changed under the scenarios as described in Section 3.3.2 and Table S1.8: no changes in input use compared with the baseline in Marginalisation, and additional input costs from the purchase of improved seeds, increased mineral fertilizer application and intensified pest and disease management under Business as Usual. In Intensification and Transformation all farmers applied mulch and manure. The average quantity of manure applied decreased to 50% of the baseline value as a result of increased scarcity. This was compensated by the use of mineral fertilizer at recommended rates. In Transformation, all farmers applied drip irrigation in banana, with a relatively larger water demand in the southwest than in the west (details in S3.4). Besides, we assumed that mineral fertilizer application balanced crop requirements: instead of applying the recommended rate of an existing fertilizer blend in Intensification, increased soil testing would indicate the nutrients required to top up the supply through manure to arrive at a neutral soil nutrient balance. In practice, this meant that only potassium (K) had to be applied, as bananas contain a relatively large amount of K and replenishing this nutrient in relatively large quantities is needed to avoid Kdeficiencies."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Price levels of inputs were kept the same as in the baseline (Table S1.3), except for an assumed 10% discount in Intensification and a 20% discount in Transformation on seed, mineral fertilizer and pest and disease management as a result of collective purchase of inputs in farmer groups or cooperatives."}]},{"head":"Market prices","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In Marginalisation, prices for banana were kept the same as in the baseline. As a result of assumed value chain development with improved access to market information and use of collection centres, prices in Business as usual increased by 20% (Svensson and Yanagizawa, 2009;Courtois and Subervie, 2015); in Intensification by 50% through collective marketing (Ngambeki et al., 2010) and in Transformation by 100% through the use of cooperatives for direct marketing (Ngambeki et al., 2010). Prices of other crops were assumed to follow trends in world market prices as predicted in the IMPACT scenarios (Table S1.4)."}]},{"head":"Labour available and required","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"In all scenarios, family labour availability decreased as a result of urbanisation. The labour required changed as a result of changes in the use of inputs and practices (details in S3.5)."}]},{"head":"Nutrient offtake and input","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Nutrient offtake in the scenarios varied with changes in banana yields. Nutrient inputs varied with changes in the application of manure and mineral fertilizer as described in Section 3.3.3."}]},{"head":"3.4.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Step 2: Current and future sustainability of farm households"}]},{"head":"Food self-sufficiency","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"The quantification of the baseline situation and scenarios showed that the combined production of banana and other crops led to food selfsufficiency for 78% of the households in southwestern and 89% of the households in western Uganda in the baseline. Banana contributed up to 90% of total calories in the southwest, and at least half in the west (Fig. 4). In Marginalisation, the percentage of households being food selfsufficient dropped to 49% in the southwest and 63% in the west as a result of reduced crop yields under climate change as well as a reduction in the available farm land per household member. In Business as usual, the increased yields combined with farm land per household member similar to the baseline resulted in food self-sufficiency for about 95% of households. In Intensification and Transformation these percentages increased to about 98% and 99% respectively in both regions, and all households produced large surpluses of food. The only two households (one in each region) that were not food self-sufficient in Transformation Table 3 Crop yields (kg ha − 1 ) in the baseline, and change in crop yields (as factor compared with the baseline situation) in 2040 for different crops in the four scenarios. Changes in Marginalisation were assumed to be the result of climate change only; the other scenarios combine climate change effects with application of good agronomic practices.  did not grow banana."}]},{"head":"Farm gross margin","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"All farms had a positive gross margin from crop farming in the baseline, with a median of 690 $PPP and minor differences between the southwest and west. On average, 45% of households in the two regions had a gross margin above the poverty line, and 29% above the living income threshold. Adding off-farm income to these gross margins changed these percentages to 59% and 39% respectively, hence off-farm income only played a moderate role (data not presented). Farm gross margin showed a pattern similar to food self-sufficiency (Fig. S2.2): banana contributed a large share to the total gross margin, and gross margins increased in all scenarios compared with the baseline, except in Marginalisation. In the latter scenario, median gross margins reduced to 290 $PPP, and only 20% of households had a gross margin above the poverty line, 4% above the living income threshold."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"In Intensification and Transformation the larger investments in inputs and irrigation were compensated by higher yields and higher market prices for banana, resulting in about 95% of households with a gross margin above the poverty line and >85% above the living income threshold."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"However, when labour costs at a median of 750 $PPP per adult equivalent per year were included, farm gross margins in the baseline became negative for most households and only 10% instead of 28% would earn a living income (Fig. 5A). Median gross margins improved over the scenarios, although some households had a slightly more negative gross margin in Transformation than in Intensification: the households that did not acquire any additional land in Transformation. For them, the additional labour costs for irrigation outweighed the income gain. The households with very negative gross margins were generally the same in each scenario, and were households that had indicated high labour use in the baseline already, combined with a limited application of practices such as mulch and manure or pest and disease control. For them, the additional labour for the application of these practices in the respective scenarios was unfavourable, whereas gross margins without labour costs increased for all of these households."}]},{"head":"Labour sufficiency ratio","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In the baseline situation, family labour available was generally larger than labour required for crop production (Fig. 5B). In Marginalisation, the reduced farm land per household member resulted in a more positive labour ratio. In the other scenarios, labour ratios decreased due to the increased application of inputs combined with the increase in farm land per household member. In Transformation, half of the farms had insufficient family labour to cover labour needs. The family labour available represented a maximum. Almost 45% of households hired labour in banana cultivation, accounting for about 30-44% of the total labour days in banana in southwestern and western Uganda respectively. Men and women spent a similar number of labour days in banana production, and on the different types of activities (data not presented)."}]},{"head":"Nutrient balance for banana fields","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Nutrient balances for banana fields in the baseline were positive for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), but largely negative for K, especially in western Uganda (Fig. 6). Only households with relatively low yields or who applied manure attained a positive K balance. In Marginalisation, all nutrient balances became slightly more positive as a result of the reduced offtake. In Business as usual the increased banana yields with limited additional mineral fertilizer use resulted in a considerably more negative K balance, averaging − 110 kg K ha − 1 year − 1 . In Intensification, the combined application of manure and mineral fertilizer positively affected the K balance in southwestern Uganda, although the balance was still negative."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"In the west, banana yields were larger than in the southwest and K supplied was still by far not sufficient to compensate K offtake, resulting in a deficiency of 193 kg K ha − 1 year − 1 . The positive N and P balances persisted in this scenario. In Transformation, K requirements were assumed to be exactly compensated by the application of Muriate of Potash (MOP). The combined inputs from manure and banana peels were roughly sufficient to compensate the offtake of N and P, and no further mineral fertilizer input was considered. Only in the west a slightly negative balance for these two nutrients existed, and in the longer term modest addition of N and P would be required."}]},{"head":"Sensitivity analysis","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"A 50% variation in available farm land, crop yields or market prices had very little influence on food self-sufficiency, but a relatively large effect on farm gross margins (Fig. S2.3). With a 50% increase in any of these variables, about 95% of households reached a living income in Intensification and Transformation, instead of 85%. The labour ratio was relatively insensitive to the above changes. Nutrient balances were most sensitive to the variation in crop yields, indigenous soil supply of nutrients and the NPK content of banana. Despite the relative sensitivity, the findings of a generally positive N-balance and negative K-balance remained valid across the range of parameter values."}]},{"head":"Step 3: Exploring synergies and trade-offs between indicators with stakeholders 3.5.1. Synergies and trade-offs","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Co-benefits rather than synergies existed between food selfsufficiency and farm gross margins (Fig. 7). Compared with the baseline, both indicators decreased considerably in Marginalisation, and increased in the other scenarios with the same trend in both regions. However, whereas the large majority of households was food selfsufficient, most did not have a gross margin above the living income threshold. In reality, a trade-off exists between food that is consumed or sold, further reducing actual gross margins. Only in Intensification and Transformation the majority of households in both regions had a living income, and large surpluses of food. A trade-off existed between food self-sufficiency and gross margins on the one hand, and labour use on the other: labour ratios decreased over the scenarios as a result of outmigration and increased demand due to the application of e.g. ISFM or irrigation. Although not presented in Fig. 7, investment costs also exposed a trade-off: median annual input costs were 0 in the baseline and Marginalisation, but increased to 790 and 890 $PPP in Intensification and Transformation. Nutrient use efficiencies were unfavourable in most of the scenarios, except in Transformation where nutrient inputs balanced soil and crop requirements. In all, Transformation showed the most positive scores on all indicators in both regions, but the most negative score for labour and investment costs (not presented)."}]},{"head":"Stakeholders' feedback on the scenarios","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Stakeholders reflected on the results of the scenario analysis, including the emerging synergies and trade-offs. Food self-sufficiency was discussed through the amount and diversity of food produced. Related to the latter, stakeholders in the southwest reiterated their wish for continued specialisation in banana production as both food and cash crop. Farmers would still keep small patches of other food crops. In addition, food production at the larger, regional level was considered sufficiently diverse not to jeopardise food security. In the west, stakeholders considered the production of other crops essential for food selfsufficiency and income, the latter also because prices for banana were lower than in the southwest. Related to the amount of food, banana yields in the different scenarios were discussed. Current banana yields were larger in the west than in the southwest (Table 3). Stakeholders in both regions had envisaged in Step 1 that current yields could increase to about 1.5 times current levels, based on an increase in the number of bunches harvested as well as bunch weights. This desired increase was almost achieved in Intensification, and fully in Transformation."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"In the economic domain, the increase in income from banana in Intensification and Transformation was considered attractive, as stakeholders argued that the combination of increased bunch weights with higher prices per bunch, obtained through collective or direct marketing in farmer groups or cooperatives, were desirable. Cooperation was considered important in both regions: in the southwest, a strong cooperative already existed in one of the sites, which set an example for farmers in other parts of the region. In the west, banana bunch prices were generally lower than in the southwest, and no cooperative for banana existed yet so stakeholders were keen to learn from the example in the southwest."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Stakeholders in both regions acknowledged that a focus of resources in one crop would enhance financial benefits. However, trade-offs associated with specialisation such as drought, pests or diseases wiping out banana were discussed and acknowledged, as such incidents had already happened in the past (see Rietveld et al., 2021). Savings and other insurance mechanisms were mentioned to help overcome temporary shocks, and more information and training on such topics were desired. Another trade-off coming from the desired increase in income were increased investment costs. Stakeholders found the average production costs for banana as calculated from the baseline low. These costs reflect the current absence of the use of inputs. Double or triple the current costs were therefore considered affordable, provided this would result in increased production volumes and therefore revenue. However, stakeholders in the southwest also mentioned that despite the good incomes one could get from banana, re-investments in the farm were generally difficult given other household expenses. In both regions, stakeholders agreed among themselves that the additional costs required to implement ISFM in Intensification were affordable, also in relation to the additional income gains. Costs for drip irrigation under Transformation were considered too high, and unlikely to be implemented without any further support."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Like production costs, the average labour use calculated from the baseline survey was considered low in both regions. Stakeholders argued that some farmers visit their banana fields every day, whereas the average includes farmers who visit their plantations less frequently. In both regions, stakeholders indicated that additional labour requirements were undesirable, as this would have to be hired. Family labour was already fully engaged in other farm and non-farm activities. Consequently, the doubling of the amount of labour required in Intensification was considered impossible. The implementation of ISFM therefore appears to be largely labour constrained."},{"index":5,"size":358,"text":"In the environmental domain the focus was on the use of nutrient inputs in banana, which was very limited in the baseline. The desirability of future use of mineral fertilizer was fiercely debated, with strong opinions favouring and resenting mineral fertilizer use. Stakeholders in the southwest were generally more open to mineral fertilizer than in the west, though in both regions many preferred 'organic farming', with nutrient inputs limited to the use of manure and crop residues. Given the hesitation on mineral fertilizer use already expressed in Step 1, we discussed in Step 3 that 25 to 50 cattle ha − 1 would be needed to supply manure to replace the required K in Intensification or Transformation (Den Braber et al., 2021). All stakeholders agreed that such numbers were impossible to integrate at the farm or village level. The stakeholders present in the meeting therefore started to appreciate the need for mineral fertilizer in addition to manure. Also, as one of the selected interventions in Step 1 was improved access to knowledge on ISFM and mineral fertilizer use in banana, demonstrations with different combinations of mineral fertilizer and manure had been set up and links with a private sector input supplier of a banana-specific mineral fertilizer blend had been made. As part of these efforts, we registered the number of farmers buying fertilizer to try out on banana in the two subcounties that we worked in in the southwest, and one sub-county in the west. Compared with 4 farmers using fertilizer use in the baseline, 16 farmers bought mineral fertilizer in the southwest in season 2020B, 13 in 2021A and 25 in 2021B. In west, farmers did not buy fertilizer in season 2020B, but in 2021A we registered 55 farmers and in 2021B 23 farmers. Despite these changes among a limited group of farmers, stakeholders emphasized that the majority of farmers still had negative perceptions of mineral fertilizer and hence, reaching more farmers with knowledge and evidence was considered much needed in both regions. As a follow-up, therefore, an interactive radio campaign was initiated on the use of fertilizer in banana (see Ronner et al., 2022 for details)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current and future sustainability of banana-based farming systems in Uganda","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In current banana-based farming systems in (south)west Uganda, the large majority of households was food self-sufficient. However, <50% had an income above the poverty line. Low income levels translated into limited investment in external inputs for agriculture, which in turn resulted in negative K balances. For these poorer households, a negative spiral of soil fertility depletion, yield decrease and declining income is a real risk (cf. Tittonell and Giller, 2013). At the other end of the spectrum, however, almost 30% of households were able to achieve a living income with crop farming, or even banana cultivation alone. This distinction is in line with Rietveld et al. (2021), who indicates that some farmers have accumulated wealth from the sale of bananas, whereas at the same time inequity has increased."},{"index":2,"size":281,"text":"Potential future pathways showed that inequity further increased, with farmers with favourable gross marginsand generally large farm sizesin the baseline expanding their wealth relatively more than farmers with small gross margins and small farm sizes (cf. Thuijsman et al., 2022). Equity is a dimension often overlooked in sustainability analyses (Chopin et al., 2021), but would be important to consider to cope with arising social friction (Rietveld et al., 2021). Overall however, the percentage of households earning a living income increased (except in Marginalisation), and every individual household was better off in Intensification and Transformation than in the baseline. The diversified farming systems in western Uganda had advantages in terms of food selfsufficiency, but households in the southwest were able to generate larger incomes from their specialisation in banana production. In this context, it is worth noting that some of the households achieving the largest food self-sufficiency and gross margins were selected to leave farming in Transformation because of their negative outlook on farming. Hence, even farmers who seem to do well do not see a future in farming for themselves or their children. The relatively large farms that they would leave behind would free up a considerable amount of land for other farmers to expand their business. Such trends are currently not yet visible in densely populated countries such as Uganda (Jayne et al., 2019), but could contribute to an actual transformation of agriculture and would require sufficient, attractive opportunities outside agriculture. If not, the continued land fragmentation under Marginalisation remains more plausible, clearly presenting an undesirable situation in which the majority of farmers would be left with insufficient food and income from agriculture (Giller et al., 2021b;Giller et al., 2021a)."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Although the labour balance was relatively favourable in the baseline, including labour costs largely resulted in negative gross margins. Hence, opportunities like ISFM should translate into increased income to be worth the additional investments. It should be noted, however, that estimates of labour use are often difficult without detailed logs (also given seasonal peaks), and hence the labour balance should be seen as an approximation of labour availability and demand. Nevertheless, labour requirements presented a clear trade-off, as found in many other studies of agricultural intensification options (Tittonell et al., 2007;Komarek et al., 2018;Ronner et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"The scenario analysis further pinpointed that nutrient balances are a sustainability concern. The predominantly negative K-balances warn for future depletion, as represented in Business as usual. Only when an increase in banana yields goes hand in hand with a balanced supply of all required nutrients this trade-off can be avoided. Whereas the presented nutrient balances were static, a consideration of changes in nutrient stocks over time would even exacerbate the negative K balance, and the N and P surpluses. Hence, more detailed assessments of such dynamics, the resulting balance of nutrients required and the optimal ratio between organic and inorganic fertilizer (as reflected on in e.g. Gram et al., 2020;Den Braber et al., 2021) are required."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The scenarios themselves meant to sketch alternatives under an uncertain future (Walz et al., 2007;Palazzo et al., 2017;Williams et al., 2023), such as varying degrees of value chain or agricultural development, continued land fragmentation or not, etc. While the analyses hinge on assumptions and potential inaccuracies in data, the sensitivity analysis showed that the overall picture did not change much for food self-sufficiency, gross margins or labour. Soil nutrient balances were relatively most sensitive to variations in data, but this did not alter the overall conclusions with respect to the negative K-balance."}]},{"head":"Participatory scenario analysis in a smallholder farming setting","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Conducting a participatory scenario analysis in a smallholder farming setting had its benefits and challenges. Benefits relate to the combination of quantitative and qualitative information that allowed for the integration of knowledge, data and topics of local relevance (Klapwijk et al., 2014;Palazzo et al., 2017;Homann-Kee Tui et al., 2021). Moreover, the qualitative discussions brought up aspects that would not have been observed in a purely quantitative analysis: the need to hire labour despite the apparent labour surplus in the baseline, or the strong sentiments around the use of mineral fertilizer. The other way around, the quantitative analyses, trade-off analysis and future explorations were aspects that stakeholders could not have evaluated by themselves (Walz et al., 2007;Klapwijk et al., 2014;Vervoort et al., 2014), and therefore provide complementary knowledge for their decision making."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"We also showed the feasibility and usefulness of a participatory visioning and backcasting process in a smallholder setting. In this setting, it is important to keep in mind the 'decision space' that represented stakeholders have, so that expectations about what can be achieved in such a process are tied to what local stakeholders can contribute (Kok et al., 2011;Vervoort et al., 2014;Johnson and Karlberg, 2017). These processes do not necessarily lead to actual decision-making, but have an inspirational aim of imagining fundamentally different futures, raising awareness and provoking debate (Carlsson-Kanyama et al., 2008;Bourgeois and Sette, 2017;Larkin et al., 2020). However, through the active involvement of stakeholders in providing the building blocks for the scenarios, identifying relevant indicators and reflecting on the results, we aimed to support stakeholders as much as possible to translate the results of the analyses into concrete entry points to improve the sustainability of the system (cf. Coteur et al., 2020). While no formal assessment of the effects of the process on the stakeholders was conducted, achievements that indicate success in this respect were the increased purchases of mineral fertilizer, a keen expression of interest in working through cooperatives, and the recognition of the need for savings to overcome shocks when specialising in banana. The process also led to a convergence of ideas among stakeholders from different backgrounds (Kok et al., 2011), including agreement on the selected priorities and interventions, consensus that ISFM and improved cooperation among farmers are desirable and feasible, but that the application of irrigation in banana is a step too far."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"Challenges in the participatory process related to finding a common ground for discussions between researchers and stakeholders (cf. Marinus et al., 2021). For example, the selection of sustainability indicators required a lot of explanation, and was almost impossible without giving examples that then steered the discussion in a certain direction. And still, the chosen indicators could not be directly used in our analyses. Moreover, stakeholders that were invited to the workshop were often selected for their dual role as farmer and trader, government officer or representative from a cooperative. In that sense they did not represent the 'average' farmer and, consequently, found the reported averages from the baseline survey not always representative for their case. Hence, despite our efforts to invite a wide diversity of stakeholders, especially in Step 3 the group included relatively fewer farmer representatives than during the first workshop. The stakeholders therefore also called for a wider dissemination of the findings, which was partly addressed through a radio campaign."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"In the process from visioning to scenario-building we also had to make some simplifications, as not all elements of a desirable future identified by stakeholders were suitable to apply or quantify at the household level. The quantification of the scenarios required a large amount of data, and led to results that were relatively complex to interpret for the stakeholders given the interactions and combinations of future elements in the different scenarios. We therefore also chose to simplify the presentation of results to the stakeholders. Vervoort et al. (2014) call this \"scenario development in intervention-style processes\", in which the scenarioslike in our caserelate more to concrete interventions instead of tackling multi-dimensional challenges. For future studies in this setting, a deliberate choice to limit the amount of variables to quantify and discuss could be considered (cf. Walz et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Our study highlights that a sustainable future for banana-based farming systems in (south)western Uganda whereby the large majority of farmers is food self-sufficient and earns a living income from farming on sustainably managed soils is feasible. The main challenges to achieve this future lie in the increased labour and investment costs requiredalso to combat negative effects of climate change on crop yieldsand warrant support to farmers in upfront financing of such investments. Prerequisites therefore include the need for proper assessments of costs and benefits of agricultural innovations, as farmers need to be sure such investments pay off, and insurance of risks to cushion farmers that move into specialised production. Another prerequisite is institutional support to facilitate land transactions among farmers who want to leave agriculture to those who want to expand, and to ensure sufficiently attractive alternative employment outside agriculture. With respect to environmental sustainability, more detailed assessments of long-term soil fertility dynamics and response to fertilizer in banana systems are needed to enhance recommendations that extension officers and private sector could use."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The participatory scenario analysis conducted in a smallholder farming context, considering multiple sustainability domains and with locally relevant indicators, contributed to a convergence of ideas among the participating stakeholders on concrete, short-term steps that could be taken to improve the sustainability of banana-based farming systems. While we aimed for a representation of stakeholders all along the banana value chain, future studies may benefit from more deliberate efforts to discuss and disseminate findings among different types of farmers. Finally, we conclude that higher-level advocacy and support is required in decision-making on the more complex, long-term challenges. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. The participatory scenario analysis, consisting of three steps and conducted in two banana-based farming systems in southwestern and western Uganda. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the quantification of changes in different scenarios and their effects on different household variables in southwestern and western Uganda. Variables in bold correspond to the bold elements in Table2, comprising the main differences between scenarios. X indicates that the combination of the two intersecting lines influences a certain variable. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the change in available farm land per capita in 2040 under the different scenarios, for a sample household with four members in the baseline situation and eight in 2040 (3% annual growth rate). In all scenarios, two household members remain on the farm and six (based on the annual urbanisation rate of 5.2%) migrate to the city. From the six migrants, a varying proportion (0% in Marginalisation, 50% in Business as Usual and 100% in Intensification and Transformation) sells land to the remaining household members. In Transformation, an additional number of households in the region abandons agriculture and sells their land to remaining households. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Households' food self-sufficiency (% of household's calorific needs met with own produce) in the different scenarios in southwestern (A) and western (B) Uganda. Dashed line indicates 100% of household's calorific needs is met with own produce. Data from 7 households removed (> 7500% food self-sufficient) to improve visibility. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. A & B: Gross margin from crop farming (US$PPP/ adult equivalent/ year) with and without labour costs (A) and labour sufficiency ratio (family labour available / labour required) for banana and other crops (B) in southwestern and western Uganda in the different scenarios. Dashed line in Fig. A represents a living income of 1394 $PPP/ adult equivalent/ year. Dashed line in Fig. B represents a labour ratio of 1 (labour available = labour required). Data from 8 households removed (< − 12,500 or >30,000 $PPP) (A) and from 6 households removed (labour ratio > 80× labour required) (B) to improve visibility. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Partial nutrient balances for N, P and K of banana fields in southwestern and western Uganda in the different scenarios. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Average performance for each indicator translated into a standardised score, to compare indicators measured in different units across the scenarios in southwestern and western Uganda. -1 represents the worst performance of an indicator, 1 the best. "},{"text":"Table 1 Conversion of sustainability indicators into standardised scores of either − 1, 0 or 1. Indicator Score   IndicatorScore  − 1 0 1 − 101 Food self- <90% 90-110% >110% Food self-<90%90-110%>110% sufficiency    sufficiency Farm gross margin <poverty line >poverty line & < living living Farm gross margin<poverty line>poverty line & < livingliving   income income incomeincome Labour ratio <1 >1 & < 2 >2 Labour ratio<1>1 & < 2>2 Nutrient use <0.70 or > 0.70-0.90 or 1.10-1.30 0.90-1.10 Nutrient use<0.70 or >0.70-0.90 or 1.10-1.300.90-1.10 efficiency 1.30   efficiency1.30  "},{"text":" development and system modeling for climate-change challenges. Frontiers in environmental Science 11. World Bank, 2020a. The World Bank in Uganda: Overview [Online]. Available: htt ps://www.worldbank.org/en/country/uganda/overview (Accessed 21 October 2020a). World Bank, 2020b. World Development Indicators [Online]. Available: https://data. worldbank.org/indicator (Accessed 6 October 2020b).  "}],"sieverID":"0a55ecee-6afe-4116-91ab-4ba451055518","abstract":"Economic performance of banana farming systems in Uganda has improved, but at the expense of other sustainability domains.• Transition pathways towards a sustainable future were envisioned with stakeholders, quantified, and trade-offs explored.• Enhanced food self-sufficiency and farm gross margins are feasible; trade-offs are increased labour and investment costs. • Participatory scenario analysis led to stakeholder consensus on sustainability priorities and entry points for improvement. • Higher-level support and advocacy is required in decision-making on more complex, long-term challenges."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09b2a80c98135234efa218b06863dc22","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a845402e-9d67-4373-b4db-efae03849038/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Soybean: A versatile grain legume for smallholder farmers in Malawi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The versatility of soybean","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Soybean is a grain legume that can help to improve family nutrition and soil fertility. It is highly nutritious and ideal for combating malnutrition in children. It is also a special crop that produces 'nodules' on the roots which act like small factories making urea fertilizer for the crop. Therefore, urea on soybean should not applied on the fields, as it should always be done for maize."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"For some types of soybean, inoculants (Rhizobia) should be applied so that these small factories can be made on the roots. Varieties such, as Magoye and Tikolole, will not require any inoculation, whereas many of the high yielding soybean varieties (Makwacha, Nasoko, Solitaire) will require inoculation for nodule formation to occur successfully. A well nodulated soybean crop is ideal to grow in rotation with maize, as maize grows better after soybean."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Growing soybean in six steps 1. Soybeans need moist soil for germination. They must not be dry planted and not planted until it is clear that the rainy season has begun (i.e. plant after a few days of rainfall!). 2. Make ridges which are 75cm apart, as for maize, so that the normal ridging system is not disrupted by the soybean production. Avoid ridges wider than 75cm, as this wastes precious land."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"3. Plant soybean on two shallow furrows (3cm deep at most) which can be made with a stick on each side of the normal ridge. Two rows per ridge (instead of one) ensures high plant population > 250,000 plants per hectare. This results in good yields. 4. Within a row, drop (sprinkle) the soybean seeds at about 8cm apart. These seeds must be planted no more than 3cm deep, otherwise germination will not be good. 5. About 90kg of seed is required to plant one hectare (about 9kg per plot of 30 m x 40 m). For varieties with small seeds, less quantity of seed will be required. 6. Weeding should take place at least twice to keep fields weed-free, especially in the first month. Soybeans have the ability to shade out other plants, so a large soybean population is helpful to control weed growth."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"'Urea factories' on the roots of a soybean plant. Certain soybean varieties require inoculation for these 'urea factories' to form successfully."}]},{"head":"Photo: Regis Chikowo/ Michigan State University (MSU)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The Fertilizer application  When soybean is grown in rotation with a crop that had received NPK fertilizer the previous season, the crop can be grown successfully without any direct fertilization."}]},{"head":"","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"On poor soils, apply a 50kg bag of NPK (23:21:0) fertilizer per hectare at planting. This will supply nutrients (especially phosphorus) for the small factories on the roots to work better."}]},{"head":"","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"There is no need to apply urea on soybeans. This is a miracle crop. Save urea for maize which desperately needs it! How to use Rhizobium inoculant Some soybean types, such as Magoye and Tikolole, are special as they do not need inoculation with Rhizobium. However, these varieties are in short supply; most available varieties will require an inoculant."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The steps to inoculate soybean are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":" For Chitedze produced rhizobia, a 50g packet is adequate for 10-15kg soybean seed.  Open the packet of rhizobium inoculant and mix it with 200ml of water-add a match box full of sugar for 15kg of seed. Sugar helps the inoculant stick to the seed."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":" Pour the mixture over the seed and mix it by hand in the shade. Always do this away from direct sunlight to avoid killing the rhizobia."}]},{"head":"Soybean harvesting and residue management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Soybean should be harvested when the pods are mature and yellow-brown. Most of the soybean leaves will have fallen to the ground at this time, enriching soil fertility. A few seeds may be seen on the ground where the ripe pods have shattered. This is a clear sign to start harvesting!"}]},{"head":"","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The crop should be cut at the ground surface or uproot early in the morning when they are still damp with dew."}]},{"head":"","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Immediately transport the harvested soybeans when still damp; if soybean is harvested and carried in the midday sun, many pods will shatter and the seeds will be lost."}]},{"head":"","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"After a few days of further drying, the plants can be threshed with a stick and winnowed."}]},{"head":"","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The residues can be used to make good mulch or animal feed, or used to make compost for the fields the following season. Never burn the residuesthis would burn a good source of soil enrichment."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Africa Research In Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program comprises three research-for-development projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development as part of the U.S. government's Feed the Future initiative. Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The three projects are led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (in West Africa and East and Southern Africa) and the International Livestock Research Institute (in the Ethiopian Highlands). The International Food Policy Research Institute leads an associated project on monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment.Contact: Regis Chikowo (MSU), Sieg Snapp (MSU) and Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon (IITA). www. africa-rising.net This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"0777f862-4a41-4407-96da-4456a72f27ab","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a38c0d1384474621fa35407665e24d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3edf470e-0b09-41bb-ac90-cf264401f244/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The Policy Environment of Kenya's Dairy Sector","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Kenya's dairy industry is one of the most impressive in the developing world, and can boast a century of progress (box 1). The country contains 70 percent of the dairy cattle in eastern and southern Africa. 1 The importance of milk production, marketing, and processing to the wealth, and health, of the Kenyan people cannot be overstated. 2 However, it is also true that a number of constraints have hampered the development of the sector, limiting the ability of many agents to operate to their full potential. Current attempts to formulate constructive and supportive policies are crucial to the future of Kenya's dairy industry."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"This brief looks at the current impact of policy and associated legislation upon the various agents operating in the dairy industry, and considers what progress might be made in policy development."}]},{"head":"The policy and legislative environment","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Current important policy-related issues include:"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Pace of policy revision. The Dairy Development Policy was first formulated in 1993 to guide the industry through the liberalization process initiated the previous year. The policy was updated in 1997 and revised, after wide stakeholder consultation, in 2000, when it was accompanied by a draft Dairy Bill, which is yet to be enacted. The process has been slowed by frequent structural changes at ministry level.3 While this change process drags on, conflicts in regulation and implementation of dairy policies continue to dog the sector. "}]},{"head":"Key points","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"■","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"A supportive policy environment is needed to aid the development of Kenya's dairy industry, which contributes significantly to employment, public health, and the overall economy of the nation."}]},{"head":"■","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"However, certain policy issues need to be urgently addressed, including the pace of review of policy and legislation, the appropriate enforcement of regulation, the development of institutional capacity, and widened stakeholder representation."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"■ Specific policy priorities relate to provision of veterinary services (particularly health and breeding services for cattle), access to credit, and road infrastructure improvement."}]},{"head":"■","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Current policy and legislation initiatives need to take full account of broader national goals (such as the creation of employment and poverty reduction) and the reality of systems presently operating in the dairy sector. Regulatory consistency. Since market liberalization in 1992 informal milk sales have grown in prominence, 4 but most informal traders are not licensed. Licensing is pegged on possessing fixed trading premises, thus excluding most itinerant traders. Although this requirement is not based on the Dairy Industry Act, it is enforced by the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB) under the Public Health Act (Cap. 242). This situation exists despite research showing little difference in the quality of milk samples collected from unlicensed itinerant traders and licensed fixed vendors. 5 Many traders have indicated their willingness to pay cess in return for licensing and the security of legal status."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Institutional capacity to enforce regulations. The general lack of capacity to enforce dairy industry regulations, and the implications for the dairy enterprise, is exemplified by current concern over the variable and often poor quality of livestock foods. 6 Liberalization of the feed market has allowed many processors to penetrate the market, supplying the concentrate cattle feeds which, in intensive dairy production systems, account for over 40 percent of costs. However, the Kenya Bureau of Standards lacks the resources and capacity to adequately monitor feed quality, creating loopholes for some feed manufacturers to reduce quality standards, especially when certain feed ingredients (such as oilseed cakes) are scarce."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Stakeholder representation. A significant number of stakeholders in the dairy industry have little or no effective voice in decision making, particularly smallholder producers, and raw milk traders in the informal market and their customers. However, if the interests of all stakeholders are to be addressed, effective representation, whether on the Kenya Dairy Board, or in other stakeholder associations, is crucial. In this respect, the increasing role played by cooperatives in milk production and marketing may provide a pathway by which the voice of small enterprises might be heard."}]},{"head":"The infrastructure and services environment","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Operators at each stage of the production, distribution, processing, and marketing chain are affected by policy issues related to infrastructure and services:"},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Provision of health services. Health provision has been hampered by slow privatization of veterinary services. Eight years after the setting up of the Kenya Veterinary Association Privatization Scheme (KVAPS) in 1995 to assist this process, only 13 percent of registered veterinarians are engaged in private practice. Current legislation is not encouraging: the Veterinary Surgeons Act (Cap. 366) prohibits animal health certificate or diploma holders from practising veterinary medicine-a degree is the minimum requirement. In addition, Provision of breeding services. Breeding services, including artificial insemination (AI), have also not developed as hoped since privatization. There are only 300 private AI service providers to date (entry restrictions include non-recognition by the government of inseminators trained by the private sector), and the cost of imported semen is high. The alternatives for smallholders are not attractive-bull service, with the associated risks of inbreeding and disease, or the local semen provided by the Kenya National Artificial Insemination Services (KNAIS), which is perceived to have a high failure rate. Since there are many institutions playing different roles in dairy genetic improvement it was proposed in 1993 to group them together under a Kenya Livestock Breeders Organization charged with the responsibility of developing a self-sustaining breeding programme."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Access to credit. Lack of access to credit is one of the major constraints facing small-scale farmers."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"Formal institutions often require collateral that many borrowers may not have, and charge high interest rates. Microfinance institutions that can meet the needs of small-scale entrepreneurs at relatively favourable terms are still thin on the ground. Policy reforms were proposed in 1997 to establish an Agricultural Development Bank (ADB) as a subsidiary of the Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC), and to get commercial banks to increase their minimum lending to agriculture from 17 to 20 percent of their deposit liabilities. Although these are yet to be achieved, AFC is on the rebound with new funding and management this year after near collapse from mismanagement and political interference."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"Market accessibility. Given the high perishability of fresh milk, an efficient collection, processing, and marketing system is crucial to the overall viability and profitability of commercial dairying. Feeder roads play a key role in the efficiency of milk collection. However, many roads have been inadequately maintained and are in poor condition. The cess collected from milk sales is not used for maintenance of feeder roads, whereas the cess charged on cash crops such as tea and coffee is used for this purpose. The Kenya Roads Board (KRB) has been established to oversee the development of the road infrastructure, acting through various agencies."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"This review of current policy issues and their implications highlights certain priorities: ■ There is an urgent need for a quick review of the policies and regulations that are not in tandem with broader national goals (e.g., creation of employment) and the economic reality of the day."}]},{"head":"■","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Harmonization of the different acts that affect the dairy sector is required to reduce existing conflicts."}]},{"head":"■","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Private service provision should be encouraged with appropriate policies to fill gaps created by the liberalization process. Where that is not possible, sustainable alternatives should be sought, such as the introduction of cost sharing, or the training and equipping of community-based service providers."}]},{"head":"■","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Institutions charged with the implementation of stated policies and regulations should be made effective by provision of adequate resources and capacity. Where appropriate, institutions should explore alternative systems, such as self-regulation and partnership with the private sector."}]},{"head":"■","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Full representation of all stakeholders on key bodies which influence policy would ensure that the process of policy reform fully reflects the economic realities currently operating in the dairy sector. This publication is an output from a project funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed here are not necessarily those of DFID. www.smallholderdairy.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"the the Dairy Industry Act (Cap. 336), setting up the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB).1963Independence of Kenya is followed by the subdivision of European-owned farms, introducing many smallholders into a highly subsidized Policy explicitly provides institutional guidelines that are supportive of smallscale milk production and informal marketing. It also redefines the role of KDB to go beyond regulation and be a catalyst for dairy development. Pharmacy and Poisons Act (Cap. 244) prohibits veterinarians from engaging in drug sales, reducing the viability of private veterinary practice. The market gap has been filled by a large increase in the number of agro-vet shops (often manned by unqualified staff) supplying animal health products, introducing potential danger of drug misuse and abuse. "}],"sieverID":"a702bf30-520b-4722-acfa-c4a23f42fd4b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a92cc5bd5813f1716c8a304091f7c32","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/461b1145-4cf5-4aaf-857e-3800ee7310d7/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"","keywords":["Baseline","Kenya","village study","participatory mapping","organisations","access to information Community resources -participatory satellite imagery interpretation and"],"chapters":[{"head":"About the Authors Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic ten-year partnership between the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) to help the developing world overcome the threats posed by a changing climate, to achieving food security, enhancing livelihoods and improving environmental management. In 2010, CCAFS embarked on a major baseline effort at household, village and organisation levels across its three target regions, namely East Africa, West Africa and South Asia (more information about CCAFS sites is available on our website http://ccafs.cgiar.org/where-we-work). CCAFS trained survey teams from partner organisations in the three regions to conduct the baseline."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"The baseline effort consists of three componentsa household survey, village study and organisational survey. The household baseline survey, a quantitative questionnaire on basic indicators of welfare, information sources, livelihood/agriculture/natural resource management strategies, needs and uses of climate and agricultural-related information and current risk management, mitigation and adaptation practices, was implemented by CCAFS partners in 35 sites (245 villages) with nearly 5,000 households in 12 countries to date. CCAFS partners are implementing village baseline studies (VBS) and organisational surveys in one out of the seven villages within each CCAFS site where the household survey was implemented. The plan is to revisit these villages in roughly 5 years, and again in 10 years, to monitor what changes have occurred since the baseline was carried out. The goal is not to attribute these changes to the program, but to be able to assess what kinds of changes have occurred and whether these changes are helping villages adapt to, and mitigate, climate change."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The focus of this site analysis report is the village baseline study (VBS). To date, fifteen VBS were conducted in the three CCAFS regions. The VBS aims to provide baseline information at the village level about some basic indicators of natural resource utilisation, organisational landscapes, information networks for weather and agricultural information, as well as mitigation baseline information, which can be compared across sites and monitored over time."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"The objectives of the village baseline study are to:"},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":" Provide indicators to allow us to monitor changes in these villages over time. In particular, changes that allow people to o Manage current climate risks, o Adapt to long-run climate change, and o Reduce/mitigate greenhouse gas emissions  Understand the enabling environment that mediates certain practices and behaviours and creates constraints and opportunities (policies, institutions, infrastructure, information and services) for communities to respond to change  Explore social differentiation:"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"o Perceptions of women and men will be gathered separately to be able to present different gender perspectives. o Focus group participants will be selected to present perceptions of groups differentiated by age."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"The detailed tools and guidelines used for the implementation of the village baseline study across all CCAFS sites, as well as the manuals, data and analysis reports can be accessed on our website (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."},{"index":8,"size":158,"text":"This report presents the results of the Village Baseline Study (VBS) conducted on May 18-20, 2011 in the village of Kamuana, Kenya (Nyando site) (Map 1). The village's geocoordinates are -0.315; 35.011. Kamuana was chosen for the baseline survey because of its relative central location in the block, among other criteria. There is reasonable accessibility to the village although the roads can be difficult to navigate in the event of heavy rain. The survey team arranged a visit to the village to prepare for the fieldwork. The team was composed of two facilitators, two note takers, two translators and one site coordinator. Each pair was male and female. The team consulted with the village authorities concerning the time and place of meeting. It selected a hall belonging to a local CBO called FOKODEP for the women's meeting, and an empty shop for the men's meeting. Both meetings took place in Store Pamba, a shopping centre within the village."},{"index":9,"size":144,"text":"The site coordinator sent out invitations to sets of participants who were chosen using random sampling. Each group was composed of 15 participants, men and women respectively. Three consecutive days were selected for the survey and on each day only one set of participants were expected to participate in the survey. On the first day of the survey the whole community was invited to participate in an introductory session where the team explained the survey to them and shared with them the results of an earlier household survey. After the introductory session the rest of the community was set free and only the invited group of 15 men and 15 women remained to carry on with the survey. The whole community was again invited at the end of the third day to attend a debriefing session where a summary of the findings was shared."},{"index":10,"size":95,"text":"The survey used participatory methods of data collection. Throughout the data collection process groups of male and female members of the community worked separately. The team used a satellite image of the block and worked with each group to identify and map/sketch resources that are important to the community, their current state, past state and what caused the changes. The outputs were maps and sketches. The process of working with the community to identify the resources that are important to them depended entirely on how well they are able to understand and interpret the image."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"The task on day 2 was to work with each group to understand the organisational landscape and the links that exist in relation to food security in a normal year, in a year of crisis, and in relation to natural resource management. The outputs were diagrams showing the organisational landscape. Information on each organisation was also captured in cards."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"There were two main tasks on day 3. The first task was to work with each group to understand information networks in relation to weather issues and farming activities. The outputs were diagrams."},{"index":13,"size":40,"text":"The second task was to bring the male and female groups together and generate a vision of what the community would like their village to be in the future. The output was a map/sketch showing \"the vision of the community.\""},{"index":14,"size":65,"text":"Information generated from the survey was captured on sketches, maps, flip charts, information cards and notes. All these needed to be brought together in one debriefing report from which this final report is written. The debriefing report was prepared in the field so that it could benefit from the presence of the site team. The photographed sketches and maps were inserted in the debriefing report."},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"In this site analysis report proper maps and diagrams derived from the field outputs replaced them."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Topic 1: Community resources -participatory satellite imagery interpretation and visioning"},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Community infrastructure and resources and gender-differentiated access and utilisation of those resources have been analysed, based on a process of participatory visual interpretation of high resolution satellite imagery (RapidEye). The aim was to create a basic understanding of existing community resources, as well as of community dynamics in relation to its environment. The participants discussed the current state of those resources, in terms of quality, access, management, history and potential drivers of change. Later on, a mixed group developed an image of village resources and human well-being into 2030 to understand opportunities, constraints and aspirations for the future. The detailed approach to this exercise is outlined in the CCAFS Village Baseline Study Implementation Manual (follow the link to the baseline study from our website http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."}]},{"head":"A. Current resources","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Separate meetings of male and female participants took place in Store Pamba market centre. The groups drew maps on the ground with the natural resources and infrastructure in the village. The research team transferred the maps onto flipcharts (Photo 1), and later on showed a satellite image to the groups. It took the participants less than 5 minutes to get their bearing on the satellite imagery and relate it with their own drawing of their village. The tarmac road from Kisumu to Sondu was clearly visible in the satellite image, as were other features like rooftops, farmland, forest and streams/rivers. The women started getting their bearing from finding Store Pamba market in addition to the road."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Photo 1. Current conditions mentioned by women regarding natural resources and infrastructure Maps 2 and 3 represent the current conditions in the community regarding natural resources (water, forest, grazing, farmland, degraded land) and infrastructure (roads, markets, education, health) according to, respectively, male and female participants. The maps lay out information prepared by the community participants super-imposed on a satellite image."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Map 2. Men's map of current community resources Map 3. Women's map of current community resources Government does repairs."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"If gully can be closed, it will connect road to Kericho town."}]},{"head":"Roads (F) Kibogo-Kapsorok road","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Gully cuts the road at some point."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Repairs done by government. "}]},{"head":"Market centres (M)","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kanyamlori","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kibogo","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"They get basic services only."}]},{"head":"Government institution. Water (F)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Tap water for human and livestock."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Available only in few homes (20%), not reliable, sometimes dry for 2 weeks. Cost 2ksh/20ltrs, some people fetch water illegally."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Some village households own it."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Water availability. Not reliable and costly."}]},{"head":"Land cover class","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Community determined land use Location Names","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Current state (quality)"}]},{"head":"Time to resource","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Management and ownership issues","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Environmental Benefits","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Opportunities Limitations"}]},{"head":"Bridge (F) Kibogo, Store Pamba","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"There are bridges on river Asawa after Store Pamba, R. Awach crossing Store Pamba-Kapsorok road."}]},{"head":"Schools (F)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Primary: Ndori, Aasawo Obuom, Ndori secondary"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The schools are not far from the village and their children get access to education."}]},{"head":"Owned by government","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Provide education thus reduce illiteracy level","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Poor facilities in the schools"}]},{"head":"Settlements (F)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Kajulu, Kaouta, Kandong"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The homes are arranged in Luo traditional set up."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Male and female participants provided the following information on their community's resources, including infrastructure (building on Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"Rivers -The community lives between two rivers, Asawo and Awach. The rivers are the main source of water but water quality is bad. The rivers provide the community with water for domestic use, watering livestock, sand harvesting and clay for pottery. The river is often used as a dumping ground, which pollutes the water. Traditional beliefs dictate that no one should be denied water, which promotes open access to the river and its resources. The river is a very important resource for the community but it is generally taken for granted and there are no organised efforts to manage or conserve the resource."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Water pans (locally called \"Dams\") -Within the community there are several water pans or ponds that were constructed by the government primarily as soil and water conservation structures. The pans provide the community with water for domestic use, watering livestock and irrigation horticulture."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Each pan has a management committee, whose responsibilities include de-silting the pan, repairing the pan walls and regulating use. The pans attract the attention of both the community and other stakeholders who came to the area to implement different aspects of development. There are many community activities centred on the pans, and there are several initiatives to manage and maintain them. The community are aware that too much surface flow is one factor that contributes to erosion and gully development in the area. They have been informed that the pans play an important role in reducing surface flow by collecting and storing surface runoff."},{"index":7,"size":137,"text":"Wetland -There is wetland within the village, which falls within an individual's land holding. The wetland provides pasture for livestock during the dry season. It also serves as a salt lick providing mineral salts to livestock. The water from the wetland contains some form of bicarbonate and is used for cooking in order to soften food quickly. There are parts of the swamp that manifest characteristics similar to bogs/quick sands and pose a danger. The owner monitors the wetland and those seeking to use the pastures within must obtain his permission. The swamp covers a small area and it is not considered a resource of great significance to the community. However the bog/quick sands present an interesting phenomenon that has potential to attract tourists and researchers. The local people refer to it as \"the soils that breathe.\""},{"index":8,"size":130,"text":"Forest -There are no forests within the village, and the tree population in the community is very low. The closest forest is referred to as \"Bungu Obel\". The community collects firewood, burns charcoal and gathers building materials from the forests, but depend heavily on the neighbouring Kipsigis community for their supply of wood fuel. Some form of permission must be negotiated with the neighbouring community/individuals before the forests/tree resources are exploited. The community believes that the forests attract rain and their loss would therefore lead to reduced rainfall in the community. The community rely almost exclusively on wood fuel as a source of energy for cooking. Many households purchase wood fuel in the market, which is not common in most of rural Kenya and is an indicator of environmental stress."},{"index":9,"size":118,"text":"Farmland -The community cultivates land within the village and produces crops such as maize, sorghum, groundnuts, millet, potatoes, beans, cowpeas, trees, cotton and vegetables. The farmland is characterized by low soil fertility and poor farming practices. Farming in the village is constrained by low income, low rainfalls, high cost of farm implements and lack of seeds which, when available, are too expensive. Every household is engaged in cultivation regardless of the low yields. There have been efforts by the Ministry of Agriculture and other development agencies to work with the community towards improving agricultural production but the community still speaks of reducing yields. Other livelihood activities of the community include basketry, business (firewood, fish, food products) and pottery."},{"index":10,"size":92,"text":"Degraded land -Although the whole area is prone to gully formation due to the nature of its soils, in the village there is a big gully called \"Katuk Odeyo Gully\" which is a big problem to the community. The gully is very deep and continues to spread. The community says it poses a danger to both people and livestock. Many organisations have visited the main gully and worked on it but the community says the gully is still growing. Apart from the main gully there are many smaller gullies in the region."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"Quarries -There are rocky areas in the community and these are exploited to produce ballast for construction and stones for building houses. The rocks are on individual farms and there are no laws/restrictions limiting their exploitation. They provide cheap construction materials and create employment."},{"index":12,"size":71,"text":"Gravel -There are gravel soils in some parts of Onyuongo, which is a neighbouring village. The gravel is used for construction of roads and housing. Excavating and loading the gravel provides employment in the area. However this activity scars the landscape and exposes the soils to agents of erosion. It also creates pits where water collects and poses a hazard to people and livestock while providing a breeding ground for mosquitoes."},{"index":13,"size":44,"text":"Markets -Kanyamlori, Store Pamba and Kibogo are market centres where the community obtains household items and markets their goods and services. They are all small shopping centres under the local authority. Kibogo market is the main market because of the high number of buyers."},{"index":14,"size":26,"text":"Schools -There are no schools in the village, however schools are not far from it, and include Ndori primary, Asawo primary, Obuom primary and Ndori secondary."},{"index":15,"size":35,"text":"Health centre -The community goes to a public health centre at Kibogo where they get treatment and take children for immunization. The centre does not have facilities to admit patients or treat any serious illness."},{"index":16,"size":129,"text":"Roads -The main road from Kisumu to Kisii passes through Store Pamba market. It is a tarmac road and the most important road to the community because it connects the area to other regions where they trade and obtain higher-level services. The Store Pamba to Kapsorok road and the Kibogo to Kapsorok road are both murram roads. The bridge near Kibogo has been damaged by the gully, and another cuts off the road near Store Pamba. Other smaller feeder roads are also at risk of destruction by gullies because the soil in the area is sodic and crumbles easily, thus forming gullies. The costs of goods tend to increase when the roads are bad because transporters charge higher rates. This has a negative impact on business in the community."},{"index":17,"size":39,"text":"Piped water -The community is supplied with water from the Nyakach water supply. The water is clean but the supply is not regular because the pipes break frequently and water pumps do not run constantly due to power shortages."}]},{"head":"B. Gender-differentiated comparison of current conditions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A comparison of male and female groups' responses reveals commonalities and differences."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Rivers -Men and women identified different uses for rivers resources. Among the uses, men highlighted sand harvesting and fishing while women emphasized water for domestic use, watering livestock, irrigation along the river (horticulture crops), bathing and a source of pottery clay. The women also identified the water pans as important resources to the community. The men viewed the river resources from an income generation point of view whereas the women tend to view it as a source of subsistence."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Forest -Only women mentioned fuelwood as an important forest resource and discussed details of where it was collected in the neighbouring community and the conditions that had to meet. The women collected firewood for both domestic use and also for sale in the nearby markets. The men, on the other hand, mentioned charcoal burning and construction materials as important forest resources. These are activities dominated by men in the community."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Infrastructure -The men gave a more detailed account of roads, while the women gave more details about markets, health and educational services."}]},{"head":"Farmland -","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The women talked of soil infertility and unreliable rainfall, which they linked to reduced yields, as the main problems facing them in relation to farming. Reduced yields are manifested in the fact that there is nothing to store in the granary since the output is so meagre and is quickly consumed. As a result, women no longer have granaries. The men, on the other hand, went into a detailed discussion on poor farming practices that have led to reductions in soil fertility."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Stone and murram (gravel) quarrying -Men and the women mentioned these activities, but men dominate quarrying."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Degraded land -The women mentioned the Katuk Odeyo gully as an example of degraded landscape. This gully covers a very large area and poses danger to the community."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Map 4. Overlay of current conditions, comparing men's and women's maps"}]},{"head":"C. Major changes of resource conditions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Maps 5 and 6, and Table 2, show the most relevant changes in community resources as expressed by male and female participants. From their perspective, in the past there were bigger forests that had wildlife such as leopards. Wildlife has since disappeared. River water was clean with low levels of sedimentation. There were no water pans (\"dams\"). There were spots where clay was collected for making pottery. Big thorny trees composed riverine vegetation and created beautiful scenery. There was only one major road, which was murram, and only two vehicles served the population along the route. There was less land under cultivation and yields were high. Farmers made extensive use of traditional methods of production and storage, and did not cultivate cash crops. These conditions changed, and the general perception was that natural resources deteriorated in the community."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Participants identified several drivers of change pertaining to the community resources. In reference to forest resources, population pressure was arguably the most important driver of change. Population pressure created the need to expand cultivated fields while increasing the demand for construction material and particularly fuelwood, as the community relies entirely on fuelwood for domestic energy."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Compounding the effects, commercialization of the economy increased the pace of change in resource use and deforestation. In the past the community did not sell or purchase fuelwood but today they do. As a result, the area left under forest has considerably decreased. Reduced rainfall has led to slower natural regeneration of forests."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Regarding river resources, participants said that human population pressure resulted in the unrestricted cutting of trees in the riparian corridor as well as the cultivation of the riverbanks. These changes in turn led to increasingly higher levels of siltation in the river system, but drought prevented fast growth of riparian vegetation. Meanwhile, demarcation of land, private ownership and commercialization of resources made it difficult to access clay for pottery that previously was freely available on the riverbanks."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"An increasing population required more food but also more land to be distributed. All of this contributed to major changes in farmland including land fragmentation and over-cultivation of the actual area under cultivation. Attempts to increase production under these conditions led to soil fertility depletion and erosion, and ultimately a steady decrease in yields. In turn, lower yields led to expansion of land under cultivation via encroachment of virgin land. Unpredictable rainfall patterns also reduced agricultural production. Increased demand and commercialization led to cultivation of cash crops and use of modern technology."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Participants expressed that increases in population and use in the road network were matched with increments in government investment in road construction. Likewise, increased demand for transport services led to more private investments in transport."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"Map 5. Major changes in resources (comparing past and present) for men Map 6. Major changes in resources (comparing past and present) for women "}]},{"head":"Free for all","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The riverine trees held soil firmly along the banks."}]},{"head":"River (F)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Water for human and livestock consumption, bathing, irrigation."}]},{"head":"R. Asawo, R. Awach","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"There were vegetation, trees along river. More water in river. Never destroyed lands as now."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Farmers used to do a lot of fishing. Pottery used clay soils along the river."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Close Free for all with no control on use."}]},{"head":"Roads (M) Kisumu-Kisii","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"No tarmac but had murram."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Access to formal education leads to new technologies."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Owned and maintained by the government."}]},{"head":"Roads (F) Kisumu-Kisii road","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"There was one major road, two vehicles used to operate on route. Few traders using road, people hiked to market."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"More people invest in transport. Population increase, shift in activities."}]},{"head":"Roads (F)","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Store pambakapsorok","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Road used to go through to Kericho town before destruction by gully."}]},{"head":"Gully erosion","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water pans (\"Dams\") (F)","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Water for livestock and irrigation."}]},{"head":"Okote, kamula, koyombe","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Never existed Close by Lack of water. Government intervention to solve water problem Control soil erosion, water conservation."}]},{"head":"Schools (F) Ndori primary","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"This was the only school in the village."}]},{"head":"min","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Rise in population."}]},{"head":"Market (F)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Store Pamba It was a sisal collection point."}]},{"head":"In the village","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"More activities came up","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farmland (M)","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sorghum Kamuana village","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Bumper harvests with healthy outputs."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Soil erosion. Unpredictable rainfall, Land fragmentation lead to smaller arable land and loss of soil fertility."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Communal with no control."}]},{"head":"Farmland (F)","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Growing cash and food crops","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"In the village and along the river."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The harvest was larger. They even had granaries, and grinding stones to grind maize/sorghum. Soils were more fertile, farm size was large, and there was less soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Close","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Drought. People use commercial mills. Old milling skill not known by new generation. In-fertile soil, population increase, low rainfall, high cost of living."}]},{"head":"D. Vision of the future","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"With a mixed group of men and women, the goal was to develop an image of village resources and human wellbeing into 2030 to understand the opportunities and constraints, as well as aspirations for the future. This exercise built upon all the work completed in the previous sessions. In addition, the exercise took into account the photographs of the landscape, including things they are proud of and things that need to be improved upon in the future, that a group of young people had produced following instructions given on day 1."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"In the section below we include the map that encapsulates Kamuana village's vision of the future (Map 7). We also include a few of the photographs taken by the youth. These images operationalize the collective vision of the future."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Map 7. Future map of the community -Increased food production."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"-Soil conservation."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"-More food variety."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"-Food security."},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"-Extreme weather conditions."},{"index":8,"size":4,"text":"-High prices of fuel."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"-Poverty."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"-HIV/AIDS prevalence in the area."}]},{"head":"Ministry of agriculture, KARI, ICRAF, local CBOs","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"River","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Have trees along the riverbanks."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"- "}]},{"head":"Road","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Road to Kapsorok has been repaired, and other roads have been improved. Presently Kapsorok road is not passable \"even to chicken and dogs.\""},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"-Road will open up development in the village."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"-Fast transfer of information."}]},{"head":"Gully erosion.","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Ministry of road, CDF, NGOs, development partners."}]},{"head":"Schools","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"They have a public primary school at Store Pamba. Ndori secondary school has been upgraded to boarding school. Another secondary school established at Onyuongo."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"-Access to education by their children."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"-Supplementary activities shall come up in the village."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"-Job opportunities."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"-Poverty."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"-Funds."}]},{"head":"Ministry of education, CDF, NGOs, development partners","index":48,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Market","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Store Pamba has an open market with a designated market day. A public toilet and a resource centre serve this market."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"-Development of the area."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"-Better services."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"-Job opportunities."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Local government, business partners, trade unions, community."}]},{"head":"Hospital","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"There is a health centre at Store Pamba."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"-Reduced distance to health services."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"-Job opportunities."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Ministry of health, CDF, NGOs."}]},{"head":"Water","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Source of clean water in the village. Water points distributed across several areas serve the community."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"-Availability of clean water."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"-Women will not spend much time to look for water."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"-Save money."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"There are not many organisations working on water development in the village"}]},{"head":"Development partners","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"We present below a discussion of the major constraints and opportunities for the vision of the future that has been presented in Table 3."}]},{"head":"Forests.","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Constraints -Low rainfall constrains the growth of trees/forests. Small farm sizes restrict the area that can be under tree cover. There is no public land on which to plant public forests within the community. Opportunities -Forests within the community will contribute to environmental conservation. Trees incorporated on the farm in agro forestry systems and woodlots will reduce dependency on the neighbouring community as the only source of timber and wood fuel."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Farmland. Constraints -Extreme weather conditions increase vulnerability to crop failure. High prices of fuel increase the cost of production. High levels of Poverty and HIV/AIDS prevalence in the area compromise the community's ability to participate in agriculture. Opportunities -The use of modern technology and certified seeds will provide them with an opportunity to increased food production and expand food variety. The practice of crop rotation will improve soil conservation."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Rivers. Constraints -The riverbanks are private land so the community must seek permission from the landowners to plant trees in the riparian land. Opportunities -Planting trees on the riverbank will provide an opportunity to control soil erosion."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"The gully. Constraints -Tree planting has not succeeded in halting the advance of the gully. Many organisations have done this over the years and the gully is still expanding. The community feels they need to try other approaches and options such as construction of more water pans (\"dams\") and diversion of water upstream before it gets to the gully area. They are interested in cementing the gully to stop further extension. Some want the gully to be filled and a bridge constructed. Opportunities -The work that has been done in the gully can serve as lesson on environmental management to others."}]},{"head":"Roads.","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Constraints -Gully erosion is characteristic of the area. Gullies form easily and pose a threat to all roads in the area. Opportunities -Road repairs will open up development in the village. Roads will contribute to the quick transfer of information, etc.."}]},{"head":"Schools.","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Constraints -The area has high poverty levels and the people have limited resources with which to put up a school. Opportunities -More schools will improve access to education for their children. An increase in the number of schools will attract extra activities in the village and create new job opportunities."}]},{"head":"Markets.","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Opportunities -Improving the level of services provided by the market centres will create new jobs and improve service delivery."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Hospitals. Opportunities -The proposed health centre will reduce the distance to health services and create new job opportunities."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Water. Constraints -There are not many organisations working on water development in the village. Opportunities -The proposed distribution points will improve the availability of clean water within the community and by extension reduce the possibilities of water borne diseases. Women will spend less time looking for water."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"The community identified rivers, water pans (\"dams\") and wetlands water as important resources. The rivers and water pans do not have any form of management and access to them is open, posing a challenge to conservation. River resources have deteriorated over time, whereas the water pans have management committees who provide a continuous maintenance of the resources. There are no forests in the area, and the community relies entirely on the neighbouring community for their supply of tree products for wood-fuel and construction. In the past the community did not have to pay for forest resources but today they must negotiate a price as commercialisation has set in. Efforts should be made to increase the tree population on the landscape also to promote alternative sources of energy and energy saving technologies."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Farmland and human settlement are not separate. All households own land and are engaged in cultivation. However agricultural yields are very low as a result of low soil fertility. There have been efforts by the Ministry of Agriculture and other development agencies to work with the community towards improving agricultural production but the community still speak of declining yields. Perhaps cultivation is not the best land use for the region. There is need to explore alternative livelihood options other than cultivation."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"Infrastructure in the community is inadequately developed. There is one tarmac road and the schools have only the basic facilities. The closest health facility offers only outpatient services. There is piped water in the community but very few households are connected to it and the supply is unreliable due to constant breakages and power cuts. There is need to invest in improving the level of infrastructural development. The area is prone to gully erosion because of its sodic soils. It has a very big gully called Katuk Odeyo gully that has defied the efforts of many organisation that have tried to halt its progress. Today the gully poses a risk to both man and livestock. Gully erosion in the area is a challenge to the construction and maintenance of a road network."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"The main drivers of change in the community are population pressure, unreliable rainfall, unrestricted exploitation of natural resources, land fragmentation and commercialization. In their vision of the future the community want to reduce their reliance on the neighbouring community for trees resources. They also want to improve agricultural production and further develop infrastructure."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"Future CCAFS work will need to address sustainable NRM, improvement of agricultural output, improved infrastructure, alternative non-land based livelihoods and the Katuk Odeyo Gully."}]},{"head":"Topic 2: Organisational landscapes","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"This topic aims to show evidence of organisational capacities that help address food security and manage resources. This will inform CCAFS about how prepared the village is to respond to the challenges envisaged as a consequence of climate change or other future challenges and to engage with CCAFS partners at a collective level."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Specifically, this section presents the different formal and informal organisations involved in the community in general terms, as well as with respect to food security in different situations (i.e. average and crisis conditions), and natural resources management (NRM). It also elaborates on what types of activities the organisations are engaged in, who their members are, whether the organisations are useful, etc."}]},{"head":"A. Basic spheres of operation","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Participants were asked to draw three large concentric circles on the ground. The inner circle would represent the community, the middle circle the locality and the outer circle beyond the locality. Participants were then asked to name organisations working in the area, whose names were written on cards, and place the cards in the appropriate circle. Thus, the group placed in the inner circle the cards of organisations that worked in the community, in the middle circle the cards of organisations operating in the locality, and in the outer circle those that operated beyond the locality. See Photo 2 for an example of the activity as carried out with the study participants. The results are shown in the diagrams that follow. Based on this structure, the men identified 13 organisations in the village while the women identified 16."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"In Tables 4 and 5, more detailed information is provided on the five most important organisations as they were ranked by the men's and women's groups."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Photo 2. The organisational landscape activity in progress Figure 1. Organisational landscape of the men's group "}]},{"head":"C. Organisational landscape of natural resource management","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In this section, the organisational landscape in relation to natural resource management (NRM) is discussed. Specifically, what organisations were actively working to protect the environment, manage natural resources, etc.? The process entailed asking the group to highlight what organisations are involved in the management of natural resources in the community; developing a list of natural resources important to the livelihoods of the community; and asking the group to decide on a symbol for each type of natural resource listed."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The men identified 9 organisations engaged in natural resource management while the women identified 7. Out of this total 33% of the organisations identified by the men operate beyond the locality, 22% operate within the locality and 45 % operate within the village. These ratios changed for the women's discussion where 57% operated beyond the locality, 14% within the locality and 29% within the village. An ideal situation is when there are more actors within the community because it is an indication of the level of community participation in natural resource management. Table 6. Information on highlighted organisations of men and women (unless otherwise noted, 1=yes, 0=no) information from which to make decisions. They include observations of temperature, sunshine, wind, rains, drought and clouds. The community tends to doubt many outside channels of information."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Farmers seek information that they can use to make decisions on agriculture. For men, such information is particularly important regarding the start of season/rains, planting time, type of input to be used (e.g. manure, fertilizers), and information on the type of soil. For women the critical information includes marketing, types of seeds to plant, management of crops and animals, and chemicals to apply on crops. A summary of the results from the exercise are presented in Table 7 below. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In the past there were bigger forests that had wildlife. The rivers had cleaner water and less sediment."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"There was a lush riparian vegetation and thriving pottery industry. No water pans (\"dams\") had been constructed in the community. There was less land under cultivation and the yields were higher. There were no cash crops and cultivation was characterised by traditional methods. There were fewer roads and social amenities such as schools. All of those conditions have changed."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Population pressure has created increased demand for and even over-exploitation of natural resources. Today there are no forests within the village and no wildlife left. The households go to a neighbouring community to collect wood fuel, or purchase wood fuel in the market, which are indicators of the environmental stress. The rivers are contaminated and unprotected. Land fragmentation has reduced the actual area of land under cultivation. Seeking to increase production, farmers have engaged in over-cultivation that has contributed to soil exhaustion and erosion. Unpredictable rainfall patterns have further reduced agricultural production. The results of the household survey show that most households are subsistence farmers producing crops and /or keeping livestock. The majority of households have less than 7 months on-farm food sources all year."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"The progressive decline in agricultural production needs to be addressed since the majority of the people are peasant farmers and rely heavily on their farm outputs for subsistence. Improved farm production can contribute to improving their food security in terms of food availability. More than 90% of the organisations engage in food security issues therefore enhancing their capacity has potential to make an impact on the food security situation."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Crop production needs to be improved to ensure food security and a decent income. Yet cultivation is no longer capable of supporting the population in the region. There is need to explore alternative livelihood options other than cultivation. Currently other livelihood activities of the community include basketry, business (firewood, fish, food products) and pottery."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"Efforts need to be made in improving the tree population in the area, providing alternative sources of energy or introducing energy saving technologies. Implementing agroforestry systems will increase trees in the community for wood fuel and improve soil fertility at the same time reducing reliance on the shared forests and providing environmental services. Protecting the riparian areas will make the rivers and their water healthy. The community believes that the forests attract rainfall."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"There is need to invest in improving the level of infrastructural development. There is piped water in the community but very few households are connected to it and the supply is unreliable due to constant breakages and power cuts."},{"index":8,"size":122,"text":"There are many organisations in the community engaged in mobilisation of resources but they lack capacity and do not perform at optimum level. There is a dearth of effective collective action to solve problems in the village. There are no obvious efforts to clean, manage or conserve the river or riparian zone. A big gully remains unchecked, growing and presenting threats to life and property. Yields are not sufficient. The community groups have potential to implement many interventions but they are resource poor. Most community organisations are operating below capacity. Much more can be achieved if they are empowered. This can be further improved by creating horizontal linkages between the organisations at a local level, but such links are currently very few."},{"index":9,"size":102,"text":"The radio is the most popular form of media from which the community obtain information to help them make decisions related to agriculture. The community listens to Radio Ramogi and Radio Lake Victoria, both of which use the local language. From the broadcasts they learn about seed types, their advantages and disadvantages; use of fertilizers; and cash crop prices at different markets. All of this helps the producers to make decisions on what to plant, what seed type to be planted each season and where to sell/buy produce. Meteorological information is also relayed through the radio. This guides the producers' agricultural calendar."}]},{"head":"Implications for CCAFS","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Future CCAFS work will need to address sustainable NRM, improvement of agricultural output, improved infrastructure, alternative based livelihoods and the Katuk Odeyo Gully."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"It is important to strengthen the capacity of the organisations and the links among each other to create synergy. It will be important to build capacity on the basis of whatever knowledge, resources and creativity that already exists in the community. For that goal to be realized, the strengths and shortcomings of male and female community members must be taken into account. For instance, the women in the analysis understand the resources that they interact with but they do not know about resources that are far way and that hence do not interact with. Men, on the other hand, understand the resources that are both near and far but do not have details. Water and forest are resources that are very important to women. The women knew of more local groups than the men."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Attention should be paid to not only undermining but also strengthening the established roles and initiatives of both individuals and organisations. For example, observation is the most used source of information on weather, and individuals form an important part of the information networks, including those pertaining to weather conditions. Hence, the consolidation of Information networks for agricultural and weather information in the community should support individuals and organisations in the community as much as media outlets for information diffusion."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"There is potential for establishing an extensive network of linkages in the area but there has been no initiative towards this end. Most organisations have in the past come and addressed only issues that were in line with their project objectives without making any attempt to find out which other"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary for Layer 1: current conditions, as perceived by men (M) and women (F) Land cover Community Location Current state Time to Management and Environ- Opportunities Limitations Land coverCommunityLocationCurrent stateTime toManagement andEnviron-OpportunitiesLimitations class determined land Names (quality) resource ownership issues mental   classdetermined landNames(quality)resourceownership issuesmental  use     Benefits   useBenefits Forest (M) Charcoal burning, Bungu Obel Most of forest has 1 hour on foot On individual farms Believed to be Fuel wood and Farm owner Forest (M)Charcoal burning,Bungu Obel Most of forest has1 hour on foot On individual farmsBelieved to beFuel wood andFarm owner  house construction  been converted to  of neighbouring a source of construction restrictions house constructionbeen converted toof neighbouringa source ofconstructionrestrictions  and firewood  farmland  Kipsigis community. rainfall   and firewoodfarmlandKipsigis community.rainfall  collection (for    Need permission    collection (forNeed permission  some men)    from owner for forest    some men)from owner for forest      exploitation    exploitation Forest (F) Firewood for Kapsorok Village have no 1 hour to Owned and  Soil and water  Forest (F)Firewood forKapsorokVillage have no1 hour toOwned andSoil and water  domestic use  bushes/trees for Kajalango controlled by  conservation  domestic usebushes/trees forKajalangocontrolled byconservation    firewood. They pay Ksh 20/day and collect firewood from assigned land. Some forest Kalenjin community  Increases soil fertility Attracts rainfall  firewood. They pay Ksh 20/day and collect firewood from assigned land. SomeforestKalenjin communityIncreases soil fertility Attracts rainfall    sell at Sondu market.      sell at Sondu market. Rivers (M) Harvesting of sand Asawo Rivers get sediment 20-30 min on Resource for all and  Water to drink, Free range grazing Rivers (M)Harvesting of sandAsawoRivers get sediment20-30 min onResource for all andWater to drink,Free range grazing  and stones for building. Fishing  during the rainy seasons. foot depending on distance from home Some go with bicycles therefore no specific responsibility. Some even dump dog carcass in river  animals, domestic use. Source of fish, self-employment, sand harvesting, Laziness leading to under-utilization of the water and stones for building. Fishingduring the rainy seasons.foot depending on distance from home Some go with bicyclestherefore no specific responsibility. Some even dump dog carcass in riveranimals, domestic use. Source of fish, self-employment, sand harvesting,Laziness leading to under-utilization of the water        irrigation (fruits,  irrigation (fruits,        potatoes,  potatoes,        tomatoes)  tomatoes) Rivers (F) Water for home River Water from the river 10 min by foot Owned and  Water is available. Water from river Rivers (F)Water for homeRiverWater from the river10 min by footOwned andWater is available.Water from river  use, bathing, livestock, irrigation of vegetables along river. Source of Asawo, River Awach is not clean for domestic use. Water level is low. to R. Asawo controlled by the community  Source of pipe water is not clean, one has treating costs. During dry season water levels are use, bathing, livestock, irrigation of vegetables along river. Source ofAsawo, River Awachis not clean for domestic use. Water level is low.to R. Asawocontrolled by the communitySource of pipe wateris not clean, one has treating costs. During dry season water levels are  pottery clay.       low pottery clay.low  "},{"text":"Land cover class Community determined land use Location Names Current state (quality) Time to resource Management and ownership issues Environ- mental Benefits Opportunities Limitations Wetland (M)   Grazing land Kamuana Active wetland. It has 5 minutes on Private farm (Ayako Research has The hotspot Grazing landKamuanaActive wetland. It has5 minutes onPrivate farm (AyakoResearch hasThe hotspot  during dry spells. village an unreachable spot foot Omwandho); One been done. makes it during dry spells.villagean unreachable spotfootOmwandho); Onebeen done.makes it  Salt licks for  in it that is dangerous  needs permission Community inaccessible Salt licks forin it that is dangerousneeds permissionCommunityinaccessible  livestock. De-  to human life.  from landowner to not clear yet livestock. De-to human life.from landowner tonot clear yet  wormer and for    graze cattle but not on benefits. wormer and forgraze cattle but noton benefits.  removing livestock    for rest of activities.  removing livestockfor rest of activities.  placenta. Cooking    Owner checks its use.  placenta. CookingOwner checks its use.  to soften food.      to soften food. Water pans Bathing, water for Kamula Agriculture is done  Controlled by \"dam Control of soil Water is made Water pansBathing, water forKamulaAgriculture is doneControlled by \"damControl of soilWater is made (\"Dams\") livestock. Irrigation Kokoto, around the place. The  committee\" who are erosion and available for (\"Dams\")livestock. IrrigationKokoto,around the place. Thecommittee\" who areerosion andavailable for (F) of horticultural crops and tree Koyombe \"dam committee\" cleans silting  members of community. flooding Water conserving. agriculture and livestock. (F)of horticultural crops and treeKoyombe\"dam committee\" cleans siltingmembers of community.flooding Water conserving.agriculture and livestock.  nurseries. Collect water that otherwise would  frequently.  Owned by the community  nurseries. Collect water that otherwise wouldfrequently.Owned by the community  cause erosion and      cause erosion and  flooding.      flooding. Degraded Gully  The gully is Not far from   Sand harvesting Disrupts DegradedGullyThe gully isNot far fromSand harvestingDisrupts land (F)   branching. It is huge the village   by the nearby movement, land (F)branching. It is hugethe villageby the nearbymovement,    and ugly, and    village. destroys houses, and ugly, andvillage.destroys houses,    dangerous to human    roads and graves. dangerous to humanroads and graves.    and livestock lives    Not passable in and livestock livesNot passable in        rainy season, rainy season,        washes away soil washes away soil        and fields. Threat and fields. Threat        to children, to children,        livestock. livestock. Murram House and road Onyuongo Murram in widely 20 minutes on On individual, land.  Source of income MurramHouse and roadOnyuongoMurram in widely20 minutes onOn individual, land.Source of income (M) construction  available foot from Owner manages and  from construction (M)constructionavailablefoot fromOwner manages andfrom construction     Kamuana decides on use of  companies and the Kamuanadecides on use ofcompanies and the     village resource, but farmers  government villageresource, but farmersgovernment      use it secretly when  use it secretly when      owner is absent.  owner is absent.  "},{"text":"Land cover class Community determined land use Location Names Current state (quality) Time to resource Management and ownership issues Environ- mental Benefits Opportunities Limitations  Land cover Community Location Current state Time to Management and Environ- Opportunities Limitations Land coverCommunityLocationCurrent stateTime toManagement andEnviron-OpportunitiesLimitations class determined land Names (quality) resource ownership issues mental   classdetermined landNames(quality)resourceownership issuesmental  use     Benefits   useBenefits Quarry (M) Ballast for Roads (F) Kamuana Store Pamba The rocks are plenty Not in good 30 minutes to On individual farms; Rocks/stones Cheaper  Quarry (M) Ballast for Roads (F)Kamuana Store PambaThe rocks are plenty Not in good30 minutes toOn individual farms;Rocks/stonesCheaper  construction village -Kapsorok and cannot be condition, murram other farms accessible to all; No control soil construction since  constructionvillage -Kapsorokand cannot be condition, murramother farmsaccessible to all; Nocontrol soilconstruction since  Stones for building houses road overexploited that road. It has been easily interfered by the gully.  laws barring/limiting use of quarry resources erosion where they exist. check soil Stone lines can materials are available on farm. (sale of stones) Self-employment  Stones for building housesroadoverexploited that road. It has been easily interfered by the gully.laws barring/limiting use of quarry resourceserosion where they exist. check soil Stone lines canmaterials are available on farm. (sale of stones) Self-employment       erosion   erosion Farmland Farming of maize, Kamuana Low soil fertility 30 minutes Private farms and not Trees on Food Poor farming FarmlandFarming of maize,KamuanaLow soil fertility30 minutesPrivate farms and notTrees onFoodPoor farming (M) sorghum, groundnuts, millet, village  maximum on foot. often leased. Originally got farmlands bring rainfall Trees practices. Erosion of top soil leaving (M)sorghum, groundnuts, millet,villagemaximum on foot.often leased. Originally gotfarmlands bring rainfallTreespractices. Erosion of top soil leaving  potatoes, beans,    management support   hard pans. Over- potatoes, beans,management supporthard pans. Over-  cowpeas, trees,    from the Ministry of   mining of soils, no cowpeas, trees,from the Ministry ofmining of soils, no  cotton, vegetables.    Agriculture.   nutrient cotton, vegetables.Agriculture.nutrient         restocking. restocking. Farmland Grow horticultural In the Size of 1.5 acres 15 min   Food production Low soil fertility FarmlandGrow horticulturalIn theSize of 1.5 acres15 minFood productionLow soil fertility (F) crops (tomatoes, village       (F)crops (tomatoes,village  vegetables)        vegetables) Roads (M)  Kisumu- Poor good condition, Less than 5 Government owned  Transport of farm  Roads (M)Kisumu-Poor good condition,Less than 5Government ownedTransport of farm   Kisii e.g., the Kamuana minutes by though now  produce and the  Kisiie.g., the Kamuanaminutes bythough nowproduce and the   Kamuana Kanyamlori road is cut off by a very big Katuk Odeyo gully. Most of foot neglected  dead. Communication, access to village.  Kamuana Kanyamloriroad is cut off by a very big Katuk Odeyo gully. Most offootneglecteddead. Communication, access to village.    the other roads are    Linking  the other roads areLinking    pot holed    communities  pot holedcommunities Roads (F)  Kisumu- Main road from 5 min Central government   Current high Roads (F)Kisumu-Main road from5 minCentral governmentCurrent high   Kisii road Kisumu and passes  does repairs.   prices increase Kisii roadKisumu and passesdoes repairs.prices increase    through Store Pamba     transport cost through Store Pambatransport cost    market. In good      market. In good    condition (tarmac      condition (tarmac    road). Most      road). Most    important.      important.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Major changes and drivers of change in the last 10 years, as perceived by men (M) and women (F) Land cover Community Location Past state (quality) Time to Drivers of change Management and Environmental Land coverCommunityLocationPast state (quality)Time toDrivers of changeManagement andEnvironmental class determined Names  resource  ownership issues Benefits classdeterminedNamesresourceownership issuesBenefits  land use       land use Forest (M) Wild fruits Bungu Obel Bigger in size. It had wildlife, 1 hour on Population pressure through Had no owner since land Plenty of rainfall Forest (M) Wild fruitsBungu Obel Bigger in size. It had wildlife,1 hour onPopulation pressure throughHad no owner since landPlenty of rainfall  Bush meat  e.g. leopards. foot. increased charcoal burning and construction. had not been demarcated. Forests were feared since then. Plenty of pasture for Bush meate.g. leopards.foot.increased charcoal burning and construction.had not been demarcated. Forests were feared sincethen. Plenty of pasture for       they had wild animals. livestock. Fertile they had wild animals.livestock. Fertile       Rangers chased those who soils on their Rangers chased those whosoils on their       neared the forests. It was farms hence neared the forests. It wasfarms hence       free for all when it came plenty of food. free for all when it cameplenty of food.       to grazing, hunting and  to grazing, hunting and       cutting trees.  cutting trees. Forest (F) Fetch  Never used to buy firewood or Within Deforestation, drought  Forest brings Forest (F)FetchNever used to buy firewood orWithinDeforestation, droughtForest brings  firewood  went to nearby community for the   rainfall, control firewoodwent to nearby community fortherainfall, control    firewood. It was locally village   soil erosion, firewood. It was locallyvillagesoil erosion,    available.    improve soil available.improve soil        fertility fertility River (M) Source of Asawo Big thorny riverine trees. Had 20 Cutting of trees.   River (M)Source ofAsawoBig thorny riverine trees. Had20Cutting of trees.  water Luanda spots for collecting clay for pottery that were bartered. Had sediment during rains but then reverted to clean water. minutes on foot Land demarcation. Ploughing in riverbanks leads to siltation.   waterLuandaspots for collecting clay for pottery that were bartered. Had sediment during rains but then reverted to clean water.minutes on footLand demarcation. Ploughing in riverbanks leads to siltation.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Vision of the future Items from the 2 Preferred condition for 2030 Opportunities Constraints Organisations to Items from the 2Preferred condition for 2030OpportunitiesConstraintsOrganisations to map legends    involve map legendsinvolve Forest There is a forest in their village, and they no -Environmental conservation, -Low rainfall KARI, ICRAF, ForestThere is a forest in their village, and they no-Environmental conservation,-Low rainfallKARI, ICRAF,  longer depend on firewood from neighbouring community. Trees have been planted in homestead and along the river. -Timber -Firewood -Weak soils -Small farm sizes Government ministries such as agriculture, NEMA, local CBOs longer depend on firewood from neighbouring community. Trees have been planted in homestead and along the river.-Timber -Firewood-Weak soils -Small farm sizesGovernment ministries such as agriculture, NEMA, local CBOs Farmlands They produce high yields from their farms, and    FarmlandsThey produce high yields from their farms, and  do farming as a business. They use new    do farming as a business. They use new  technologies (certified seeds, irrigation, crop    technologies (certified seeds, irrigation, crop  rotation).    rotation).  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Information on the first five organisations ranked by the men Legend  Legend 1 Kamuana 4K  1 Kamuana 4K 2 Kamuana Welfare 8 CARE Kenya 2 Kamuana Welfare8 CARE Kenya 3 World Vision 9 Store Nyalo 3 World Vision9 Store Nyalo 4 Jimo Nguono support group 10 ICRAF 4 Jimo Nguono support group10 ICRAF 5 World Neighbors 11 VI Agroforestry 5 World Neighbors11 VI Agroforestry 6 Fokodep 12 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute 6 Fokodep12 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute 7 Kajulu Welfare 13 Osienala 7 Kajulu Welfare13 Osienala  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Information on the first five organisations ranked by the women Organisation Main activities Number Access (open or Origin Sphere of Sources of Existed Formal or OrganisationMain activitiesNumberAccess (open orOriginSphere ofSources ofExistedFormal or name  of restricted to…) (indigenous operation: funding how long informal nameofrestricted to…)(indigenousoperation:fundinghow longinformal   members  , state, community, (members, (less than  members, state,community,(members,(less than   (estimate)  NGO, local, beyond external, both) 1 yr, 1-5,  (estimate)NGO,local, beyondexternal, both)1 yr, 1-5,     project) local  longer)  project)locallonger) 1 Kamuana Farming activity including growing All the Open to Indigenous Community They Has been Formal 1 KamuanaFarming activity including growingAll theOpen toIndigenous CommunityTheyHas beenFormal welfare watermelons for sale. They meet after every 2 villagers everyone in   contribute there for  welfarewatermelons for sale. They meet after every 2villagerseveryone incontributethere for  weeks. Registration is 18 years and above. (men and village   Ksh.100 for long  weeks. Registration is 18 years and above.(men andvillageKsh.100 forlong   women) including   welfare,   women)includingwelfare,    children.   Ksh.20   children.Ksh.20       registration.   registration. 2 Kamuana 4k They grow maize, tomatoes and kales for sale.  Open to both Indigenous Community Members'  Formal 2 Kamuana 4k They grow maize, tomatoes and kales for sale.Open to bothIndigenous CommunityMembers'Formal  They count profits at the end of the year and  women and   support, sale   They count profits at the end of the year andwomen andsupport, sale  distribute to members.  men.   of products.   distribute to members.men.of products. 3 Nguono Save money and lends to members.  Women and Indigenous Community Members  Informal 3 NguonoSave money and lends to members.Women andIndigenous CommunityMembersInformal support group monthly. It is an organisation that supports Loans from the group should be repaid  men.   contribute   support groupmonthly. It is an organisation that supports Loans from the group should be repaidmen.contribute  during funeral ceremonies and take care of        during funeral ceremonies and take care of  widows and orphans.        widows and orphans. 4 Nyamrerwa Local medical practitioners offer med. Services  Women and Indigenous Community Members  Informal 4 NyamrerwaLocal medical practitioners offer med. ServicesWomen andIndigenous CommunityMembersInformal  during childbirth, but not beyond basic  men.   contribute   during childbirth, but not beyond basicmen.contribute  treatment. Trained to identify children diseases.        treatment. Trained to identify children diseases.  In case of complications, refer patient to health        In case of complications, refer patient to health  centres        centres 5 World -Support orphans and vulnerable children  Open to NGO Beyond local External  Formal 5 World-Support orphans and vulnerable childrenOpen toNGOBeyond local ExternalFormal Vision -Funds their education  orphans and      Vision-Funds their educationorphans and  -Gives family a cow, which cannot be sold  vulnerable      -Gives family a cow, which cannot be soldvulnerable  because it has to provide milk  children.      because it has to provide milkchildren.  -Supports individuals and groups.        -Supports individuals and groups.  -Builds house for family with vulnerable child        -Builds house for family with vulnerable child  -Supports school by building classroom        -Supports school by building classroom  -Promotes farmers by providing farm        -Promotes farmers by providing farm  equipment and water pumps.        equipment and water pumps.  -Distribute relief food        -Distribute relief food  -Support environmental groups in tree planting        -Support environmental groups in tree planting  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Networks of information Source   Topic (men)   Topic (women) SourceTopic (men)Topic (women)  Type Rainfall Planting Fertiliser Soil Marketing Type Chemical Crop/ Total TypeRainfall PlantingFertiliserSoilMarketing TypeChemicalCrop/Total  of  time and type of info animal oftimeandtypeofinfoanimal  seed   crops info seed  mgmt seedcropsinfoseedmgmt     varieties    varieties     info    info Individuals        Individuals Family 1 1 1 1 1   Family11111  "}],"sieverID":"0920e534-16cd-42d5-8402-93237134ed5b","abstract":"The tools and guidelines used for implementation of the village baseline study across all CCAFS sites, as well as the mapping outputs at a higher resolution can be accessed on our website (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b17386e5481badf3f49f2da8ecc309e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f201d886-0b59-4fcf-a51e-1e41bfaebc5c/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"How to value AnGR? 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Having examined the conceptual economic background and the policy issues that we aim to resolve through animal genetic resources (AnGR) valuation, in this second case study on the same subject), it is now necessary to consider the tools with which such valuation can be realised. This case study examines a variety of potentially applicable valuation methodologies some of which have been developed for assessing the value of crop genetic resources."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"However, as will be seen below, the field of economic valuation of AnGR per se requires substantial development and, hence, examples of valuation studies that have actually been carried out are extremely limited."}]},{"head":"Animal genetic resource valuation","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Contrasting animal and plant genetic resource valuation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"Animal genetic diversity, in general, and valuation in particular, has not received the same amount of attention as plant/crop genetic resources (PGR). As a result, the development of methodologies for AnGR must draw heavily on the literature available on PGR valuation. Given that the underlying principles of genetics and gene action are similar for plants and animals, it is worth asking what can be learnt from PGR valuation methodologies that would be of benefit to AnGR valuation? There are indeed several methodological difficulties that have arisen in valuing PGR that are also likely to affect AnGR. For example, Evenson (1991) has shown that the measurement of the benefits of germplasm diversity to crop development is extremely difficult. The genetic resources are seldom traded in markets and are often the product of generations of informal innovations. Thus, identifying the contribution of a particular local breed to the success of an improved breed would be complicated. Furthermore, the base materials used for breeding are themselves the result of a production function and identifying the returns to respective factors (e.g. labour, on-farm technology, intellectual inputs etc.) is likely to be possible only in the most general terms (Evenson 1991;Pearce and Moran 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"However, in addition to confronting similar challenges, there are several differentiating characteristics between AnGR and PGR that may have an influence on valuation."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"According to Hammond (1998) of the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Animal Genetics Resources Group, animal resources tend to be:"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• more mobile"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• comparatively high cost per unit"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• very low fecundity, with 'seed' needing to be deep frozen to survive"},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"• seriously affected by many rapidly spreading animal diseases both within and across animal species, including Homo sapiens. These primary differences lead to a suite of related considerations, which will impact on valuation methodologies (as we shall see below) as well as resource management strategies. These differences include:"},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"• the relatively small total number of animal genetic resources and extremely small number of these which have been exposed to date to modern development technology • the high impact of some biotechnologies on the dispersal ability of animal resources"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• the few remaining wild relatives of domestic animal species"},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"• the low level of knowledge of animal biology compared with the wide range of environments over which sustainable production is being sought • the high impact of animal disease protocols on international transport and access; and"},{"index":11,"size":39,"text":"• the low level of gene-banking of animal resources at risk.. These substantial differences convey policy, legal and technical uniqueness, which must be addressed to achieve effective management of AnGR. They are also likely to have implications for valuation. "}]},{"head":"Valuation methodologies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"How can we measure these values and which valuation methodologies are the most appropriate? A range of potential valuation methodologies exists. These are presented in Table 1 and can be categorised broadly into 3 groups on the basis of the practical purpose for which they may be conducted (Drucker et al. 2001). Following the identification of a given breed being at risk, these methodologies can be applied in order to justify conservation costs by: (i) determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs (i.e. consider environmental values); (ii) determining the actual economic importance of the breed at risk (i.e. considering breed values); and/or (iii) priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes (i.e. consider trait values). Each of these categories is discussed below and a summary is presented in Table 1. "}]},{"head":"Methodologies for determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"There are those methodologies that seek to determine the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) relies on questionnaires about willingness to pay (WTP) or willingness to accept (WTA) payment for conservation. Pearce and Moran (1994, p. 61) argue that CVM is a promising option for biodiversity valuation in general because: it is the only way to elicit non-use values directly; the potential for information provision and exchange during the survey process offers scope to experiment with respondent knowledge and understanding of biodiversity; and it can be used as a surrogate referendum on determining conservation priorities based on public preferences."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Hypothetically then, farmers might be asked about their willingness to accept payment for on-farm maintenance of AnGR and the general public might be queried on WTP for maintenance on-farm or in gene banks. In this way, an upper bound to the costs that society is willing to confront for AnGR conservation could be determined. However, CVM has never been attempted for genetic resources valuation per-se."},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"An alternative approach to defining an upper bound for economically justifiable conservation costs is to identify the minimum that society could economically justify based on a measure of production loss averted. This approach attempts to identify the magnitude of potential production losses in the absence of AnGR conservation. For example, Smith (1984a) compared conservation costs for AnGR in the UK to a potential catastrophic event resulting in the loss of an arbitrary 1% of the total annual production value, on the assumption that conservation of AnGR would prevent these losses. A variation of this approach has been used by Brown and Golstein (1984) in order to value ex-situ (plant) collections. They used a model where the benefits of reducing expected future production losses are weighed against gene bank operating costs and searches, arguing that all varieties for which the marginal benefit of preservation exceeds marginal cost should be conserved.. Oldfield (1989), on the other hand, focuses on actual crop losses (in this case related to Southern Corn Leaf Blight) as a measure of value of the genetic improvement efforts used to eventually overcome such losses."},{"index":5,"size":136,"text":"The magnitude of such losses is, however, a poor proxy for the value of genetic materials as such an approach fails to account for substitution possibilities. This is because crop production losses are not necessarily mirrored by agricultural production losses and consumer/producer surplus 2 may only be marginally affected if satisfactory substitutes exist at reasonable prices (Evenson et al. 1998). The Smith (1984a) approach is also open to such criticism. 2. Total surplus (i.e. consumer plus producer surplus) is a measure of the total value of consumption minus the total cost of production. Since shifts in demand and supply curves cause changes to the prices and quantities consumed/produced, changes in 'utility' or welfare should be measured through a total surplus approach rather than by simply looking at the value of consumption/production (i.e. price multiplied by quantity)."},{"index":6,"size":303,"text":"An opportunity cost approach is used by Brush et al. (1992) by applying the concept of option value to the maintenance of on-farm diversity by Peruvian peasant potato farmers even when the immediate advantages of switching to improved varieties are large. The benefits forgone are thus a measure of the cost of maintaining the option of switching to other varieties at a later date. This form of option value is essentially a kind of insurance and is therefore similar to an approach used by Heisey et al. (1997). They compare a portfolio of wheat varieties actually cultivated by Pakistani farmers with an alternative more diverse portfolio and find that switching to the more genetically diverse portfolio would generate expected yield losses of tens of millions of dollars per year. This suggests that this approach to measuring farmers' willingness to pay for genetic diversity can sometimes generate negative estimates. Both approaches can be used to value ex-situ collections, although it would be a mistake to assign values to gene banks on the basis that they are the sole source of insurance against production losses (Evenson et al. 1998, p. 8 and p. 19). Brush and Meng (1998) propose a cost-effective strategy for crops that could be easily adapted to livestock. Instead of attempting to justify conservation programme costs on the basis of society's willingness to pay or the production losses that can be potentially avoided, they argue that once the need for conservation of a particular breed has been agreed on, the costs of such a programme can be minimised by recognising the factors influencing farmer animal selection decisions, thereby identifying those households that most value such breeds. Since these are the households most likely to continue to maintain such breeds they will also be the least costly to incorporate into a conservation programme."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"The basic methodology is thus to link the probability of a household's maintaining a certain breed with the household's costs of production and net income. Such a cost-side approach has the advantage of bypassing the difficulties involved in estimating the total benefits to society while providing a frame of reference for the magnitude of expenditures necessary to implement an in-situ conservation programme."}]},{"head":"Methodologies for determining the actual economic importance of the breed","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Although demonstrating the appropriateness of conservation programme costs is important, identifying the actual economic importance of a breed can also provide a strong argument for conservation."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Econometric estimation of aggregate demand and supply curves can be used in order to provide a measure of consumer and producer surplus based on the fact that changes in the traits or the composition of breeds will produce shifts in the estimated functions, which in turn will bring about a change in consumer and producer surplus (ILRI 1999). Where multiple demand equations (one for each breed) can be estimated, the substitution effects across breeds can be explicitly modelled providing the most comprehensive evaluation of breeds while capturing substitution effects as well. Cross-sectional household and farm studies can also be used in order to construct demand and supply functions."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"A simpler but conceptually inferior is the market share analysis. This approach involves identifying the total share of market value that can be attributed to a given breed as a measure of the value to society of the bundle of traits embedded in the breed. However, this approach does not provide a consumer/producer surplus measure of value."},{"index":4,"size":251,"text":"The existing or potential value of intellectual property rights and/or contracts for AnGR use and conservation could also be used as an indication of the economic importance of given breeds. Brush and Meng (1998, p. 7) point out that the most direct method of valuing genetic resources is to privatise them and allow the market to set a price. Note that at present exsitu genetic resources collected before the CBD entered into force are treated as public goods. Theoretically, privatisation would provide compensation to those who safeguard genetic resources, thus stimulating conservation without public investment while providing an idea of genetic resources users' willingness to pay for conservation. Privatisation could be achieved through the use of intellectual property rights (IPRs) and/or contracts for exploration/extraction. However, ITDG (Intermediate Technology Development Group ) (1996) argue that IPRs, and patents in particular, which are being promoted (mostly by the North) as the appropriate tool for the privatisation of genetic resources, fail to reward local people for their important contributions (of knowledge and resources) to the products for which industry is awarded patent protection. For example, the world's smallest cattle breed, the 'vechur', was bred in India and needs only 1.5 kg of feed daily. It has now been patented in the UK (ITDG 1996, p. 13). There is therefore considerable, and as yet unresolved, international debate as to whether the scope of intellectual property needs to be extended, or whether new property rights need to be developed to prevent the patenting of such products."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"In any case, Brush and Meng (1998), point out that contracts would be preferable to IPRs on the grounds that the former are the easiest means to create a market for genetic resources. They argue that contracts between producers of genetic resources (e.g. farmers) and private users (e.g. biotechnology companies) are a way to avoid the monopoly-related problems associated with IPRs. Model agreements for 'biodiversity prospecting' now exist -for example, the Merck bioprospecting royalty agreement in Costa Rica (Laird 1993)for pharmaceutical research. Material transfer agreements and collector agreements for crop germplasm potentially are a step in the direction of contracts. Such contracts could eventually be applied to AnGR."}]},{"head":"Methodologies for priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Given that the FAO recommends 'active and sustainable utilisation' (i.e. in-situ conservation), together with improving the production levels of adaptive breeds as central to the better management/conservation of AnGR (FAO 1997;Hammond 1998); ensuring that conservation and their related breeding programmes are maximising their potential benefits is important. For this purpose, several valuation methodologies can be applied. These include:"},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Breeding programme evaluation approaches are used to evaluate the costs and benefits of breeding programmes and/or the new animals/breeds. Cervigni (1993) shows how the benefits of genetic material could be valued assuming (critically) that the yield effects of successive breeding stages and the necessary input cost information can be identified. This would require using the difference between the benefits of an improved breed (based on price and increased yield) and the costs of all other factors employed in breeding operations (capital, labour etc.). The value of using alternative inputs/traits could then be compared to see how they affected economic returns. For this purpose, breeding programmes have long used a selection index as a device for multiple trait selection in farm livestock, first introduced for animal breeding by Hazel (1943)."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"For example, Mitchel et al. (1982) measured the value of genetic contributions to pig improvement in Great Britain by determining the heritability of important characteristics and isolating the genetic contributions to improved performance. Using linear regression techniques to compare control and improved groups over time, they found that the returns were substantial, with costs in the region of 2 million British pounds sterling (UK£) p.a. (UK£ 1 = 2.382US$ in 1981 and 1.923 in 1982) relative to benefits of UK£100 million p.a. The use of crossbreeding in commercial production was estimated to contribute approximately UK£16 million p.a."},{"index":4,"size":217,"text":"Genetic production function models are similar to the above. However, their focus is on predicting potential future values rather than using the actual results of breeding programmes. In this context, existing AnGR are valued by weighting the expected value of the new breed by the probability of this being successfully developed. The expected value reflects the discounted stream of benefits of the new breed over the period in which these benefits are expected to take place (Scarpa 1999). Gollin and Evenson (1994) use such a methodology to report a breeding function for rice, while Simpson and Sedjo (1996), borrowing from labour economics, have attempted to develop a valuation model grounded in search theory which depends on the cost of the search (effort and expense involved in research), the expected rewards and the best alternative identified to date. However, their preliminary results reveal low economic values for biodiversity because of the fact that crop improvement researchers make very little use of the vast amount of material available to them. At least for crops then, genetic resources may be valuable, but are not perceived as being scarce. On the other hand, given the low level and higher cost of gene-banking of animal resources at risk, this perception of 'abundance' may not be so important in the case of AnGR."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"Predicting potential future values requires the incorporation of option 3 which, according to Artuso, would require a model structured in the form of a stochastic dynamic programming problem, since the decision to preserve genetic material in any time period 'allows for a new choice in the following time period that includes the option to benefit from new information about the expected value of the preserved genetic resources' (Artuso 1998, p. 7). In terms of in-situ conservation, incorporating option value into such models also requires consideration of risk aversion, since farmers may seek to minimise the frequency and/or duration of major production failures."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"3. In the context of genetic resources, option values are presumed to be the future value of such resources in producing new breeds or commercial products (Evenson et al. 1998, p. 19)."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"In this context, Smith (1985) that reductions in uncertainty can be modelled by including risk in the discount rate when assessing the benefits over time from one cycle of selection. He concludes that the costs of developing alternative selection stocks are small relative to the possible returns (although differences between private and social costs/benefits may exist). Hence, breeding selection based on the current set of economic objectives is suboptimal in an intertemporal context (as some animal geneticists might suggest). Instead, given uncertainty about future needs, selection should be 'directed to cater for foreseeable and even unpredictable futures' (Smith 1985, p. 411). In particular, Smith (1984b) advocates the storage of stocks that contain currently undesirable traits that may only have temporary current value (e.g. market or grading requirements, carcass or product composition, special behavioural adaptations to current husbandry conditions etc.)."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"The evaluation of breeding programmes could also use a method suggested by Evenson (1991). This relates yield value improvements to the genetic resources and other activities used to produce them, through a hedonic valuation of animal characteristics. With enough variability in the relevant vector of phenotypic (or genetic) traits of the animals, a hedonic function that attempts to decompose the total value (price) of the single animal transacted into its relevant traits can be identified. In principle, the technique could also be used to value breeds (ILRI 1999)."},{"index":9,"size":177,"text":"While Evenson (1998, pp. 9-18) reviews five studies of rice production that use hedonic trait valuation (covering India and Indonesia), examples of such an approach being used for AnGR valuation are more limited. These include a study of cattle in Nigeria by Jabbar et al. (1998) and in Canada by Richards and Jeffery (1995). Jabbar et al concluded that hedonic pricing produced a satisfactory model of the prices of cattle exchanged at market. Moreover, it showed that although there were some differences in prices that were solely because of breed, most variation in prices was because of such variables as wither height and girth circumference that vary from animal to animal within breeds. Variation because of type of animal or month of transaction was also greater than that because of breed. Richards and Jeffery (1995) attempted to identify the value of relevant production and type traits for dairy bulls in Alberta, Canada. A hedonic valuation model is estimated that models semen price as a function of individual production and longevity characteristics for a sample of Holstein bulls."},{"index":10,"size":60,"text":"In addition, Evenson (1991) notes that the hedonic pricing technique is likely to be particularly useful for assessing the value of the contribution to newly developed 'successful' varieties of the genetic materials that were conserved ex-situ. This could also provide an indication of the relative returns to further genetic resources collection as opposed to further developments based on existing resources."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"Farm-level simulation models of animal production can also be used by breeding programmes in order to ensure that breed benefits are being maximised by directly modelling the effects of improved animal characteristics on the economics of farms."},{"index":12,"size":149,"text":"Farm models have been built for several species, farmed using high-input management approaches. For example, Ladd and Gibson (1978) use such a model to measure the economic values of three heritable characteristics in swine: backfat, feed efficiency and average daily weight gain. These models would have to be adapted to developing countries to be used widely. However, farm modelling offers great potential as a tool to measure the value of specific changes, such as in litter size, productivity or a breed change, to a specific production system. If the model is coupled with sophisticated market models, the results can be aggregated and used for welfare analysis as well. It is probably most useful in those agricultural contexts in which farm animals are only one of the various outputs of farms. It can incorporate mechanisms linking cause and effect, and explore the effect of breeds not yet known (ILRI 1999)."}]},{"head":"Overview of AnGR valuation methodologies and knowledge gaps","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"We have thus seen that although some models have been developed for assessing the value of crop genetic resources and that some of these may be potentially adaptable to AnGR, it can be appreciated that the field of economic valuation of AnGR requires substantial development. As a result, the questions raised by Artuso (1998), cannot as yet be answered in quantitative terms nor can specific techniques be recommended. Rather, a broad array of these tools needs to be tried to determine which is best or most suitable for differing circumstances (ILRI 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"The valuation techniques reviewed here have been shown to have strengths and weaknesses. The decision of which technique to use for a particular application requires experience and judgement on the part of the analyst. Data availability and/or the potential for acquiring relevant data will clearly be an important determinant, especially given the problems of missing markets and market imperfections commonly encountered in developing country situations. Where such missing markets/imperfections are significant, the resulting impact of any violations of the underlying assumptions of the potential valuation methodologies must be carefully considered and appropriate measures taken (if application is still a possibility). As indicated in Table 1, such violations will frequently require that much of the required data will have to be collected through specially designed surveys 4 and adequate shadow pricing 5 of relevant inputs/outputs used where market prices do not exist or are distorted. In choosing between methodologies, the analyst will also have to be aware of how different methodologies will be of interest to different actors, which include inter alia farmers, breeders and policy-makers in charge of conservation (see Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Given this state of the of AnGR valuation, ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) is currently in the process of implementing a 'strategic framework for international research in AnGR valuation' (ILRI 1999(ILRI , 2000) ) which includes the field testing of potential valuation methodologies. A subsequent evaluation of the more promising methodologies will then be undertaken and a set of guidelines for preferred methods elaborated. Case studies are currently underway at several locations in Africa and Latin America."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"From your experience of animal genetic resource erosion in your community or country, which of the above methodologies do you consider likely to be the most useful? Why? What policy and/or management questions will these methodologies provide answers to and who are the principal stakeholders who will benefit from the application of these particular valuation methodologies? What data is needed for these methodologies and how would you obtain it?"}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Drawing heavily on the limited PGR valuation literature, it is apparent that a range of valuation methodologies is available for consideration of their potential application to AnGR. These can be broadly categorised into the following 3 methodological groups: (i) for determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs (i.e. considering environmental values); (ii) for determining the actual economic importance of the breed at risk (i.e. consider breed values); and/or (iii) for priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes (i.e. considering trait values)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"However, given that examples of AnGR valuation studies using these methodologies that have actually been carried out are extremely limited, it is clear that the field of economic valuation of AnGR per se requires substantial development."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Hence, a broad range of these tools needs to be field tested in order to determine which is best or most suitable for differing circumstances. In terms of methodological development, the nature of the threat to AnGR diversity suggests the importance of ensuring that at least some of the empirical results obtained with these methodologies are capable of supporting in-situ conservation activities in developing countries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Animal genetic resources (AnGR) valuation methodology evaluation. Valuation methodology Role in conservation    Conceptual weakness or Valuation methodologyRole in conservationConceptualweaknessor   Type of data difficulties Typeofdatadifficulties Purpose, objective or strength Actor(s) for whom valuation Required Data availability Purpose, objective or strengthActor(s) for whom valuationRequiredData availability  method is most relevant    method is most relevant (a)     (a)  "},{"text":"Methodologies for determining the appropriateness of AnGR conservation programme costs  Contingent Valuation Method Identify society's 'willingness Policy-makers in charge of Define upper bound to Society's preferences Not normally available. Response difficulties when used Contingent Valuation MethodIdentify society's 'willingnessPolicy-makers in charge ofDefine upper bound toSociety'spreferencesNotnormallyavailable.Response difficulties when used (CVM) to pay' (WTP) for the conservation economically justified expressed in terms of WTP Requires survey for 'non-charismatic' species (CVM)to pay' (WTP) for theconservationeconomicallyjustifiedexpressed in terms of WTPRequires surveyfor 'non-charismatic' species  conservation of AnGR   conservation programme costs    and/or chronic genetic erosion conservation of AnGRconservation programme costsand/or chronic genetic erosion Production Loss Averted Indicate magnitude of potential Farmers and policy-makers in Justify conservation Estimate of potential Animal market values available Not a consumer/producer surplus Production Loss AvertedIndicate magnitude of potentialFarmers and policy-makers inJustifyconservationEstimateofpotentialAnimal market values availableNot a consumer/producer surplus  production losses in the charge of conservation programme costs of at least this production losses (e.g. for commercial breeds. measure of value. Ignores production losses in thecharge of conservationprogramme costs of at least thisproductionlosses(e.g.forcommercialbreeds.measure of value. Ignores  absence of AnGR conservation  magnitude  percentage of herd and market Potential herd loss must be substitution effects absence of AnGR conservationmagnitudepercentage of herd and marketPotential herd loss must besubstitution effects        value of animals)  estimated value of animals)estimated Opportunity Cost Identify cost of maintaining Farmers and policy-makers in Define opportunity cost of Household costs of production Not normally available. Opportunity CostIdentify cost of maintainingFarmers and policy-makers inDefine opportunity cost ofHousehold costs of productionNotnormallyavailable.  AnGR diversity   charge of conservation AnGR conservation and net income  Requires survey AnGR diversitycharge of conservationAnGRconservationand net incomeRequires survey      programme     programme Least Cost Identify cost-efficient Policy-makers in charge of Define minimum cost of Household costs of production Not normally available. Least CostIdentifycost-efficientPolicy-makers in charge ofDefine minimum cost ofHousehold costs of productionNotnormallyavailable.  programme for the conservation; farmers and conservation programme and profitability  Requires survey programmefortheconservation; farmers andconservation programmeand profitabilityRequires survey  conservation of AnGR  breeders to some extent      conservation of AnGRbreeders to some extent (          (  "},{"text":"b) Methodologies for determining the actual economic importance of the breed  (c)           (c) Aggregate Demand & Supply Identify value of breed to Policy-makers in charge of Value potential losses Intertemporal or farm-level Available for commercial Requires shadow pricing of home Aggregate Demand & SupplyIdentify value of breed toPolicy-makers in charge ofValuepotentiallossesIntertemporal or farm-levelAvailableforcommercialRequires shadow pricing of home    society conservation and livestock associated with AnGR loss. data breeds. Not normally available labour and forage societyconservation and livestockassociated with AnGR loss.databreeds. Not normally availablelabour and forage     policy, as well as breeders     for others -requires survey policy, as well as breedersfor others -requires survey Cross-sectional Farm and Identify value of breed to Policy-makers in charge of Value of potential losses Consumer and producer price Not normally available. Requires shadow pricing of home Cross-sectionalFarmandIdentify value of breed toPolicy-makers in charge ofValue of potential lossesConsumer and producer priceNotnormallyavailable.Requires shadow pricing of home Household   society conservation and livestock associated with AnGR loss differences by location Requires survey labour and forage Householdsocietyconservation and livestockassociated with AnGR lossdifferences by locationRequires surveylabour and forage     policy; as well as breeders and       policy; as well as breeders and     farmers       farmers Market Share   Indication of current market Policy-makers in charge of Justify economic importance of Market value of animal Generally available but not Not a consumer/producer surplus Market ShareIndication of current marketPolicy-makers in charge ofJustify economic importance ofMarket value of animalGenerally available but notNot a consumer/producer surplus    value of a given breed conservation and livestock given breed  products by breed always by breed measure of value. Ignores value of a given breedconservation and livestockgiven breedproducts by breedalways by breedmeasure of value. Ignores     policy; as well as breeders and       substitution effects policy; as well as breeders andsubstitution effects     farmers       farmers (IPRs) & Contracts Intellectual Property Rights AnGR benefits 'fair and equitable' sharing of Market creation and support for breeders and farmers conservation; as well as Policy-makers in charge of for AnGR conservation Generate funds and incentives contract Royalty payments or terms of can be commercial secret arrangements exist although Usually available when such Limited duration of contracts (IPRs) & Contracts Intellectual Property RightsAnGR benefits 'fair and equitable' sharing of Market creation and support forbreeders and farmers conservation; as well as Policy-makers in charge offor AnGR conservation Generate funds and incentivescontract Royalty payments or terms ofcan be commercial secret arrangements exist although Usually available when suchLimited duration of contracts  "},{"text":"Methodologies for priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes  Evaluation of Breeding Identify net economic benefits Farmers and breeders Maximise economic benefits of Yield effects and input costs Available for commercial Difficulty in separating the EvaluationofBreedingIdentify net economic benefitsFarmers and breedersMaximise economic benefits ofYield effects and input costsAvailableforcommercialDifficulty in separating the Programme   of stock improvements   conserved AnGR   breeds. Not normally available contribution of genetic resources Programmeof stock improvementsconserved AnGRbreeds. Not normally availablecontribution of genetic resources            for others - requires from other costs of programme forothers-requiresfrom other costs of programme            survey/research survey/research Genetic Production Function Identify net economic benefits Farmers and breeders Maximise expected economic Yield effects and input costs Available for commercial Genetic Production FunctionIdentify net economic benefitsFarmers and breedersMaximise expected economicYield effects and input costsAvailableforcommercial    of stock improvements   benefits of conserved AnGR  breeds. Not normally available of stock improvementsbenefits of conserved AnGRbreeds. Not normally available            for others - requires forothers-requires            survey/research survey/research Hedonic   Identify trait values  Farmers and breeders, as well Value potential losses Characteristics of animals and Available for commercial Not a consumer/producer surplus HedonicIdentify trait valuesFarmers and breeders, as wellValuepotentiallossesCharacteristics of animals andAvailableforcommercialNot a consumer/producer surplus       as policy-makers in charge of associated with AnGR loss. market prices breeds. Not normally available measure of value. Ignores as policy-makers in charge ofassociated with AnGR loss.market pricesbreeds. Not normally availablemeasure of value. Ignores       conservation Understand breed preferences.  for others - requires substitution effects conservationUnderstand breed preferences.forothers-requiressubstitution effects            survey/research survey/research Farm Simulation Model Model improved animal Farmers and breeders Maximise economic benefits of Inputs and outputs. Technical Available for commercial Correct definition of farm Farm Simulation ModelModelimprovedanimalFarmers and breedersMaximise economic benefits ofInputs and outputs. TechnicalAvailableforcommercialCorrect definition of farm    characteristics on-farm  conserved AnGR  coefficients of all major breeds. Not normally available objective function. Aggregation characteristicson-farmconserved AnGRcoefficients of all majorbreeds. Not normally availableobjective function. Aggregation    economics       activities for others -requires survey for estimating consumer surplus economicsactivitiesfor others -requires surveyfor estimating consumer surplus            can also be problematic can also be problematic  "}],"sieverID":"aba90359-ffd7-412b-9b81-90f00df252e1","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b45f58514e5baf2131b92c5c70fe4fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b45a6b36-5419-4a91-a8f2-1bdb9f77d930/retrieve"},"pageCount":42,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF FIGURES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"This report presents the summary of the findings of three sub-activities, comprising desk review of food safety policy documents, assessment of food safety legislation and efforts in Nigeria, and the food safety stakeholder mapping, undertaken as part of the Feed the Future EatSafe: Evidence and Action Towards Safe, Nutritious Food project implementation. The report is intended to inform and guide the EatSafe project in the design and implementation of appropriate intervention activities to enable lasting improvements in the safety of nutritious foods in informal markets in Nigeria. EatSafe also sees this report as a valuable resource for policy makers who can use the findings to determine the improvements required in the food safety system, and the importance of effective stakeholder engagement in project implementation, policy making and legislation."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"This report consolidates three separate EatSafe reviews. The findings contained in any single review mentioned below are available upon request and are highly valuable for EatSafe as the project begins working in Nigeria:"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"1. The review of existing food safety policy documents evaluated the content, scope, structure, and institutional landscape of existing food safety policies, identified gaps in the national food safety policy and its implementation strategy, and provided recommendations for strengthening the policy and its implementation strategy."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"2. The assessment of food safety legislation and efforts evaluated the formal adopted legislation and its implementation, together with an analysis of the extent they meet or fail to meet current needs, challenges and requirements for production and sale of safe food in Nigeria. The assessment included recommendations to enable a more efficient food safety system in Nigeria that leads to improved public health and enhanced trade in food commodities."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"3. The food safety stakeholder mapping exercise identified and categorized stakeholders relevant to the Kebbi region into different groups and interests. A stakeholder list was generated that EatSafe will use to engage stakeholders throughout the project implementation. The National Policy on Food Safety and Its Implementation Strategy (NPFSIS) produced in 2014 by the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) was found to be the most comprehensive among the four policy documents reviewed and is considered Nigeria's central food safety policy. It addressed all the building blocks for a strong national food control system as outlined in the Food and Agriculture (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) reference guide \"Assuring Food Safety and Quality: Guidelines for Strengthening National Food Control Systems\" (10). It recognized that the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) food processing sub-sector have great potential to create employment and wealth for the rural and urban poor. This potential can be harnessed with improved hygienic practices and adequate infrastructure for enhancing food safety system for the consumers."}]},{"head":"KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"However, awareness of the NPFSIS among actors at State and Local Government levels that interface with the informal food sector seems to be highly limited. Consequently, the NPFSIS document needs to be adapted at the State and Local Government Area Council levels to enable effective implementation and achievement of its set goals and objectives across the informal food sector as well."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Nigeria has adopted Laws (Act), Regulations and Standards that establish broad principles for food safety control, and govern all aspects of the production, handling, marketing, and trade of food. Its purpose is to protect consumers against unsafe food and fraudulent practices. The Nigerian food industry is regulated through a control system dating back to 1917 and there are over 30 Food Safety Enabling Acts to this effect."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"To update these laws, Nigeria's Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) 2016 was developed based on the framework of the NPFSIS. The FSQB was developed to address the deficiencies and gaps identified in the existing food safety legislation in the country. However, the Bill had some inadequacies that need to be addressed by the government and relevant stakeholders. For example, the definition of \"food\" in both NPFSIS and the FSQB are different and does not allow for comprehensive regulation."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The stakeholder mapping, with focus on Kebbi State, identified 67 stakeholders relevant to the EatSafe goal aimed at increasing consumer demand for safe food in informal markets. These stakeholders cut across the following sectors: Government MDAs, market and trade associations, consumer associations, non-governmental organizations, private sector, research and academia, professional associations, women groups and development partners."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"EatSafe will engage and consult with all the relevant stakeholders at their level of influence and interest in the project throughout its implementation in Kebbi State."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"The key recommendations and important background information for EatSafe include the following:"},{"index":7,"size":109,"text":"• When the National Assembly passes the Food Safety and Quality Bill into law, it will provide legal backing for the National Policy on Food Safety and Its Implementation Strategy (NPFSIS). Stakeholder advocacy will be important to ensure passage of the Bill, especially stakeholder participation at the Public Hearing stage. • EatSafe should develop behavioral change communication (BCC) on food safety to engage consumers and other stakeholders in managing their own food safety risks. This will form part of the EatSafe interventions, and is supported by stakeholders, many of whom identified the need for improving food safety knowledge, perceptions, and general awareness on its linkage to public health issues."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"• As women are important both as consumers and vendors in informal markets, EatSafe will consider the need for interventions, such as training programs, specifically targeted to empower women in Kebbi. This is based on their role in the food supply chain and from lessons learned from previous development projects."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that unsafe food causes one in every ten people to fall ill each year, leading to 600 million cases of foodborne-related illness and 420,000 deaths a year worldwide (1,2). In Nigeria, the challenge of unsafe food is of public health importance at the federal, state, and local government levels. This is evident from the fact that Kebbi State, an agrarian state with diverse animal and plant food sources, still battles high level of malnutrition, food insecurity and foodborne diseases (3,4) SECTION I: POLICY AND LEGISLATION"}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The assessment was undertaken through desk review, consultations with key food safety stakeholders and vendors as detailed below. Both primary and secondary data collection methods were used. The primary data collection employed quantitative and qualitative data collection methods via face-to-face and remote/virtual consultations. The qualitative method used observations, checklists, and interview guides to conduct Key Informant Interview (KII) and Focused Group Discussions (FGDs). Secondary data collection involved desk reviews of existing project documents, national policy documents, existing laws, regulations, standards, including the National Policy on Food Safety and Its Implementation Strategy (NFPSIS) and the Nigerian Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) 2016. Data analysis and visualization was done using Google forms and Microsoft Excel."}]},{"head":"Desk review of food safety policy documents in Nigeria","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The methodology employed secondary data collection through desk review and analysis of four national policy documents namely: The policy documents were also reviewed for alignment with the national food control system Guidelines published in 2003 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) (10). The key guidelines include:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• Important food issues:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"-Food safety, Quality and Consumer Protection -Global considerations i.e. International trade; Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC); and SPS and Trade Barrier Treaty (TBT) Agreements."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Elements of a national food control system:"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"- -Principles of food control: Issues for consideration: Integrated farm-to-table concept; risk analysis; transparency and regulatory impact assessment."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"-Developing a National Food Control Strategy: collection of information and development of strategy."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"-Strengthening organizational structures for national food control systems: Multiple agency system; single agency system; and integrated system."},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"-Funding National Food Control Systems."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"• Specific issues of developing countries:"},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"-Food Systems -Food Processing Industry -Street foods -Food control infrastructure and resources -Technical Assistance: Role of International Agencies"}]},{"head":"Assessment of food safety legislation and efforts in Nigeria","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Review of relevant literature was done to glean information on existing laws, regulations and standards related to food safety and control of foodborne diseases and to broadly indicate to what extent they meet or fail to meet current needs, challenges and requirements for producing safe and wholesome food. Nigeria's FSQB (2016) was specifically reviewed in line with its importance in food safety legislation and the need to provide legal backing for the National Food Safety Policy and Its implementation Strategy that was produced in 2014."}]},{"head":"Consultations with Food Safety Stakeholders, Vendors and Consumers:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"This involved face-to-face and virtual meetings with critical stakeholders in relevant government Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs), Food Business Operators, and relevant NGOs, involved in the development, implementation and/or enforcement of existing Food safety Legislations. These consultations were done to obtain stakeholder's views and opinions on the extent to which the existing food safety laws meet the needs and requirements of vendors and consumers using various techniques such as Focused Group Discussion (FGD), Key Informant Interviews (KII), telephone calls and internet-based interactions. The KIIs and FGDs were held with senior officials of selected federal and state government ministries, vendors, and food traders to obtain their views and opinions on how food safety regulations and implementation efforts apply to informal food markets. In addition, checklists and questionnaires were used to survey street food vendors and informal food markets to assess the extent of compliance with existing legislations related to food safety in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The information was collated, and data analyzed to identify perceived deficiencies and gaps in the existing food safety legislation and make suitable and appropriate recommendations."}]},{"head":"Location and Scope:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Twenty-four (24) key stakeholders across the MDAs and informal markets were consulted while a total of 10 informal markets/street vending sites was utilized (comprising 5 in Federal Capital Territory (FCT), 3 in Nasarawa and 2 in Kebbi States) for the assessment (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"FINDINGS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The summary of findings comprising the review of food safety policy documents, assessment of food safety legislation and efforts, and the stakeholder mapping is presented below."}]},{"head":"Review of food safety policy in Nigeria","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The review showed that among the 4 policy documents reviewed as listed in Section 2.1, the National Policy on Food Safety and Its Implementation Strategy (NPFSIS) produced by the Federal Ministry of Health in 2014, was found to be the most comprehensive, albeit six years old. NPFSIS outlined the strategies that would improve food safety oversight and drive its effectiveness. Although several MDAs have policies with some components of food safety, NPFSIS 2014 addressed all the building blocks for a strong national food control system as outlined in the FAO/WHO Guidelines (10). Thus, NPFSIS 2014 is considered Nigeria's central food safety policy document and was therefore reviewed in more detail."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"NPFSIS 2014 also showed that Nigeria currently operates a multiple agency food safety system with responsibilities split across national agencies that focus on different sectors, such as Health, Agriculture, Food Industry, Environment and Trade. This is consistent with previous reports that Nigeria's food control system has sectorial focus and/or fragmented structure (11)(12)(13)(14). The NPFSIS 2014 included a description of previous efforts to develop food safety implementation strategies that had been mostly sectorial in nature. As such, they were generally uncoordinated, inadequately funded, limited in scope, and did not achieve the desired outcomes (9). (See Table 2.) The FMBNP is not among the core 5 ministries with a mandate for food safety."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"In addition to the segmentation at the national level, food safety policy legislation and implementation is also shared between the three tiers of Government (Federal, State and Local Government Area Council). This means that implementation depends on the competence and efficiency of the agencies responsible at each level."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"In addition to providing the framework for the national food safety objectives, the NPFSIS 2014 developed a more coordinated approach for implementation by the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH). Consequently, in January 2015, Nigeria inaugurated two national committees on food safety, namely: The Inter-ministerial Committee on Food Safety (IMCFS), and the National Food Safety Management Committee (NFSMC). The Committees further advanced the development of a Draft Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) in July 2016, which has been presented to the National Assembly for enactment into law. The enactment of the FSQB into law will provide the legal basis for the food safety policy implementation in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Assessment of food safety legislation and efforts in Nigeria","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"While the assessment showed evidence of adequate legislation and agencies for the regulation of food safety in Nigeria, it also shows similarities in the subject matter covered by some of the statutes. This results in an overlap in the functions of the administering agencies, as Appendix I: Laws Relating to Food Safety at the Federal Level. The Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) 2016 was developed to address the deficiencies and gaps identified in the existing food safety legislations in the country."}]},{"head":"Review of the Draft Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) 2016","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The Food Safety and Quality Bill aims to protect the health of consumers from hazards which may be present in food and animal feed. It establishes the general principles of official control of food and feed safety, the obligations of food and feed business operators and defines the functions and powers of institutions of Federal and State Governments with the objective of ensuring that food and feed safety risks are effectively managed and that food is of the nature, substance and quality expected by the purchaser."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"The Bill was developed based on the framework of the National Policy on Food Safety and its Implementation Strategy (NPFSIS) produced by the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) in 2014. Thus, the FSQB was developed to address the deficiencies and gaps identified in the existing food safety legislations in the country. For example, \"food\" or \"foodstuff\" definition has now been extended to mean any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans. \"Food\" includes drink and any substance, including water, intentionally incorporated into the food during its manufacture, preparation or treatment. This definition of \"food\" in the FSQB is now in line with best practices and current realities, to allow for comprehensive regulation (12)."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"Effective food safety regimes entail the existence of comprehensive laws, coupled with an effective food control infrastructure and institutional capacities, to ensure compliance in providing consumer protection and coordination of the food chain in Nigeria. Consequently, laws should adequately address the whole range of food safety concerns. In this regard, FSQB has also provided definitions of Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and Genetically modified foods (GMF);and included the management of pesticides, and animal health/diseases, and traceability. Its definition of \"food business\" means any undertaking, whether for profit or not and whether carried out by a public or private sector operator, which undertakes production, processing, storage and distribution of food, whether in the formal or informal sector but excluding activities which are of an exclusively domestic or private nature. Although the recognition of the informal food sector is of importance to EatSafe, the lack of specific guidelines for achieving food safety in informal food markets remains a gap that needs to filled to achieve effective food safety regulation of the informal food sector."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"As the time of this report, FSQB had only undergone the First Reading out of the 3 Readings it should go through in the legislative process at the National Assembly. Thus, the second and third readings must be held before it can be finalized and sent to the President for his Assent. However, more work could be done in terms of consumer education, awareness creation, training and advocacy to garner greater commitment of government for food safety, especially in the areas of ensuring adequate protection of consumer health and inspiring greater consumer confidence in the safety and quality of locally produced food commodities sold in informal food sector in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Evaluation of Existing Legislation Relating to Food Safety","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Some weaknesses in the existing legislation are stated below:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"• 14 out of the 16 (87.5%) existing legislation relating to food safety were enacted 10 to 100 years ago. They are generally characterized by obsolete provisions, specifications and requirements that are incapable of addressing current and emerging food safety risks in Nigeria."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• The legislation is not based on risk analysis, thus lacking sufficient capacity to effectively protect the health of consumers or ensure fair trade and maintain consumer confidence. Some provisions differ significantly from the Codex and other international standard setting bodies."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• The scope does not address the farm to table continuum and includes gaps in areas such as crop production; food transportation and storage; safe use of agricultural inputs, aquaculture, production of animal, and fish feedstuff."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• Poor delineation of roles and responsibilities of Competent Authorities leads to frequent confusion over jurisdiction in areas such as routine inspections, certifications, surveillance, registration and licensing of products or establishments (13)(14)(15)."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Enforcement of the laws is also hampered by a number of factors: (1) legislation and enforcement become progressively weaker from the national level, to States and"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"LGACs;"},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"(2) the provisions prescribing enforcement responsibilities and penalties for violations are generally weak; and (3) the process of convicting offenders through Courts of competent jurisdiction is expensive, cumbersome and time wasting (13-15)."}]},{"head":"Approaches to Ensure Safe Street Food Vending Practices","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"The review of the food safety policy and existing laws and regulations showed that despite the socioeconomic importance of street food vending, the present regulatory framework did not make provisions for adequate regulation of the informal sector that serves many Nigerian consumers, a finding consistent with previous studies (5,(11)(12)(13)(14). According to a recent study, the activities of the state ministries and local government authorities in the control of the safety and quality of unprocessed food should be streamlined. It found that food hazards happen more at the local or grass root level and recommended stringent measures should be enforced to curb them by empowering the local authorities to prosecute offenders, which would compel manufacturers, sellers, retailers and consumers to adhere to standards (13,14). Creating greater and inclusive food safety sensitization and awareness programs and activities among operators of the informal street food sector to enable them to understand basic principles and significance of food safety and the need to adopt good personal hygiene practices is critical. During the consultation with different stakeholders, they expressed concerns about the lack of awareness on existing food safety regulations by the informal market providers, and described ignorance, negligence, and neglect by the street food handlers as well as inadequate oversight by the regulators. Development and implementation of relevant programs to educate street vendors and consumers on food safety and hygiene requirements will support safe street food vending practices in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Approaches to improve the food safety knowledge and practices in informal markets","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"According to NPFSIS 2014, the Local Government Area Councils are vested with the mandate for regulating food safety of street vended foods, bukaterias, catering establishments, local abattoirs and traditional markets. Food hazards, including foodborne disease outbreaks happen at the local or grass root community level, where the population has limited knowledge of food safety and its public health implications. Thus, regulatory agencies and other relevant stakeholders should accord priority to developing public awareness on food safety and its importance to public health, especially for food business operators in the informal sector. Stringent measures should be adopted and enforced to reduce food hazards in this sector and local authorities should prosecute offenders. This would compel food sellers, retailers and consumers to adopt good hygiene practices and adhere to standards (14,15). In the absence of strict standards, consumers cannot take advantage of the redress mechanism put in place to help them when their rights are infringed upon (13,14)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Based on the outcome of the consultations with food safety stakeholders on their opinions about ensuring food safety in informal markets, EatSafe identified the following areas for needed improvement:"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Provide training on food safety and hygiene for local government area council staff responsible for food safety regulation in informal markets"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• Provide public engagement on food hygiene, safety, and nutritional quality to actors and stakeholders in informal market settings to enhance the safety and quality of food and food products purchased and consumed by Consumers."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Support training on good agricultural practices (GAP) to famers and Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) to food handlers, vendors and consumers."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Develop and maintain effective and symbiotic relationships with umbrella associations for effective dissemination of information and/or delivery of training programs on food safety and hygiene to:"},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"o improve personal hygiene of food vendors and the hygiene of sales equipment and sites by providing clean water points and toilets."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"o improve on regularity and effectiveness of removal of waste materials from markets and points of sale."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"There is an urgent need to strengthen the existing food safety system at the Federal, State and Local Government level to achieve a safe and reliable food supply chains in Nigeria. Passage of the FSQB will facilitate placing food safety and quality activities under the FMOH, which is needed to prevent bureaucratic bottlenecks and inefficiencies. In addition to passing the bill into law, guidance is needed to coordinate improvements in infrastructure; training and capacity building; communication and managing responsibilities across agencies; surveillance; inspection; etc."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Current awareness of the NPFSIS among actors at State and Local Government levels that interface with the informal food sector seems to be highly limited. As such, the National Food Safety Policy and its implementation strategy should address the following gaps:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• The general understanding and needs of the informal sector on food safety."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Education of the informal sector on the National Policy on Food Safety; what it is and why it matters."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Training on how to comply with the policy and regulations."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Appropriate stakeholder coordination."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Regular and transparent communication between stakeholders, implementers, and the grass root community population."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"From the assessment of food safety legislation and efforts in Nigeria, the following recommendations and needs are highlighted to strengthen EatSafe knowledge:"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"1. Promote attitudes and policies that are favorable to informal food operators:"},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"• Educate relevant local government staff relating to food safety in informal markets."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• Sustain meaningful dialogue with representatives and invited them to participate in the formulation of the programs of action that affect them."}]},{"head":"Provide Information and training:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Inform operators of their rights and obligations and brief them on existing food safety and other relevant programs."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Provide information and training on food hygiene, safety, and nutritional quality."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Provide training on practices that enhance safety through production (processing, packaging techniques)."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Liaise with and act through informal vendors' associations when delivering information and/or training."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• Studies and data that show the frequency of foodborne illness should be widely disseminated to inform the public of food safety hazards. Surveillance activities should be improved."}]},{"head":"SECTION 2: STAKEHOLDER MAPPING","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"METHODS","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Quantitative data collection method was employed using questionnaires. These questionnaires were uploaded on Google forms for the respondents to fill themselves. Data analysis and visualization was done using Google forms and Microsoft Excel."}]},{"head":"Food Safety Stakeholder Mapping","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The Stakeholder Mapping methodology used the three stages of stakeholder identification, analysis and mapping. A stakeholders list was generated that identified those with high potential to collaborate on the project. The location/scope of the surveys was spread across stakeholders in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Kebbi, Nasarawa and few other states (whose activities are relevant in Kebbi State). More details are seen below:"}]},{"head":"Identification:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"EatSafe staff for the Nigeria GAIN office conducted a desk review of project documents and workplans to determine the objectives of the Stakeholder Mapping. In the Identification stage, there was a brain storming session of all potential stakeholders without screening them by role or importance. We then reached out to our identified contacts in Kebbi and our colleagues within and outside GAIN Nigeria office who provided us with names of relevant stakeholders. We followed up via phone calls, email and virtual chats. Thereafter, we generated a contact list of stakeholders in the different categories which informed the next stage of analysis and prioritization."}]},{"head":"Analysis of stakeholders:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Due to the COVID-19 Travel restriction, analysis was done by holding meetings virtually through phone and zoom calls with the stakeholders, while the questionnaire was uploaded on google forms for most of them to complete online. The questionnaire was designed to elicit both quantitative and qualitative information. It evaluated stakeholders' roles, interest, influence, awareness about food safety and gender issues, among others. Based on the outcome of these engagements, all stakeholders were grouped according to the Grid tool (figure 1 below) which took into consideration their level of interest and influence. Analysis of responses was also done with Google Form and Microsoft Excel to generate recurrent themes and understand contexts."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"For the mapping purpose, a stakeholder is defined as any person, organization, or social group that has a stake (vital interest) in the business of food and its safety whether they are internal or external. Generally, stakeholders are categorized based on their functional involvements and on their motive or interest such as being customers, employees, investors, suppliers and vendors, communities, and the government. Stakeholders are major implementation influencers on the perspective of food safety system in Nigeria. The groups/categories of stakeholders engaged during the mapping were:  The last stage of stakeholder mapping was to list and group stakeholders according to their level of influence. The output of the mapping is the Stakeholders List generated (Appendix II). In addition to other stakeholders engaged but who did not fill the questionnaire, those on the list will be contacted for stakeholder engagements during the project planning, design, launch and implementation of EatSafe activities in Kebbi State.  Most of the respondents were based in Kebbi State where the EatSafe project will be implemented, and Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). However, some respondents residing in other states in Nigeria were also included in the mapping. In all, 77 respondents filled the questionnaire while 67 properly completed forms were used for the analysis. A limitation of this mapping exercise was the inability to travel to Kebbi State for face to face meetings, KIIs and FGDs due to the restrictions placed on travelling within the country by the Federal Government of Nigeria and the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition as a preventive measure to stop the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic."}]},{"head":"FINDINGS","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food Safety Stakeholder Mapping","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Analysis of responses received from the stakeholders mapped was based on the different question groupings in the questionnaire as presented below."}]},{"head":"Demographics and role","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"Demographics of respondents showed that majority were from Kebbi State as purposively selected while others were from the Federal Capital Territory and a few other States. The cross-section review of gender of respondents showed that 75% were male and 25% were female. On years of work experience, 21.1% had 10 to 19 years. For area of primary engagement, most of the respondents (29%) belong to the farmers' associations followed by Federal and State Government MDAs (25%). It was observed that the organizational roles spread broadly across the areas of food safety, agriculture, health, and nutrition. Influence is defined here as the capacity or power of a stakeholder to be a compelling force on or produce effects on the actions, behavior, opinions, etc., of others on food safety matters. The two groups with the greatest influence, based on interactions with stakeholders (Figure 3), were government (53.9%) closely followed by farmers (52.6%). Research and Development had the least level of influence while the most influential stakeholders were reported to be people in government or government MDAs. This was expected as the MDAs at the Federal, State and LGAC levels are responsible for food safety policy making, legislation and their enforcement. For the private sector in Kebbi State, several private Rice companies located in Birnin Kebbi and in Argungu were the most notable as influential. On motivation against food safety compliance, most of the respondents reported they had none, while others cited reasons like expensive food safety process, non-compliant and sub-standard products, weak legislation and policy implementation framework and ignorance of food handling measures at community level."}]},{"head":"Figure 3: Interaction with food safety stakeholders","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The Power/Interest Grid tool provides the basis for identification of communication, engagement, and capacity building activities. (See Figure 1.) The key players identified were the MDAs and development partners; influence players are the market/consumer associations, the private sector and women groups; interested players are the research/academia, NGOs and professional associations while none of the organizations was grouped as passive players. Consequently, the key players identified will be engaged and consulted the most, and engagement with the influential and interested players will be regular but more moderate."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Concerning resources, majority of respondents (83.6%) stated that financial resources pose the greatest challenge, which was followed by training needs on food safety (75%). Most respondents affirmed a connection between food safety and food price and attributed it to expenses incurred in improving food safety practices leading to price increases. Regarding the economic consequences of food safety hazards in Kebbi State, most respondents said they were not aware of any; several cited incidences like flooding, use of hazardous chemicals in beans (cowpea) storage and challenges during implementation of iodized salt for cooking. One of the stakeholders mentioned the use of chemicals for harvesting fish in the aquaculture value chain which constitute a food safety risk. Questions that covered their interest in the design of food safety interventions, the majority (90.8%) stated they would like to be involved in relevant planning and design stages for EatSafe intervention design and implementation. "}]},{"head":"Gender","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"On gender issues, 78.4% of respondents agreed that gender did not matter in decision making on food safety matters. However, for those that said gender did matter, it was basically due to culture, religion or social norms as it relates to the northern part of Nigeria. These reasons were also reported as affecting the way local food value chains and markets work."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Subsequently the men dominate production, transportation, processing, marketing, and policy making in Kebbi state."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"On the relevance of gender-related barriers to food safety, the general view expressed was that it is very important as women constitute a significant proportion of the workforce."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Notable among these barriers are that women in seclusion have limited access to engage with their peers in the market; patriarchal system does not support women businesses in some part of the state which limits their contribution to food safety; inability of the women to be part of decision making processes hindering their opportunity in solving food safety issues;"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"and low level of education has a greater effect on women having access to equal opportunities."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"In summary, it was clear that more advocacy should be made for gender inclusion and equality. Thus, a gender perspective in food safety research can ensure that men's and women's differential exposure to agriculture-related risks are better understood and interventions better targeted, particularly as it relates to health outcomes. It can also ensure that women and men have increased capacity to manage food safety, nutritional, and economic risks, and are more involved in their surveillance depending on their role in the supply chain (17)."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Based on the Stakeholder mapping, the following recommendations are made: "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The food safety policy analysis showed that food safety affects everyone and that consumers deserve access to safe, hygienically produced food, whether fresh from the farm, food processing companies or the food service sector. The NPFSIS addressed the national objectives for the food safety system and is mostly focused on the formal sector. The policy document also recognized that the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) food processing sub-sector has great potential to create employment and wealth for the rural and urban poor. This potential of MSMEs can be harnessed with improved hygienic practices and adequate infrastructure for enhancing safe food supply system for the consumers."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Although foodborne disease is a major public health concern in Nigeria, the existing food safety legislation is ineffective in addressing and curbing the underlying risks. Existing laws relating to food safety are operated by numerous institutions that have not adopted modern preventive control systems. The laws are marked by gaps and overlaps, lack of coordination, and adoption of outdated and obsolete provisional requirements and food safety control models."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Although the Food Safety and Quality Bill (FSQB) when passed into law is expected to address these challenges, more work needs to be done to inspire greater consumer confidence in the safety and quality of locally produced food commodities in Nigeria. Consequently, there is urgent need for greater investments in developing innovative, effective, sustainable, and scalable approaches that will address food safety challenges and concerns across the entire national food supply chain (Farm-to-Table ). Special attention should be paid to the neglected traditional, informal markets where the rural and urban poor source their fresh meats, fruits, vegetables, and other high-risk foods (9)."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Food safety stakeholders are an important and integral part for the EatSafe project implementation in Kebbi State. The stakeholders list generated from the stakeholder mapping is a rich resource of stakeholders to engage throughout the implementation of the project in Kebbi State. It will serve as a reference for citizen engagement and municipal roundtables for discussions on food safety, and involvement in the design and implementation of interventions by the EatSafe project. Including gender perspective in EatSafe food safety research can ensure that men's and women's differential exposure to agriculture-related risks are better understood and interventions better targeted, particularly as it relates to health outcomes. It can also ensure that women and men have increased capacity to manage food safety, nutritional, and economic risks, and are more involved in their surveillance depending on their role in the supply chain. "}]},{"head":"APPENDICES APPENDIX I: Laws Relating to Food Safety at Federal Level","index":34,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"2. 3 . RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... APPENDIX I: Laws Relating to Food Safety at Federal Level ..................................................... APPENDIX II: Stakeholder List ....................................................................................................... "},{"text":" Food Law and Regulations -Food Control Management -Inspection Services -Laboratory Services: Food Monitoring and Epidemiological Data -Information, Education, Communication and Training • Strengthening national food control system: "},{"text":"1 . Government Stakeholders i.e. Federal, State or Local Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs). 2. Consumer and Market Associations. 3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) i.e. Community Based Organization (CBO), Civil Society Organization (CSO) and Faith Based Organization (FBO). 4. Private Sector i.e. farmer associations, food processors/manufacturers, Food Produce Transporters/Nigerian Union of Road Transport Workers (NURTW) and the Hotels, Restaurants and Caterers (HORECA). 5. Research and Academia. 6. Professional Associations. 7. Women Groups "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Power/Interest Grid (8) 2.1.1.3 Mapping: "},{"text":" Figure 2 below shows the different stakeholders (67) who responded to the questionnaire. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Stakeholders surveyed through the questionnaire 2.1.1.4 Location/Scope/Limitation "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"2.2.1.2 Influence .................................................................................................................... Resources ................................................................................................................ Interventions ............................................................................................................. Gender .................................................................................................................... 2.2.1.3 2.2.1.3 2.2.1.4 2.2.1.5 2.2.1.4 2.2.1.5  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Below is a list of all acronyms and abbreviations used in the report. AADP Africa Agri-Food Development Program AADPAfrica Agri-Food Development Program ABP Anchor Borrowers Program ABPAnchor Borrowers Program AMAC Abuja Municipal Area Council AMACAbuja Municipal Area Council ATA Agricultural Transformation Agenda ATAAgricultural Transformation Agenda ASFSNS Agricultural Sector Food Security and Nutrition Strategy ASFSNSAgricultural Sector Food Security and Nutrition Strategy CBN Central Bank of Nigeria CBNCentral Bank of Nigeria CBO Community Based Organization CBOCommunity Based Organization CSO Civil Society Organization CSOCivil Society Organization EHORECON Environmental Health Officers Registration Council of Nigeria EHORECON Environmental Health Officers Registration Council of Nigeria FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAOFood and Agriculture Organization FBO Faith Based Organization FBOFaith Based Organization FCCPC Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Council FCCPCFederal Competition and Consumer Protection Council FCT Federal Capital Territory FCTFederal Capital Territory FGD Focus Group Discussion FGDFocus Group Discussion FIIRO Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi FIIROFederal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi FMARD Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development FMARDFederal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development FMBNP Federal Ministry of Budget and National Planning FMBNPFederal Ministry of Budget and National Planning FME Federal Ministry of Environment FMEFederal Ministry of Environment FMITI Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment FMITIFederal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment FMOH Federal Ministry of Health FMOHFederal Ministry of Health FMST Federal Ministry of Science and Technology FMSTFederal Ministry of Science and Technology FPIS Federal Produce Inspection Services FPISFederal Produce Inspection Services FSAN Food Safety & Applied Nutrition FSANFood Safety & Applied Nutrition FSQB Food Safety and Quality Bill FSQBFood Safety and Quality Bill FtF Feed the Future FtFFeed the Future GAIN Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition GAINGlobal Alliance for Improved Nutrition GAP Good Agricultural Practices GAPGood Agricultural Practices GES Growth Employment in States GESGrowth Employment in States  "},{"text":" overlapping functions between States and Local Government regulatory agencies and the National Agency for Food and Drug Registration and Control (NAFDAC) for registration, licensing and inspection of Traditional Food Markets and Eateries especially in State Capitals and other peri-urban areas.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Location of markets and street vendors assessed  State  Local Government Area (LGA) Market/Street Vendor Sites StateLocal Government Area (LGA)Market/Street Vendor Sites Federal Capital Kuje Kuje FederalCapitalKujeKuje Territory (FCT)  Abuja Municipal Area Council Utako, Gosa, Territory (FCT)Abuja Municipal Area CouncilUtako, Gosa,   (AMAC) Kaura, Gwarinpa (AMAC)Kaura, Gwarinpa Nasarawa  Karu Karu, Mararaba, Masaka NasarawaKaruKaru, Mararaba, Masaka   Birnin Kebbi Modern Market (Central) Birnin KebbiModern Market (Central) Kebbi  Kalgo Small Dubai Market KebbiKalgoSmall Dubai Market  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Breakdown of MDAs and policy documents related to Food Safety  S/N Federal  Department Agency  Policy Comments S/N FederalDepartmentAgencyPolicyComments  Ministry     Document MinistryDocument 1   Directorate of National Agency The National Outcomes of the 1Directorate ofNational AgencyTheNationalOutcomes of the  Health  Food Safety & for Food and Policy on Food NPFSIS: HealthFood Safety &for Food andPolicy on FoodNPFSIS:  (FMOH)  Applied Drug  Safety and Its (FMOH)AppliedDrugSafety and Its    Nutrition Administration Implementation The Inter-ministerial NutritionAdministrationImplementationThe Inter-ministerial    (FSAN) and Control Strategy (2014) Committee on Food (FSAN)andControlStrategy (2014)Committee on Food     (NAFDAC) Safety (IMCFS) (NAFDAC)Safety (IMCFS)       The National Food The National Food       Safety Management Safety Management       Committee (NFSMC). Committee (NFSMC).       The Food Safety and The Food Safety and       Quality Bill (FSQB) Quality Bill (FSQB)    National National Primary NationalNational Primary    Codex Health Care CodexHealthCare    Committee Development CommitteeDevelopment    (NCC). Agency  (NCC).Agency     (NPHCDA) (NPHCDA) 2 Agriculture Federal Nigeria  The Agriculture Outcomes of the 2AgricultureFederalNigeriaThe AgricultureOutcomes of the  and Rural Department Agricultural Promotion APP: andRuralDepartmentAgriculturalPromotionAPP:  Development of Fisheries Quarantine Policy (2015- Developmentof FisheriesQuarantinePolicy(2015-  (FMARD)   Service (NAQS) 2020) Agricultural Sector (FMARD)Service (NAQS)2020)Agricultural Sector       Food Security and Food Security and       Nutrition Strategy NutritionStrategy       (ASFSNS) 2016-2025 (ASFSNS) 2016-2025       Inter-Ministerial Inter-Ministerial       Agriculture/Nutrition Agriculture/Nutrition       Working Group WorkingGroup       (IANWG) (IANWG)     National  National     Agricultural Agricultural     Seeds Council SeedsCouncil     (NASC)  (NASC)  "},{"text":" Most respondents stated the current situation of food safety in local (wet or informal) markets in Kebbi State was poor and needed improvement. On the prevalence of foodborne diseases in Kebbi State, diarrhea, typhoid, and food poisoning from agrochemicals used on cowpea storage were reported. Other food safety issues reported were aflatoxicosis, mycotoxins, bacterial contamination of rice and other grains; pesticides residue and chemicals used for fruit ripening; lack of storage and transportation facilities; use of toxic chemicals for grain storage and harvesting fish; abuse of antibiotics; and poor hygiene. Kebbi Agricultural Transformation and Self Help Initiative (KATASHI) and Fadama II by the Federal Government of Nigeria and the World Bank. Engaging stakeholder organizations to be food safety champions would help address some of the identified weaknesses and promote needed legislative reforms. 2.2.1.4 Interventions 2.2.1.4 Interventions In response to questions on ideas for creating awareness about food safety and interventions In response to questions on ideas for creating awareness about food safety and interventions design by EatSafe, they reiterated the need for advocacy, behavioral change communication, design by EatSafe, they reiterated the need for advocacy, behavioral change communication, women empowerment, and capacity building. They stated that engaging additional women empowerment, and capacity building. They stated that engaging additional stakeholders might generate more ideas based on lessons learned from previous projects stakeholders might generate more ideas based on lessons learned from previous projects implemented in Kebbi State: Strengthening Partnerships, Results, and Innovations in Nutrition implemented in Kebbi State: Strengthening Partnerships, Results, and Innovations in Nutrition Globally (SPRING) by USAID; Anchor Borrowers Program (ABP) and Africa Agri-Food Globally (SPRING) by USAID; Anchor Borrowers Program (ABP) and Africa Agri-Food Development Program (AADP) by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN); Mandatory Conformity Development Program (AADP) by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN); Mandatory Conformity Assessment Program (MANCAP) by Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON); Proact by Assessment Program (MANCAP) by Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON); Proact by Oxfam; Oxfam;  "},{"text":" 1. If supported by additional EatSafe research, design, develop and deliver a communications strategy to provide relevant awareness programs and communication campaigns based on findings from this Stakeholder Mapping. The communications strategy should also address how to engage and collaborate with stakeholders especially the high influence high interest group 2. EatSafe should conduct a food safety needs assessment in Kebbi State to identify capacity building needs and assist in design of consumer-and vendor-based interventions. The assessment can be incorporated into EatSafe's Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP) research and interventions, if appropriate.  "}],"sieverID":"9c488b7f-02c0-4efa-9d47-dfae36e7fd2d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b4dca05424ea27cedbad8137f9398eb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69ce11d7-1654-470f-9367-3f9bafd27b2c/retrieve"},"pageCount":72,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Food safety is a major and persistent threat to the nutritional status of populations globally and is increasingly jeopardizing the effectiveness of public health programs. The burden of foodborne disease (FBD), estimated to be of the same order of magnitude as the burden of the \"big three\" (malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis), is expected to be further exacerbated by the ongoing pandemic and its impact on food systems globally. Our progress toward the 2 nd United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) to \"end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture\" by 2030 may not be realized if we do not ensure food safety across the value chains to provide safe and nutrientrich food to a growing global population."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Unsafe food can cause a variety of acute and chronic health impacts ranging from mild to debilitating or even life-threatening. In addition to increased morbidity and mortality, unsafe food results in significant socioeconomic impacts through healthcare costs and lost productivity, as well as harm to trade. There is evidence that foodborne disease also impacts outcomes that are also associated with nutrition, such as stunting and wasting. However, data on this component of the FBD burden and its underlying mechanisms are far from complete."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Individuals in low-resource settings are considered to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of foodborne disease and associated nutrition impacts. However, more complete and accurate epidemiological data are needed to truly assess the impacts of foodborne diseases and their association with health and nutrition outcomes."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The aim of this report is to provide an overview of cross-pathways linking food safety/foodborne illness and nutrition and their shared impacts on health, while highlighting research gaps and opportunities for intervention. This body of evidence is meant to support the development of a framework linking food safety and nutrition, as part of Feed the Future and EatSafe programming."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The review specifically focuses on the health implications of food safety on nutrition-relevant outcomes. In this context, food safety includes acute and long-term physiological impacts."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"Health-related nutrition outcomes considered include gut health, nutrient absorption, growth, and development outcomes, as well as outcomes related to metabolic and perinatal development."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"The literature search was carried out in PubMed using an a priori developed search strategy, complemented by additional resources (CGIAR, CYMMIT, ICRISAT, FAO, IFPRI, WHO, World Bank). Where available, we leveraged information from existing reviews in lieu of original research articles. The review covers the connections between foodborne hazards and nutrition-relevant outcomes, including in the context of vulnerable populations. The Discussion contextualizes findings and highlights research gaps and limitations."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"We identified clear linkages between some foodborne hazards and nutrition-related outcomes. However, the reviewed evidence does not allow for a clear attribution of causality."},{"index":9,"size":116,"text":"For instance, a strong relationship between gastrointestinal illness and growth impairment in children has been documented, but the extent of this impact and the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Our findings also indicate a negative impact of certain hazards on nutrient absorption, growth outcomes, and metabolic functions. However, many of the reviewed studies have methodological limitations that can impede the ability to compare and contextualize findings within and between study populations. Nevertheless, we found some evidence for increased vulnerability to adverse nutrition outcomes from foodborne disease in specific populations including children, food handlers, women, pregnant women, and the elderly. Overall, additional research is warranted to effectively understand underlying mechanisms and potential group-specific interventions in more detail."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"We found little evidence for the impact of pharmacological treatments of foodborne disease on nutritional outcomes, which may in part be due to limitations in our search strategy."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"Associations of antimicrobial treatment with diarrhea have been reported, while other evidence indicate a growth-promoting effect. Nausea can be a side effect of antiamebic and anthelmintic treatments; however, it is unclear whether and to what extent this affects nutrient intake and long-term nutrition outcomes."},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"In conclusion health-based connections between food safety and nutrition exist but are complex and often difficult to disentangle. Addressing existing data gaps on foodborne disease prevalence in many regions of the world is a key gap. An important related step would be to harmonize measures and metrics for research protocols used for investigating this topic."},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"In addition, longitudinal studies with frequent follow-ups could allow for a more granular assessment and potential attribution of health outcomes to a specific food hazard."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Current estimates from the Global Nutrition Report indicate that one in three people worldwide are affected by malnutrition, which can broadly include features indicative of undernutrition, poor micronutrient status, or overweight and obesity. Increasingly, evidence is also suggesting a double burden of malnutrition in many of these individuals where undernutrition coexists with overweight, obesity and other diet-related non-communicable diseases (1). This double burden of malnutrition creates unique societal challenges with potential negative impacts on health-care costs, productivity, and economic growth, particularly in low-resource populations (2)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Nutritional insults (e.g. inadequate micro-or macro-nutrient supply) during certain life stages may have both short-term and long-term consequences, including intergenerational effects."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Tackling malnutrition in all its forms requires that nutritional needs are addressed through the entire life-course (2). With diet-related factors consistently ranked as the top modifiable risk factor for morbidity and mortality worldwide, it is critical to understand and intervene on any challenge to diet and nutrition, including food safety. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, an even greater number of people may be affected by further food shortages, foodborne threats, and nutrition challenges."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, which particularly affects infants, young children, elderly, and the sick (3). Ensuring food safety is critical for optimal nutrition and health, and effective food safety management at the national level involves multiple stakeholders operating under diverse environmental, infrastructural, and sociopolitical conditions (4). Threats to food safety can occur at any stage of the value chain from production to consumption and can range from contamination with pathogens or toxins to use of unsafe additives as well as unsafe handling or storage that exacerbates risk."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The World Health Organization (WHO) defines foodborne disease as \"a disease commonly transmitted through ingested food. FBDs [Foodborne diseases] comprise a broad group of illnesses, and may be caused by microbial pathogens, parasites, chemical contaminants and biotoxins\" (5). In 2010, 31 foodborne hazards (including 11 diarrheal disease agents, 7 invasive infectious disease agents, 10 helminths, 3 chemicals) combined were responsible for 600 (95% uncertainty interval, UI: 420 -960) million episodes of foodborne illnesses and 420 000 (UI: 310 000 -600 000) deaths in addition to 33 million disability adjusted life years (DALYs)."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Data for 5 additional hazards of importance (4 bacterial, 1 chemical), were only available for subregions and did not allow for global estimates (5)."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"Symptoms associated with foodborne disease are manifold and range from mild and selflimiting (e.g. nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) to debilitating and life-threatening (e.g. kidney and liver failure, brain and neural disorders, paralysis, and potentially cancers), and can lead to long periods of absenteeism and premature death (5). The highest foodborne disease burden is seen in LMICs in Africa, South-East Asia, and the Eastern Mediterranean, this considerable gap between low-and high-income regions suggests that a major proportion of the foodborne disease burden is avoidable (5)."},{"index":8,"size":99,"text":"Access to safe food is key to allow individuals to benefit from its nutritional benefits. While it is generally accepted that compromised food safety is detrimental to the health of individuals or even populations, the linkages between a lack of food safety and nutrition outcomes are poorly understood and not quantified. The \"chicken and egg\" lack of data and adequate metrics and measures also hinders progress towards a quantification of this burden. This is particularly concerning given the broad impact on the food supply chain and often chronic health consequences of unsafe food in addition to its socioeconomic impacts."},{"index":9,"size":66,"text":"In this review, we aim to synthesize the available knowledge and provide an overview of main physiological pathway linking foodborne illness to nutrition outcomes, also in the context of vulnerable populations. In the Discussion section we contextualize and discuss findings, highlight evidence gaps, and provide suggestions for future research directions. A pictorial schematic of key health outcomes considered in the review is shown in Figure 1. "}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Outcomes of interest","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Outcomes of interest, for the purposes of this review, are mainly physiological impacts of food safety on nutrition outcomes (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Literature search protocol","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"This review aims to identify and describe linkages between food safety and nutrition-related outcomes. A key objective is to synthesize the available evidence on food safety in the context of nutrition outcomes, to identify evidence gaps, and make recommendations for policy makers and researchers to fill those gaps."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"We reviewed the food safety literature and identified studies through a search strategy that was developed a priori in collaboration with an experienced librarian. The search was completed in PubMed and retrieved an initial set of 8336 non-duplicate items. Titles and abstracts in this initial set were screened by one reviewer. Of all identified titles and abstracts, 276 full texts were screened. Reasons for exclusion included absence of links to nutrition outcomes, reports describing laboratory experiments or single outbreaks, and studies and reviews focusing exclusively on behavioral or economic factors. Systematic reviews were considered whether or not they focused on outcomes in LMICs. This search strategy was complemented by a review of articles from selected relevant resources (CIAT, CGIAR, CIMMYT, IFPRI, ILRI, WHO, World Bank, World fish). Furthermore, we screened reference lists of relevant articles to identify relevant literature that was not captured by the search strategy."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Where available, we included evidence synthesized in identified (systematic) literature reviews in lieu of primary research articles. A total of 86 studies were included in the review."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Our search revealed 52 articles from the linkages between foodborne disease and physiological outcomes that we considered relevant for inclusion in this review, including 26 systematic reviews, 16 reviews, 10 original research/other articles."}]},{"head":"Physiological impacts of foodborne disease on nutritional outcomes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The largest body of evidence directly linking food safety to nutrition and health outcomes pertains to foodborne illness, though most of it is from high-income settings. We considered a total of 51 articles in this section. Of those, 26 were systematic reviews (with or without meta-analyses), nine reviews (non-systematic), as well as seven articles other articles (primary research, burden of disease, risk assessment, or policy documents). Different hazards may elicit physiological mechanisms and consequently affect nutrition outcomes via different pathways, summarized in Tables 2, 3, and 4. Evidence is strong for a relationship between gastrointestinal illness and growth impairment; however, the extent of this relationship and underlying mechanisms are not well understood. The synthesized evidence also suggests a negative impact of certain hazards on nutrient absorption (e.g. helminths,"},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Helicobacter pylori), growth outcomes (e.g. mycotoxins, arsenic), metabolic functions such as glucose and thyroid metabolism (e.g. persistent organic pollutants and other chemicals), as well as gastrointestinal ulcers (Helicobacter pylori). In addition to short-term consequences, foodborne diseases can have a variety of long-term health implications. These consequences are manifold and include impaired growth and development, cognitive decline, as well as negative impacts on reproductive and metabolic processes."}]},{"head":"Impact of foodborne gastrointestinal illness","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Diarrhea","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Diarrhea is the most common manifestation of food borne disease caused by microbial hazards, and results from excessive secretion and/or impaired absorption of fluid and electrolytes across the intestinal epithelium. Undernourished or unwell children are at a higher risk of subsequent infection and mortality compared to healthy ones, which may result in a bi-directional positive feedback loop in which childhood undernutrition and diarrhea each increase the risk of the other (6). A systematic review conducted in 2018 on the etiology of gastroenteritis and acute diarrhea among children <5 years of age reports that viruses accounted for the majority (50.2%) of cases followed by bacteria (31.6%), and parasites (12.1%). Rotavirus was the most common etiologic agent of acute diarrhea (29.2%) in all regions followed by Escherichia coli (15.6%) and Adenovirus (10.8%), with Giardia lamblia (7.3%) being the most prevalent parasite (7)."}]},{"head":"Environmental enteropathy (environmental enteric dysfunction)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Environmental enteropathy describes a reversible subclinical state of intestinal inflammation in response to enteric pathogens. It is characterized by gut mucosal cell villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasia, increased permeability, and inflammatory cell filtrate. The mechanisms underlying environmental enteropathy are incompletely understood. Evidence suggests that the hyper-stimulated gut immune system results in an inflammatory, hyper-immune state consequently causing a disrupted gut immune response, reduced delivery, absorption, and utilization of nutrients, thus causing nutritional deficiency (8). Furthermore, exposure to bacteria through fecal-oral transmission has been suggested to induce morphological changes in the intestine, thus leading to increased intestinal epithelial damage, permeability, and microbial translocation into the lamina propria. This causes an influx of inflammatory cells to the intestine, eventually leading to local and systematic inflammation (9)."}]},{"head":"Gastrointestinal illness and growth impairment","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Short-term associations between diarrhea and weight loss are well-accepted; however, longterm associations between diarrhea and growth are less well defined (10). A framework of primary drivers of stunting in low-resource settings informed by population attributable factors suggests that among five identified child-level risk factor categories (infection, diet, birthweight, pollutants, environmental enteric dysfunction), infections (i.e. diarrhea, HIV, malaria, respiratory illness, helminths) contributed most to stunting. Furthermore, diarrhea was the greatest single cause of stunting, indicating that the burden of mild diarrheal disease remains a key contributor to sub-optimal child growth with a potential long-term effect on child development and adult health (11)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The systematic review investigating diarrheal disease mortality in children <5 years of age reported that each day with diarrhea was associated with decreased height-for-age (LAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), and weight-for-height (WHZ) z-scores (6). Pathogens causing foodborne outbreaks such as Clostridium perfringens or Staphylococcus aureus producing enterotoxins were excluded from the review due to the scarcity of available data with respect to their importance in developing countries (12)."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"A secondary data analysis of 7 cohort studies from 4 countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Guinea-Bissau, Peru) conducted between 1985 and 1997 showed an association between diarrhea and a small but measurable long-term decrease in linear growth. The study showed that 10 additional days of diarrhea/child/year of follow-up had a negative relationship with LAZ at 24 months of age (change in LAZ: −0.1, 95% CI -0.1, -0.0; P= 0.000). The cumulative association between the average diarrhea burden (equivalent to 23 diarrhea days/year) and length at age 24 months was −0.38 cm (95% CI: -0.59, -0.17). This indicates that days with diarrhea during individual months had little apparent relationship with linear growth."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"However, cumulative diarrhea episodes demonstrated a small but measurable association between diarrhea burden and linear growth. Thus, any single episode of diarrhea during childhood seemingly only has a small relationship with linear growth and can be recovered through catch-up growth, provided adequate illness-free time. However, when accumulated throughout the first 24 months of life, diarrhea may be associated with a loss in height potential (10). This 'double burden' of diarrhea and malnutrition may make children with stunted growth and repeated gut infections at increased risk of developing obesity and its associated comorbidities, thus representing a 'triple burden' of the impoverished gut The mechanism is not completely understood, but nutrient deprivation as well as other potential insults (e.g. maternal stress, inflammation) during gestation have been suggested to cause epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation, modifying expression of genes related to metabolism and growth, particularly insulin growth factor-2 (IGF-2) to prepare the individual for potential future caloric deficiencies (reviewed in (13) with reference to 3 longitudinal and 2 cross-sectional studies)."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"The global burden of diarrheal disease among children below 5 years of age in 188 countries was reviewed in the context of different diarrhea-associated sequelae. The findings suggest that an episode of diarrhea can lead to a potential pathogen-specific diversity loss in gut microbial communities. Poor composition of the microbiota may contribute to malnourishment, reduced response to oral vaccines, increased susceptibility to additional infections, and the promotion of inflammation (9)."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"Another review suggests a strong association between stunting and early-childhood diarrhea in general, and with Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica, and Shigella infection in particular. Apart from macronutrient malabsorption resulting from environmental enteropathy or other pathways, children may experience appetite suppression and may be fed lower than usual amounts. In addition, systemic or intestinal inflammation due to bacterial translocation can negatively regulate insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1; lower levels of IGF-1 have been suggested to mediate stunting in early life due to IGF-1's function at growth plates ( 14)), thus inhibiting growth (15)."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"Environmental enteropathy, rather than diarrhea, has been proposed as primary causal mechanism between poor water, sanitation, and hygiene practices and stunting. Pathways by which enteropathogenic infections may lead to chronic health consequences are complex and not fully understood. Intestinal inflammation as a result of infection with enteropathogenesis and distortion of the intestinal barrier and absorptive function have been suggested to imply changes in the host microbiome. While malabsorption itself can contribute to growth faltering, changes in the microbiome may lead to autoimmune dysfunction (15)."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"As described above intestinal morphological and subsequent intestinal epithelial damage, permeability, and microbial translocation resulting from environmental enteropathy cause an influx of inflammatory cells eventually leading to local and systematic inflammation."},{"index":9,"size":97,"text":"Resources that would be normally directed toward child growth and development are reallocated and hormonal pathways that regulate growth plate activity in long bones are disrupted. Chronic inflammation and reduced intestinal nutrient absorption are also hypothesized to affect brain development, inducing lasting negative effects on cognition, educational achievement, and linear growth (9). The above-described nutritional deficiency impairs the renewal of epithelial tissue as well as the maturation and proliferation of intestinal and pancreatic ß-cells resulting in linear growth faltering. In addition, the low-grade inflammatory state concurrently impedes bone growth, and consequently height, by inhibiting endochondral ossification (8)."},{"index":10,"size":148,"text":"A systematic review from 2018 assessed the relationships among five environmental enteric dysfunction domains (i.e. intestinal damage and repair, permeability and absorption, microbial translocation, intestinal inflammation, systemic inflammation) and between each domain and stunting. The review questions a direct relationship between intestinal permeability (i.e. small pores between epithelial cells allowing for paracellular permeation of e.g. lactulose) and microbial translocation (i.e. passage of microbes/microbial products through the epithelial barrier into the lamina propria and local mesenteric lymph nodes) and between microbial translocation and stunting. Rather, the authors suggest inconsistent and variable relationships between environmental enteric dysfunction domains, while strong evidence supports the relationship between intestinal inflammation and systemic inflammation as well as between intestinal inflammation and stunting (9). A recent study in Tanzanian children further reported a significant association between systemic inflammation at six weeks of age and stunting (HR 2.14, 95% CI: 1.23, 3.72; p = 0.002) (16)."},{"index":11,"size":83,"text":"Factors other than microbial translocation, such as pathogen colonization with subsequent changes in the intestinal microbiota, may be responsible for intestinal inflammation in individuals with environmental enteric dysfunction. The authors speculate that environmental enteric dysfunction is not a single entity, but rather a set of phenotypes dependent on unique environmental exposures with geographic variations. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth may also contribute to intestinal inflammation and environmental enteric dysfunction; however, evidence for a relationship between stunting and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is lacking (9)."},{"index":12,"size":114,"text":"Mycotoxin exposure has been associated with environmental enteropathy. Three biologically plausible pathways through which aflatoxin exposure may affect growth have been suggested. These include 1) zinc deficiency, 2) inhibition of protein synthesis resulting in impaired metabolism, as well as 3) enterocyte damage ultimately leading to systemic immune activation. Similarly, suggested causal pathways for fumonisin exposure include decreased food intake and an inhibited sphingolipid metabolism, which may cause a degradation of epithelial barrier and stimulation of an inflammatory immune response. Human evidence for pathological effects of other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and zearalenone is scarce, however, rodent studies indicate a negative effect of deoxynivalenol on growth due to reduced food intake and weight gain (17)."}]},{"head":"Impact of foodborne disease on nutrient absorption","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The morbidity impact of enteric pathogens is to a large extent due to their ability to directly impair intestinal nutrient absorption (18). Efficient digestion of food constituents depends on various, interconnected processes (e.g. secretion of intraluminal enzymes and bile salts; regulation of intraluminal pH, transit of intestinal contents), pathogens may alter each of these processes by causing hypochlorhydria, by physically blocking pancreatic or biliary ducts, by damaging the mucosal surfaces, or by hastening peristaltic propulsion (19). Several foodborne pathogens may impact the absorption of different nutrients; however, evidence seems strongest for the effect of helminths and Helicobacter pylori."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The detrimental impact of helminth infections on nutrient status has been attributed to intestinal inflammation and obstruction, appetite loss, as well as blood loss due to internal bleeding. Negative associations between helminth infection and serum retinol (used to determine vitamin A deficiency in populations (20), but not serum ferritin (used to determine iron status in individuals and populations (21) were identified, however, deworming led to a rise in hemoglobin (used for the diagnosis and classification of anemia ( 22)) (23)(24)(25)(26)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"An impact of Helicobacter pylori on nutrient status has been suggested through changes in gastric physiology and histology, as well as impaired nutrient uptake. Evidence from systematic literature reviews indicates Helicobacter pylori associated increases in iron deficiency, anemia, and iron deficiency anemia. Furthermore, an association with lower cobalamin and folate levels as well as lower levels of ascorbic acid in plasma and gastric juice have been reported. In addition, Helicobacter pylori eradication had a positive effect on ascorbic acid in gastric juice and serum cobalamin (27)(28)(29)(30)."}]},{"head":"Impact of foodborne disease on perinatal/reproductive health","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Foodborne disease may impact perinatal health outcomes (e.g. gestational diabetes, fetal development, via different mechanisms (e.g. changes in glucose metabolism, dehydration;"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Table 1. In addition to impacts on the health and nutritional status of the pregnant woman, foodborne hazards can affect the development and health of the fetus, and hence the newborn."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Helicobacter pylori affects perinatal outcomes through suggested effects on glucose metabolism and endothelial damage. Meta-analyses showed significant associations between"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Helicobacter pylori infection and antenatal hyperemesis gravidarum (38 studies), fetal growth restriction (16 studies), gestational diabetes (reports from 3697 cases), as well as low birth weight (8 studies) (31,32)."},{"index":5,"size":195,"text":"Meta-analyses showed associations between Vibrio cholerae and fetal (4 studies), neonatal, and maternal death (9 studies each). Suggested mechanisms include maternal and fetal acidosis as well as electrolyte changes in the amniotic fluid resulting from severe vomiting (33,34). Toxoplasma gondii and Listeria monocytogenes are two key bacterial pathogens associated with adverse reproductive outcomes. Toxoplasma, which can be transmitted vertically from expectant mother to fetus, may result in severe negative outcomes on fetal development, ranging from fetal growth restriction (FGR), preterm birth, fetal anomalies, and congenital toxoplasmosis (frequently resulting into ocular lesions, mental and growth retardation, and other issues related to nerve development) to fetal death (35,36). Listeria monocytogenes also has a higher prevalence, higher severity during pregnancy, in addition to a high rate of fetal deaths, preterm births, and fetal distress (37). While direct mortality outcomes are outside the scope of this review (i.e. for this review death from a foodborne illness is considered a direct outcome of the illness, not mediated by nutrition factors, and hence excluded from the discussion on links between food safety and nutrition), they should be kept in mind as the extreme boundary of both foodborne hazard and nutrition impacts."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"A systematic review published in 2020 suggests an association between mycotoxin exposure and intrauterine fetal growth restriction, whereas evidence regarding perinatal death, preterm birth and decreased birthweight is inconclusive (38)."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"Arsenic exposure is also thought to affect perinatal outcomes, namely low birth weight, preterm delivery, birth weight decline, as well as decreased birth size. The available evidence is minimal and mostly relies on cross-sectional studies. Inorganic arsenic can accumulate in the placenta where it may disrupt and alter cord blood methylation, in addition, arsenic can also cross the placenta and accumulate in developing fetal organs However, no meta-analysis was conducted as reviewed studies examined different mycotoxins and outcomes with different effect measures (39-41)."}]},{"head":"Foodborne diseases with impact on metabolic processes","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Glucose metabolism","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Foodborne disease can impact glucose metabolism through altering the host's receptors and/or autoimmune response. A review of 7 case-control studies suggests chronic toxoplasmosis as possible risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus, while there is no significant association with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Suggested mechanisms include auto-immune and inflammatory processes in addition to a direct invasion, destruction of pancreatic b-cells, intracellular pathogen stimulation, as well as impaired phagocytosis and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections (42). Phthalates may promote type 2 diabetes through receptor alteration and induction of oxidative stress; however, evidence is limited."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The single prospective study that examined incident diabetes as an outcome reported strong associations for multiple phthalates, and several studies reported associations with insulin resistance (43)."}]},{"head":"Thyroid function","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Most animal studies show anti-thyroid effects upon high nitrate/nitrite exposure; however, this has so far not been confirmed in humans. Nitrites and nitrates can inhibit iodine uptake which may subsequently lead to decreased thyroid hormone production. Chronic thyroid gland stimulation may induce a change of follicular cells and hypertrophy or hyperplasia."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"A meta-analysis showed no significant association between nitrate exposure and the risk of thyroid cancer, hyper-and hypothyroidism. However, three cohort studies showed a significant association between higher exposure to nitrite and the risk of thyroid cancer (risk = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.09-2.02, P = 0.012) (44)."}]},{"head":"Obesity","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polychlorinated biphenyls, and bisphenol A has been associated with obesity due to impaired thermogenesis and increased adipocyte cell differentiation, respectively. Evidence for an obesogenic potential of POPs is mainly derived from in vivo studies, for polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and bisphenol A evidence is available from observational studies (45,46)."}]},{"head":"Cancer outcomes","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Foodborne pathogens are associated with different forms of ulcerative disease or cancer at various body sites (e.g. skin, lung, liver). This review focuses on ulcers/cancers directly impacting the gastrointestinal tract. Meta-analyses of 46 studies from 24 countries indicated a 1.26-fold risk for peptic ulcer for Helicobacter pylori infection. Furthermore, Helicobacter pylori eradication was significantly associated with decreased risk of gastric cancer. It has been suggested that chronic gastric inflammation may lead to precancerous changes of atrophic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia, whereas chronic infection may cause hypochlorhydria (47-49)."}]},{"head":"Impacts of foodborne disease treatment on nutritional outcomes","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"In this section we briefly highlight examples of treatments of foodborne disease in respect to their potential impact on nutrition outcomes. As this assessment was not the primary objective of our review it is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather aims to complement other sections of this review. Seemingly, the evidence linking a specific treatment to adverse nutrition outcomes is scarce. A more targeted systematic review may allow for elucidating this issue further and can provide a broader context to inform future research efforts."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Evidence for this section was compiled from three systematic reviews, two reviews (nonsystematic), and one cohort study."}]},{"head":"Treatment of infectious enteric disease with antimicrobials","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Antibiotic treatment of infectious enteric disease may yield profound effects on the Administration of albendazole led to minimal adverse events (moderate certainty evidence)"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"and no studies reported cases of intestinal obstruction. Of the included studies, 2 studies reported that effects of deworming were not sustained once deworming was ceased (moderate certainty evidence) (54)."}]},{"head":"Antiamebic treatment","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Another Cochrane systematic review from 2019 investigated the effects of antiamebic drugs for treating colitis. Of the 41 included trials, 37 reported predominantly gastrointestinal adverse events, such as nausea, vomiting, anorexia, bitter or metallic taste, and abdominal discomfort. The authors conclude that, compared with metronidazole, tinidazole may be associated with fewer adverse events (moderate-certainty evidence) while also being more effective in reducing clinical failure (low-certainty evidence) (55). Similar findings were reported by a systematic review conducted in 2007 that assessed adverse effects of drug treatments for amebic dysentery in endemic areas. The study found that ornidazole may be more effective at curing amebic dysentery compared to placebo but that this treatment may cause nausea and vomiting. Furthermore, it was unclear whether tinidazole performed better than placebo, but tinidazole outperformed metronidazole with fewer adverse effects (very low-quality evidence) (56). Such side effects may detrimentally affect nutrient status due to reduced food consumption as well as impaired nutrient absorption and possible disruptions of physiological gastrointestinal mechanisms."}]},{"head":"Foodborne disease and nutrition outcomes in vulnerable populations","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Foodborne pathogens may take advantage of weakened immune systems, putting vulnerable populations such as infants and young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals at particular risk of contracting common food-related diseases (5)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"In addition, infants and pregnant women often have different consumption patterns and nutrient requirements compared to other family members, potentially affecting their exposure to certain food-associated hazards (57). In this section, we compiled evidence from ten reviews (two systematic, eight non-systematic) and one orginal research article. While it seems intuitive that foodborne disease affects nutrition outcomes in vulnerable populations, surprisingly little evidence in this area is available. Specifically, it is unknown whether and to what extent vulnerable populations (compared to non-vulnerable ones) are more susceptible to short-and long-term adverse etiologies of nutritional outcomes linked to fodborne diseases."}]},{"head":"Populations affected by malnutrition","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Low weight, particularly weight-for-height, is a serious risk factor for infectious diseases, with possible immediate, acute negative effects on systematic and mucosal immune system functions (13). A systematic review on immune function in children with malnutrition that was conducted in 2014 found associations of malnutrition with impaired gut-barrier function, reduced exocrine secretion of protective substances, and low levels of plasma complement."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The authors suggest that immunological alterations associated with malnutrition in children may contribute to increased mortality; however, the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood (58)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Several studies suggest that malnourished individuals are particularly susceptible to detrimental arsenic-related health effects (with arsenic exposure being primarily via food ingestion). In utero and/or early-life arsenic exposure has been linked to increased mortality due to multiple cancers, lung disease, heart attacks, and kidney failure as well as detrimental effects on cognitive development, intelligence, and memory later in life (41)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Undernutrition is both a sequela of, and a risk factor for, cryptosporidiosis, particularly in children (59) "}]},{"head":"Children","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Children <5 years of age carry a large proportion (40%) of the disease burden attributable to foodborne hazards, despite representing only 9% of the global population (5). Malnourished infants and children are at higher risk of developing serious forms of foodborne diarrheal diseases, which can exacerbate malnutrition, thus leading to a vicious circle of debilitation and mortality and preventing many from reaching their full potential in society (5). Children are also more vulnerable to the consequences of infection because of their developing immune system, small body size, lower levels of gastric acid and other factors (57). In addition,"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"children have an increased exposure to foodborne hazards because of their lack of control over food preparation and may exhibit behaviors that can increase risk (e.g. eating soil or animal feces) (61)."}]},{"head":"Gender","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Gender can be an important determinant of exposure of risk, often as a proxy of other underlying drivers. For instance, gender is often correlated with poverty and poverty in turn is associated with increased burden of both foodborne disease and malnutrition (62). Gender roles and occupations can also drive health outcomes. A recent assessment of 20 informal livestock and fish value chains found socially constructed gender differences as major driver of differences in health risks. With the exception of one study on listeriosis risk, differences in risk of foodborne disease were attributable to gender roles and occupation rather than biological sex. While men were most likely to suffer from occupational exposure and injuries associated with livestock production, fishing, hunting, and slaughterhouse work, women were more exposed to food-borne pathogens during processing, selling, and preparation of food (63). Another study argues that males may be at higher risk of exposure to occupational health hazards in the meat supply chain, because slaughtering is mainly performed by men (64). Studies on slaughterhouse workers have indeed highlighted deficiencies in food safety practices (64). Additional example of increased exposure to foodborne or zoonotic pathogens include vendors and workers in informal markets, who are in more frequent and close contact with food and food-contact surfaces (65). Increased impacts on nutrition outcomes could be inferred -albeit not yet well supported by data -as a consequence of increased foodborne or occupational exposure. In addition, preferential access to some foods by food producers may impact the composition of their diet."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Only one study on listeriosis risk identified differences in foodborne disease outcomes as attributable to sex or biology, as susceptibility to infection by Listeria monocytogenes is heightened during pregnancy (63). As another example, albeit without a hazard-specific link to nutrition outcomes besides gastrointestinal illness, in the adult population invasive amebiasis is more common in males than females, particularly for amebic liver abscess, while no gender difference is seen in children (66). These findings suggest that gender differences for some nutrition outcomes associated with foodborne disease may be more strongly associated with gender roles and occupation, rather than biological sex differences. However, further investigation is warranted."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"In contrast, a higher risk for developing post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome was associated with female gender, younger age, anxiety, long duration of diarrhea, and weight loss (67). Likewise, cohort studies in Bangladesh demonstrated possible sex-dependent associations between arsenic exposure and child growth in girls (39). Furthermore, a systematic review from 2011 found a gender effect for the association between exposure to PCB and obesity, with girls being more susceptible, whereas prenatal PCB exposure was associated with reduced birth weight predominantly among male infants (68)."}]},{"head":"Other vulnerable populations","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Pregnancy, old age, and immune status can also result in increased vulnerability to foodborne hazards, and associated nutrition outcomes. For example, limited evidence based on epidemiological data suggests that listeriosis is more prevalent in pregnancy than in nonpregnant populations, with 16-27% of all Listeria monocytogenes infections occurring in pregnant women, which result in a high rate of fetal distress and miscarriage (37,69)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Nutrition outcomes associated with Listeria infection are described in Table 3. Likewise, old age as well as medical interventions that severely compromise the immune system greatly increase the susceptibility to acquiring listeriosis (70). While non-invasive forms of listeriosis cause symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, headache, and myalgia, listeriosis during pregnancy can cause prenatal fever, meconium-stained amniotic fluid, fetal distress, or even death (37). "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In this review we summarized evidence on the linkages between food safety and nutrition by discussing key physiological effects of unsafe food, with a focus on health-related impact pathway linking foodborne diseases to nutrition outcomes. The risks associated with unsafe food consumption are undoubtedly substantial yet are not systematically quantified."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Estimates attribute about one third of global diarrhea cases to foodborne disease. However, reliable data are lacking for several countries and regions. This uncertainty, as well as limited data to attribute disease burden to specific foodborne hazards or food categories limits the ability for an adequate response (71)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Foodborne disease burden is increasing in LMICs owing to increases in the consumption of animal-source foods, rapid lengthening and increasing complexity of value chains, as well as slow/missing improvements in food safety governance, among other factors (72). These impacts may not be felt equally across society. While cross-impacts between food safety and nutrition may be non-linear, arguably an increase in foodborne disease burden would also result in an increase in associated negative nutrition outcomes. We identified strong linkages between some foodborne hazards and nutrition-related outcomes; however, several gaps and limitations in the reviewed literature (discussed below) impair our full understanding and our ability to establish causality."}]},{"head":"Physiological and public health implications","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"We consider the available evidence with regards to a relationship between pediatric gastrointestinal illness and growth impairment as strong. However, the extent of this relationship and underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. Furthermore, the exact determinants of gastrointestinal illness that may cause impaired growth as well as the impact of timepoint and duration of illness are still debated. Also, no clear evidence of an association between adult gastrointestinal illness and malnutrition emerged from the literature reviewed. Evidence also points toward a negative impact of certain hazards on nutrient absorption (e.g. helminths, Helicobacter pylori), growth outcomes (e.g. mycotoxins, arsenic), metabolic functions such as glucose and thyroid metabolism (e.g. persistent organic pollutants and other chemicals), as well as gastrointestinal ulcers (Helicobacter pylori). For some hazards (e.g. Helicobacter pylori), mechanisms are better understood, at least partially because they have been investigated for decades, while research for other hazards is still in its infancy."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Studies investigating the relationship between pathogens and diarrheal disease present inherent limitations. Certain organisms may remain in the feces for a long time after an infection-causing illness, possibly leading to misclassification as a non-diarrhea causing agent."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Similarly, longitudinal studies may identify long-term secretors after illness from asymptomatic infections (6). The systematic review investigating specific pathogens that may be associated with persistent diarrhea in children in LMICs found no evident association between a particular pathogen and persistent diarrhea (73). The review showed that both children with persistent diarrhea and without diarrhea carried a wide range of enteric pathogens with varying rates between studies. The authors highlight methodological limitations in the reviewed studies including varying designs, small sample sizes, and the assessment of different (combinations of) pathogens. Furthermore, the use of different classification systems in some cases prevented a combined analysis of data across studies (73). Other studies have identified additional gaps pertaining to methodological issues."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Common gaps found in the studies include (1) lack of controlling for confounders such as e.g. previous health history, (2) duration of illness, (3) nutrient intake/status, seasonality, (4) exposure dose and duration as well as (5) exposure to other potential hazards. Furthermore, cross-sectional study designs, lack of representativeness of study populations, as well as small sample sizes have been recognized (29,44,47)."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The review revealed other methodological limitations that, if addressed, could improve the evidence base on foodborne diseases' impacts on nutrition outcomes. In terms of burden assessment, for example, many foodborne hazards lack well-established biomarkers and/or cheap, readily available tools for their identification, which hinders exposure assessment and attribution, which are in turn needed for effective interventions. Furthermore, evidence from well-designed human studies is often lacking along with consistent clinical definitions (e.g. environmental enteropathy) and improved education of healthcare professionals regarding foodborne disease symptoms (9,74,75). Study findings may also be biased towards certain domains that are easier to measure compared to others (9)."},{"index":6,"size":168,"text":"While different aspects of food safety research have well-developed metrics, in many cases available metrics are not widely applied or not suited for widespread use (72). There are also no established approaches for assessing the proportion of adverse nutrition outcomes, such as wasting or stunting, associated with foodborne infections. Another challenge is the lack of specificity for some symptoms which may not allow for an accurate diagnosis, in addition to individuals not seeking healthcare. Both may lead to under-reporting and subsequent underestimation of health-impacts in response to certain hazards. Many countries also lack adequate public surveillance systems to track foodborne disease. The resulting dearth of epidemiological data hinders the quantification of the full extent and cost of foodborne disease. In turn this prevents policy-makers from setting priorities and allocating resources towards improving food safety and associated nutrition outcomes (5). This is even more true for assessing impacts of foodborne disease on nutrition, for which data and evidence are largely lacking and are not accounted for in surveillance systems."},{"index":7,"size":114,"text":"Other health implications, while not covered in depth in this review, warrant further attention. Pharmacological treatment of infectious foodborne disease may lead to short-term nutrition impacts, but evidence suggests this impact is minor. However, antimicrobial treatments can alter the intestinal microbiome in the short-and long-term, with poorly understood impacts on gut health. Holistic investigation of medium-to long-term impacts of certain foodborne disease treatments on health and nutrition outcomes, as well as socioeconomic outcomes are warranted. Also, there is limited available evidence regarding vulnerable populations and population-specific exposure and foodborne disease outcomes, as well as their implication for nutrition outcomes. Particularly, the role of sex and gender as determinants are not well understood or quantified."}]},{"head":"Limitations and suggestions for future research","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"We aimed to provide a broad picture of the impacts of foodborne hazards and disease on nutrition-relevant outcomes, with a focus on low-resource settings. Given the high complexity of this topic, it was not possible to capture all impacts within a parent search strategy. Rather, we aimed to provide an overview of relevant issues and highlight evidence gaps to inform future research efforts. For instance other relevant health implications, such as impacts of foodborne disease on cognitive development or debilitating syndromes that impair individual abilities to work or care for a family, are relevant in the context of overall health and nutrition outcomes but were outside of the scope of this review. In addition, the review focused on the impacts of food safety on nutrition outcomes, not vice versa. Lastly, strength of evidence was discussed throughout the review, but could not be quantified."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"In the process of reviewing the existing literature on food safety impacts on nutrition outcomes, we also identified several gaps that could be filled by future research efforts:"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Harmonized metrics and rigorous research methods should be developed and applied across the disciplines of nutrition and food safety."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• Longitudinal studies are needed to assess temporal relationships and long-term impacts of foodborne disease on nutrition outcomes. Such studies should address sex-/gender-related aspects that may confound research findings."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"• Inexpensive, readily accessible, and decentralized tools should be developed for reporting on relevant metrics to facilitate foodborne illness attribution to specific hazards and routes of transmission."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• The study of physio-pathological mechanisms of foodborne disease -including longterm health impacts -and their links to specific hazards should be strengthened and made more quantitative."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"• Nutrition outcomes should be better accounted into the burden of foodborne diseases. However, data and methods do not currently allow for a satisfactory inclusion of these variables."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"While a comprehensive review of socioeconomic processes linking food safety and nutrition was outside the scope of this review, the literature search also highlighted the dearth of evidence on the dietary and socioeconomic impacts of food safety and foodborne disease, on their own and as they relate to nutrition outcomes."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EATSAFE PROGRAM DESIGN","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"This review documents linkages between food safety and nutrition. While in some cases the main mechanisms involved are known, these complex networks of causal physiological pathways are often difficult to disentangle. In general, there is more evidence regarding the impact of foodborne diseases on health and nutrition-relevant outcomes, than on the opposite direction of impact, i.e. impacts of malnutrition on vulnerability to or severity of foodborne disease. Some foodborne hazards have been found to be associated with nutrition and development outcomes. However, assessing the impact of these impacts at population scale requires additional efforts in terms of data collection and harmonization of analytical approaches across disciplines. Other factors, such as gender differences, vulnerable groups, and the availability and impact of treatments also warrant further attention by researchers and risk managers."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Key summary findings and considerations relevant to intervention design, within and beyond the EatSafe program, are outlined below."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for Intervention Design and Future Studies under EatSafe","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This review provides an overview of cross-pathways linking food safety/foodborne illness and nutrition outcomes with focus on health impacts. This body of evidence is meant to support the development of a framework linking food safety and nutrition, as part of Feed the Future and EatSafe programming. Key findings and considerations include:"},{"index":2,"size":288,"text":"• Food safety and nutrition are strongly linked via many impact pathways, in some cases through direct association (e.g. environmental enteropathy is linked to stunting), while in others food safety and nutrition processes may both impact a health outcome (e.g. diabetes or other metabolic processes). • There is strong evidence that some forms of gastroenteric disease are associated with nutrition outcomes, such as stunting, in children below 5 years old; however, the specific causal mechanisms are still under study. Little evidence is available on adults. • Since diarrhea and environmental enteropathy are linked to nutrition outcomes in LMICs, but appear to be associated with multiple pathogens, at this stage of data availability interventions aiming to control both FBD burden and associated nutrition impacts may benefit from a broad focus involving multiple pathogens, instead of a more limited focus on few pathogens or pathogen/commodity pairs. However, pathogen-specific studies are needed to understand exposure and attribute burden. • Physiological mechanisms linking specific foodborne hazard to health and nutrition outcomes are not well characterized, in particular for chronic or time-delayed impacts. • The connection between a foodborne hazard and major acute health impacts is in most cases established, but data on burden at national and sub-national scale is lacking. • People purchasing food from informal markets might be more at risk for the cumulative impacts of foodborne disease and associated nutrition impact, including from WASH and housing exposures. • The incidence and magnitude of impacts linking food safety and nutrition outcomes at total diet and population scale is poorly understood. Even if there is evidence that an impact can occur, its importance at population scale is often unknown. • The relative magnitude of impacts should be carefully considered when prioritizing interventions."},{"index":3,"size":216,"text":"Some well-characterized pathways may not be the most important in terms of population burden. • Strength of evidence for pathways linking food safety and nutrition is poorly characterized, hindering the ability to prioritize which factors to account for. • Gender factors are often not included in studies linking food safety and nutrition. Health burden data as well as behavior data, when available, can usually be disaggregated by gender. How other exposure and physiological mechanisms affect genders differently is unclear. • For some hazards, gendered differences in illness rates may be due to gendered occupational behaviors (e.g. slaughterhouse workers are usually male), not to biological differences. Messaging interventions customized by gender and/or occupation may we warranted. • Other vulnerable groups, such as pregnant women, the elderly, children, and groups at higher risk of occupational exposure should be considered at potentially higher risk of adverse nutrition outcomes associated with foodborne hazards. • In light of current evidence gaps, the selection of nutrition outcomes to evaluate and monitor in food safety programs needs further discussion. Recommended actions and outcomes for consideration include: measuring incidence and extent of child development outcomes; fostering increased syndromic surveillance and hazard attribution; including metrics of gut health (as available); including chronic effects of FBD; including measures of hazard-specific impacts on micronutrient status, as appropriate."}]},{"head":"TABLES","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"See document for Table 1 (page 11).  "}]},{"head":"Table 2. Foodborne disease with impact on intestinal health, and associated nutrition outcomes","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"C. difficile","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Toxins adhere to epithelial cells → internalization, activate cascade → disrupt protein synthesis, cell death, inflammation."}]},{"head":"Enteroaggregative/Enteropathogenic","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Escherichia coli (EAEC/EPEC) Adhere to intestinal brush border:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1) Mucus (biofilm) production -Intestinal barrier function Ø."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"-Food intake ↓."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Higher levels of maternal aflatoxin exposure: height-for-age (HAZ) and weight-for age z-scores (WAZ) ↓. "},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Pediatric fumonisin intake > provisional maximum tolerable daily intake: height and weight ↓. -  -Oxidative damage → ↑ lipid peroxidation → endothelial damage → blood pressure ↑."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"-Indirect vessel damage: activation of clotting cascade or lymphocytes to produce/secrete cytokines in addition to proinflammatory cytokine pathway."}]},{"head":"Significant association between","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Helicobacter pylori infection and:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"- -GI bicarbonate loss → maternal -Cancer: Skin, liver, kidney bladder, urinary."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"-   A WHO report challenges inorganic NO3contribution to endemic goiter:"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"-anti-thyroid effect of NO3mostly observed from drinking water intake, not diet; "}]},{"head":"Screening process for all retrieved articles","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Decision process: Title screening > Abstract screening > Fulltext screening > In-/ exclusion"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"In the screening process, the reviewer(s) will look for keywords as indicated in the PubMed search strategy."}]},{"head":"1) Title screening","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"o Include: Titles indicating to cover aspects of both food safety and nutrition."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"o Exclude: Titles that are obviously not within the scope of the project."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"In case of doubt, move article to abstract review."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"2) Abstract screening for potentially relevant titles."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Include if abstract appears to be of interest for the review, otherwise exclude."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"3) Fulltext screening for all titles remaining after title and abstract screening."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"a. Include if abstract appears to be of interest for the review. Make note in case the general topic is already extensively covered by a (systematic) review."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"b. Reference lists of relevant articles will be screened and potentially relevant references will be screened according to steps 2) and 3). "}]},{"head":"PubMed search # Search string # of results","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Concept","index":40,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Illustration of key nutrition-relevant outcomes considered in the review. "},{"text":" composition and function of the gastrointestinal microbiome. Specific classes of agents (e.g. β-lactams, fluoroquinolones) predispose subsets of individuals to antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis due to specific pathogens. Antimicrobial-associated disorders result from the short-and long-term impacts of antibiotics on the composition and function of the human microbiome. Perturbations of the gastrointestinal microbiota create opportunities for bacterial proliferation and disease. Disease may result from toxin production, which may result in symptomatic diarrheal illness. The primary etiologic agent of antimicrobialassociated diarrhea, toxigenic Clostridium difficile, accounts for an estimated 15%-25% of cases. Other agents that have been associated with antimicrobial associated diarrhea include clostridial etiologies (including enterotoxin-producing strains of Clostridium perfringens and possibly Clostridium spiroforme) as well as enterotoxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus(50). Interestingly, a meta-analysis of ten randomized controlled trials indicates that antibiotic use increased height and weight, with larger effects on height in younger populations. This antibiotic growth promoting effect may be mediated by treatment of clinical or subclinical infections or by modulation of intestinal microbiota(51,52).DewormingDeworming via preventive chemotherapy is carried out to lower the burden of helminth infections and improve development outcomes (e.g. height and weight gain) (53). A Cochrane systematic review of 52 studies carried out in 2017 and assessing the effects of mass deworming on health outcomes found little evidence of adverse events from deworming, including impacts on nutrition outcomes(54). The review found that mass deworming for soiltransmitted helminths with albendazole twice/year compared to controls had little to no improvement in weight or height over a period of about 12 months (0•09 kg, 95% credible intervals [CrI] -0•04, 0•20 and 0•07 cm, 95% CrI -0•10, 0•24, respectively; moderate certainty evidence), little to no difference in weight-for-height (0•14, 95% CrI -0•20, 0•47; high certainty evidence), proportion stunted (eight fewer per 1000 children, 95% CrI -48, 32; high certainty evidence), or mortality (one fewer per 1000 children, 95% CI -3, 1; high certainty evidence). "},{"text":" The host's innate and adaptive immunity also play a major in the severity of prognosis for cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis. Immunocompetent individuals typically experience selflimiting diarrhea and transient gastroenteritis and recover without treatment, suggesting efficient immune responses, whereas immunocompromised individuals including HIV/AIDS patients often suffer from potentially fatal intractable diarrhea(59). "},{"text":" Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum. Affect small intestine: adhere to mucosa, disrupt absorptive and/or enterocytic secretory processes without acute inflammation or mucosal destruction. Many organisms secrete enterotoxins → AMP/cGMP/Ca 2+ concentration ↑ and target activation → watery diarrhea. Shigella spp., Salmonella spp. Invade intestinal epithelial cells (Shigella), ileum or colon (Salmonella) through chromosomal/plasmic-encoded virulence factors → cell death → apoptosis → release of bacteria and inflammatory mediators. Campylobacter jejuni Invade intestinal epithelium, spread to adjacent cells via host invasion receptors, produce nuclease which induces cell cycle arrest and cell damage. "},{"text":" intestinal tract o altered villi: crypt ratio, intestinal absorptive capacity ↓ → zinc deficiency → protein and sphingolipid synthesis Ø; o enterocyte damage → systemic immune activation. "},{"text":"o macro-/micronutrients during a diarrhoeal episode → disruption of weight and height gain as well as child development. Chronic Giardia infection → weight loss/malabsorption, association with stunting, wasting, and cognitive decline in children in LMICs. Cobalamin malabsorption via: (1) Compromised release of protein-bound dietary cobalamin in the stomach or (2) Gastric atrophy of the corporal mucosa and intrinsic factor deficiency (pernicious anemia). -Virulence factors: Helicobacter pylori CagA strains alter host's iron stores; Iron uptake by H. pylori may lead to iron deficiency in host -Chronic occult GI blood loss (microbleedings). Risk factors: Low body iron stores, iron deficiency (anemia). "},{"text":" death: 7.9%(5.3-10.4); no difference by trimester); Meta-analysis of 4 studies.-Neonatal death: 0.8% (0.0-1.6); Meta-analysis of 9 studies.-Maternal death: 0.2% (0.0-0.7). Meta-analysis of "},{"text":"1 3 Note: Food Safety[MeSH Terms] or Food Safe*[tiab] or Safe Food*[tiab] or Unsanitary Food*[tiab] or Insanitary Food*[tiab] or Sanitary Food*[tiab] or Food-Safe*[tiab] or Food-Safety-Hazard*[tiab] or Food Contaminat*[tiab] or Unsanitary Feed*[tiab] or Insanitary Feed*[tiab] or Sanitary Feed*[tiab] or Foodborn*[tiab] or Foodborn*[tiab] or Food born*[tiab] or Spoil*[tiab] or Food Hygien*[tiab] or Hygienic Food*[tiab] or Hygienic Practic*[tiab] or Hygiene-Food*[tiab] or Hygiene-Practic*[tiab] or Biological Hazard*[tiab] or Chemical Hazard*[tiab] or Physical Hazard*[tiab] or Food Hazard*[tiab] or Hazardous Food*[tiab] or Allergenic Hazard*[tiab] or Biological-Hazard*[tiab] or Chemical-Hazard*[tiab] or Physical-Hazard*[tiab] or Allergenic-Hazard*[tiab] or Food Pathogen*[tiab] or Pathogen in Food*[tiab] or Pathogens in Food*[tiab] or Foodborne zoono*[tiab] or Food-borne zoono*[tiab] or Food poison*[tiab] or Food-poison*[tiab] or Poisonous food*[tiab] or food handl*[tiab] or food-handl*[tiab] or Virus-commodit*[tiab] or food-borne-vir*[tiab] or Viruscommodit*[tiab] or FBD*[tiab] or impur*[tiab] [MeSH Terms] or Malnutrition[MeSH Terms] or Diet, Food, and Nutrition[MeSH Terms] or Food*[tiab] or Nutritio*[tiab] or Eat*[tiab] or Drink*[tiab] or Foodstuff*[tiab] or Food-stuff*[tiab] or Aliment*[tiab] or Cook*[tiab] or Snack*[tiab] or Cuisine*[tiab] or Kitch*[tiab] or Meal*[tiab] or Nourish*[tiab] or Diet*[tiab] or Consum*[tiab] or Food Prepar*[tiab] or Stunted Growth*[tiab] or Underweight*[tiab] or Stunt*[tiab] or Wasted*[tiab] or Wasting*[tiab] or Thinness*[tiab] or micronutrient deficien*[tiab] or nutrient deficien*[tiab] or hidden hunger*[tiab] or hidden-hunger*[tiab] or hunger*[tiab] or double-burden*[tiab] or double burden*[tiab] or Malnutri*[tiab] or Malnour*[tiab] *[tiab] or Middle-East*[tiab] or Health Development Inde*[tiab] or Ngwa*[tiab] or Development Inde*[tiab] or Austrones*[tiab] or Ceylon*[tiab] or Hong Kong*[tiab] or Taiwan*[tiab] or Poor household*[tiab] or Disadvantaged nation*[tiab] or Poor nation*[tiab] or Disadvantaged household*[tiab] or Poor societ*[tiab] or Disadvantaged societ*[tiab] or Poor count*[tiab] or disadvantaged count*[tiab] or vulnerable nation*[tiab] or vulnerable household*[tiab] or vulnerable societ*[tiab] or Poor econom*[tiab] or disadvantaged econom*[tiab] or vulnerable econom*[tiab] or Low-and Middle-Income Econom*[tiab] or Low and Middle-Income Econom*[tiab] or Developing Econom*[tiab] or Less developed Econom*[tiab] or Least developed Econom*[tiab] or Under developed Econom*[tiab] 4 #1 AND #2 AND #Only articles from the combined search (#4) were screened. 8323 Combination "},{"text":"Table 1 . Food safety and nutrition outcomes considered in this review. Food safety and foodborne disease  Health outcomes Physiological manifestation of foodborne disease (e.g. Health outcomesPhysiological manifestation of foodborne disease (e.g.  gastrointestinal illness), acute and long-term gastrointestinal illness), acute and long-term Nutrition-related outcomes  Nutrition-related outcomes Food consumption Adequate intake of nutritious food and ability to properly digest it Food consumptionAdequate intake of nutritious food and ability to properly digest it Nutrient absorption Micronutrient absorption and deficiency, ability to assimilate food Nutrient absorptionMicronutrient absorption and deficiency, ability to assimilate food Development Stunting, wasting, malnutrition-related metrics DevelopmentStunting, wasting, malnutrition-related metrics  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Foodborne diseases with reproductive health or perinatal growth impacts  Physiological Key foodborne hazards, Main Impact on nutrition-relevant Evidence strength Other impacts, limitations Ref PhysiologicalKey foodborne hazards, MainImpact on nutrition-relevantEvidence strengthOther impacts, limitationsRef impact of FBD physiological mechanisms triggered by outcomes    impact of FBDphysiological mechanisms triggered byoutcomes  hazard     hazard Changes in Helicobacter pylori     Changes inHelicobacter pylori glucose Gestational diabetes mellitus:     glucoseGestational diabetes mellitus: metabolism; -Changes in glucose metabolism →     metabolism;-Changes in glucose metabolism → oxidative/ chemical changes in the gastric mucosa     oxidative/chemical changes in the gastric mucosa vessel damage -↑ proinflammatory cytokine levels →     vessel damage-↑ proinflammatory cytokine levels →  structural alterations of insulin     structural alterations of insulin  receptors → inhibition of insulin -     receptors → inhibition of insulin -  receptor interactions     receptor interactions  Preeclampsia:     Preeclampsia:  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Foodborne disease with other nutrition-relevant impacts: cancer, metabolism, and obesity outcomes Physiological impact of FBD Key foodborne hazards, Main physiological mechanisms triggered by hazard Impact on nutrition-relevant outcomes Evidence strength Other impacts, limitations Ref Foodborne diseases with impact on cancer development  -Chronic Helicobacter pylori Infection with iceA1-positive Meta-analysis of 46 Eosinophile esophagitis: (47- -ChronicHelicobacter pyloriInfection with iceA1-positiveMeta-analysis of 46Eosinophile esophagitis:(47- inflammation; Peptic ulcerative disease: Helicobacter pylori: overall 1.26-fold studies from 24 Helicobacter pylori-induced 49) inflammation;Peptic ulcerative disease:Helicobacter pylori: overall 1.26-foldstudies from 24Helicobacter pylori-induced49) Hypochlorhydri Infection → gastritis → gastric risk -for peptic ulcer (95% CI 1.09- countries immunomodulation: Inverse  HypochlorhydriInfection → gastritis → gastricrisk -for peptic ulcer (95% CI 1.09-countriesimmunomodulation: Inverse a; atrophy and intestinal 1.45). Sensitivity analysis. relationship between  a;atrophy and intestinal1.45).Sensitivity analysis.relationship between Immunomodula metaplasia. iceA1 presence significantly associated  Helicobacter pylori and  Immunomodulametaplasia.iceA1 presence significantly associatedHelicobacter pylori and tion  with peptic ulcer, OR: 1.25 (1.08-  eosinophile esophagitis →  tionwith peptic ulcer, OR: 1.25 (1.08-eosinophile esophagitis →  Gastric cancer: Multiple 1.44).  Indirect evidence (observational  Gastric cancer: Multiple1.44).Indirect evidence (observational  mechanisms suggested: iceA2 presence: inversely associated  studies) lacking direct  mechanisms suggested:iceA2 presence: inversely associatedstudies) lacking direct  -Chronic gastric inflammation with peptic ulcer, OR: 0.76 (0.65-  experimental confirmation.  -Chronic gastric inflammationwith peptic ulcer, OR: 0.76 (0.65-experimental confirmation.  → precancerous changes of 0.89).    → precancerous changes of0.89).  atrophic gastritis and iceA presence: not associated with  Most evidence available from  atrophic gastritis andiceA presence: not associated withMost evidence available from  intestinal metaplasia; ↑ risk gastric cancer.  Asian populations  intestinal metaplasia; ↑ riskgastric cancer.Asian populations  of gastric cancer. Helicobacter pylori eradication → Limited-moderate   of gastric cancer.Helicobacter pylori eradication →Limited-moderate  -Chronic Helicobacter pylori significantly ↓ risk of gastric cancer evidence that   -Chronic Helicobacter pylorisignificantly ↓ risk of gastric cancerevidence that  infection → ↓ gastric acid OR: 0.46 (0.39-0.55). Helicobacter pylori   infection → ↓ gastric acidOR: 0.46 (0.39-0.55).Helicobacter pylori  secretion (hypochlorhydria) →  eradication ↓ gastric   secretion (hypochlorhydria) →eradication ↓ gastric  "},{"text":" FAO.org -Screen titles and abstracts of all publications in 'Food safety & quality' à 'Resources' o Worldfishcenter.org -Key word: 'Food safety' -Screening of 'Reference' lists of identified relevant articles à Screening of abstracts for potentially relevant titles. Iodine (I) uptake Impaired Majidiani (42) Tang-Péronard o p,p'- (0.01-0.25) per log increase of p,p;-Not specified N/A Africa, Tanzania, West Egypt, India, Iran Belgium, Canada, Korea, Adults, children N/A P=0.012; 3 Toxoplasma Chemical hazards considerable in subjects with Systematic review Systematic review Iodine (I) uptake Impaired Majidiani (42) Tang-Péronard op,p'-(0.01-0.25) per log increase of p,p;-Not specified N/A Africa, Tanzania, West Egypt, India, Iran Belgium, Canada, Korea, Adults, children N/AP=0.012; 3 Toxoplasma Chemical hazardsconsiderable in subjects with Systematic review Systematic review inhibition thermogenesis Man (80) (68) Chronic thyroid gland Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroetha Not specified Africa Netherlands, Spain, DDE. N/A -review N/A observational studies). Campylobacter spp. nutritional I -deficiency. Review inhibition thermogenesis Man (80) (68)Chronic thyroid gland Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroetha Not specified Africa Netherlands, Spain, DDE.N/A -reviewN/Aobservational studies). Campylobacter spp. nutritional I -deficiency. Review (cont'd) (cont'd) Micha (1) Petri (18) stimulation → change of ne (p,p'-DDT) exposure → Global Not specified Sweden, United States Dose effect for some chemicals (PCB, N/A N/A Children N/A Animal studies: high NO2 -/NO3 -Global Nutrition Enteric infections, diarrhea Moderate (human/in N/A Not part of systematic (cont'd) (cont'd) Micha (1) Petri (18)stimulation → change of ne (p,p'-DDT) exposure → Global Not specified Sweden, United States Dose effect for some chemicals (PCB, N/A N/A Children N/AAnimal studies: high NO2 -/NO3 -Global Nutrition Enteric infections, diarrhea Moderate (human/in N/A Not part of systematic Thiagarajah follicular cells and energy expenditure via Not specified DDE, phthalates): weight gain at lower N/A -review N/A vivo /in vitro) Secretory diarrhea exposure (~10-600 X acceptable Report search, only added for Review Thiagarajahfollicular cells and energy expenditure via Not specifiedDDE, phthalates): weight gain at lower N/A -review N/Avivo /in vitro) Secretory diarrheaexposure (~10-600 X acceptable Report search, only added for Review Mosites (11) (77) hypertrophy/hyperplasia thermogenesis Ø → energy N/A doses and weight loss at higher doses. Children N/A Stunting daily intake) → anti-thyroid Framework context Mosites (11) (77)hypertrophy/hyperplasia thermogenesis Ø → energy N/Adoses and weight loss at higher doses. Children N/AStuntingdaily intake) → anti-thyroid Framework context Muhsen (30) Pflughoeft (50) Tran (34) induction. imbalance → obesity Alaska, India, Turkey, Higher obesity susceptibility upon PCB Children, adults N/A N/A N/A N/A Haiti, India, Nigeria, Pregnant women N/A effects: ↓ thyroid hormone Systematic review Microbiome in health and Helicobacter pylori Not part of systematic Vibrio cholerae Systematic review Muhsen (30) Pflughoeft (50) Tran (34)induction. imbalance → obesity Alaska, India, Turkey, Higher obesity susceptibility upon PCB Children, adults N/A N/A N/A N/A Haiti, India, Nigeria, Pregnant women N/Aeffects: ↓ thyroid hormone Systematic review Microbiome in health and Helicobacter pylori Not part of systematic Vibrio cholerae Systematic review  Chronic exposure to high NO3 -South Korea Pakistan, Peru, Senegal exposure in girls.  disease serum levels and search, only added for Chronic exposure to high NO3 -South Korea Pakistan, Peru, Senegal exposure in girls.diseaseserum levels and search, only added for Increased Navaneethan Troeger (6) levels → hypertrophy, goiter Bisphenol A Not specified Global histomorphological thyroid Animal models show different Review context Disease and nutrition burden Global disease burden 10 observational (46) Infectious diarrhea Not specified Positive correlation between the level N/A -review N/A Children < 5 Increased Navaneethan Troeger (6)levels → hypertrophy, goiter Bisphenol A Not specified Globalhistomorphological thyroid Animal models show different Review context Disease and nutrition burden Global disease burden 10 observational (46) Infectious diarrhea Not specified Positive correlation between the level N/A -review N/A Children < 5 adipocyte cell (76) Prendergast development. Adipocyte cell differentiation Zambia of BPA and obesity risk Children years N/A studies, 888-4793 Stunting gland changes. No similar obesogenic effects in males and Not part of systematic adipocyte cell (76) Prendergastdevelopment. Adipocyte cell differentiation Zambiaof BPA and obesity risk Children yearsN/Astudies, 888-4793 Stuntinggland changes. No similar obesogenic effects in males and Not part of systematic differentiation Ng (32) (14) Welch (24) ↑ → excess fat accumulation. Austria, Bangladesh, Dose-response: 1-ng/mL BPA increase Pregnant women N/A China, Bangladesh, Code Children in N/A participants Helicobacter pylori Helminths observations in humans. females, limited human Systematic review search, only added for Systematic review differentiation Ng (32) (14) Welch (24)↑ → excess fat accumulation. Austria, Bangladesh, Dose-response: 1-ng/mL BPA increase Pregnant women N/A China, Bangladesh, Code Children in N/Aparticipants Helicobacter pylori Helminthsobservations in humans. females, limited human Systematic review search, only added for Systematic review Qekwana (64)  evidence. Occupational hazards Foodborne diseases with impact on obesity increased the obesity risk by 11%. Canada, China, Egypt, d'Ivoire, Indonesia, helminth Similar results for different types of Greece, Iran, Israel, South Africa, urban Traditional Goat meat Kenya, Nigeria, Sri endemic areas context Survey Qekwana (64)evidence. Occupational hazards Foodborne diseases with impact on obesity increased the obesity risk by 11%. Canada, China, Egypt, d'Ivoire, Indonesia, helminth Similar results for different types of Greece, Iran, Israel, South Africa, urban Traditional Goat meat Kenya, Nigeria, Sri endemic areascontext Survey Impaired Persistent organic pollutants Japan, Netherlands, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-obesity, gender, and age. slaughter Lanka, Tanzania,  Moderate (humans) -Little evidence on role of (45) ImpairedPersistent organic pollutants Japan, Netherlands, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-obesity, gender, and age. slaughter Lanka, Tanzania,Moderate (humans)-Little evidence on role of(45) thermogenesis Steroid (POPs), e.g. DDT, DDE, PCB, Polychlorinated biphenyls Norway, Puerto Rico, Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene Association between prenatal PCB practitioners Philippines, Uganda, parent compound vs. Lack of adjustment for exposure (68) thermogenesis Steroid(POPs), e.g. DDT, DDE, PCB, Polychlorinated biphenyls Norway, Puerto Rico, Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene Association between prenatal PCB practitioners Philippines, Uganda,parent compound vs. Lack of adjustment for exposure(68) hormone Radke (43) phtalates. Underlying (PCB) USA Belgium, Canada, China, (p,p'-DDE): \"presumed\" obesogenic in exposure and: Adults, children N/A Vietnam, Phthalate congeners. to other chemicals. Systematic review hormone Radke (43)phtalates. Underlying (PCB) USA Belgium, Canada, China, (p,p'-DDE): \"presumed\" obesogenic in exposure and: Adults, children N/A Vietnam,Phthalatecongeners. to other chemicals. Systematic review receptor Oppong (7) Welch (54) NO3 -/NO2 -exposure and vivo/in vitro studies. Body weight/BMI ↑ at low (<1 ng Burkina Faso, Central mechanisms sparsely studied, Agonist/antagonist of steroid Children < 5 N/A Korea, Mexico, Thailand, Not specified Children N/A No significant 2 prospective studies Gastroenteritis Deworming -Urinary measurements may Systematic review Systematic review receptor Oppong (7) Welch (54)NO3 -/NO2 -exposure and vivo/in vitro studies. Body weight/BMI ↑ at low (<1 ng Burkina Faso, Central mechanisms sparsely studied, Agonist/antagonist of steroid Children < 5 N/A Korea, Mexico, Thailand, Not specified Children N/ANo significant 2 prospective studies Gastroenteritis Deworming-Urinary measurements may Systematic review Systematic review agonism/ World Health hypothyroidism → OR: 0.98 (0.86, p,p'-DDT exposure and -adiposity ↑. PCB/mg lipid) exposure; Weight ↓ at African Republic, Congo, one in vivo study suggests ↓ hormone receptors; years United States N/A Children N/A associations (Meta-Primary in vivo N/A not reflect long-term exposure. Training Package agonism/ World Healthhypothyroidism → OR: 0.98 (0.86, p,p'-DDT exposure and -adiposity ↑. PCB/mg lipid) exposure; Weight ↓ at African Republic, Congo, one in vivo study suggests ↓ hormone receptors; years United States N/A Children N/Aassociations (Meta-Primary in vivo N/Anot reflect long-term exposure. Training Package antagonism Rahman (39) Organization 1.10, P=0.683) and OR: 0.98 (0.79, high (>4 ng PCB/mg lipid) exposure East Africa, Ethiopia, in brown adipose RNA Induction of specific metabolic Bangladesh, Canada, Children N/A analysis of 3 evidence (rodents) Arsenic -NO3 --induced thyroid -Confounders including diet, Systematic review antagonism Rahman (39) Organization1.10, P=0.683) and OR: 0.98 (0.79, high (>4 ng PCB/mg lipid) exposure East Africa, Ethiopia, in brown adipose RNA Induction of specific metabolic Bangladesh, Canada, Children N/Aanalysis of 3 evidence (rodents) Arsenic-NO3 --induced thyroid -Confounders including diet, Systematic review (61) Richard (10) World Health Organization (20-22) 1.21, P=0.83), respectively. Higher NO3 -exposure and thyroid cancer risk. Biological plausibility of obesogenic effects of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE. Positive associations between p,p'0--Pubertal girls: Body size ↑; Romania, United States responsible for regulating thermogenesis. pathways Gabon, Kenya, Madagascar, Namibia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Peru, Children ≤ 2 N/A and N/A N/A N/A -Women (20-50 years), children (3-5 Nigeria, Senegal, South Guinea-Bissau years years): no association; DDE exposure and BMI z-score: b=0:13 dysfunction is likely weak if dietary iodine is available at an adequate range, but may be use of plastic products, lifestyle factors. -In vivo/in vitro mechanistic studies needed. Review of 7 cohort Biomarkers of iron and subgroups of 2 studies) Significant association (risk=1.48; 1.09-2.02, Supported by 19 in 5 prospective studies vivo and 7 in vitro Diarrhea Not part of systematic studies studies vitamin A status search, only added for context (61) Richard (10) World Health Organization (20-22)1.21, P=0.83), respectively. Higher NO3 -exposure and thyroid cancer risk. Biological plausibility of obesogenic effects of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE. Positive associations between p,p'0--Pubertal girls: Body size ↑; Romania, United States responsible for regulating thermogenesis. pathways Gabon, Kenya, Madagascar, Namibia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Peru, Children ≤ 2 N/A and N/A N/A N/A -Women (20-50 years), children (3-5 Nigeria, Senegal, South Guinea-Bissau years years): no association; DDE exposure and BMI z-score: b=0:13dysfunction is likely weak if dietary iodine is available at an adequate range, but may be use of plastic products, lifestyle factors. -In vivo/in vitro mechanistic studies needed. Review of 7 cohort Biomarkers of iron and subgroups of 2 studies) Significant association (risk=1.48; 1.09-2.02, Supported by 19 in 5 prospective studies vivo and 7 in vitro Diarrhea Not part of systematic studies studies vitamin A status search, only added for context  "}],"sieverID":"4d76161e-5cc6-4715-89f4-2daa981046b5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b4f7ed3baccc276f6e73f66dd0edf4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4496fb20-195f-4d95-a58b-76e3aa18d9a8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Diversification options with cassava, maize, and pulses in upland rice based cropping systems in highlands in Madagascar","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Multidimensional benefits from promising diversification options quantified with participation of male and female farmers and other value chain actors at four action sites"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• 26 -Agricultural systems diversified and intensified in ways that protect soils and water • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Contributing Centers/PPA partners:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• CIRAD -Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:31 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P1675 -Cirad contribution to flagship project 3 Description of the innovation: We are conducting field experiments for developing crop diversification options that can improve soil fertility and reduce damage from pest in upland rice based cropping systems in Madagascar. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Production systems and Management practices Stage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Country(ies): • Madagascar Description of Stage reached: In 2019, 2 NGOs and farmers' groups (> 300) visited the experiments in the mid-west of Vakinankaratra. The suitable options identified by farmers are bi-annual upland rice cropping systems rotated with 3 pulses and 2 cover crops in sole crops or in intercropping with maize or cassava. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: CIRAD -Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IRD -Institut de Recherche pour le Développement • FOFIFA -Centre National de Recherche Appliqué au Développement Rural "}],"sieverID":"674c15c9-26b0-4d43-b970-e112237e18ae","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b963002baf7e7ff0b9cb88916195479","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f3d65c8-0850-43f0-8bcf-6c510e81acd7/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"GENDER RESPONSIVE APPROACH TO CSA","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Even with the insurmountable obstacles, a large number of young people are actively engaged in Kenya's agri-food value chains as producers and traders of food, as workers, innovators, entrepreneurs, and as policy actors."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Unfortunately, despite their large numbers and roles, the economic, social, and political contribution of youth to agri-food systems is frequently underestimated due to a lack of disaggregated data."}]},{"head":"Common wisdoms and stylized facts vs myths","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Youth in Agriculture: The Challenge"}]},{"head":"Myths about youth in Agriculture","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• The average age of a farmer is 60 years ✓ There is no empirical evidence to support this claim. ✓ Only 3% of Kenya's (Africa's) population is 65 years and over."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"✓ Less than half of this population is economically active and engaged in farming ✓ According to national government administered data in 6 countries, the average workforce is between 32 & 39 In fact, emerging evidence estimates the average age of household heads that farm to be 49 years, and when all individuals who spend some time on their own/family farm are considered, the average age goes down to 34 years (IFAD, 2019 )."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• We need to make agriculture attractive ✓ Making agriculture attractive is not as important as making it profitable."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"✓ Young people will flock to agriculture if and when it becomes clear that it can make good money"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• The youth are receptive to new ideas"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"• The youth are digitally savvy "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" mortality for different genders Lack of access to health care; Increased burden for those who provide care Forced migration increases women's, children, IPs vulnerability Loss of lives and livelihoods; Violence against women • Gender productivity gaps exist in agriculture due to traditional gender-based discrimination, women have fewer privileges, entitlements and endowments • Sometimes women face more challenges than men in accessing, using and controlling productive resources and services • This affects their vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate threats • Closing the gender gap in agriculture would reduce the number of hungry people by 100-150 million • Climate change exacerbates the existing barriers that people face GENDER AND CSA Goal -to give women and men the same incentives and opportunities to invest in or adopt climate-smart practices Undertake gender analyses to assess: • Women's and men's control of assets such as land and water • Income • Labour and time to realise benefits • Access to information, credit and markets • Gender-related vulnerabilities to climate changeUnderstand causes of gender inequalities, social (including cultural) and economic barriers, that can be used to inform solutions. Such information is crucial for understanding the factors that influence the adoption of CSA practices and technologies. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Why youth in Agriculture? How to Meaningfully Engage Youth With the lack of quality data, there lacks evidence on ways to structure youth led and youth focused interventions that meaningfully engage youth in agriculture. As such, it is of utmost importance to ensure that CSA initiatives bring to light youth issues, concerns and ambition Ensure that interventions integrate youth into the program lifecycle incl. identifying key entry points for youth in targeted value chains; strategies for enhancing youth participation and leadership as well as in results measurement systems. • The youth are passionate • The youth are passionate about their futures about their futures  "}],"sieverID":"d0237891-b7e8-4b41-a5a7-02b6f72663ee","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0bfb3669535f13f1607b95b61c3632c9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bfb3669535f13f1607b95b61c3632c9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d29e6f8-ee12-4d54-8526-8d17e85e3cc1/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Climate-induced heat stress incorporated in Ugandan government strategies supported by the Prime Minister Delivery Unit (PMDU)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P1875 -Improving pig productivity and incomes in Uganda through an environmentally sustainable and gender inclusive integrated intervention package (Uganda Priority Country Project) Description: The PMDU has expressed the intention to support the incorporation of heat stress issues into government policies and strategies and implementation Is new?: No Policy/Investment Type: Policy or Strategy Stage of Maturity of the Process: generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:49 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"4cd3c460-406b-4a4e-8111-ae8d2b613018","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0c107fcd8a62e9b95cd0ea9bb010ab5a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c107fcd8a62e9b95cd0ea9bb010ab5a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/345a4a85-18f2-4b23-b532-085d4b0d8be5/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"459. Bridging the gap in data from smallholder dairy systems; developing the Africa dairy genetic gains (ADGG) data platform","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In rural areas of Africa, dairying is a mainstay for the majority of resource-poor households and a way out of poverty towards food security. It is estimated that 80% of the milk produced in the continent is from smallholder production systems (FAO, 2016), however comprehensive recording of animal performance is limited. Only two of the 44 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are reported to have comprehensive national livestock identification, monitoring and recording systems in place in the State of the World Animal Genetic Resources reports (FAO, 2015;AU-IBAR, 2019). Limited information is available on animal productivity levels, costs of production and breeding technology adoption in smallholder farming systems (Rege et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Data collation from dairy farming systems in Africa over time is implemented through small scale piloting of pre-designed tools and database management systems from countries with more advanced dairy sectors (Mrode et al., 2020b). However, though successful with larger scale farming operations, infrastructure limitations and an inability to adequately identify, classify and evaluate the combinations of cross-bred animals reared in the smallholder farming systems restricts buy-in and use of data to inform decisions."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Most smallholder farmers in Africa own low milk-producing indigenous cows, and the few with genetically improved crossbred cows suffer heavy productivity losses due to the practice of continuous upgrading with exotic semen to levels that are beyond what the production systems can optimally support (Galukande et al., 2013;Ojango et al., 2017). The lack of functional local data collection and analytics systems that enable effective and sustained selection and use of uncertified crossbred bulls for breeding results in random backcrossing of crossbred cows to uncharacterized and less-productive bulls. The net result is continuous erosion of some of the gains from crossbreeding with long-term implications on the entire population."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Rapid expansion of information and communication technologies (ICT) alongside mobile based solutions for 'paperless' exchange of information has catalyzed a transformation for information sharing in the smallholder farming systems of Africa (World Bank, 2011;Mrode et al., 2020b). Using ICT, from 2016 the African Dairy Genetic Gains (ADGG) project has sought to address limitations in data from smallholder dairy systems to identify and promote the use of more productive dairy genetics suited to the local production environments. This paper presents information on the multi-country dairy genetic data platform (ADGG-Platform) bridging the gap in information on the system characteristics, productive performance and genomic information on animals reared in African farming systems."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"The ADGG program initially chose Ethiopia and Tanzania as pilot countries to demonstrate how technological and institutional innovations can be integrated into interventions that enhance dairy productivity across diverse smallholder farming systems. In Sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia has the largest cattle population (65 million), while Tanzania has the third largest cattle population (30 Million) (FAOSTAT, 2022), reared by large numbers of smallholder farmers. The ADGG program supported through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation established centralized Dairy performance recording centre's (DPRC) in each country through which an initial 12,000 smallholder dairy herds were enrolled by trained national performance recording agents (PRA's). Desktop, Web, mobile tablet and sms based solutions were developed with dynamically defined user roles, using a RESTful Application Programming Interface (API) to safely authenticate and expose data from diverse sources through a single access point with individual country data mirrored at respective DPRC (https://portal.adgg.ilri.org/). The ADGG platform is designed to collate, process, interpret and generate feedback on both phenotypic (animal and environment descriptors, productive and reproductive performance measures, animal management practices and health interventions) and genomic (hair samples for genotyping animals) data from herds (Figure 1). Through partnership with Green Dreams Tech, the ADGG platform is integrated with iCOW (https://icow.co.ke/) to provide digital extension support and feedback from data analyses for farmers using text messages."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Ethiopia and Tanzania have harmonized national cloud-based databases for registering and monitoring dairy cattle productivity that enable genetic evaluation of dairy animals across all farming systems in the countries. The number of farmers registered, and animals monitored over time through the ADGG platform are presented in Table 1. In 2021, up to 200 smallholder farmers enrolled in the program have begun to directly submit data on their animals onto the ADGG platform. Using genomic evaluation methodologies (Mrode et al., 2019), phenotypic and genomic information on animals is evaluated annually on a country basis to determine best crossbred sires and cows for national use. In 2020, using pedigree files with 65,624 animals in Tanzania and 110,959 animals in Ethiopia, milk yield and body weight data for registered animals were evaluated and used to develop a restricted selection index to increase milk production with no change in body weight in order to improve efficiency such that animals produce more milk with less feed for maintenance (Mrode et al., 2020a). Results of genomic prediction analyses for Ethiopia data were used to develop the first animal catalogue and certification system for Ethiopia (ILRI, 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"A genomic prediction pipeline developed for animals in the unique production environments (Mrode et al., 2021) was used in preliminary principal component analyses of pooled genomic data for 2,363 Tanzania and 1,642 Ethiopian cows with milk records. Results indicate some degree of relatedness between animals in the two countries that will enable the implementation of regional joint evaluation of animals."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Medium and large-scale farmers who keep larger numbers of animals are known to provide breeding stock and replacement animals for smallholder farmers in Africa. Through combining data from animals reared in these systems with that from the smallholder farming systems more complex genomic prediction models can be explored in analyses to determine best animals for different management conditions."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Through policy dialogues with key stakeholders and government institutions at country level, frameworks and critical infrastructure, including partnerships with telecommunication companies have been developed at country level to support institutionalization of ICT systems for monitoring animal performance on smallholder farms (Gebreyohanes et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The ADGG data platform presents the first large scale source of genomic data and information on dairy cattle from smallholder farming systems in Africa, aligned to the Agenda 2063 of the African Union (AU) which seeks to harness Africa's animal genetic resources to address food and nutrition security in Africa. Through the ADGG training, information and feedback mechanisms, livestock keepers continue to adapt improved standards for producing clean milk, improve the quality of data on their animals, and adapt improved breeding and related management practices for their dairy animals. The growing data enables more accurate and reliable evaluation of crossbred dairy animals under smallholder dairy systems."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"For the first time results from genomic evaluation of dairy animals reared under smallholder farming systems of Africa are available and being used to inform better use of crossbred dairy animals and provide top ranking locally adapted breeding bulls. Partnership arrangements with international genetic companies are underway to enable wider promotion and use of ADGG certified bulls. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Overview of the ADGG data platform. https://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/978-90-8686-940-4_459 -Monday, February 20, 2023 1:33:47 AM -IP Address:159.180.118.24 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Numbers of Farmers and animals registered, monitored and genotyped on the ADGG platform 2017-2021.  Smallholder     Medium and large scale   SmallholderMedium and large scale   Animals     Animals   AnimalsAnimals Country Farms Registered With milk Test-day Animals Farms Registered With milk Test-day CountryFarmsRegistered With milkTest-dayAnimalsFarmsRegistered With milkTest-day    data records sampled for   data records datarecordssampled fordatarecords      genotyping     genotyping Ethiopia 71,215 105,924 32,716 67,929 8,940 772 19,268 7,076 97,291 Ethiopia71,215105,92432,71667,9298,94077219,2687,07697,291 Tanzania 33,630 66,917 18,076 134,987 6,000 36 2,071 69 750 Tanzania33,63066,91718,076134,9876,000362,07169750 Total 104,845 172,849 50,792 202,916 14,940 808 21,339 7,145 98,041 Total104,845172,84950,792202,91614,94080821,3397,14598,041  "}],"sieverID":"fc625578-9555-4e1f-a524-b76fc542e44d","abstract":"Functional and long-term breeding programs with comprehensive recording of phenotypic information from smallholder dairy production systems in Africa are few, limiting herd productivity gains and profitability. To bridge the gap, a pilot information and communication technology-based platform for collation, evaluation and feedback on phenotypic and genomic data from smallholder farms in Tanzania and Ethiopia has been developed through the Africa Dairy Genetic Gains (ADGG) program initiated in 2016. In 2020, pedigree data from 65,624 and 110,959 animals in Tanzania and Ethiopia respectively was evaluated to develop restricted selection indexes and a genomic prediction pipeline for animals in the unique smallholder production environments. Integrated into ADGG, the iCow platform provides digital extension messages to farmers, sharing results from the genomic evaluation and breeding management support for improving productivity of their dairy animals. The genomic evaluation of crossbred dairy animals enables selective breeding for enhanced productivity in smallholder farming systems of Africa"}

data/part_2/0c486ba34fcdde0cccb43fa8e4082b4e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c486ba34fcdde0cccb43fa8e4082b4e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2ebf07a-8bdc-412e-85d4-c2ef0c56b720/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Using FEAST to characterize the farming and livestock production systems and the potential to enhance livestock productivity through improved feeding in Gebrekidan, Atsbi-Wonberta District, Tigray, Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Atsbi district (woreda) is located in the eastern zone of Tigray region, at the the boarder with Afar region. Gebrekidan kebele is one of the kebeles in Atsbi woreda. This kebele has a large livestock population and the livestock sub-sector, particularly sheep production and apiculture, is an important component of the agricultural sector. Despite its huge livestock population, its contribution to the livelihood of the households is limited. One of the factors which limit livestock productivity in the area is severe feed shortage. Thus, the objective of the current study was to assess feed resource availability and utilization using a feed assessment tool (FEAST) within the context of the overall farming and livestock production systems and to determine feed improvement options and interventions."}]},{"head":"Study site","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Gebrekidan kebele is located 14 o 00'06.03''N, 39 o 43'30.55''E at an altitude of 2855 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l). It is 83 km from Mekelle City and 18 km from Atsbi town. The average rainfall of the kebele is 668 mm per annum and the average temperature is 18 o C. The total area coverage of the kebele is estimated at 117.554 sq km (ILRI-IPMS report, 2004) and is known by its erratic rainfall which starts at the end of June and ends in mid-August. This kebele is one of the drought prone kebeles of the woreda. There are five administration villages in Gebrekidan kebele namely Barka, Atsgebet, Wukro, Hichean and Ketema-Dera with a total human population of 10,148 human populations, 4502 males and 5646 females."}]},{"head":"Sampling method","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Two tools, the participatory rural appraisal approach (PRA) and FEAST were used to collect information. Farmers were selected based on gender (men and women household head), land size (landless, below average, average and above average), and age group (youth, middle age and elders). Twenty participants were selected. 9 farmers (3 from small landholdings, 3 from medium landholdings and 3 from large landholdings) were selected for individual interviews. The survey was undertaken on 22-23rd December, 2013."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The information gathered during the group discussions was examined and reported. The quantitative data collected from individual key informant farmers were entered into the FEAST excel template (www.ilri.org/feast) and analyzed."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The kebele has a crop-livestock farming system. The major crops grown are barley, wheat, fababean, fieldpea and lentil. The livestock production of the kebele was dominated by sheep and cattle production. The average farm size in Gebrekidan is 0.25ha (Table 1). Land shortage is a major problem. The kebele has one cropping season called Kiremti that begins at the end of May and extends to mid-December. The rainy season begins end of June and ceases during the first week of September. The farmers are used their land for different crop such as barely, wheat, faba bean, field pea and lentil (Figure 1). Fallowing is not commonly practiced because of land scarcity. At least 35% of the households in the kebele irrigated portions of their land."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: Major crops grown in Gebrekidan","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"Labour availability is in excess as most of it is hired labour using farmers networking groups (1 to 5 farmers), labour exchange through human and oxen and family support. In the kebele, labour is required mainly in May-July (for planting), July-August (for weeding) and October-December (for harvesting and trashing). The labour costs for the three periods are Birr 100, 70 and 100 respectively ($ 3.5 -5). These labour costs do not include food and local drinks (estimated at Birr 50) provided to the each labourer. The reason for the high cost of labour during planting and harvesting/threshing is because men are involved in these activities. labour costs for weeding are low because only women are involved. Availability of agricultural inputs is a main problem because the farmers have to travel a distance of 18 km to Atsbi town to purchase the inputs. The main source of income is selling of handicrafts made in the community. Fattening of sheep, goats and cattle also contribute to income (Figure 2). About 30% of the population migrates from the kebele for different reasons such as migration to Arab countries for employment work in the construction industry, for trading (mainly animal and grains), marriage and education."}]},{"head":"Figure 2: Contribution (%) of livelihood activities to household income in Gebrekidan","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"There are credit providers in Gebrekidan, however farmers shun the services for various reasons which include low amount of cash that can be borrowed (below Birr 10,000; $500), a high interest rate (15%), group loans (from 3-5 people) and a lot of bureaucracy involved in processing the loans."}]},{"head":"Livestock production system","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The predominant livestock raised in the kebele are sheep, cattle, pack animals, poultry, apiculture and goats (Figure 3). They are reared mainly for milk, meat, honey and wax, sale, gifts (small ruminant and poultry), dung, transport (pack animals), egg and meat (poultry), draft power (oxen, dry cows, donkeys), dung (organic fertilizer), water fetching (donkeys), threshing (oxen and donkey) and prestige (cattle and horses) as shown in  "}]},{"head":"Livestock management","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Animal are housed in soil-roofed houses that are open on one side (opposite of the wind direction) locally called as \"afgebella\". These protect the animals from predators, cold, wind and rainfall. All types of animals are placed together except the improved dairy cows (crosses) that are kept in separate rooms of the soil-roofed house. Local breed animals graze freely in the farms while the cross cows are reared within the homesteads."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"The kebele has a problem of veterinary service, shortage of quality drugs, limited AI service and shortage of skilled veterinarians. The veterinary service is found in Atsbi town and is offered by the woreda veterinarians every two months. Cattle drugs are Birr 2-3.5 ($ 0.1-0.175) per head and Birr 1 ($0.05) for small ruminants. Syringe treatment for cattle is Birr 5-10 ($0.25-0.5) and Birr 5 for small ruminants. Vaccinations are Birr 1.85 ($0.09) and Birr 0.55 ($0.03) for small ruminants. Spraying of external parasite costs Birr 1 ($0.05) for cattle and Birr 0.5 ($0.025) for small ruminants. Farmers complain of low quality AI service because the cows require more than 2 times of repeat AI service on average. The price of AI service is Birr 2 ($0.1) and no payment is required for the repeat services give. Due to perceived low quality of the AI service, farmers prefer bull service at their village that is free. Farmers are increasingly choosing the cross-breed bulls for breeding. "}]},{"head":"Feeds and feeding","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Traditionally, the farmers combine wheat straw and barley straw to improve the palatability of wheat straw. There is low intake of wheat straw when it is fed alone. Farmers mix forages with the straws when feeding dairy cows. Common forages include napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum, sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and lucerne (Medicago sativa). Straws from pulse crops are fed to animals without mixing them with any supplements. No treatments are carried out on straws. The main feeds purchased are barley straw, hay and wheat bran (Figure 4). The main feedstuffs contributing to the dry matter, metabolizable energy and crude protein content of livestock diets are crop residues, grazing, naturally collected fodder and purchased feed as shown in Figure 5a-c. Crop residues from cereals are the main source of feed during the dry reasons (Figure 6). Legume straws also contribute minimally. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Average livestock species holdings per household in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) in Gebrekidan "},{"text":"Figure 4 :Figure 5b : Figure 4: Types of feeds purchased in Gebrekidan "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Average land size owned by various categories of farmers in Gebrekidan Category of farmers Range of land size(ha) Percentage of the household found in each category  Landless 0 20 Landless020 Below average (Small) < 0.25 10 Below average (Small)< 0.2510 Average (medium) 0.25 50 Average (medium)0.2550 Above average (Large) > 0.25 20 Above average (Large)> 0.2520  "},{"text":"Table 2 .  Off-farm business 9% Draft animals 9% Cattle fattening 8% Cash crops Off-farm business 9%Draft animals 9%Cattle fattening 8%Cash crops    5% 5%    Poultry meat Poultry meat Fattening sheep and goat 10%   4% Poultry eggs 3% Fattening sheep and goat 10%4% Poultry eggs 3%    Dairying 10% Dairying 10% Food crops   Food crops 10%  Handicrafts  10%Handicrafts  Labour 25%  Labour25%  14%   14%  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Livestock types, uses and ownership per household  Livestock species Use Percentage of HH that Average number of Livestock speciesUsePercentage of HH thatAverage number of   own the livestock animals per hh own the livestockanimals per hh   species  species Local dairy cows Milk, meat, breeding, 75% 2 Local dairy cowsMilk, meat, breeding,75%2  source of income,   source of income,  manure   manure Improved dairy cows Milk, meat, breeding, 25% 1 Improved dairy cowsMilk, meat, breeding,25%1  source of income,   source of income,  manure   manure  "}],"sieverID":"fc6f2b57-1d4f-473a-a504-a46dafee12d9","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.."}

data/part_2/0c822e31805d6527c555e0d8b1fef7af.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c822e31805d6527c555e0d8b1fef7af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c20f060-f9f8-40c6-be1b-2948e4c3809a/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Pastoralists rely heavily on livestock and have been subjected to erratic precipitation and recurring droughts, resulting in poor pasture regeneration, water scarcity and rangeland degradation. This has impacted the sustainability of pastoralist livelihoods and stretched their meagre coping strategies. Severe droughts have caused livestock while dense wood cover, such as forests, limits herbaceous undergrowth, the main forage component. Thus, they must be identified and eliminated due to limited forage availability in these areas."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"iii) Bakool has distinct bimodal seasonality with clearly defined wet and dry seasons. This allows the definition of the insurance contracts (i.e., coverage period, sales windows, time of payouts) to fit well in the design. In the current IBLI implementation, a bimodal seasonality is assumed with four seasons identified (long rains, long dry, short rains and short dry). The long rains are from April to June, while the short rain season falls from October to December, each followed by a dry season."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Following the preliminary findings on IBLI technical suitability in Somalia, a detailed clustering exercise was done through a participatory approach bringing together relevant stakeholders, including pastoralists, experts on livestock, rangeland, environment and administration representatives from across the region to delineate major divisions that will be used as UAIs for the design of insurance contracts and implementation of the programme."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Bakool region is located in the south-west of Somalia and consists of five districts (Tiyeglow , Rab-dhure, Wajid, Xudur and Ceel Barde). The region's capital is Xudur."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"In  "}]},{"head":"Participatory Clustering Exercise and Validation Process","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Community members from the five districts of the Bakool region were invited to attend the clustering exercise workshop. These representatives received training on the IBLI and were given a full overview of the clustering exercise done for IBLI. To take part in the clustering exercise, a variety of stakeholders including the government, clan elders, traditional authorities, and religious leaders were engaged. Using IBLI's detailed clustering approach (Chelanga et al., 2017). IBLI was explained to the participants, along with its mode of operation, applicability, datasets used, and the steps required in formulating a contract, from feasibility study to implementation and, finally, the clustering approach."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The clustering process includes defining insurable units in a region using a multimodal approach that integrates scientific research and local knowledge in a participatory way and promotes the local stakeholders' understanding and acceptance of IBLI (Chelanga et al., 2017). To guide the stakeholder participative method through FGDs, the analysis required understanding the socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics of the region."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"A total of 75 participants were invited for three focus group discussions. Below is the breakdown of the participants. At each district, 15 participants were invited, seven participated in the clustering exercise, and eight participated in the validation exercise (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Initial Clustering and Feasibility-Based on Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Communities in the Bakool region are both agro-pastoral and pastoral, consisting of similar rangeland areas aside from the urban and agricultural crop production areas."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"One of the rich areas in southern Somalia is the Bakool region, which is well-known for its agricultural, livestock, and trade activities. Four (Tiyeeglow, Rab Dhure, Wajid, Xudur) out of the five districts in the region are agro-pastoral, but Ceel Barde is one of the districts that is primarily a pastoral region. Wajid, Tiyeeglow and Xudur (respectively 0.129, 0,153 and0,157). This shows that the Northern part of the region seems to be dryer than the Southern part."}]},{"head":"Unit Area of Insurance Identification and its Characterization","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The majority of the soil in the Bakool region is red, but some places have some white soil and gravels. A difficult to climb, rocky, and mountainous terrain exists between UAI a and b in figure 2 that makes the pastoral movement restricted. Shoats are the species most raised in the Bakool region, followed by camel, while cow is the least common. The region's livestock dynamics have changed significantly due to the region's recurrent drought for the past 25 years, with Shoats now making up about 50% of the livestock, followed by Camel at 45%, and cattle at 5%, according to the participants. Xudur, Tiyeeglow, and Wajid: have the same pastoral and agro-pastoral  "},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"forgetting the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on people's loss of "}]},{"head":"Validation Output","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The clustering exercise helped to understand if the desk review conducted for UAI delineation needs further refinement. We showed the map (figure 2) to stakeholders in the clustering exercise to have validation on delineated UAIs in Bakool region."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Following extensive discussions through the FDGs and plenary feedback, Two UAIs were identified and summarized in the below table. 5 District units were used as the primary building blocks for UAIs, some district boundaries were merged with the closest neighboring due to soil, landscape and vegetation similarities to form a UAI unit. Due to the structure of the land, vegetation cover and other physical characteristics of the land, the Bakool region is categorized into two zones during the clustering exercise for the delineation of UAI for their proximity, pastoral and biophysical traits as well as shared water sources, participants aggregated and clustered the following two areas, namely (1). (Xudur, Tiyeeglow and Wajid) and ( 2). (Ceel Barde and Rab Dhure)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"as one unit area of Insurance, as shown in the table below. "}]},{"head":"Bakool UAI","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The participants unanimously agreed that Wajid, Xudur and Tiyeglow can form oneunit areas of insurance as the area share the same biophysical characteristics, Pastoral dominance and clan dominance which also affects migration patterns of pastoralist."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Ceelbarde and Rab Dhure also forms on another unit area of insurance as it is different from other districts due to it is pastoral dominance and migration patterns influenced by clan dynamics. Ceelbarde and Rab-dhure has diverse clans as compared to Wajid, Xudur, Tiyeglow. This caused limited movement between pastoralists during droughts."}]},{"head":"Coverage Windows Based on Seasonality","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The Bakool region has a bimodal precipitation pattern, like Gedo region and some parts of Puntalnd. The region has distinct dry and wet seasons, which are distributed throughout the year as the Short Dry (January to March), Long Wet (April to June), Long Dry (July to September), and Short Wet (October to December) windows. This allows for two forage production windows during the wet seasons for IBLI product coverage."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"For IBLI implementation, a two-wet season coverage window that matches up with forage production is proposed: the Long Rains Season from March to June and the Short Rains Season from October to December."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and Way Forward","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"The objective of this study was to validate and refine the delineated UAI generated using Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI). The team visited the Bakool region of Somalia with the desktop generated clusters and conducted a participatory clustering exercise with stakeholders that resulted in delineation of two unit areas of insurance in Bakool region, for the purpose of pricing and payouts. Every single UAI is a basic unit for calculating premiums and will have uniform pricing structure for the purpose of index-based livestock insurance. This process was done democratically and to best of our understanding. UAI are subjected to change depending on the livestock movement pattern and change in landcover. This is the first step of the product design. The next step for completion of product design is to calculate forage scarcity index using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from satellite data using historical "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" mortality and devastating economic consequences, making the pastoral and agropastoral one of Africa's most vulnerable populations. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) initiated an innovative insurance programme in 2010 -the Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) programto cushion pastoralists against drought-related livestock mortality. The program was piloted in Kenya in 2010 and two years later in Ethiopia. In 2015 the programme was adopted by Kenya's government as the Kenya Livestock Programme. The success of the Kenya Livestock Insurance Program (KLIP) has motivated IBLI expansion across Africa, where advanced feasibility studies have been done in West Africa's Sahelian countries and across countries in the horn of Africa. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), in partnership with Somalia Resilience Program (SomRep), Insurance companies and the Federal Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range (MoLFR), formed the Somali Livestock Insurance Consortium (SLIC). The consortium has mobilized national and subnational stakeholders to raise awareness and acceptance of livestock insurance, support feasibility studies and product contextualization processes and catalyze insurance policy development. The objective of this report is to conduct the participatory clustering exercise in Bakool through community participation for delineation of unit areas of insurance. Bakool is one of the of the regions of Somalia that is dominated by pastoralism and meets all the suitability criteria for IBLI implementation. It meets the following three central criteria for IBLI suitability. i) Rangeland/pastoral lands dominance Bakool region is purely arid lands characterized by woody shrubs and grasses and it is a typical savana. It is one of the driest regions in Somalia and it is dominated by a vast rangeland with few scattered villages practicing rainfed farming. ii) Bakool is home for the most pastoralist in southwest state of Somalia and it is endowed grassland flourish during good rainy seasons. The region does not have forests that forms canopy to inhibit undergrowth and affect normalized difference vegetation index reading. the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), an indicator of vegetation greenness/vigour, is used to assess forage availability, and NDVI anomalies are used as proxies of forage shortage during drought to determine the insurance index and payouts. Barren lands (bare/unproductive areas) have no/ low vegetation, "},{"text":" March 2014, Somali Armed Forces assisted by an Ethiopian battalion with AMISOM re-captured the Bakool province's capital Xudur from the Al-Shabaab militant group. The region is approximately 420 km from Mogadishu. It is bordered on the East by Hiran region, on the North by Ethiopia, on the West by Gedo region, and on the South by Bay region. The estimated terrain elevation above sea level is 504 meters. The population of the region is estimated to be around 383,360 with 123,442 people in Xudur district (UNFPA, 2019). "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Administrative districts within Bakool region Security issue in Bakool. Bakool is in dire security situation and most of the rural areas are controlled by Al-Shabaab. Major city in district is controlled by Somali national army with support from Ethiopian Amisom and local police. These major cities are under siege and particularly the capital city of Bakool, Xudur, is surrounded by Al-Shabaab and nothing goes in and comes out. Al-Shabaab has cut off all trade routes to Xudur town. It is risky to move outside the major cities in Bakool region. As result the workshop was organized in Baidabo. Baidabo is accessible and safe for both participants and the team. A three-day workshop was conducted in Baidabo for three different participants drowning from the different district that makes up Bakool regions. On day 1, participants from five districts of the Bakool region were invited for the clustering exercise, and on the second day, a different set of participants were invited to validate. On the third day, elders from different parts of the region and government personnel were invited to validate the unit areas insurance (UAIs) of the Bakool region. "},{"text":" After IBLI was introduced to the community and stakeholders, clusters were formed. Stakeholders with the most expertise and awareness of the biophysical characteristics, pastoral ecology, agroecology, socioeconomics, and administrative boundaries of the Bakool region were chosen for concentrated group talks during the clustering phase using Focus Group discussions (FGDs). The clustering and delimitation procedure in the Bakool region was facilitated by local consultants and the ILRI-IBLI technical team with assistance from the ILRI Remote sensing expert on a technical level. Stakeholders were given an overview of the key IBLI ideas at a workshop/ training and the clustering process (delineation of UAIs). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Map showing the initial UAIs as defined from soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) data. "},{"text":" characteristics and are dominated by the same community (one clan). There are few agro-pastoralists are in in Tiyeeglow and Hudur where they grow food crops (sorghum, maize and beans), cash crops (parley, onion, sweet & red pepper) and livestock. The most common source of water for rural populations is shallow wells, although ponds or seasonal water catchments are also significant. These wells are approximately 12-15 meters deep. Rainfall during the Gu' (April-June) season for Bakool regions was generally good at the onset, allowing some of the more drought-affected areas of those regions to recover. Most of the Bakool region is covered with open land, where shrubs are the predominant vegetation. This open, shrubland area extends from northern Bakool to the southward. These areas are regularly used for livestock grazing because of the shrub cover; hence, they mostly serve the needs of pastoralists. Due to delayed rainfall and the effects of climate change in this area, the Bakool region has been one of the southwest state's most severely impacted areas by droughts for several years. According to the below-average precipitation and subsequent droughts since 2009, which caused Pastoralists and agro-pastoral to lose their livestock assets and crops, many from Bakool have been forced to flee to Bay region as refugees.However, the situation was made worse by the insurgent groups that controlled the majority of the Bakool territories and heavily taxed the farmers. If they do not abide by their rigorous regulations, they are not permitted to carry out any cultivation, livestock rearing and trade activities. "},{"text":" livelihoods. Action Against Hunger conducted a SMART nutrition survey in November 2021 to assess the nutrition status among children 6 -59 months and women of childbearing age (15 -49), among other indicators. The findings indicated a Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) of 16.5 % (12.7 -21.2 95% C.I.) and Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) at 3.5 % (2.0 -6.1 95% C.I.), indicating a very high/critical nutrition situation in Bakool region. The critical nutritional situation could also be attributed to poor hygiene as most of the population still access water from unprotected sources. Bakool suffered 5 consecutive seasons of rain failures which resulted in the lost 10% of their herds due starvation and thirsty. Large number of the people moved IDPs in search of food and humanitarian aid. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Coverage window based on bimodal seasonal rainfall. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Participation of people for clustering exercise District Day 1 Awareness, Training and Clustering Day 2 Validation  Tiyeeglow 7 8 Tiyeeglow78 Rab-Dhure 7 8 Rab-Dhure78 Xudur 7 8 Xudur78 Ceel barde 7 8 Ceel barde78 Wajid 7 8 Wajid78 Total participants 35 40 Total participants3540  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Chronology and Intensity of Drought in Bakool Region  Both of the UAIs had similar plants widely available for livestock grazing and Both of the UAIs had similar plants widely available for livestock grazing and mentioned, including Ramad, Dhay, Dheen, Dholaw, Qurac, and Qansax, as well as mentioned, including Ramad, Dhay, Dheen, Dholaw, Qurac, and Qansax, as well as Cadaad, Caday, Garas, Maygaag, and Mareer. Moreover, this area grows a variety of Cadaad, Caday, Garas, Maygaag, and Mareer. Moreover, this area grows a variety of grasses, including those referred to locally as Dareemo, Siir, Kurto, Siifar, Jarbo, Gundo grasses, including those referred to locally as Dareemo, Siir, Kurto, Siifar, Jarbo, Gundo Gunde, and Rag. Gunde, and Rag. There is a chronic food insecurity in the Bakool region of Southwest State of Somalia There is a chronic food insecurity in the Bakool region of Southwest State of Somalia due to the recurrent droughts of the last decade that have resulted in the loss of due to the recurrent droughts of the last decade that have resulted in the loss of  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Clusters defined for the Bakool region to be used as unit areas of insurance  S/N. UAI Name Areas excluded during the Comments S/N.UAI NameAreas excluded during theComments   clustering exercise clustering exercise 1. Hudur, Tiyeeglow and Wajid Hudur in the East side from There is no Prosopis 1.Hudur, Tiyeeglow and Wajid Hudur in the East side fromThere is no Prosopis   Abagbedey to Hudur, around infestation in Abagbedey to Hudur, aroundinfestationin   15km are cultivated lands. Tiyeeglow and 15km are cultivated lands.Tiyeeglowand   Around 25% of Hudur city is Ceelbarde is a flat land Around 25% of Hudur city isCeelbarde is a flat land   infested by Prosopis in the with mixed trees like infested by Prosopis in thewith mixed trees like   eastern side of the town, shrubs and small eastern side of the town,shrubs and small   particularly Buulo village. mountains. It is particularly Buulo village.mountains.Itis   Tieglo in the West side: from Tieglo to El Garas around 45km are cultivated lands. bordered Ethiopia, north Gedo, by east west by Rabdhure and south by Hudur and is Tieglo in the West side: from Tieglo to El Garas around 45km are cultivated lands.bordered Ethiopia, north Gedo, by east west by Rabdhure and south by Hudur and is      a pastoral dominante a pastoral dominante      area.Fromthe security area.Fromthe security      perspective, only perspective,only      Hudur is accessible to Hudur is accessible to      the government thegovernment      officials and officialsand      LNGO/INGO workers LNGO/INGO workers      and rest of these areas and rest of these areas      are controlled by Al- are controlled by Al-      Shabaab insurgencies Shabaab insurgencies 2. Ceelbarde and Rab Dhure In East Wajid from Garas Wajid is accessible by 2.Ceelbarde and Rab DhureIn East Wajid from GarasWajid is accessible by   mamow to Dhurey are air while Rab Dhure is mamowtoDhureyareair while Rab Dhure is   agricultural settings and West not as it is one of the agricultural settings and Westnot as it is one of the   side from Ceelboon to Ceelharor strong hold areas of the side from Ceelboon to Ceelharorstrong hold areas of the   around 20km are also cultivated Al-Shabaab around 20km are also cultivatedAl-Shabaab   lands. Prosopis is infested in and insurgencies lands. Prosopis is infested in andinsurgencies   around Wajid district. Rab-Dhure around Wajid district. Rab-Dhure   in the southern parts from in the southern parts from   Rabdhure to Boodaan around 27 Rabdhure to Boodaan around 27   Km are cultivated lands. Km are cultivated lands.  "}],"sieverID":"8c7d294b-78c1-4d8e-b301-ccc9a77583b4","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c8b69cc296c84617f6d69ad47a57541","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef694bdb-c3c2-479b-b89a-415422693df7/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Kenya County Climate Risk Profile: Turkana County Highlights","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Figure 6: Elevation, average annual rainfall, and average annual temperature in Turkana County (average 1985-2015) for the long rainy season -------------------------------------------------------------------------15"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Figure 7: Historical monthly mean temperature and precipitation (average 1985-2015) in Turkana County."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The long rainy season is the 100-day wettest period from January to June, while the second, short rainy season is the 100-day wettest period from July to December. Bars represent total monthly precipitation, whereas red and blue lines represent maximum and minimum monthly mean temperatures, respectively. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Figure 8: Annual total rainfall trends for the long and short rainy seasons in the past  and in the future (2020-2040 and 2041-2060) -------------------------------------------------------------------------16"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Figure 9: Annual mean temperature trends for the long rainy and short rainy seasons in the past  and in the future (2020-2040 and 2041-2060) -------------------------------------------------------------------------16"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Figure 10: The average number of consecutive dry days for the long rainy season: historical (left), future projected (center), and projected change (right) -------------------------------------------------------------17 List of Tables Table 1: National Policies that Target Climate Change -----------------------------------------------------------------------------26"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Table 2: Institutions that are currently supporting agriculture in Turkana------------------------------------------------------27"}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Co-operatives is to create an enabling environment for sustainable development of agriculture and co-operatives for economic development. This objective underpins our desire and commitment to transform Kenya into a newly industrializing, middle income country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment as envisaged in our development blueprints, the Kenya Vision 2030, the Big Four Agenda and the Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy (ASTSG 2019(ASTSG -2029)). The sector remains high on the national development agenda in terms of food and nutrition security, income generation, employment creation, saving and investment mobilization and export earnings. To realize the country's aspirations of food and nutrition security, the Government through this Ministry is implementing the National Agricultural and Rural Inclusive Growth Project (NARIGP) with the support of the World Bank. The development objective of the project is to increase the agricultural productivity and profitability of targeted rural communities in 21 counties and in the event of an eligible crisis or emergency, provide an immediate and effective response."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"The agriculture sector is however, highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events. Responses that would enable the country to cope with these risks are outlined in the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Strategy and in the commitments of the Kenya Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In 2010, the Government developed the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) which recognized the impacts of climate change on the country's development. This was followed by the development of the National Climate Change Action Plan in 2012. The focus of these initiatives include the development of county-level climate risk profiles to mainstream climate change perspectives in programs and development plans at county level. The Ministry has developed county climate risk profiles in 31 counties and NARIGP is supporting the development of profiles for an additional 14 counties. The purpose of the profiles is to inform county governments and stakeholders on the climate change risks and provide opportunities for integration into respective county development plans and processes."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"This climate risk profiles study will be used as a basis to climate proof projects or any other developments in fourteen counties (Samburu, Turkana, Kitui, Narok, Kirinyaga, Kiambu, Muranga, Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Nandi, Vihiga, Kisii, Nyamira and Migori). The study provides information on current and possible future climate scenarios, climate-related vulnerabilities and risks for key major agricultural value chains, policy landscape and the institutional capacity to deliver adaptation programs. Each profile presents adaptation and risk reduction options that can transform and reorient agricultural systems in the counties to increase productivity, enhance smallholder farmers' resilience and mitigate against climate change."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Finally, I call upon all stakeholders for their cooperation and support for adoption of CSA production practices that maximize the triple wins: increases productivity, enhanced resilience and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Through the adoption of new technologies and improved practices, we will realize the desired goal of Kenya being a food and nutrition secure country, fostering socio-economic development and improved livelihoods of Kenyans. "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"Climate change is becoming one of the most serious challenges to Kenya. The country is susceptible to climate-related events, and projections indicate that climate impacts will continue to affect the country in the future. In many areas, extreme and variable weather is now the norm. Rainfall is irregular and unpredictable; some regions experience frequent droughts during the long rainy season or severe floods during the short rains. Arid and semi-arid areas are particularly vulnerable to these extreme changes, putting the lives and socioeconomic activities of millions of households at risk.   This document presents the Climate Risk Profile for Turkana County. It is organized into six main sections, each reflecting an essential analytical step towards understanding current and potential adaptation options in key local agricultural value chain commodities. The document first offers an overview of the agricultural commodities key to food security and livelihoods in the county, and then lists major challenges to agricultural sector development in Turkana. In the second section, it identifies the main climate hazards, based on an analysis of historical climate data and climate projections. These include scientific assessments of climate indicators for dry spells, extreme rainfall, moisture stress, and heat stress, among others. Third, the report continues with an analysis of vulnerabilities and risks posed by these climactic hazards on the identified value chains. Based on these vulnerabilities, the fourth section discusses current and potential onfarm adaptation options and off-farm services. In the fifth section, the report also provides snapshots of the enabling policy, institutional, and governance contexts for the adoption of resilience-building strategies. Finally, the sixth section presents pathways for strengthening institutional capacity to address climate risks. "}]},{"head":"County Context","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Economic Relevance of Farming","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Agriculture is the main livelihood in Turkana County, where it is practiced for both subsistence and commercial purposes. Furthermore, about 25% of the county's population derives their livelihoods from agriculture (Turkana County Government, 2018). A majority of the county's income (67%) comes from livestock, while 4% comes from crop farming, and 3% comes from fish farming (Turkana County Government, 2018). In Turkana County, the absolute poverty rate is 79% and food poverty rate is 73% (Turkana County Government, 2018). Nationally, the county is ranked third in terms of poverty contribution, with an estimated 87.5% of the population living below the poverty line (below USD 1.90 per day). Due to its residents' inadequate and unbalanced diets, Turkana records high levels of Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) and Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM). In June 2019, GAM rates were at 25.6%, while in June 2018 they were at 18.1%. In June 2019, SAM rates were at 5.9% and in June 2018, they were at 4.1% (Turkana County Government, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"According to the Turkana County Integrated Development Plan of 2018-2022, the main water sources in the county are rivers and boreholes. Other sources include wells, springs, water pans, roof catchments, and rock catchments. Urban areas have piped water that is serviced by boreholes and pumped using solar power and generators at night. Currently, there are 1,267 boreholes, 129 water pans, 531 shallow wells, 35 unprotected springs, 10 protected springs, and 6,819 roof catchments in the county (Turkana County Government, 2018). Currently, 66,085, or 7%, of households have access to safe water, and 12,119, or 1%, have access to piped water. The average distance to the nearest water source is 10 km. Settlements can be located up to 20 km away from water sources. Currently, 30% of households get drinking water from streams and rivers, 21% of households get drinking water from standpipes, 13% get water from boreholes or tube holes, 12% get water from unprotected wells, 6% get water piped into their plot, 6% get water from a dam or lake, 3% get water from a protected well, 3% get water from vendors, 3% get water piped into their home, 1% get water from an unprotected spring, 1% get water from a protected spring, 0.2% get water by harvesting rain,.1% buy bottled water, 0.7% get water from a pond (KNBS, 2019b)."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Certain areas of Turkana County are unsuitable for farming and only viable for activities like livestock rearing and settlement. (ASDSP, 2014). There are three distinct farming systems in the county. These systems are based on the characteristics of different agroecological zones (Figure 4). These systems are: pastoralism that is present across all the agroecological zones, while small-scale farming and mixed farming systems are concentrated in the tropic-cool/subhumid and tropic-warm/subhumid agroecological zones (ASDSP, 2014). Irrigation is widespread in Turkana County and is mainly practiced by small-scale farmers."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Water Resource Users Associations direct that water should be used first for domestic purposes, then for livestock, then for irrigation. However, there is barely enough for water in the rivers for domestic and livestock purposes. Additionally, very few farmers harvest rainwater for irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Most land is held in trust for the community by the Turkana County Government. However, there are reports that several people have purchased land for commercial development (KNBS, 2014) "}]},{"head":"Important Value Chains","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Several of Turkana County's value chains are prioritized by the County Integrated Development Plan, the National Agricultural Rural Inclusive Growth Project, the Agricultural Sector Development Support Program, and the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization. For this profile, the county's major value chains were compiled into a list using the following indicators: productivity characteristics, including harvested area, production, and production variations in the past five years; economic value (KSh); and nutrition characteristics like dietary energy consumption (Kcal/capita/day) and protein, iron, zinc, and vitamin A content. The team presented this list to stakeholders during a three-day workshop for in-depth analysis and selection. We further honed the selection using a set of criteria which were first determined with the stakeholders. The criteria were resilience to current and future climate change impacts, on a scale from low to high; the percentage of population involved in the value chain (%); and involvement in the value chain of economically and socially vulnerable groups such as poor people, women, and youths, again measured on a scale from low to high. First, we assessed each value chain against each criterion. Then, we selected the value chains that involved the highest percentage of the population and engaged poor people, women, and youths. For this profile, the county's major value chains were compiled into a list using the following indicatorsps The value chains that they selected are: sheep and goats, local chicken, sorghum, and fish."}]},{"head":"Sheep and Goats","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Between 81-100% of the county's population is involved in the sheep and goats value chain. That means almost every household keeps sheep and goats. This value chain involves both small-scale and large-scale actors; for example, the vaccine, medicine and feed suppliers are small-scale. Farmers also depend on herbal medicine to treat their animals. Most farmers keep huge numbers of animals. Wholesalers and retailers sell live animals in bulk within and outside the county. Slaughterhouses operate on a large scale basis and butcheries operate on a small-scale basis in Turkana County."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Most farmers in Turkana use few supplies, or inputs, in this value chain. For example, as stated, most farmers depend on herbal medicine to treat animals. This means that they do not buy medicine inputs for their livestock. Men are less involved on-farm than women and youth. This is because, traditionally, it is the duty of women and youth to take care of sheep and goats."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Men are somewhat involved at the post-production stage; men and the youth become more involved at slaughterhouses and butcheries. Men and youth are highly involved in transporting, marketing, and selling the animals. To deal with problems in pricing and quality, farmers form groups like the Nateleng Group to standardize chicken prices, process through freezing, and better market their produce. These groups are successfully streamlining the poultry value chain.   "}]},{"head":"Sorghum","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fish","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural value chains in Turkana","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Fisheries Research Institute offer education and other services. Local artisans from the Kalokol, Kang'atosa, and Kerio wards, build boats. Some farmers own their fishing gear, while others rent boats and fishing nets daily."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"On-farm, fishermen engage in sorting, cutting, and washing fish. Youth are very involved in this stage. Post-production, laborers engage in transportation, processing, and packaging. Youth are also highly involved at this stage. Most fish processors are located near makes. Fishermen and agents then link producers to buyers. Traders, processors, and middlemen engage in weighing and grading fish. Middlemen and brokers collect and store fish. Men, women, and youth are highly involved in these stages of the value chain."}]},{"head":"Challenges to the Agriculture Sector","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Turkana County is prone to climate variability; prolonged dry spells are becoming the new norm (Turkana County Government, 2018). The county is hit hard by drought and famine, which force people to rely on relief and food donations. Turkana County's agriculture is threatened by lack of access to water and aid, climate-change related soil degradation, aridity, erosion, a reliance on rain-fed agriculture, and political roadblocks (Turkana County Government, 2018).  The rainy seasons are often late and torrential in Turkana County. This causes soil erosion and crop destruction. In extreme cases, floods destroy property and infrastructure, and displace farming communities. Heavy rains also form large pools that can drown humans and livestock. Soil erosion also causes water pollution, which affects fish breeding grounds. Conversely, drought affects the quality and quantity of fish, and leads to overfishing as farmers from other value chains engage in fishing as an alternative source of income (ASDSP, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Farmers are threatened by emerging livestock diseases, like Lolewo, a goat disease that is caused by prolonged wet periods, and pneumonia that affects local chicken. Heat stress hinders livestock growth and nutrition. Livestock farmers in Turkana County compete for resources, which leads to conflict. This is another challenge that the county faces."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Turkana County is further disadvantaged by inadequate aid and advisory services. Farmers reported that aid workers historically reached them through field visits and demonstrations. Today, this type of aid is threatened by insufficient means of transport, fewer workers, and inadequate financial support. Furthermore, the nomadic way of life in the county makes it difficult to follow-up. As a result, technical experts and farmers rarely communicate. This leads to subpar fodder conservation techniques, poultry feed, pest and disease management, technology use, and more."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Turkana County also suffers from poor coordination, overlaps in official duties, and poor communication. For instance, the county's Lands Department had allotted wetlands and riverbank areas to citizens, despite this being prohibited by the National Environmental Management Authority. This has encouraged encroachment on rivers and water catchment areas. The county government has also approved major constructions near marshlands, despite the fact that there are departments that exist to safeguard marshlands. Because existing policies are not integrated into plans, Turkana County's ecosystem is suffering."}]},{"head":"Climate Change and Agriculture: Risks and Vulnerabilities","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In generating this profile, we assessed past trends and future projections of precipitation and temperature, and computed several related hazards from these two variables. These hazards included extreme hydrological events like flash floods, droughts, moisture stress, heat stress, and the start and length of the growing seasons, in order to assess climate change and variability in Turkana County. The growing season was defined as follows: the first, long rainy season is the 100-day wettest period from January to June, while the second, short rainy season is the 100-day wettest period from July to December (KMD, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"We used Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5, one of the four greenhouse gas concentration trajectories adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for its fifth Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014. Future climate projections were generated based on an ensemble of multiple Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) models (Taylor et al., 2012), using RCP 8.5 for two future periods, 2030 and 2050. 3   To assess droughts and dry spells, we focused on the maximum number of consecutive dry days (CDD), defined as days receiving rainfall measuring less than 1mm (precipitation < 1 mm day-1). We determined heat stress by measuring the total number of days with maximum temperatures greater than or equal to 35oC (NT35). Growing days are the days during a season when average temperatures are greater than or equal to 5°C and precipitation exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration. The start of the growing season was determined by the occurrence of 5 consecutive growing days, while the length of the growing period (LGP) was determined as the total number of growing days."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"For each season, heavy precipitation events were captured with the 5-day running average of rainfall, indicative of floods, and the 95th percentile of daily precipitation, indicative of extremely high rainfall over a short period of time, indicating flash flooding risk. The 95th percentile of daily precipitation distribution, based on the 100 wettest days per season per year, was calculated for each pixel."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"To assess the degree adequacy of rainfall and soil moisture to meet the potential water requirements for agriculture, indicators for drought stress were examined in terms of the number of consecutive days in each season where the ratio of actual to potential evapotranspiration (ETa/ETp) is below 0.5. This was calculated for each pixel per season per year by evaluating soil's water capacity and evapotranspiration to define the number of days that could undergo a certain level of stress."}]},{"head":"Climate Change and Variability:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Historic and Future Trends"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Historical monthly temperatures in Turkana County between 20 and 40°C. South-eastern Turkana is significantly hotter than the rest of the county. The long rainy season is significantly wetter than the short rainy season. The dry season runs from the end December into February. April experiences the most rainfall (more than 50 mm per month) (Figure 6 and 7)."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Up until the 1990s, Turkana County had a favorable climate for agriculture. The rains were regular and adequate and, during the long rainy season, the county would record between 750 mm and 1000 mm of rainfall. Currently, the county receives an annual average of 180-200 mm of rainfall and this is projected to reduce by 2040 during the long rainy season. By 2060, rainfall trends are projected to increase for both seasons (Figure 8). Flooding is also becoming a frequent phenomenon, especially during the short rainy season (Turkana County Government, 2013). The climate has become very hot and dry, with increased incidence of drought and famine during the long rainy season. Temperature trends show a steady increase during both seasons for climate projections until 2040 and 2060 (Figure 9)"},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Analysis of temperature changes in Turkana County since 1985 indicate an increase in heat stress during the long rainy season. It also indicates a slight increase in average precipitation and a slight decrease in heavy rainfall. The data also indicates highly variable levels of moisture stress and a delayed growing season. During the short rainy season, the number of consecutive dry days has significantly decreased. The data also shows increases in flood risk, rainfall, and heat stress, and a delayed growing season."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"During the long rainy season, most of the county experiences fewer than 60 consecutive dry days (CDD)."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"In the future, the county will experience an overall increase of up to 25 CDD days during this season (Figure 10). During the short rainy season, most of the county experiences between 60 to 80 CDD. In the future, the county will experience an overall decrease of up to 30 CDD. These changes mean that farmers should plant early maturing and drought-tolerant varieties of crops."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"During the long rainy season, average precipitation (P5D) has historically remained below 20 mm (Figure 11). Future climate projections indicate that the P5D number will increase by between 8 and 10 mm. During the short rainy season, P5D has historically also remained below 20 mm. Future climate projections indicate that P5D will increase by 10 mm or more during the short rainy season. This increases opportunities for farmers to engage in flood-based farming."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"During the long rainy season, average precipitation (P5D) has historically remained below 20 mm (Figure 9). Future climate projections indicate that the P5D number will increase by between 8 and 10 mm. During the short rainy season, P5D has historically also remained below 20 mm. Future climate projections indicate that P5D will increase by 10 mm or more during the short rainy season. This increases opportunities for farmers to engage in flood-based farming."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"Analysis shows that during the long rainy season, there are typically more than 70 days with a maximum temperature greater or equal to 35°C (NT35). Future climate projections indicate the NT35 number will marginally increase in some regions, by up to 30 more days during the long rainy season, and by more than 15 days during the short rainy season . This means that there will be risk of heat stress, especially to animals like local chicken, sheep, and goats."},{"index":10,"size":89,"text":"Moisture stress is estimated as the number of days with a ratio of actual evaporation levels to potential evaporation levels below 0.5. This ration serves as an indicator of the amount of soil moisture that is available to plants. Higher values of moisture stress negatively affect crop growth. Comparison of historical and future trends indicates that Turkana County is expected to experience between 10 and 12 more days of moisture stress in the future. However, this number will decrease during the short rainy season, by up to 20 days."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"This data offers hope for a productive short rainy season for farmers. However, poor planning and lack of education has resulted in farmers that don't know when to plant or to acquire inputs. Furthermore, delayed rain sometimes forces farmers to not plant at all.  "}]},{"head":"The Climate from Farmers´ Perspectives","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Farmers in Turkana County believe that climate change is a natural occurrence that has been aggravated by human activities. Some do not understand climate change, while others think that it is a curse. Climate change has brought drought, flooding, intense rainfall, moisture stress, uncertain planting seasons, and locusts to Turkana County."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Periods of drought and moisture stress have necessitated irrigation farming. This has resulted in a substantial increase in farming along rivers. This leaves farmers who live downstream with little or no water. Periods of water shortage periods have resulted in changing household roles -for example, men going to look for water or remaining behind to take care of the homestead and feed the children. Traditionally, these jobs are reserved for women."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"On a positive note, farmers agreed that the increased rainfall, especially during the short rainy season, has resulted in increased pasture production. If this pasture is harvested and stored well, it can provide food for the livestock during drought periods. The warmer weather has also given rise to poultry farming; chicken does well in warm and hot weather."}]},{"head":"Climate Vulnerabilities across Value Chain Commodities","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Moisture stress, drought, extreme rainfall, floods, increased temperatures, and inconsistent seasons pose severe threats to Turkana County. The climate hazards that pose the worst threat to the county are drought, extreme rainfall, and floods. Moreover, the county has also in the recent past faced the locust invasion in the country. The locust plague that has been exacerbated by atypical weather patterns and which has been amplified by climate change has mostly hit Turkana South, followed by Turkana West, Turkana Central and Loima sub-counties. By devastating farmland and grazing areas, the crisis has dented the food security and livelihoods of a great number of residents in Turkana County."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"The sections below highlight the major climate risks that they pose to the major value chains."}]},{"head":"Sheep and Goats","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The The goats and sheep value chains have also been affected by the locust invasion in the county. By destroying vegetation and rangelands, there has been reduced pastures for the sheep and goats to graze on in the already arid region. It is estimated that the decimation of browse by the desert locusts has caused major harm to the residents, as the sheep and goats are an essential source of food, nutrition and financial security to the herding Turkana Community (Guardian 2020)."}]},{"head":"Local Chicken","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Drought and floods affect the chicken value chain in Turkana County. Flooding reduces the availability and quality of poultry feeds and hinders production and transport. Floods also hinder feed production. Wet weather also makes chickens susceptible to coughs and diarrhea. This leads to increased chick mortality and reduced egg production. Veterinary services are hindered by impassible roads during floods. Farmers have fewer birds to slaughter and sell for profits during these times."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Drought also affects feed production through water shortage. Heat stress results in higher chick mortality."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"In addition, high temperatures may cause vaccines and chicken meat to spoil. Some farmer groups have freezers and fridges that use solar panels. Some farmers prefer to sun-dry their meat during droughts."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Ultimately, droughts mean that farmers have fewer birds to sell for profit."}]},{"head":"Sorghum","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Drought and extreme rainfall affect the sorghum value chain. Although sorghum is a drought-tolerant crop, it requires moisture to sprout. During drought, hard pans form on the soil's surface, and farmers require additional labor and expensive equipment to break through. Poor farmers often lack the financial capacity to break through hard pans. Drought lowers sorghum production because of delayed planting."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Extreme rainfall destroys sorghum and washes away pollen. There is also a chance of severe water-logging and disruption during extreme rainfall events. Heavy rains also cause damage to fences and storage facilities and hinder transportation. Furthermore, intense rainfall causes damage to produce during transport and might cause rotting. Heavy rain can also destroy irrigation infrastructure and increases rates of pests and disease."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Furthermore, the locust invasion has affected sorghum production in the county reducing the gains made. FAO estimates that in the county, there was a 15 to 20 percent damage or reduction of the yield in the sorghum crop (FAO, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Fish","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Drought and flood affect Turkana County's fish value chain. Flooding cuts off road networks, making it difficult for farmers to receive supplies and aid."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Flooding causes water pollution that destroys fish breeding grounds. Because of this, processing, packaging, transportation, grading, and marketing services are seriously affected during floods."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Persistent drought reduces water levels and compromises water quality, which reduces the number of fish produced. Drought also affects the availability of input. For example, raw materials such as timber for boat making are usually limited during drought periods due to low demand. Harvesting, cutting, washing, transportation, processing, packaging, grading, and marketing activities are all severely affected by this."}]},{"head":"Adapting to Climate Change and Variability","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Factors That Determine Future Vulnerabilities to and Impacts of Climate Change","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Drought affects people differently based on their coping mechanisms (Mutu, 2017). Farmers who do not entirely depend on livestock are more likely to cope well. Farmers can cope with drought through rainwater by harvesting water and using water pans and dams. Male farmers who are in a position to educate themselves will be able to cope better than women and youth, who are traditionally excluded from education. Poor farmers are more vulnerable because they do not have the financial resources to invest in irrigation or water tanks, and because their houses often have grass roofs that render rooftop rainwater harvesting impossible."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The areas which are most vulnerable to flooding include the lowlands and river areas. Illiterate people are also more vulnerable to flooding, as they cannot read early warning bulletins. No policy helps pastoralists procure vaccines, breeding, and deworming services during famine periods."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Youth and women are vulnerable to climate change, not only because they are major players in the local chicken value chain, but also because they lack the knowledge and financial resources to adapt to climate change."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Men are more able to attend meetings, listen to the radio, and read newspapers. Women and youth spend most of their time on farm or in search of domestic resources. The less educated are also vulnerable, as they do not possess the knowledge required to adapt to climate change. Farmers who live in regions that are prone to extreme rainfall are also vulnerable. Resourcepoor farmers are also vulnerable to climate change."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"The old and illiterate rural population cannot access off-farm employment and are therefore vulnerable."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"In the fish value chain, men are vulnerable to the effects of climate change, as fishing gear artisans are predominantly male. Poor fishermen are also vulnerable, especially when they lose their fishing gear to floods or when their boats capsize during strong winds. Women and youth are also vulnerable, as they are the main players at the post-production and output stages."}]},{"head":"Adaptation Options","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ongoing Practices","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Turkana County is trying to curb some of the effects of climate change. Various county departments, nongovernmental organizations, and private entities offer on-farm and off-farm aid services. One of the main ways to adapt to climate change effects is to ensure that Turkana County's farmers are prepared. For example: farmers are now destocking and restocking their livestock accordingly and the county promotes feed production and conservation, water infrastructure development, and soil conservation."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Destocking and restocking livestock ensure that farmers can comfortably manage their herds during climate hazards. There are also breeding initiatives to introduce hardy animals to Turkana County's farmers."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The Department of Water and some residents have drilled boreholes in Turkana County. Some residents use water pans and dams to store water. Additionally, water vendors play a key role in meeting the county's demands for water. However, the water that they sell is expensive."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The Department of Agriculture encourages farmers to grow early-maturing, drought-tolerant, and pest and disease-resistant varieties of crops. Flood-based farming is also practiced in Turkana. Vegetable gardening is also increasing as a supplement to livestock rearing."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"Turkana County farmers also practice soil conservation practices in order to protect their farms from erosion. These farmers construct rock or concrete-filled cages along riverbanks to curb wind and water erosion. These cages are constructed in collaboration with the Departments of Agriculture and Water. Tree-planting activities have also started to gain ground in Turkana County."}]},{"head":"Potential Practices","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Farmers, various government departments, the private sector, and different non-governmental organizations can reducing the effects of climate change through activities such as replanting forests, engaging in livestock management services and water management services, education, using climate and weather advisory services, protecting and conserving water resources, diversifying farms, and research and development."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Extension workers can incorporate advisories from the Kenya Meteorological Department into field days and demonstrations with farmers. The Kenya Meteorological Department frequently sends climatebased advisories to different departments and farmers through SMS and bulletins. This will help farmers plan their farming activities accordingly. This will also help people in the lowlands or areas that are prone to flooding move to higher and safer areas before floods begin. The National Drought Management Authority is also involved in early warning systems, and uses bulletins and radio adverts (Turkana County Government, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Extension services and education initiatives can be upscaled to include more farmers. Currently, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Cooperatives offers services, but these services do not reach every farmer in the county, due to inadequate human and financial resources. The Agricultural Sector Development Strategy Program, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the county government currently promote conservation agriculture and the use of drought-tolerant plants (ASDSP, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Pasture area has recently become significantly rarer in Turkana County, and farmers must find alternatives to feed their animals. The Turkana Rehabilitation Project, the National Drought Management Authority, and the Livestock Department and its partners offer feedproduction ventures, pasture reseeding, and fodder production (Turkana County Government, 2018). However, these feeds can only support a minimal number of livestock. Another potential solution is storing sorghum and maize stems to use as fodder."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The Forestry Department, the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, and the Caritas Foundation are spearheading replanting efforts. These efforts educate members of the community on the importance of planting trees and sustainable tree harvesting. They also provide these community members with appropriate seedlings and show them how to plant. Replanting promotes developing microclimates and water-catchment areas."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"Trees also protect farms from heavy winds."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Some farmers in Turkana County have begun insuring their crops and livestock against climate hazards. Initially, the government used to buy index-based insurance for pastoralists in Turkana. Currently, the Kenya Livestock Insurance Program is encouraging more farmers to embrace voluntary insurance covers that protect their farming activities (Turkana County Government, 2018)."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"Research and development is also promising in Turkana County (Opiyo et al., 2015).  Affects the poor who prioritize food over than buying input supplies (gears and vessels); persistent drought will bring about raw materials supply shortages such as timber for boat making"},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"The poor who depend on fish production for their survival (malnutrition); windy conditions as a result of deforestation and this makes the lake rough and inaccessible to rich and poor fisherfolk Will affect the poor processors and the fisherfolk since supplies will be low"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"The poor will be affected since they cannot afford the increasing prices"}]},{"head":"Fish","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Low quantity to transport hence affects those dependent on transport business; low water supply for processing affecting fish hygiene; low fish quantity to package hence job losses E-marketing with improved production; tenders and contracts; introduction to modern weighing and& packaging machines; constructing modern aggregation stores Improved on-farm activities will unlock transportation with improved infrastructure; improved modern fish processing units; modern fish stores"}]},{"head":"Severe","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Minor-Major","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Minor-Severe","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Minor-Severe Minor-Severe"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Major-Severe"}]},{"head":"Moderate-Major","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Use of cages to boost production; restocking and construction of fish ponds along riverside ecosystems "}]},{"head":"Persistent Drought Consequences","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policies and strategies on Climate Change","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The development of policies and programs and their effective implementation play a key role in decision-making, since they affect actions and outcomes related to climate risk management and resource use. In response to climate variability and change, Turkana County has adopted several national policies in its implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions (Table 1). Poor policy limits farmers' ability to respond to climate change. For example, policies often contradict each other, posing problems for those that try to adhere to them. Policies are often ignored, due to a lack of enforcement. Oftentimes, policies are confusing or the county government is unable to enforce the policy. Policy creators must involve all relevant stakeholders in their work in order to ensure harmony, effectiveness, and consistency."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Responding to climate change must become a priority at the county level. This requires an appropriate political framework that can effectively combine economic, social, and environmental factors in a coherent, complementary, and interlinked manner. The county's agriculture sector should aim to increase efficiency and decrease fault. Climate-change analysis should include analysis of markets, institutions, and the government. Finally, the county government must ensure that the farmers and residents of Turkana County are involved in climate change management plans."}]},{"head":"Annexes","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Glossary","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Climate change: refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use (IPCC, 2018)."}]},{"head":"Climate risk:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The potential for consequences where something of value is at stake and where the outcome is uncertain, recognizing the diversity of values. Risk is often represented as probability of occurrence of hazardous events or trends multiplied by the impacts if these events or trends occur. Risk results from the interaction of vulnerability, exposure, and hazard (IPCC, 2018)."}]},{"head":"Climate hazard:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event or trend or physical impact that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, service provision, ecosystems, and environmental resources (IPCC,2018)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Climate variability: Variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events (IPCC, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Absolute poverty: a lack of basic human needs, mainly food, shelter, clothing, water, education and health care."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Food Poverty: Not having the means to acquire enough food to live a normal healthy life. When a population cannot consistently afford the minimum amount of recommended nutritional food, it suffers from food poverty."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs): Four greenhouse gas concentration (not emissions) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). The four RCPs, RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0, and RCP8.5, are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 (of 2.6, 4.5, 6.0, and 8.5 W/m2, respectively)."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"Green House Gases: Atmospheric gases responsible for causing global warming and climate change. The major GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O). Less prevalent but very powerful greenhouse gases are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Su"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of Turkana County ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 "},{"text":"1 Figure 2 : Figure 1: Map of Turkana County ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Figure 2:Climate Risk Profile Development Process -------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 "},{"text":"6 Figure 3 : Figure 2:Climate Risk Profile Development Process -------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 Figure 3: Agriculture and Livelihoods in Turkana County -------------------------------------------------------------------------8 "},{"text":"8 Figure 4 : Figure 3: Agriculture and Livelihoods in Turkana County -------------------------------------------------------------------------8 Figure 4: Map of Agroecological Zones in Turkana County-----------------------------------------------------------------------9 "},{"text":"9 Figure 5 : Figure 4: Map of Agroecological Zones in Turkana County-----------------------------------------------------------------------9 Figure 5: Characterization of Selected Value Chains in Turkana County ------------------------------------------------------12 "},{"text":"Figure 11 :Figure 12 : Figure 11: The average maximum 5-day running average precipitation in mm for the short rainy season: historical (left), future projected (center), and projected change (right) -----------------------------------------18 Figure 12: Adaptation Strategies Across Selected Value Chains in Turkana County ----------------------------------------25 "},{"text":"The Alliance undertook the assessment in a set of interrelated stages (Figure2). It first initiated a desk review of the conceptual and analytical contexts of climate change risks at the national and county levels. It made efforts to involve a wide range of institutions that have worked on climate change at the national and regional levels. The team used globally available data sources like the Kenya Open Data Portal and county development plans, and collected information from relevant government departments, such as the Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, the Kenya Meteorological Department, and the Drought Monitoring Centre. The team also collected data through focus group discussions, key informant interviews with carefully selected experts, climate modeling, and three days of sub-national stakeholder workshops. The final reports were then presented and validated by national-and county-level stakeholders. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Climate Risk Profile Development Process "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Map of Agroecological Zones in Turkana County "},{"text":"Conventions Importance of women, youth men and women: 1 = very low; 2 = low; 3 = medium; 4 = high; 5 = very high; 0 =non-exsistant; N/D = no data. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Characterization of Selected Value Chains in Turkana County "},{"text":"Figure 6 :Figure 7 : Figure 6: Elevation, average annual rainfall, and average annual temperature in Turkana County (average 1985-2015) for the long rainy season "},{"text":"Figure 8 :Figure 9 :Figure 10 :Figure 11 : Figure 8: Annual total rainfall trends for the long and short rainy seasons in the past (1985-2015) and in the future (2020-2040 and 2041-2060) "},{"text":" Poor fishermen who lose their gear during flooding require replacement; affects infrastructure; IlliteracyThe poor will be affected due to destruction of their gear and vessels by floodsFloods affect the poor & the rich since road networks are destroyed hence transportation is hindered Floods affects the rich & the poor since they destroy the market infrastructure; floods affects fish supply hence affecting fish prices (Demand high & supply low) Reduced raw material supplies e.g. timber for boat making; affects knowledge and technology uptake; reduced artisanal boat and fishing gear making Low fish quantities to process therefore youth job losses; low quantity and poor quality of water which affects fish quality; low fish production Market shrinkage; low production causes grading job-losses; store owners lose income Use of alternative fiber-glass boats by the rich but not the poor Promoting greater use of fiber-glass boats; extension services: promote farmer-to-farmer extension; promote and support use of locally available raw materials "},{"text":"Demographics Farming Farming activities Farming inputs Access to basic needs Food security 92,6976 2500000 km2 84.8% 8.6% 67% 20.3% 16.2% 79% 72.7%  inhabitants 1.95% Of Kenya's population County's farming area   inhabitants 1.95% Of Kenya's populationCounty's farming area   36.4%  36.4% 48% 52% of the population employed in agriculture production  48% 52%of the population employed in agriculture production Live in rural areas    Live in rural areas of the population lives in absolute poverty 0.4% 34.3% Potable water Electricity for cooking Electricity for lighting Food crops Cash crops 0.34% Of county's agricultural land of the population lives in absolute poverty 0.4% 34.3% Potable water Electricity for cooking Electricity for lightingFood crops Cash crops0.34%Of county's agricultural land of the population    of the population suffers from food poverty    suffers from food poverty Children stunted The county's has 2.5 million ha of arable land. Currently, 435,576 ha of this is used for agriculture; Children wasted Children stuntedThe county's has 2.5 million ha of arable land. Currently, 435,576 ha of this is used for agriculture; Children wasted  366,142 ha is used for subsistence farming, and 366,142 ha is used for subsistence farming, and  1,484 has is used for commercial production (KNBS, 1,484 has is used for commercial production (KNBS,  2019c). The county's livestock consists of 1.5 million 2019c). The county's livestock consists of 1.5 million Infographic based on data from the County Integrated Development cows, 6 million goats, 3.5 million sheep, 0.8 million Infographic based on data from the County Integrated Developmentcows, 6 million goats, 3.5 million sheep, 0.8 million Plan (GoK, 2013-2017), the Agricultural Sector Development Support Program (GoK, 2017), and Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS, 2019) camels, 0.2 million poultry birds. (Turkana County Government, 2013). Additionally, there are also Plan (GoK, 2013-2017), the Agricultural Sector Development Support Program (GoK, 2017), and Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS, 2019)camels, 0.2 million poultry birds. (Turkana County Government, 2013). Additionally, there are also  32,581 beekeeping apiaries in the county (Turkana 32,581 beekeeping apiaries in the county (Turkana  County Government, 2013). Food crops are cultivated County Government, 2013). Food crops are cultivated  along bodies of water (e.g., Kerio and Turkwel rivers). along bodies of water (e.g., Kerio and Turkwel rivers).  The county is also home to a few, scattered rain-fed The county is also home to a few, scattered rain-fed  and irrigated farms. Each year, the county produces and irrigated farms. Each year, the county produces  10 million liters of milk (valued at KSh 165 million 1 ), 10 million liters of milk (valued at KSh 165 million 1 ),  286 million kg of beef (valued at KSh 130 million), 162 286 million kg of beef (valued at KSh 130 million), 162  million kg of mutton (valued at KSh 24 million), 0.4 million kg of mutton (valued at KSh 24 million), 0.4  million kg of poultry meat, and 3 million eggs (valued million kg of poultry meat, and 3 million eggs (valued  KSh 45 million) (Turkana County Government, 2018). KSh 45 million) (Turkana County Government, 2018).  Lake Turkana, the Kerio and Turkwel rivers, and other Lake Turkana, the Kerio and Turkwel rivers, and other  seasonal rivers provide fish.   seasonal rivers provide fish.  "},{"text":"84.1% TURKANA Livelihoods and agriculture in Turkana Its main crops include maize, millet, sorghum, and vegetables, which are farmed at the household level along the rivers Kerio and Turkwel. 0.8 ha and 2 ha large. The labor force in Turkana  0.8 ha and 2 ha large. The labor force in Turkana County consists of 332,100; 150,500, or 45%, of this  County consists of 332,100; 150,500, or 45%, of this population is employed in small-scale agriculture and  population is employed in small-scale agriculture and pastoralism. Turkana County's agriculture has great  pastoralism. Turkana County's agriculture has great potential (Turkana County Government, 2018, ASDSP,  potential (Turkana County Government, 2018, ASDSP, 2014). The county has several urban centers: Lodwar,  2014). The county has several urban centers: Lodwar, Lokori, Lokichoggio, Kakuma, Kalokol, Logurum and  Lokori, Lokichoggio, Kakuma, Kalokol, Logurum and Lokitaung. There are also many settlements near Lake  Lokitaung. There are also many settlements near Lake Turkana. The county's rural population is 760,374;  Turkana. The county's rural population is 760,374; of this population, 363,787 (48%) are females and  of this population, 363,787 (48%) are females and 396,587 (52%) are males (KNBS, 2019b). The  396,587 (52%) are males (KNBS, 2019b). The population is denser in the urban areas, especially  population is denser in the urban areas, especially in Turkana Central Constituency and the county's  in Turkana Central Constituency and the county's capital, Lodwar Town. Turkana West Constituency  capital, Lodwar Town. Turkana West Constituency has the highest population because it is home to a  has the highest population because it is home to a refugee camp. The county averages 14 persons per  refugee camp. The county averages 14 persons per km² (KNBS, 2019), which is an increase from 2013's  km² (KNBS, 2019), which is an increase from 2013's recorded 12 persons per km 2 .  recorded 12 persons per km 2 . The county's labor force consists mainly of youth (ages  The county's labor force consists mainly of youth (ages 15 to 29) and constitutes 49% of the entire population  15 to 29) and constitutes 49% of the entire population of the county. The labor force mainly consists of  of the county. The labor force mainly consists of unskilled labor. The county's employment rate is 70%,  unskilled labor. The county's employment rate is 70%, compared to the national rate of 42%. The county's  compared to the national rate of 42%. The county's dependency ratio (the percentage of the population  dependency ratio (the percentage of the population who are not in the labor force) is 31% (KNBS, 2014).  who are not in the labor force) is 31% (KNBS, 2014). Mining is a key source of livelihood in Turkana County.  Mining is a key source of livelihood in Turkana County. This includes small-scale gold mining, oil mining,  This includes small-scale gold mining, oil mining, and gemstone and mineral mining (Turkana County  and gemstone and mineral mining (Turkana County Government, 2013). Road construction employs  Government, 2013). Road construction employs more than 500. The county's minor roads are in poor  more than 500. The county's minor roads are in poor condition. This adversely affects economic activities,  condition. This adversely affects economic activities, especially during the rainy seasons.  especially during the rainy seasons. Figure 3: Agriculture and Livelihoods in Turkana County  Figure 3: Agriculture and Livelihoods in Turkana County 2.2 People and Livelihoods and Turkana West, which is home to 25.9% (KNBS, 2019a). 2.2 People and Livelihoodsand Turkana West, which is home to 25.9% (KNBS, 2019a). Turkana County has a total population of 926,976 people (Figure 3); 51.6% are males and 48.4% are females according to the 2019 census (KNBS, 2019a). There are 164,519 households, and the average household consists of 5.6 people. The county has 7 sub-counties: Kibish, which is home to 4% of the county's population, Loima, which is home to 11.6%, Turkana Central, which is home to 20%, Turkana East, which is home to 14.9%; Turkana North, which is home to 7%, Turkana South, which is home to 16.6%, About 37% of Turkana's households are involved in farming. Of these households, 25% practice subsistence farming and 0.4% practice commercial farming (KNBS, 2019b). Out of all farming households, 93% are involved in livestock production, 23% are involved in crop production, 0.7% are involved in aquaculture (fish farming in controlled aquatic environments), 7% are involved in fishing, and 8% are involved in in irrigation. The average farm in Turkana County is between Turkana County has a total population of 926,976 people (Figure 3); 51.6% are males and 48.4% are females according to the 2019 census (KNBS, 2019a). There are 164,519 households, and the average household consists of 5.6 people. The county has 7 sub-counties: Kibish, which is home to 4% of the county's population, Loima, which is home to 11.6%, Turkana Central, which is home to 20%, Turkana East, which is home to 14.9%; Turkana North, which is home to 7%, Turkana South, which is home to 16.6%,About 37% of Turkana's households are involved in farming. Of these households, 25% practice subsistence farming and 0.4% practice commercial farming (KNBS, 2019b). Out of all farming households, 93% are involved in livestock production, 23% are involved in crop production, 0.7% are involved in aquaculture (fish farming in controlled aquatic environments), 7% are involved in fishing, and 8% are involved in in irrigation. The average farm in Turkana County is between  "},{"text":" . There are no reported of landless persons in Turkana County; in the rural areas, land is communally owned. In the urban centers, the local authority allots land for a fee. The county government holds the forest cover in trust; local communities can utilize its resources without restrictions. Currently, the county has only one gazetted forest, the Loima Forest. The gazetting of the Songot Hills forest 2 is underway.  "},{"text":" feed the birds, select and grade eggs, sell eggs, and process chicken meat. Men are often involved in obtaining vaccines, cleaning and spraying poultry sheds, preparing feed, and providing water, but rarely engage beyond these activities. Eggs and chicken meat are consumed and also sold. At the production stage, farmers acquire feed, At the production stage, farmers acquire feed, veterinary services, and breeding materials from the veterinary services, and breeding materials from the Department of Livestock, vendors, and agro-vets. The Department of Livestock, vendors, and agro-vets. The Department of Livestock, the Caritas Lodwar charity, Department of Livestock, the Caritas Lodwar charity, and the International Livestock Research Institute and the International Livestock Research Institute play important roles at this stage. The Department play important roles at this stage. The Department of Veterinary Services and agro-vets in the areas of of Veterinary Services and agro-vets in the areas of Silo and Sidai supply chicken feed, vaccines, and Silo and Sidai supply chicken feed, vaccines, and medicines on a medium-scale basis. There are also medicines on a medium-scale basis. There are also chicken cooperatives, supported by the Technology chicken cooperatives, supported by the Technology Conservation Group. Processing happens on a small- Conservation Group. Processing happens on a small- scale basis, as most chicken is consumed at the scale basis, as most chicken is consumed at the household level. household level. Whereas land and fodder are mostly communally Whereas land and fodder are mostly communally owned and shared, other inputs, such as feed, must owned and shared, other inputs, such as feed, must be obtained by individual farmers. The Department be obtained by individual farmers. The Department of Development, its partners, and the farmers carry of Development, its partners, and the farmers carry out major activities like breeding, deworming, and out major activities like breeding, deworming, and vaccinating. Processors, transporters, butchers, vaccinating. Processors, transporters, butchers, middlemen, wholesalers, and brokers become middlemen, wholesalers, and brokers become important in later stages of the value chain. Farmers, important in later stages of the value chain. Farmers, wholesalers, the government, middlemen, development wholesalers, the government, middlemen, development partners, and processors carry out marketing, linking, partners, and processors carry out marketing, linking, buying, and selling activities buying, and selling activities 2.4.2 Local Chicken 2.4.2 Local Chicken  "},{"text":" Turkana County's inadequate and unreliable rainfall fails to adequately support its agricultural activities. Irrigation is expensive, labor-intensive, and rare in Turkana County. The county's size makes it difficult to allocate limited resources equitably. Furthermore, during heavy rainfall and floods, the existing water infrastructure is damaged or destroyed, further aggravating the problem as noted by the Water Department in Turkana County. Turkana County farms are not highly diversified; farmers mainly depend on livestock like sheep and goats. Turkana County is culturally inclined to pastoralism. Overdependence on livestock makes farmers vulnerable to climate change. The county government encourages farmers to sell animals before difficult periods to avoid loss, and to restock during favorable periods.  "},{"text":" climate hazards that most effect the sheep and goats value chain are drought and flood. Sheep and goats require constant rainfall patterns to provide adequate pasture and water. During drought, feed availability is limited, and animals starve. Pests and diseases also proliferate during droughts. Most farmers do not have the capital to buy feed, medicine, and vaccines for their animals. Emaciated animals do not command good prices during droughts. In addition, invasive pests like locusts are proliferate during drought and compete for the little vegetation that is available. During floods, waterlogged soil affects the development During floods, waterlogged soil affects the development of pasture. Prosopis spp (local name Mathenge), of pasture. Prosopis spp (local name Mathenge), an invasive species that thrives in stagnant water, an invasive species that thrives in stagnant water, encroaches grazing land. In extreme cases, floods encroaches grazing land. In extreme cases, floods sweep away and destroy existing pasture and property, sweep away and destroy existing pasture and property, and drown livestock. Animals are affected by diseases and drown livestock. Animals are affected by diseases like coughs and diarrhea during wet periods. Floods like coughs and diarrhea during wet periods. Floods can also block roads. The county government usually can also block roads. The county government usually sends out flood warnings through SMS. However, this sends out flood warnings through SMS. However, this is only useful to farmers who own mobile phones. Low is only useful to farmers who own mobile phones. Low yields reduce marketing and transport activities. This yields reduce marketing and transport activities. This threatens many livelihoods. threatens many livelihoods.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : National Policies that Target Climate Change to these threats. Many farmers do so by cultivating drought-resistant crops, rearing droughtresistant livestock, diversifying their farms, and engaging in irrigation, soil and water conservation; rainwater harvesting, and research and development. Some of these adaptation strategies are expensive. Financial and technical support, training, and education from various institutions will help farmers succeed. These institutions must prioritize the needs of the poor and illiterate through the use of local TV and radio stations, SMS, brochures translated into local languages, meetings conducted in the local language, and more.Turkana County houses various institutions that help farmers adapt to climate change. They provide advice, information, and supplies for farmers. Most of these institutions suffer from a lack of human and financial capital. Therefore, proper resource allocation and training will go a long way to ensuring their success. The Turkana County Climate Change Bill 2020 is in its final stages. This bill will allocate 2% of the county budget towards climate change mitigation. Policy Year Objective(s) Interventions Challenges PolicyYearObjective(s)InterventionsChallenges National Climate 2018 Facilitate a Strengthening disaster risk  National Climate2018Facilitate aStrengthening disaster risk Change Policy  coordinated, management  Change Policycoordinated,management   coherent, and Helping communities adapt to climate  coherent, andHelping communities adapt to climate   effective response change  effective responsechange   to the challenges Fortifying communities against climate  to the challengesFortifying communities against climate   and opportunities hazards  and opportunitieshazards   presented by climate   presented by climate   change  Lack of strategy and changeLack of strategy and National Climate 2016 Mobilizing climate Developing the Turkana County implementation National Climate2016Mobilizing climateDeveloping the Turkana Countyimplementation Finance Policy  change-related Climate Change Policy of 2020  Finance Policychange-relatedClimate Change Policy of 2020   finance Developing the Turkana County  financeDeveloping the Turkana County    Climate Change Bill of 2020 Developing  Climate Change Bill of 2020 Developing    the Turkana County Action Plan  the Turkana County Action Plan National Livestock 2013 Increase livestock Creating effective private, public and  National Livestock2013Increase livestockCreating effective private, public and Policy  productivity and community partnerships  Policyproductivity andcommunity partnerships   production in a Establishing medium and long-term  production in aEstablishing medium and long-term   sustainable manner emergency plans  sustainable manneremergency plans National Climate Change Action 2013-2017 Increase forest cover and rehabilitate Reclaiming riverbanks Formulating by-laws to control Poor coordination and organization National Climate Change Action2013-2017Increase forest cover and rehabilitateReclaiming riverbanks Formulating by-laws to controlPoor coordination and organization Plan  degraded lands deforestation  Plandegraded landsdeforestation    Planting trees  Planting trees    Raising awareness among the  Raising awareness among the    community  community National Climate 2010 Ensure that climate Recommending adaptations that  National Climate2010Ensure that climateRecommending adaptations that Change Response  change adaptation minimize risks and maximizing  Change Responsechange adaptationminimize risks and maximizing Strategy  and mitigation opportunities  Strategyand mitigationopportunities   measures are Providing effective policy and a  measures areProviding effective policy and a   integrated into legal and institutional framework to  integrated intolegal and institutional framework to   planning government combat climate change Lack of political goodwill planning governmentcombat climate changeLack of political goodwill Climate Change 2016 Provide a framework Development of the Turkana County  Climate Change2016Provide a frameworkDevelopment of the Turkana County Act  for funding climate Climate Change Policy of 2020  Actfor funding climateClimate Change Policy of 2020   change response Development of the Turkana County  change responseDevelopment of the Turkana County   initiatives issues at Climate Change Bill of 2020, which is in  initiatives issues atClimate Change Bill of 2020, which is in   both the national and its final stages  both the national andits final stages   the county level. Turkana County Action Plan is in place  the county level.Turkana County Action Plan is in place    Opened up discussions to allocate  Opened up discussions to allocate    2% of the county's budget to climate  2% of the county's budget to climate    change mitigation and adaptation  change mitigation and adaptation    efforts  efforts ASDSP 2013-2020 Enhance productivity Promotion sorghum, cowpea, fish,  ASDSP2013-2020Enhance productivityPromotion sorghum, cowpea, fish,   while conserving sheep, goats, and local chicken value  while conservingsheep, goats, and local chicken value   natural resources chains  natural resourceschains Water Act 2016 Provide for Development of the Turkana County  Water Act2016Provide forDevelopment of the Turkana County   the regulation, Water Act of 2019 to address county-  the regulation,Water Act of 2019 to address county-   management, and specific water issues  management, andspecific water issues   development of   development of   water resources   water resources  "}],"sieverID":"90aa9d20-8ff8-4b50-8c0f-7b55ae655b96","abstract":"Agriculture is the main source of livelihood in Turkana County. It creates more than 74% of household incomes and employs more than 45% of the population.Most farmers rely on pastoralism and rain-fed agriculture. This makes them more vulnerable to climate change and variability.The effects of climate change in Turkana County include unpredictable rainfall, extreme rainfall, frequent and prolonged dry spells, and increased daytime temperatures.Climate hazards that have been observed in the county include drought, floods, and intense rainfall. These hazards pose a growing threat to the agricultural sector.Drought and heat stress are major threats to Turkana County that often result in loss of pasture, starving livestock, drying water sources, and conflict among pastoralists over resources.Heavy rains in the Mt. Elgon and West Pokot regions of the county and intense rainfall over short periods of time create flooding. Onfarm adaptation strategies include conservation agriculture, rainwater harvesting, fodder conservation, and planting early-maturing and drought-tolerant crops as well as drought-resistant and high-value livestock breeds.Off-farm adaptation strategies include education and research on climatesmart agriculture practices, early warning systems and climate-based advisories, extension services, livestock and crop insurance, afforestation, and reforestation.Women and youth contribute significantly to certain value chains. It is therefore important to promote the involvement of women and youth, and support their economic gains, decision-making powers, and participation.Inadequate resources and poor coordination between different institutions in has undermined Turkana County's ability to adapt to climate change.The establishment of community action groups and the support of governmental institutions and stakeholders has empowered Turkana's farmers to help protect the environment and use natural resources sustainably"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ca41d1680a0497b1d74097a72a5002b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2461e78c-fafb-4c31-9e41-4aa06cefa5d9/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"The role of forest genetic resources in responding to biotic and abiotic factors in the context of anthropogenic climate change","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Forests cover approximately 30% of the world's total land mass (FAO, 2010) and are an integral part of life on earth, providing a range of services at local, national and global levels. Projected changes in climate, both gradual and extreme events, pose a serious threat to forestry (IPCC, 2011). As such, international organizations are currently engaged in actions to address the interconnected challenges of deforestation, forests degradation and desertification in a changing environment. Not only does climate change pose a threat to forests themselves, but also to the millions of people who depend on them directly for their livelihoods (Dawson et al., 2014, this special issue), and to the billions who are supported by forests through the provision of environmental services that are vital to humanity (UNEC, 2009;FAO, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":263,"text":"Global climate change projections depend on future rates of greenhouse gas emissions, but expected temperature increases range from 1.1 °C to 2.9 °C by 2090-2099 (compared to 1980-1999) for a low (B1) emissions scenario, 1.7 °C to 4.4 °C for a medium (A1B) scenario and 2.0 °C to 5.4 °C for a high (A2) scenario (Solomon et al., 2007). Even a change at the lower end of this range is significant for forests and trees. Considerable changes in precipitation are also projected, with locations that are currently dry receiving generally less precipitation and locations that are currently relatively wet receiving more (Solomon et al., 2007). Evidence for negative effects of climate change on forests globally is mounting (Allen et al., 2010). In North America, for example, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) is dying due to a combination of drought-induced stress, mountain pine beetle attack (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) and blister rust (Cronartium ribicola A. Dietr.) that is attributed to climate change (Campbell and Antos, 2000;Smith et al., 2008;Zeglen, 2002). Other negative effects attributed to climate change include: the massive die-off (on 12,000 km 2 ) of Pinus edulis (Engelm.) in the southwestern USA (Breshears et al., 2005); the sudden decline of Populus tremuloides (Michx.) in the USA's Rocky Mountains (Rehfeldt et al., 2009); the decline in Cedrus atlantica ([Endl.] Manetti ex Carrière) in the Middle Atlas mountains of Morocco (Mátyás, 2010); the decline of Fagus sylvatica L. in southwest Hungary (Mátyás et al., 2010); and the replacement of F. sylvatica by more drought-tolerant Quercus ilex L. in Catalonia, northeast Spain (Peñuelas et al., 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":225,"text":"Although in this paper our focus is the challenges in responding to anthropogenic climate change, it should be noted that humanincluded environmental alteration also carries some potential benefits for forest production in particular regions, where net productivity may be raised due to increases in CO 2 levels and temperature (in contemporary cold regions), if drought stress does not become limiting. For crops, modelling shows that drought often becomes constraining despite elevated CO 2 levels acting as a 'fertilizer' (Parry et al., 2004). In cold climates, it is not unusual for natural tree populations to be located under sub-optimal conditions, with the discrepancy between the inhabited and the optimal climate increasing with the severity of climate (Rehfeldt et al., 2004). In such locations, an increase in temperature, coupled with at least stable precipitation, may result in increased wood yields in the short-to medium-term. Projected examples of such increases include: Pinus banksiana in the North American Great Lakes region (Mátyás and Yeatman, 1992;Mátyás, 1994); Pinus contorta, Pinus sylvestris and Larix sibirica in Siberia (Rehfeldt et al., 1999(Rehfeldt et al., , 2001(Rehfeldt et al., , 2004)); Picea glauca in southern Quebec (Beaulieu and Rainville, 2005); and Pseudostsuga menziesii in western North America (Leites et al., 2012a,b). In the longer-term, however, declines are expected as adaptive and plastic capacities to respond to change are exhausted (Mátyás et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Here, we address the role that forest genetic resources (FGR, the genetic variation in trees of present or potential benefit to humans; FAO, 1989) can play in responding to anthropogenic climate change. The present distribution of FGR globally is the result of natural geological, ecological and genetic processes, which, over thousands of years, and along with the influence of man, have resulted in adaptation to local environments (Alberto et al., 2013). Included in this is adaptation to local disturbances, such as fire, insects and diseases. We review the pressures on FGR imposed directly by changing climate, as well as the indirect impacts on forests induced by changes in the biotic (e.g., insect and disease) and abiotic (e.g., fire, flood) disturbances that affect them. In particular, we consider climate-related responses in the context of linkages to disturbances and associated feedback loops, an issue not widely addressed in previous reviews on climate change and tree genetic resources. We conclude by discussing the feasibility of various management options to utilize the genetic variation in trees to respond to climate change and present options for policy-makers."}]},{"head":"The impacts of climate change on FGR","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Impacts are experienced through several demographic and genetic processes (Kremer et al., 2012;Savolainen et al., 2011). Some are directional and gradual, such as trends in increasing temperature and reducing rainfall, while others involve abrupt change, including drought, flood, fire and sudden pest invasions (in this paper we refer to these as catastrophic events; Scheffer et al., 2001;Scheffer and Carpenter, 2003). If environmental change is directional and continuous, fast-maturing trees in particular may have the potential to adapt genetically (Hamrick, 2004). At the receding edge of species distributions in particular, however, the magnitude and speed of projected anthropogenic climate change is likely to surpass adaptive capacity in many cases, resulting in local extirpations (Davis and Shaw, 2001). As climate changes, species and genotypes within species that are mal-adapted may be replaced by fitter ones that are already present at a site or by genotypes migrating from elsewhere. At the ecosystem level, the result will be a change in the relative abundance of species and genotypes in the landscape. Such changes may be unpredictable, with significant changes in net ecosystem productivity possible (Thornley and Cannell, 1996;Wang et al., 2012). Extirpation of ecologically important keystone species will have critical impacts on coexisting organisms and their adaptation."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Climate change may also result in high variability in temperature and precipitation, with an increase in incidence of extreme events, such as flooding, late frosts and intensive summer droughts, amongst other events (IPCC, 2011) (Table 1). In some areas, such as the Mediterranean and the Neo-tropics, an increase in seasonality is also expected (Alcamo et al., 2007;Meir and Woodward, 2010). Under such conditions, natural selection may not result in efficient adaptation because selection pressures are multi-directional, involving traits that may be inversely correlated at the gene level (Jump and Peñuelas, 2005). The standing genetic variation in populations may then not be large enough to create the rare new genotypic combinations that are required. Ecosystems affected by abrupt change may sustain rapid and widespread transformation as ecological tipping points are exceeded (Lenton, 2011). Given the pivotal role of trees in ecosystem function, abrupt climate change impacts on them may thus have profound consequences for forests as a whole (Whitham et al., 2006). Irreversible loss of ecosystem integrity and function may follow, with replacement by new non-endemic ecosystems (Gunderson and Holling, 2002;Mooney et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"Responses of tree populations to environmental change","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Adaptation and 'standing' genetic variation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"Tree populations rely on three interplaying mechanisms to respond to environmental change: adaptation, migration; and phenotypic plasticity (Davis and Shaw, 2001;Jump and Peñuelas, 2005). Genetic adaptations that make a population more suited for survival are achieved through gene frequency changes across generations (Koski et al., 1997). Many tree species have high genetic variability in adaptive traits and can therefore grow under a wide range of conditions (Gutschick and BassiriRad, 2003). Indeed, phenotypic traits of adaptive importance, such as drought tolerance, cold-hardiness, resistance to pests and diseases, and flowering and fruiting period, have been shown to vary across ecological and geographic gradients to an extent that may be as important as the differences observed amongst species (Alberto et al., 2013;Petit and Hampe, 2006). The result is local adaptation along these gradients (Alberto et al., 2013;Savolainen et al., 2007). Navarro et al. (2002Navarro et al. ( , 2005)), for example, found that Cedrela odorata L. populations sampled from areas with long dry periods were more adapted to drought than those collected from wet areas. In relation to pests, Alfaro et al. (2013) indicated that populations of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis [Bong.] Carr.) with resistance to Pissodes strobi Peck were more common in areas with intense pest pressure than in areas where the pest was absent. The process of adaptation to climate change is influenced by migration and genetic drift, with fitness trait values shifting over generations to track environmental change and to ensure the survival of tree populations, with the emergence of endemic populations and speciation (Futuyma, 2010;Kremer et al., 2012;Savolainen et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Although a large amount of genetic diversity per se does not guarantee adaptation and adaptability (Gomulkiewicz and Houle, 2009), the high within-population genetic diversity observed in many forest tree species (but see Vendramin et al., 2008 for a counter example) can support an optimistic view that climate change challenges may be met by standing genetic variation in many cases (Hoffmann and Sgro, 2011). Many forest trees, for example, have high genetic diversity in important adaptive traits, such as tallness, longevity and defense mechanisms (Petit and Hampe, 2006). Trees also often have high fecundity (El-Kassaby et al., 1989), which creates a large gene pool to select from. The speed of adaptive response within populations also depends on the size of the population; the heritability of fitness-related traits; interconnectedness; and the intensity, direction and duration of the selection pressure."},{"index":3,"size":173,"text":"Field trials have been central to demonstrating the extent and distribution of genetic diversity in fitness-related traits in tree species (Kremer et al., 2002;Savolainen et al., 2007). Experiments have been conducted mostly on boreal and temperate species and a few commercially important tropical trees (Aitken et al., 2008;Alberto et al., 2013). Recently, however, there has been a move to include a wider range of less commercial species in the tropics (Raebild et al., 2011). New studies on indigenous African fruit trees, for example, have specifically considered traits important in the context of climate change adaptation (see www.safruit.org). The information being obtained on the effects of different treatments on root development, seedling vigour and other important adaptive characteristics will inform the strategies by which planting material of these fruit trees is supplied to African smallholders (Sanou et al., 2007). In addition to common garden trials, recent molecular-level studies have demonstrated allelic shifts in genes related to drought and heat tolerance amongst tree populations, variables that are relevant for local adaptation (Grivet et al., 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Evidence from field experiments suggests that a balance between divergent selection across contrasting ecological sites and reproductive contact has maintained enough genetic diversity to support adaptation to changing environments in the past (Kremer et al., 2010). Certainly, it has been demonstrated that maintaining high genetic diversity within and amongst tree populations can increase ecosystem resilience (Whitham et al., 2006;Thorsen and Kjaer, 2007), especially when trees are keystone species (Barbour et al., 2009). Intra-specific diversity can promote both resilience to pest attack and the productivity of individual species; economic modelling has, for example, shown that in some cases more optimal production under climate change will be attained in plantations by ''composite provenancing'' from within a species' range (Bosselmann et al., 2008;Hubert and Cottrell, 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"The fast pace of anthropogenic climate change and the comparatively long generation interval of many trees, however, mean that there may be insufficient time for natural selection to give rise to genotypes within populations that are adapted to new environments (Jump et al., 2006). When environmental conditions change at a rate beyond the point where they cause demographic declines, the adaptive challenges faced by populations are markedly different from those experienced during demographic expansions (Gomulkiewicz and Holt, 1995). In a race between decline and evolutionary change, if genetic change is too slow population extinction will be the result. Only when the pace and extent of environmental change is moderate, when a population is initially large, and when evolutionary potential is high, is a population likely to be rescued through adaptation (Gomulkiewicz and Holt, 1995;Gomulkiewicz and Houle, 2009). "}]},{"head":"Direct effects of changing climate","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"These include high tree mortality through extreme climatic events, particularly drought in combination with widespread regeneration failure (IPCC, 2011). Malhi et al. (2009), for example, examined the evidence for anthropogenic climate change leading to future large-scale ''dieback'' in Amazonian rainforest. Analysis suggested that dry-season water stress is likely to increase in eastern Amazonia over the 21st century, with the region tending toward a climate more appropriate to seasonal forests. Due to their deep roots, trees are able to persist under extreme weather events such as droughts for longer periods than many non-woody taxa can, but this persistence should not be over-estimated. For example, in an experiment in the Amazon in which rainfall was restricted to mimic savannah conditions, Nepstad et al. (2007) demonstrated that there was a lag of only three years before the increased mortality of mature trees due to limited water availability Effects of changing climate on organisms associated with trees"},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"In particular, changes in the biology of insect pests and diseases may make ecosystems more susceptible to tree mortality (Alfaro et al., 2010). Because of improved environmental conditions for the pest and reduced tree resistance due to increased stress, pests may react to climate change with range expansions and/or increases in attack severity (Raffa et al., 2013). Since many pests have short generation times, large populations and strong dispersal abilities, they may adapt to environmental change more quickly than host trees (Harrington et al., 2001) Changes in abiotic disturbance regimes These include changes in fire regimes, flooding, landslides and/or hurricanes. Fire and climate are closely linked and are also associated with changes in land use (Piñol et al., 1998;Pausas, 2004). Coupled climate and fire-risk models (Moriondo et al., 2006) suggest not only an increase in the frequency of fires but also in fire size and length of the firerisk season, with some areas subject to risk that were not before. Malhi et al. (2009) considered how tipping points may be reached in Amazonian rainforest by a combination of increased dryness and an increased incidence of fire events Invasion by organisms foreign to local ecosystems"},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"This includes the increased risk of establishment by invasive species which accidentally arrive into ports of entry, through globalized commerce. By making new niches available, climate change will facilitate the survival of mammals, insects, diseases and/or weeds foreign to endemic ecosystems. These include invasive exotic trees introduced for production and amenity purposes that are more precocious, have higher seed dispersal distances, are more fecund and/ or are more adaptable than existing species, or that are better suited to new environmental conditions (Peterson et al., 2008) "}]},{"head":"Migration via pollen and seed movement","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"Pollen-and seed-mediated gene flow can facilitate adaptation to new environmental conditions by replenishing population genetic variation (Bridle et al., 2010;Le Corre and Kremer, 2003;Polechova et al., 2009), and by reducing the effects of genetic drift in small stands (Alleaume-Benharira et al., 2006;Lopez et al., 2009). Under climate change, the asymmetric gene flow from large central populations to small peripheral ones (Kirkpatrick and Barton, 1997;Lenormand, 2002) should prove beneficial for populations at the leading edge of migration fronts, but possibly maladaptive for populations at the rear edge (Hampe and Petit, 2005). Pollen is known on occasions to travel very long distances, particularly in wind-dispersed broadleaves and conifers (Liepelt et al., 2002), but also sometimes for animal-pollinated species (Jha and Dick, 2010;Kramer et al., 2008;Oddou-Muratorio et al., 2005;Ward et al., 2005). Paleoecological reconstructions of the recolonisation of temperate zones during the Holocene have also suggested that seeds are capable of travelling long distances rapidly (Brewer et al., 2002;Nathan et al., 2002), in the range of several hundreds of meters per year. Landscape genetic approaches, macrofossil evidence and theoretical studies, however, indicate that cryptic refugia may have been overlooked, considerably reducing migration estimates (McLachlan et al., 2005;Roques et al., 2010;Willis and van Andel, 2004). In addition, modern estimates of contemporary seed dispersal, although pointing to the existence of long distance dispersal events, generally indicate that median migration rates are in the range of a few tens of meters per year (Amm et al., 2012;Clark et al., 1998;Sagnard et al., 2007;Willson, 1993)."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Whereas such modest migration rates are enough to keep pace in mountain and tropical conifer biomes, migration rates of over 1 km per year may be needed, even under quite modest scenarios of temperature change, in tropical and boreal broadleaf biomes (Loarie et al., 2009). In addition, rates of natural migration are reduced by forest degradation and fragmentation, which therefore increase vulnerability to climate change (Kellomäki et al., 2001;Malcolm et al., 2002). Trees in agricultural land or planted in corridors can enhance pollen-mediated gene flow between forest patches (Ward et al., 2005), allowing more effective responses to change (Bhagwat et al., 2008;Thuiller et al., 2008). Mediterranean and other mountainous regions, where strongly contrasted topography on a meso-or micro-geographic scale prevail, may prove to be amongst the few biomes where climate change velocity will not outpace migration rates (Loarie et al., 2009), provided that land use change and man-made habitat fragmentation does not limit natural migration processes."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Abundant seed production is needed for efficient migration (and local adaptation, see Section 3.1). Predicting how climate change modifies tree fecundity remains a formidable challenge, however, because flowering phenology and seed production are regulated by complex endogenous (e.g., hormonal) and exogenous (e.g. climate) factors that are not completely understood yet. Selås et al. (2002), for example, indicated that spruce seed production in Norway is subject to a negative autocorrelation that lags by 1 year, i.e., good seed years (mast years) are preceded by low seed years, a phenomenon common to many trees. These authors found that seed production during mast years was directly related to higher temperatures in the previous spring and summer, late spring frost and summer precipitation of the last 2 years. On the other hand, more recently, Kelly et al. (2013), analysing extensive data sets from five plant families, found that a warm spring or summer in the previous year had a low predictive ability for seed production. Kelly et al. (2013) developed a model for the prediction of seed production that was based on temperature differentials over several seasons. They concluded that mast seeding will be unaffected by gradual increases in mean temperature, because this will have little effect on the temperature differential over multiple years. Instead, yearly climatic variability may determine the amount of seed produced. This model was recently found to be an accurate predictor of acorn production in valley oak, Quercus lobata Jeps (Pearse et al., 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Increased mortality under climate change reduces tree density (especially at the receding edge), which will also affect the quantity (and genetic quality) of seed crops (Restoux et al., 2008). Changes in climate may also result in asynchronies between flower development and pollinator availability which, for trees that depend on animal vectors, may reduce the seed crop (Dawson et al., 2011), at least until new mutualistic relations are established between trees and pollinators (see Section 4.1). Many tropical tree species that are pollinated by insects, birds, or bats may be affected (Hegland et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"The role of phenotypic plasticity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Phenotypic plasticity is defined as the capacity of a particular genotype to express different phenotypes under different environmental conditions (de Jong, 2005;Pigliucci and Murren, 2003). The concept is often extended to populations and species, with 'plastic' trees those with flexible morphology and physiology that grow at least reasonably well under a range of different environmental stresses without genetic change (Gienapp et al., 2008). A degree of phenotypic plasticity is found in most trees (Piersma and Drent, 2003;Rehfeldt et al., 2001;Valladares et al., 2005), but varies substantially amongst and within species (Aitken et al., 2008;Bouvarel, 1960;Skrøppa et al., 2010). Even in species with very little genetic diversity, such as Pinus pinea L. (Vendramin et al., 2008), strong phenotypic plasticity is expressed for growth-related traits, which may have helped the species colonise new environments (Mutke et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"At least in the short term, high plasticity is likely to favour tree survival under changing environmental conditions, although trade-offs between traits can be expected. As processes related to phenotypic plasticity may oppose those related to genetic adaptation, however, in the longer term, survival may not be favoured (Aitken et al., 2008). Since phenotypic plasticity has a heritable basis and may be selected for under changing environments (Nicotra et al., 2010), complex interactions between traits are possible, depending on the magnitude and structure of change (Chevin et al., 2010). Selecting populations and genotypes that demonstrate good levels of phenotypic plasticity (based on multi-locational field trials and environmental data) may be an appropriate management response to climate change for plantation forestry and agroforestry, especially for regions where greater variation in weather conditions is anticipated. Multi-site field trials sometimes reveal that trees have more plastic responses than would be expected based on their existing geographic distributions (e.g., Pinus radiata D. Don., Gautam et al., 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Epigenetic phenomena (modification of DNA expression but not the nucleotide sequence, e.g., through DNA methylation, histone modification and mRNA regulation) may affect phenotypic plasticity and adaptive potential (Hedhly et al., 2008). Epigenetic effects caused by environmental stresses can be maintained across several generations and vary across populations and individuals (Bossdorf et al., 2008;Yakovlev et al., 2010). Since epigenetic modifications can be reversed, they can be considered as relatively ''plastic'', providing for a rapid response to change while avoiding the need for additional genetic diversification (Lira-Medeiros et al., 2010). According to Aitken et al. (2008), the epigenome may provide a temporary buffer against climatic variability, providing time for the genome to ''catch up'' with change."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"Epigenetic effects have been demonstrated in the phenology of bud set in Picea abies (L.) Karst. Progenies of this species whose embryos develop in warm environments are less cold hardy than those that develop at lower temperatures (Skrøppa and Johnsen, 2000;Johnsen et al., 2005Johnsen et al., , 2009)). Similar effects have been observed in: progeny from Picea glauca and in P. glauca  P. engelmannii (Parry ex Engelman.) (Webber et al., 2005); in Pinus sylvestris L. (Dormling and Johnsen, 1992); and in Larix spp. (Greenwood and Hutchison, 1996). Epigenetic phenomena have also been hypothesised to explain the phenotypic plasticity of the genetically depauperate Pinus pinea (see earlier in this section, Vendramin et al., 2008). There is, however, a general lack of information on epigenetic effects in angiosperm trees (Rohde and Junttila, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Responses of tree populations to catastrophic biotic and abiotic disturbances","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Tree populations have developed mechanisms to respond to naturally occurring disturbances within their range. North American conifers, for example, have adapted to outbreaks of the defoliating insect spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clem.) that have recurred at periodic intervals ($every 35 years) at least since the middle of the Holocene, 6000 years ago (Simard et al., 2011). Climate change may however cause range expansions in herbivorous insects (Murdock et al., 2013) and in diseases, causing increased mortality in non-adapted populations. This is illustrated by whitebark pine, where a warming climate has increased the access of stands to native bark beetles that are now able to reach higher elevations, resulting in high mortality due to low defenses in trees that have had little previous contact with this beetle (Raffa et al., 2013). Recent modelling supports the view that large areas of current whitebark pine habitat are likely to become climatically unsuitable over the coming decades (McLane and Aitken, 2012). Increasingly, warm winters and earlier springs, which cause greater drying of soils and forest fuels, are also predicted to increase the number of large wildfires and the total area burned in temperate and some tropical forests (Malhi et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"Tree populations respond to abrupt, non-linear environmental changes through the mechanisms already outlined: natural selection favours genotypes with increased tolerance or resistance to disturbances, and phenotypic plasticity plays a role. It is well known, for example, that populations of Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. and P. banksiana Lamb. from parts of North America more prone to natural fires have a higher proportion of serotinous cones than those from elsewhere. Serotinous cones remain tightly closed until a hot fire has destroyed standing trees, then releasing seed to initiate rapid post-fire regeneration. There is also evidence that in the Mediterranean ecosystem, fire selects tree species and individuals with a particular combination of functional traits including serotiny, thick bark and high water use efficiency (Fady, 2012;Budde et al., 2014). Populations of many Mediterranean plants persist after fire due to their capacity to form a resistant seed bank (Lamont et al., 1991;Keeley and Fotheringham, 2000). Although many tree species that grow in semi-arid regions have developed mechanisms that confer a degree of resistance to periodic fires, this may not be the case in more humid forests, where increased fire frequency due to climate change may eliminate fire-sensitive species (Verdu and Pausas, 2007). Regions that newly experience regular wildfires may evolve in close association with fire as the main driver, with rapid species and genotype transitions from fire-sensitive to fire-resistant (i.e., a rapid change in micro-evolutionary pattern may occur)."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Large stand-replacing fires or widespread insect and disease outbreaks, although often resulting in large economic losses, do eliminate forests that were adapted to old climatic conditions and provide a 'fresh start' with new regeneration opportunities (Fig. 1). Such successional forests will eventually adapt to new climate through natural selection, particularly at the seedling stage. Selective shifts in traits related to fire resistance may, however, have negative effects on economically important associated traits. For example, Schwilk and Ackerly (2001) indicated that trees that embrace fire as a species survival strategy are more likely to favour traits such as short height, flammable foliage and no self-pruning."}]},{"head":"Co-evolution and biotic disturbances","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"'Co-evolution' describes a situation where two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other's evolution (Janzen, 1980;Pimentel, 1961), such as the classic case of host-pathogen interaction, where changes in R-gene resistance in the host lead to corresponding changes in v-gene virulence in the pathogen, triggering further rounds of change in one and then the other (Person, 1966). In trees, such gene-for-gene relationships have, for example, been found in a number of North American white pines in their interaction with blister rust (Kinloch, 2003;Kinloch and Dupper, 2002). Further important examples of co-evolution in trees include interactions with herbivores and pollinators. In the former case, a number of constitutive and induced defence systems, both mechanical defences (e.g., resin canals, sclereid cells and thorns) as well as chemical defences (e.g., the production of toxic phenols and terpenoids), have evolved in response to herbivory (Alfaro et al., 2002;Cooper and Owen-Smith, 1986;Franceschi et al., 2005). Insects and pathogens have developed mechanisms to de-activate these defences and even utilize them for their own benefit; for example, some insects use tree terpenes as precursors for their communication pheromones (Erbilgin et al., 2014) or incorporate them into their own defence systems (Higginson et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"The relationships between trees and associated herbivores, parasites and pollinators are strongly influenced by environmental factors. It is well known, for example, that drought stress reduces the ability of conifers to defend against bark beetles due to changes in plant defences (Ayres and Lombardero, 2000;Safranyik and Carroll, 2006). Climate change-mediated insect epidemics are already observed in Canada, where the mountain pine beetle has had severe economic consequences for forestry (Konkin and Hopkins, 2009; Fig. 1). In the Canadian province of British Columbia, an outbreak of mountain pine beetle, which began in the early part of the last decade and is only now (2014) abating, attacked more than 13 million hectares of Pinus contorta forests. The cause of this sustained outbreak is believed to have been a long series of unusually warm winters (Safranyik and Carroll, 2006). As with fire, however, large scale mortality does provide an opportunity for wide-scale regeneration (Axelson et al., 2010) and hence more rapid adaptation to changing climate."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Overall, pest-resistant tree genotypes occur more frequently in areas where climate is most favourable to the insect and the lowest resistance levels are found where the insect is absent (Alfaro et al., 2008). As global environmental changes influence the distribution of the insect, an associated adaptive response by the tree will be required."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"The mutualistic relationship between trees and insect or vertebrate pollinators is of considerable interest in the context of climate change. The current view of ecologists recognizes that plant-pollinator relationships are not always a strict one-on-one co-evolutionary process; instead, there are many plant pollinator systems where diverse pollinator assemblages can lead to the maintenance of pollination services, plant reproduction and persistence, and relationships change over time and space (Burkle and Alarcón, 2011 and references therein). Under climate change, trees may be able to rely on new pollinators that shift their attention to them. According to Burkle and Alarcón (2011), the inherent plasticity of plant-pollinator interactions suggests that many species should be able to persist by responding to environmental changes quickly, even though their mutualistic partners may be different."}]},{"head":"Responses to alien invasive species","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"Under climate change, FGR are likely to be increasingly threatened by alien invasive species i.e., more competitive trees, fungal and other diseases and herbivores that do not occur naturally in their local ecosystems, and to which they lack adequate defenses. The acceleration of global trade has increased the likelihood of cross-continental introductions of alien species, which may become more widely established in new ecosystem niches created by global warming (Koskela et al., 2009;Koskela et al., 2014, this special issue;Peterson et al., 2008). When forest ecosystems are already disturbed by other anthropogenic activities, they may have little resistance to invasive species, especially when climate change is also considered, with extreme results possible (Moore, 2005). There are, for example, numerous cases of exotic trees invading forest ecosystems (Richardson, 1998). Lack of resistance to alien invaders, especially in temperate forests, is more severe when the number of endemic species found in them is reduced (Petit et al., 2004;Simberloff et al., 2002). The consequences of exotic pest invasions may be a catastrophic elimination of FGR, such as the cases of chestnut blight and white pine blister rust (Kinloch, 2003). At a provenance level, exotic introductions may result in hybridisation and out-breeding depression in local tree populations already stressed by climate change, but, more positively, hybridisation may also introduce the new genetic variation required by trees to adapt to novel environments (Hoffmann and Sgro, 2011)."}]},{"head":"FGR-based strategies to respond to climate change","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Isbell et al. ( 2011) stated that ''many species are needed to maintain multiple functions at multiple times and places in a changing world''. From a forest management perspective, adapting to climate change requires the adoption of the ''precautionary principle'' and maintaining options in the form of inter-and intra-specific diversity (a form of insurance policy) (UNESCO, 2005). This should increase the resilience of natural and planted forests under environmental variability, especially if the component parts of systems and their interactions respond differently to disturbances (Fleming et al., 2011;Kindt et al., 2006;Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2007). As climate change progresses, poorly-performing trees will be naturally replaced by alternatives that are better suited to new conditions, altering the relative abundance of different species and genotypes in landscapes (Jump and Peñuelas, 2005). As resilience rests on the maintenance of genetic, species and ecosystem diversity, management strategies should support diversification at all three levels (Millar et al., 2007;Jump et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Although humans impacts on forests over time have often involved (genetic) resource depletion (e.g., in the Mediterranean, Fady et al., 2008), silvicultural interventions can provide opportunities to manage forests better under climate change. Several of the management interventions required to support natural and planted production forests in the context of climate change can be considered as good practice under 'business as usual' scenarios (Guariguata et al., 2012). Forest managers sometimes question, however, whether interventions specifically formulated to respond to climate change are economically justified, as tropical foresters are likely to consider commercial agriculture and unplanned logging more important production threats (Guariguata et al., 2012). Interviews of foresters in Europe indicate that they are sometimes similarly ambivalent in implementing specific management responses to climate change, partly reflecting uncertainties in climate impacts and appropriate responses (Milad et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"As part of the toolkit that foresters can use to adapt forests to climate change, the distribution of FGR and their silviculture can be modified in space and time (Sagnard et al., 2011;Lefèvre et al., 2013). To date, few countries have however taken practical steps to reduce the risk of FGR loss due to climate change. Relevant steps are usually only indirectly incorporated into action plans for forest management under climate change. In France, for example, FGR are not explicitly mentioned in the national adaptation strategy (ONERC, 2007). They are, however, part of the action plan for forests, one of the sectors included in the national strategy for biodiversity, where recommendations for their conservation and sustainable use are explicitly mentioned (MAP, 2006)."}]},{"head":"Assisted migration","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"Assisted migration involves human movement of tree seed and seedlings from current locations to sites modelled to experience analogous environmental conditions in the future (Guariguata et al., 2008;McLachlan et al., 2007). Such movements may be latitudinal, longitudinal or altitudinal, and are designed to reduce extinction risks for those species not able to naturally migrate quickly enough, and to maintain forest productivity (Heller and Zavaleta, 2009;Marris, 2009;Millar et al., 2007). Assisted migration may be undertaken over long distances, or just beyond the current range limit of particular genotypes and populations, or within the existing range (Winder et al., 2011). A gradual form of assisted migration could consist of reforestation of harvested sites with seed from adjacent locations likely to be better adapted to the planting site under future climate (e.g., in the Northern hemisphere, using seed from sources to the south; in mountainous regions using seed from lower elevations). Aubin et al. (2011) and Winder et al. (2011) reviewed the pros and cons of the assisted migration approach. One problem is that the selection between different global climate models (GCMs) and the methods for downscaling to detailed geographic levels are still areas of active research and thereby introduce uncertainty in modelling, especially for marginal environments (Fowler et al., 2007). Clearly, areas of high probability for a given future environment, based on ensemble forecasting across GCM (and across the various statistical models available for determining species distributions) should be priorities for action (Rehfeldt et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Much uncertainty is also due to the unknown future trajectories of greenhouse gas emissions in the longer term, as these will depend on technological developments that increase or decrease emissions (IPCC, 2011). For more immediate future scenarios, however, the variation amongst models is small; for México, for the decade centered on the year 2030, for example, it is only about ±0.2 °C of mean annual temperature (Sáenz-Romero et al., 2010). Another difficulty in modelling is that the current distributions of tree species, which form the basic input data for determining likely future distributions, are often not well known (McLachlan et al., 2007;Rehfeldt and Jaquish, 2010), especially in the tropics, where sometimes complex topographies and high biodiversity paradoxically make accurate predictions even more urgent. In the light of uncertainties in modelling, the United Kingdom's Forestry Commission (2011) considers risk minimisation as the best approach, by maintaining existing genetic variation, promoting migration, encouraging natural regeneration and supporting provenance mixing in plantations (Hubert and Cottrell, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"As already noted (see Section 4.2), interventions that involve moving tree species into entirely new areas is hotly debated because of potential disturbances to indigenous flora and fauna. There are also numerous commercial forestry examples where the introduction of ill-adapted genetic resources has resulted in massive production failures. For example, 30,000 ha of Pinus pinaster Aiton plantations were destroyed in the Landes region of France during the winter of 1984 to 1985 following the introduction of non-frost-resistant material from the Iberian Peninsula (Timbal et al., 2005). Careful thought to all environmental factors should therefore be given before climate-related assisted migrations are undertaken. In mountain regions, upwards associated translocations may not be an option if populations are already at or near the summit (translocation must then be to different mountains), or if edaphic conditions are unsuitable (Lauer, 1973). Certainly, the establishment of viable populations at extremely high altitudes would be very challenging (Sáenz-Romero et al., 2010, 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Another challenge to assisted migration that is specific to longliving perennials is that, where climate is changing quickly, large differences in conditions may be observed over an individual tree's lifespan. To find species or genotypes well adapted to conditions at establishment and at productive maturity (e.g., for some species, perhaps a century later) may therefore be difficult. In order to achieve a proper balance, the interval to production/maturity needs to be considered, and multiple stepped translocations over time may be required (Soto-Correa et al., 2012). In addition, changes to pest outbreak risk could simultaneously occur as a result of climate change, and this should be factored into assisted migration decisions (Murdock et al., 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"Another useful approach is to conduct assisted migration on assemblages of species with positive interactions that reduce climate risks. For example, a ''first-stage'' species may be planted as a nurse crop to provide protection from temperature extremes for a second tree. Such an approach has been applied to Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. et Cham., using the leguminous shrub Lupinus elegans Kunth as a nurse plant for seedlings (Blanco-García et al., 2011). Within species, assisted gene flow, where genes are exchanged between populations by moving individuals or gametes, has also the potential to control and reduce mal-adaptation (Aitken and Whitlock, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Selection and breeding","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Climate change-related traits including plasticity and adaptation to increased drought need to be incorporated more actively into breeding programs (IUFRO, 2006). Many existing provenance trials were established before the need to respond to large scale anthropogenic environmental change was considered an important research issue and the traits measured have therefore often not been the most important ones from this perspective. Nevertheless, information from old trials can be reinterpreted in the context of climate threats (Aitken et al., 2008;Alberto et al., 2013). New trials established to assess explicit responses to climate change are being established in a number of countries (see, e.g., http://treebreedex.eu/)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Traits needed to respond to different climatic conditions not often considered previously in breeding include:"},{"index":3,"size":318,"text":"Pest and disease resistance: As noted above (Section 4), climatechange-mediated increases in pest and disease attack are a crucial issue in commercial forestry. To date, one of the most extensive programmes to develop trees with resistance to insect pests in temperate regions is in British Columbia (Alfaro et al., 2013;King and Alfaro, 2009). Using a conventional breeding approach, Picea sitchensis genotypes with resistance to the white pine weevil were screened and deployed in reforestation programmes (Alfaro et al., 2013;Moreira et al., 2012). Such traits may be controlled by only a few loci as a result of genefor-gene co-evolution (sensu Thompson and Burdon, 1992), as already described (Section 4.1), making breeding easier. Drought resistance: For many tree species, such as in the Mediterranean and parts of the tropics, altered moisture regimes will be of greater concern than temperature changes (Santos-del-Blanco et al., 2013). Drought stress induces a range of physiological and biochemical responses in plants and an assortment of genes with diverse functions are induced or repressed in organ-specific changes (Kreps et al., 2002;Shinozaki and Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2007), which may make breeding more difficult. Perdiguero et al. (2013), for example, using microarray analysis, detected that up to 113 genes were significantly induced by drought in two Mediterranean pine species. Species-dependent features shape the transcriptome response; for example, almost none of the 27 genes reliably responsive to water stress in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh., differentially regulated under drought in poplar and pine (Polle et al., 2006). Candidate genes for drought tolerance include those involved in the synthesis of abscisic acid, transcriptional regulators of drought-inducible pathways, and late embryogenesis abundant proteins; shifts at such loci have been linked to global warming (Hoffmann and Willi, 2008). Fire resistance/tolerance: Since fire incidence and severity will increase in many regions under climate change, breeding for features such as serotiny, thicker bark and higher water use efficiency may all be required (e.g., Jump et al., 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":220,"text":"Cyclone resistance/salt tolerance: Rising sea levels and an increase in the frequency of storms have the potential to wreak heavy damage on coastal forests, with low elevation islands at particular risk. Differential abilities to withstand storms and salinity are found more commonly amongst, rather than within, species, but the possibility of intra-specific selection should be further explored. Increasing storm frequency in the Pacific due to climate change has led to efforts to identify cyclone-resistant species such as Endospermum medullosum L.S.Sm. for large-scale planting. In Vanuatu, for example, the establishment of 20,000 ha of plantations of this species is planned over the next 20 years. Phenotypic plasticity: Important but generally poorly understood, the plasticity of particular tree species and populations is vital for responding to climate change, and can be studied in common garden tests (Rehfeldt et al., 1999(Rehfeldt et al., , 2002;;Vitasse et al., 2010). Plasticity across environments can be quantified and response functions for particular populations generated, which describe the change in a trait as a function of the transfer distance or the change in an environmental factor (Rehfeldt et al., 1999(Rehfeldt et al., , 2002)). Populations vary in their response functions: in Pinus contorta, for example, some populations have a high growth rate over a much wider range of climatic conditions than others do (Wang et al., 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":"At a strategic level, the feasibility of classical breeding approaches as a response to climate change needs to be considered. Yanchuk and Allard (2009) reviewed 260 activities for pest and disease breeding in trees, and found relatively few examples where resistant or tolerant material had been developed and deployed operationally. They concluded that future programs to tackle increased pest and disease incidence caused by rapid climate change were likely to have limited success if they relied on conventional breeding approaches (but see the case in this section above on P. sitchensis and white pine weevil). The long life cycle, large size, and (generally) poorly characterised genetics of trees all make breeding responses to climate change more costly and slower than for annual species. Indeed, in the neo-tropics, Guariguata et al. (2008) were unable to identify any changes to industrial tree breeding approaches that were aimed specifically to this end."},{"index":6,"size":197,"text":"A breeding response to climate change requires agile and accurate methods that can deliver the needed genetic improvements but with substantially reduced time and resources. More than ever, breeding programs need to target several traits simultaneously, while conserving large genetic bases for unpredictable adaptation needs (Eriksson et al., 1993). The recent development of Next Generation Sequencing and Genotyping by Sequencing approaches offers an unlimited number of genetic markers, creating opportunities for new developments. These include pedigree reconstruction, so the breeding phase of tree improvement can be by-passed (e.g., ''Breeding Without Breeding'';El-Kassaby and Lstiburek, 2009), with additional simplifications in testing (El-Kassaby et al., 2011); the use of pedigree-free models that can deliver genetic assessments with unprecedented precision, with the added advantage of applicability to unstructured natural populations (El-Kassaby et al., 2012;Klápšte et al., 2013;Korecky ´et al., 2013); and selection methods that utilize information from the entire genome (Meuwissen et al., 2001). Additionally, new methods for bulking-up and delivering the improvements of breeding are needed for commercially important species, as traditional methods (e.g., seed orchards) are slow. Renewed efforts are needed for improving and simplifying vegetative propagation methods, starting from the conventional production of rooted-cuttings through to somatic embryogenesis."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Forest resilience and ecosystem stability are required to ensure the future flow of ecosystem services over space and time in the support of world societies (FAO, 2010). These depend on maintaining genetic diversity, functional species diversity and ecosystem diversity (beta diversity) across forest landscapes and over time. Only adapted and adaptable genetic material will, for example, efficiently mitigate global carbon emissions. From a forest management perspective, adapting to climate change (and mitigating its effects) requires the adoption of the ''precautionary principle'' and maintaining options including intra-specific diversity (UNESCO, 2005). Tree species generally contain high genetic diversity in many of the traits and genes analysed, which supports this principle (Jump et al., 2008), but the potential of trees to respond to climate change should not be over-estimated (Nepstad et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"In determining human responses to climate change for the forestry sector, there needs to be good supporting evidence if the active engagement of forest managers is to be obtained to support management interventions that proceed beyond good 'business as usual' practice (Guariguata et al., 2012;Milad et al., 2013). This evidence includes reliable science-based estimates of risks and the benefits of management for the mitigation of climate change impacts. Responses based on assisted migration need to include the consideration of all environmental factors, as the consequences of only partial consideration (response to a single or a few variables only) may be catastrophic (cf. Timbal et al., 2005), with such measures then losing credibility with forest managers. For assisted migration, modelling should consider potential damage by biotic and abiotic disturbances; for example, potential increases in pest and fire risk as a result of stress in the new area (Murdock et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Assisted migration responses to climate change that are based on greater dependency on the trans-national exchange of forest genetic resources require an appropriate policy and legislative environment to support transfer, including by the harmonisation of phytosanitary requirements, as noted by Koskela et al. (2009). At a national level, policies defining seed zones will need to be modified to allow the assisted migration of genetic material within nations. Countries developing national forestry action plans should also be encouraged to specifically include genetic level responses to climate change in their plans, which has sometimes, but not always, been the case to date (Hubert and Cottrell, 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"Designing proper responses to climate change requires a greater understanding of the extent of phenotypic plasticity in trees for important traits, the adaptive significance of plasticity, the differences in phenotypic plasticity amongst different genetic levels (genotypes, families, populations, etc.), and the trade-offs between plastic and adaptive responses (Aitken et al., 2008). Also required is further research on epigenetic effects, especially in angiosperm trees (Rohde and Junttila, 2008). Plastic and adaptive responses can be studied in multi-locational common garden experiments that specifically consider climate-related traits in measurement and design (Rehfeldt et al., 2002;Vitasse et al., 2010). For animal-pollinated species in particular, research is also needed on the effects of climate change on tree reproductive capacity, such as how elevated temperatures may affect mutualisms with pollinators, and how the changed availability of mutualistic partners influences the persistence of interacting species (Hegland et al., 2009)."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"As in previous climate change episodes, forest genetic resources will recombine to produce new variants, which through natural or assisted selection will produce the genotypes required to continue providing the ecosystem services that societies need from forests."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"But, as climate change progresses it will be important to monitor the adaptation of trees, stands and ecosystems, and to intervene with efforts to support adaptation where needed."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Forest transformation by natural disturbances. For fire-adapted tree species in British Columbia, Canada, elimination of the old forest canopy by stand-replacing fire triggers massive forest regeneration (top two panes). The bottom photograph illustrates massive mortality of lodgepole pine by mountain pine beetle in British Columbia. The diagram shows the removal of the mature lodgepole pine canopy by mountain pine beetle (left) and forest transformation to a different species not affected by beetle (right). Canopy mortality by disturbances creates enormous economic losses, but at the same time provides conditions for forest regeneration. This provides new opportunities for natural selection to operate, resulting in a new generation of trees better adapted to new climatic conditions, and which eventually will replace old canopies born under the climate of over one hundred years earlier. Photographs: Canadian Forest Service. "},{"text":"Table 1 Forest genetic resources under pressure: climatic drivers of change.  "}],"sieverID":"6dcd7e5b-5cea-4b5b-a078-d0c4d0365416","abstract":"The current distribution of forest genetic resources on Earth is the result of a combination of natural processes and human actions. Over time, tree populations have become adapted to their habitats including the local ecological disturbances they face. As the planet enters a phase of human-induced climate change of unprecedented speed and magnitude, however, previously locally-adapted populations are rendered less suitable for new conditions, and 'natural' biotic and abiotic disturbances are taken outside their historic distribution, frequency and intensity ranges. Tree populations rely on phenotypic plasticity to survive in extant locations, on genetic adaptation to modify their local phenotypic optimum or on migration to new suitable environmental conditions. The rate of required change, however, may outpace the ability to respond, and tree species and populations may become locally extinct after specific, but as yet unknown and unquantified, tipping points are reached. Here, we review the importance of forest genetic resources as a source of evolutionary potential for adaptation to changes in climate and other ecological factors. We particularly consider climate-related responses in the context of linkages to disturbances such as pests, diseases and fire, and associated feedback loops. The importance of management strategies to conserve evolutionary potential is emphasised and recommendations for policy-makers are provided."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cb524764ad29766dfd32dcd15beebe8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7dd3e817-fa48-41ce-a52d-c303a730642c/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IWMI • 5","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":" The region needs to accelerate actions to meet the UN's Sustainable Development Goal #6, which addresses the recovery and reuse of wastewater and to make reuse safer and more productive.  The region needs to recover and reuse lost wastewater when feasible and make reuse, particularly indirect use, safer not only through better treatment methods but also with better agricultural practices.  The region needs to address the challenges that lock the potential, including high costs and poor financial sustainability, cultural barriers and distrust, institutional fragmentation, improper regulations and lack of political will.  The region needs to accelerate the replication of successful water reuse projects."}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":" The region faces a severe water crisis. Efforts to resolve this crisis have been insufficient.  Wastewater is part of the problem and part of the solution. Untreated wastewater increases water pollution and aggravates water scarcity. On the other hand, wastewater is the only water source that is renewable, growing with time and contains resources that can be productive.  Indirect use of untreated wastewater is a common reality in the region. The health risks need to be assessed and mitigated.  Wastewater is only a waste if we decide to waste it."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"The potential for resource recovery from municipal wastewater in the region is still untapped."}]},{"head":"About ReWater MENA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"In 2018, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and its partners embarked on a four-year project to expand the safe reuse of water in the Middle East and North Africa. The project addressed barriers to water reuse in the region and promoted safe reuse practices that improve food safety, health and livelihoods. Drawing on experience with water reuse strategies already developed in the region, the project identified promising innovations and validated reuse models, with the aim of resolving past management bottlenecks. These include cultural barriers, institutional fragmentation, inappropriate regulations and lack of financial models for cost recovery. With a focus on Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon, the project facilitated inclusive and participatory engagement with stakeholders, to support the development and uptake of project results. For more information about the ReWaterMENA project, visit: https://rewater-mena. iwmi.org/ or contact: Javier Mateo-Sagasta, ReWaterMENA project leader ([email protected]). "}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa 1 (hereafter called \"the region\") generate around 21.5 billion cubic meters (BCM) of municipal wastewater each year. Many countries are substantially improving their wastewater treatment rate, however, about 40% of produced domestic wastewater and a substantial portion of industrial wastewater in the region are still left untreated."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Water reuse can help tackle the water scarcity problems of the region, which have been exacerbated by climate change. It also has the potential to play an important role in water resources management to lessen the present and long-term demand-supply imbalance. Addressing these challenges is particularly important when considering the increasing population and urbanization trends of the region, which will lead to an increase of domestic water use."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Many uncertainties remain regarding the reuse of water. It is strongly recommended that policies be pushed forward which holistically consider social, economic and environmental implications. This will also support governments in developing national strategies on water reuse through investigating the existing situation, evaluation of policy options in different areas and offering appropriate recommendations."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"The successful and efficient use of treated water in agriculture will depend on its reliability, in quantity and quality, as an alternative source of water for irrigation. It will also depend on factors such as setting adequate national standards for reuse; improving public awareness and attitudes towards treated wastewater utilization; and its effective utilization in existing agriculture to replace unrenewable water resources."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"The region needs to overcome the factors that limit the materialization of the regional full water reuse potential, including cultural barriers and distrust; institutional fragmentation; inadequate regulatory frameworks; and the lack of appropriate tariffs, economic incentives and financial models that undermine cost recovery and the sustainability of reuse projects. Governments should provide concrete financial mechanisms to support upscaling the sustainable use of nonconventional water related technologies."},{"index":6,"size":133,"text":"In order to remove these barriers and reduce the investments risks, water reuse projects must strengthen international and multi-stakeholder cooperation. Public-private partnerships are essential in attenuating the risks of investments and share the complementary human, financial and technical resources to implement long-term non-conventional water projects. A sound and adequate policy, as well as an adequate legal and institutional framework is essential to provide an enabling environment for public and private sector investments in the water reuse sector. Cost benefit and cost recovery should be integrated for sustainability of any water reuse project. Greater attention should be given to the role of women in water reuse projects. The lack of political will in some countries must be addressed. Finally, efforts should be made to incentivize the adoption of on-farm practices for safe water reuse."}]},{"head":"1","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This report includes data for these Arab countries in MENA: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Throughout this report the terms 'MENA region' and/or 'the Region' refer only to those 19 countries."}]},{"head":"Wastewater is part of the problem and part of the solution","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Wastewater production grows as population, urbanization and income per capita grow. In many countries of the region there is still a long way to go in wastewater treatment to catch up with wastewater production growth."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The 19 countries analyzed produce around 21.5 BCM of municipal wastewater every year (Mateo-Sagasta et al 2022a). The most recent data shows that at least 40% of the domestic wastewater that is generated is not safely treated and does not meet national standards for disposal (WHO 2021). The situation varies in between countries (Figure 3). Income per capita is a good indicator for the level of treatment. High-income countries such as Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates or Saudi Arabia treat most of the domestic wastewater they generate. Low-and lower-middle-income countries such as Yemen, Sudan, Mauritania and Morocco have more challenges.  "}]},{"head":"State of water reuse in the region","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Per capita water availability reducing","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"In the past few decades, the region has experienced the fastest global decline in available water resources in the world. The situation is forecast to dramatically worsen in the future in view of population and economic growth and climate change. The region's population grew from 119 million inhabitants in 1970 to around 418 million in 2020 (UN 2019, UN 2018) (Figure 1). That rapid population growth has also led to a corresponding drop in per capita water availability. Since 1970, the annual per capita share of renewable water resources in the region has dropped by 70 percent, from 1,752 cubic meters to a low 530 cubic meters by 2020 (FAO 2022) (Figure 2). This increased water scarcity will have a profound economic impact in the region and the livelihood of its people. For example, the water scarcity is forecast to reduce the average gross domestic product in the region by 6 to 14% by 2050 and reduce labor demand by up to 12% (World Bank 2018;Taheripour et al. 2020)"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The water and nutrients embedded in municipal wastewater generated in the 19 analyzed countries, if fully recovered, can irrigate and fertilize more than 2.6 million hectares. The carbon embedded in the generated wastewater, if recovered in the form of methane, would have a caloric value to provide electricity to millions of households (Mateo-Sagasta 2022a)."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Part of the water and nutrients in wastewater are already being reused indirectly. This occurs when treated or untreated wastewater is discharged into freshwater streams where it becomes diluted and is subsequently used by downstream users (e.g., farmers, households or industries) (Figure 5). Substantial amounts of wastewater are lost when it is discharged to the sea or evaporates on land or along rivers with no productive use."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"In many countries, the growth of wastewater produced outpaces the investment in treatment, which leads to increasing amounts of untreated wastewater and contaminating freshwater supplies. This reduces the amount of water that is safe to use and aggravates water scarcity."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Nevertheless, wastewater can be part of the solution to the water crisis. Wastewater is hardly 'waste' though, it contains valuable resources. Water is the most important and abundant asset in wastewater and can be used as a substitute for freshwater if appropriately treated. Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium are valuable in agriculture and aquaculture. Organic carbon can be used as a soil conditioner or to generate energy (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Food value chain","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wastewater is only a waste if we decide to waste it: the potential is still untapped","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The number of reuse projects in the region has doubled every decade since 1990, growing from 40 projects in 1990 to more than 400 in 2020 (Mateo-Sagasta et al 2022a) (Figure 6)."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Despite the rapid growth of water reuse projects across the region, the amount of municipal wastewater that is treated and directly reused for beneficial purposes is still very limited in the region (Table 1). The main exceptions are in the GCC countries, namely Qatar, UAE, Kuwait, Oman and Bahrain. There is nevertheless a sizeable portion of the (treated or untreated) wastewater discharged into the environment, which evaporates or ends up in the sea with no productive use (Figure 7). Some nutrients end up in non-productive sinks, such as weeds or algal blooms. Recent estimates from Velpuri et al. (2023) suggest that the wastewater evaporated (on land or along water courses) or lost in the sea can be as high as 54% of the total municipal wastewater produced in the region, while the rest is reused directly or indirectly."}]},{"head":"Direct and indirect use of untreated wastewater is a common reality in the region","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"It is estimated that about 36% of the municipal wastewater is reused indirectly after dilution in water bodies. Indirect water reuse is by far the most extensive type of reuse in the region (Velpuri et al. 2023). In areas where a large portion of the wastewater is still not safely treated the practice poses health risks to farmers and to consumers, particularly if such water is used to irrigate vegetables to be eaten raw (WHO 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"The use of raw wastewater in agriculture has also been reported in some countries of the region, although the exact extent of the practice is unknown. For example, untreated wastewater is used on farms because it is cheaper than using groundwater from deep boreholes, for which some farmers cannot afford. In other cases, farmers use wastewater from malfunctioning treatment plants or sewers, taking advantage of the already collected resource. In other cases, wastewater is the only water flowing in irrigation canals in the dry season and at the tail-ends of irrigation schemes. In some extreme cases, farmers rupture or plug sewage lines to access the wastewater (Lahham et al 2022). The number of reuse projects has specifically grown  This is an internal barrier to productivity as sometimes recycled water is forbidden for many cash crops. At the same time meeting the standards requires investments in wastewater treatment that are prohibitive in some countries. There is also an issue of effectiveness and enforcement: stringent standards do not necessarily prevent informal direct and indirect use of wastewater."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The enforcement of water quality standards is often ineffective with farmers who have poor incentives or support to find alternative practices. Regulations are only applied to planned reuse projects while informal reuse remains poorly monitored and risks left unmitigated. Some countries, such as Lebanon, do not have yet any regulations on water reuse and as a result there is no legal security for investments (Nassif et al. 2022)."}]},{"head":"Cross cutting challenges","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fragmented and partial planning and governance","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Many sectors have a stake in water reuse including agriculture, water, health and environment sectors at national and local levels. Regulating, planning and managing agricultural water reuse require harmonizing a multiplicity of decision-making processes and activities performed by different stakeholders. Nevertheless, this harmonization and integration is not frequent because the stakeholders to be involved have different and often conflicting mandates, functions, goals and interests (Figure 8) and there is no process devoted to facilitate dialogue and agreement between them (Nassif and Tawfik 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Water reuse projects can only work if socially accepted, technically reliable and financially profitable to farmers. This requires strong links between central institutions (and their donor partners) and local stakeholders to analyze local practices, develop appropriate infrastructure and negotiate adaptive management arrangements."}]},{"head":"Gender biases","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The wastewater and sanitation services are missing out to include a large segment of society. Women face considerable barriers in the recruitment process for employment in water and sanitation utilities. The World Bank (2019) Utility Survey over a 12-month period showed that only 20% of new hires were females. Some of the reasons for fewer women being recruited include biases in the recruitment process since certain roles are socially perceived as for male or female. The retention of women in water and sanitation utilities is affected by a lack of gender-sensitive policies and a discriminatory work environment (Mapedza et al. 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Challenges for more and safer water reuse in the region"}]},{"head":"Challenges for more water reuse Water reuse has low social acceptance","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Water reuse can trigger rejection, especially when resulting in a possible direct exposure, like where reclaimed water is replenishing surface or groundwater for potable reuse or used within the household (Mateo-Sagasta and Drechsel 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Both farmers and the public tend to perceive the potential presence of pollutants in recycled water as environmental, health or agronomic risks. Even in cases where the risks are negligible or non-existent, the public perception of risk increases depending on the appearance, color and odor of reclaimed water, but can even more be steered by gossip, fear and misinformation."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Farmers will be reluctant to change from freshwater to recycled water if they perceived they are going to lose with the change in terms of productivity (e.g., because of salinity), access to markets (e.g., because of the stigma associated to reuse) or any other way (Mateo-Sagasta and Drechsel 2022)."}]},{"head":"Incomplete economic analysis and limited financial sustainability of wastewater treatment and reuse options","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Water reuse projects are developing at a relatively slow pace in part due to an incomplete economic analysis of wastewater treatment and reuse options, which can provide a sound justification to invest (Gebrezgabher and Darwish 2022). There is a lack of economic incentives (or the removal of economic barriers) to invest once the investment has been economically justified. There is also a tendency to keep investing in conventional wastewater treatment technologies that are not cost-effective and have large operation and maintenance costs, which are hard to recover and limits financial sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Additionally, the development and implementation of water reuse strategies across the region is challenged by factors such as a lack of water reuse cost recovery mechanisms, low pricing of irrigation water, need for creating financial incentives for safe water reuse and lack of understanding among the public about the perceived environmental benefits of wastewater treatment and reuse (Otoo and Drechsel 2018;World Bank 2011)."}]},{"head":"Challenges of safer water reuse","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Unclear regulations and ineffective implementation","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Water regulations are sometimes overly stringent."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Policy Report • Expanding water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa"}]},{"head":"IWMI • 13","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Recommendations for more and safer water reuse  Currently, the region has a serious imbalance between available water resources and agricultural needs to grow food for its population, while its groundwater is experiencing major depletion and deterioration. The reuse of treated water can significantly improve the situation. Additionally, it can provide nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, to the mostly nutrient-deficient soils in the region, and thus may reduce the total requirement of commercial fertilizers, which will increase the total economic return to farmers."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for greater water reuse","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gain wider social acceptance","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Good practices and adequate technical capacity are not enough to guarantee the success of water reuse interventions. Understanding the issues and concerns around perceptions and acceptance and addressing these with timely, effective communications and stakeholder engagement can significantly help to build trust and improve and support reclaimed water use initiatives (Mateo-Sagasta and Drechsel 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Public involvement begins with early contact with potential users, and can involve the forming of an advisory committee, and public workshops on reasons, benefits and risks of reuse. The exchange of information between authorities and the public representatives should ensure that concerns on perceived health or environmental impacts and lower property values have been shared and addressed."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"For a water reuse initiative to succeed, community attitudes need to be understood and addressed. It is necessary to consider instinctive and emotional responses that people have toward 'human excreta' and 'sewage'. Many people trust hearsay or their own impressions of water quality more than they trust medical and scientific evidence or advice. Once water has been in contact with contaminants, it can be psychologically very difficult for people to accept that it has been purified. There is also an association between religious beliefs and respondents' willingness to use treated wastewater (Mateo-Sagasta and Drechsel 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Farmers and traders want to know if the use of reclaimed water is financially viable, from their perspective. In the case of use of recycled water for irrigation, for example, crop acceptance by the consumer (buyer) remains the most crucial criterion."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"context. To develop a bankable wastewater reuse model, project designers should follow a stepwise approach consisting of five main phases:"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"▪ Identify potential wastewater reuse options. ▪ Develop a business model for wastewater reuse option. ▪ Identify innovative partnership and financing options. ▪ Identify risks and opportunities. ▪ Develop implementation plan."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for safer water reuse","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Assess health risks in informal and indirect water reuse","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Water scarcity and pollution are driving thousands of farmers in the region to use raw or diluted (untreated) wastewater to irrigate, posing potential health, agronomic and environmental risks. These risks need to be assessed and mitigated. Health risks can be assessed for example with epidemiological studies or quantitative microbial risk assessments."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"To improve acceptance of water reuse, project designers can:"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"▪ Encourage public participation and discourse ▪ Engage proactively in early and continuous communication to build trust ▪ Select messaging with the right terminology ▪ Communicate the benefits of water reuse and how risks are mitigated ▪ Address possible religious concerns ▪ Facilitate behavior change"}]},{"head":"Develop bankable water reuse models","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Wastewater reuse projects, if adequately planned and properly implemented, can provide opportunities for sound investments and financial rewards (Figure 9) (Gebrezgabher and Darwish 2022). Studies on developing bankable wastewater reuse models, and studies focusing on the potential of implementing wastewater reuse models, must first identify and set priorities in terms of the target area. This priority setting is essential to identify potential wastewater reuse models that have high relevance and the likelihood of success in the local  "}]},{"head":"Accelerate wastewater treatment to cope with wastewater production growth","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Wastewater treatment must keep pace with the increasing wastewater production. This requires a clear plan for sanitation and wastewater treatment that anticipates future needs in sewerage and treatment capacity. It is important to select cost-effective and affordable solutions, beyond activated sludge, that have clear plans for financial sustainability that anticipate potential future increases in energy or labor costs."}]},{"head":"Incentivize the adoption of on-farm practices for safe water reuse","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Project designers and relevant authorities need to ensure safety along the whole sanitation-food value chain. This calls for incentivizing the adoption of on-farm practices for safe water reuse. This means that food must be made safer not only by using better wastewater treatment methods but also with better agricultural practices which will provide an additional safety net if treatment proves insufficient as promoted by the WHO guidelines (WHO 2006). Crops need also to be kept safe with a combination of solutions from farm to fork (Figure 10) and avoid recontamination with polluted water in informal markets, food processing industries or households (Drechsel et al 2010). and enforce standards. ▪ Decision makers and the population at large should be well informed about the benefits and costs associated with keeping good water quality, as specified by the standards."}]},{"head":"Incorporate gender transformative approaches","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Water reuse projects should incorporate gender transformative approaches, which aim to address the root causes of gender inequality (Mapedza et al. 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"A heightened level of awareness of gender issues will help project managers and implementers understand the complexities surrounding water reuse for agriculture. On the basis of such awareness targeted activities can be designed to meet the needs of the society as a wholeincluding men and women -and facilitate acceptability of this important water resource. Women who are well informed can be a force to address current social acceptance barriers towards water reuse. Some key recommendations within this context include (Mapedza et al. 2022):"},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"▪ Disaggregation of all data in water reuse projects by sex, and whenever possible by age, economic status, ethnicity and other core social differentiating factors to account for differences in challenges and opportunities among different social groups. ▪ Women must not only be consulted, but they need to be represented at different levels of the serviceproviders tiers and contribute to decision-making. ▪ Women should be provided with adequate and timely access to essential information, including procedures and protocols for reuse in order to give them the opportunity to be involved in identifying and deciding on appropriate reuse options and be in full compliance with the rules thereby protecting themselves, their household and the environment from harm. ▪ The interactions among the different dimensions (culture and religion) and sources of inequality (sex, race and ethnicity) that can exasperate existing inequalities and put certain groups of the society at a more disadvantaged position, must be addressed."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"entitlements when water reuse and exchange projects are promoted (e.g., when freshwater is intended to be reallocated from farms to cities and, in compensation, farms get nutrient rich recycled water from cities) ▪ Ensure access to information and data sharing between stakeholders and create a climate of trust and collaboration ▪ Develop the capacity of public utilities and local institutions ▪ Promote clear institutional framework to enable the involvement of the private sector in water reuse implementation."}]},{"head":"Expand implementation of water quality standards","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"While water reuse offers multiple benefits, it also comes with concerns on its potential impact on health, crops and ecosystems. To manage these hazards, governments typically issue water quality 'standards' usually promulgated through regulations centered around several water quality parameters and thresholds, monitoring protocols and best practice. Some key recommendations in this space include (Nassif et  Ultimately, the factors that will contribute positively to the inclusive scaling and replication of safe water reuse projects are: participatory stakeholder processes and effective communication that increases acceptability; economic and finance models that improve cost recovery and sustainability; effective and harmonic policies that address institutional fragmentation; adequate regulations that are ambitious but affordable and enforceable; safety measures from farm to fork; and gender mainstreaming in water reuse projects and policies that ensures equitable participation and benefit sharing."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The region needs to recover and reuse lost wastewater when feasible and make indirect reuse safer. To achieve this, the region needs to address the challenges that lock the potential of water reuse, which more importantly include fostering political will and bringing water reuse higher in the political agenda. Moreover, there is a need to address the institutional fragmentation, create platforms for negotiation and joint work between institutions and ensuring that the responsibilities and jurisdictions among national and local authorities and stakeholders are clear."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Javier Mateo-Sagasta / IWMI Policy Report • Expanding water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa IWMI • 6 "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Population in the region (millions of inhabitants). Source: UN 2019; UN 2018. "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 3 . Figure 2. Water resources per capita in the region; red line shows threshold for water scarcity. Source: FAO 2022 "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 5 . Figure 4. Types of resources recovered from wastewater. From left to right: biogas, plant nutrients and organic matter, and water. Source: Otoo and Drechsel 2018 "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. The number of reuse projects in the region has doubled every decade since 1990. Source: Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2022b "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. The large array of stakeholders involved in the governance of agricultural water reuse systems. Source: Nassif and Tawfik 2022 "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Ladder of increasing value propositions related to water reuse based on increasing investments in water quality and/or the value chain. Source: Drechsel et al. 2015 "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Examples of options for the reductions of pathogens by different combination of health measures that achieve the health-based target of <or = 10-6 DALYS per person and per year. Source: WHO 2006 "},{"text":" For the region, treated wastewater constitutes a growing and perennial resource (Box 1). Most of national water strategies and plans in the region are relying on wastewater treatment as a key component in the national water resources plan (Box 2). However, before any water reuse plan can become a reality, several challenges need to be addressed.If all lost wastewater is recovered, the region can unlock new opportunities whilst enhancing the region's ability to adapt to changes in climate and enhance food security. If fully recovered, the 11.6 BCM of municipal wastewater If fully recovered, the 11.6 BCM of municipal wastewater estimated to be lost, could additionally irrigate and estimated to be lost, could additionally irrigate and fertilize about 1.4 million hectares with a relatively high fertilize about 1.4 million hectares with a relatively high application rate of 8,000 m 3 /ha/year (Steduto 2012). application rate of 8,000 m 3 /ha/year (Steduto 2012). If no wastewater were lost and 70% of the COD was If no wastewater were lost and 70% of the COD was recovered in the form of methane, the energy produced recovered in the form of methane, the energy produced could provide electricity to around 4 million households could provide electricity to around 4 million households (Mateo-Sagasta et al 2022a). (Mateo-Sagasta et al 2022a).  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Wastewater production, treatment and reuse in 19 countries within the region in 2020 (or latest available year) The fate of municipal wastewater. Source: adapted from Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2022a A brief history of water reuse policies and development of guidelines in the region BOX 1. Examples of uses of reclaimed waterThe dominant uses of reclaimed water are for forestry, agriculture and landscaping, including irrigation of parks and gardens. Forestry and agriculture are the dominant users of reclaimed water for example in Egypt, Tunisia and Jordan while landscaping is the preferred option in countries like Morocco, United Arab Emirates, Oman and other GCC countries. Countries Total municipal wastewater generated (BCM) Municipal wastewater treated and directly reused (BCM) Directly reused from municipal wastewater (%) Number of projects where municipal wastewater is treated and directly reused CountriesTotal municipal wastewater generated (BCM)Municipal wastewater treated and directly reused (BCM)Directly reused from municipal wastewater (%)Number of projects where municipal wastewater is treated and directly reused Algeria 2.649 0.100 3.8 22 Algeria2.6490.1003.822 Bahrain 0.186 0.045 24 4 Bahrain0.1860.045244 Egypt 7.196 0.341 4.7 77 Egypt7.1960.3414.777 Iraq 1.232 NA NA NA Iraq1.232NANANA Jordan 0.187 0.071 37.9 25 Jordan0.1870.07137.925 Kuwait 0.666 0.271 40.7 6 Kuwait0.6660.27140.76 Lebanon 0.481 0.002 0.4 4 Lebanon0.4810.0020.44 Libya 0.514 0.040 7.8 1 Libya0.5140.0407.81 Mauritania 0.138 NA NA NA Mauritania0.138NANANA Morocco 0.415 0.076 18.3 22 Morocco0.4150.07618.322 Oman 0.275 0.079 28.6 30 Oman0.2750.07928.630 Palestine 0.180 0.007 3.7 24 Palestine0.1800.0073.724 Qatar 0.225 0.165 73.6 17 Qatar0.2250.16573.617 Saudi Arabia 3.144 0.431* 13.7 40 Saudi Arabia3.1440.431*13.740 Sudan 1.533 0.029 1.9 3 Sudan1.5330.0291.93 Syria 1.147 NA NA NA Syria1.147NANANA Tunisia 0.254 0.034 13.4 63 Tunisia0.2540.03413.463 UAE 0.801 0.549 68.6 64 UAE0.8010.54968.664 Yemen 0.326 0.036* 11.1 7 Yemen0.3260.036*11.17 The region 21.549 2.275 10.5 409 The region21.5492.27510.5409 NA: data not available    NA: data not available Source: Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2022a    Source: Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2022a  "},{"text":"Industrial production Fresh drinking water Avoided fresh water use Soil amelioration Public health Yield increase Yield increase Avoided fresh water use Water reliability Groundwater recharge Water recovery for irrigation Nutrients and organic matter recovery Internal production of fish feed, fish or biofuel Energy recovery and carbon credits Water recovery for industry Potable water recovery TREATMENT VALUE PROPOSITION RECOVERY VALUE PROPOSITIONS FROM WASTEWATER AND BIOSOLIDS Cross cutting recommendations Improve planning and governance   Governance problems are often rooted in deeper socio- Governance problems are often rooted in deeper socio-  political structures that cannot simply be changed political structures that cannot simply be changed  by implementing participatory processes and social by implementing participatory processes and social  engineering tools. Some key recommendations within this engineering tools. Some key recommendations within this  context include (Nassif and Tawfik 2022): context include (Nassif and Tawfik 2022):  ▪ Ensure buy-in by the key national players around clear ▪ Ensure buy-in by the key national players around clear  goals  goals  ▪ Conduct a stakeholder mapping exercise ▪ Conduct a stakeholder mapping exercise  ▪ Establish multi-stakeholder platforms and welcome ▪ Establish multi-stakeholder platforms and welcome  epistemic communities to support epistemic communities to support  ▪ Understand gaps and overlaps in roles and ▪ Understand gaps and overlaps in roles and  responsibilities responsibilities  ▪ Analyze stakeholders' influence and interest ▪ Analyze stakeholders' influence and interest  ▪ Clarify roles and responsibilities along questions such ▪ Clarify roles and responsibilities along questions such  as who proposes or authorizes a project, who invests, as who proposes or authorizes a project, who invests,  who is responsible for operation and maintenance, who is responsible for operation and maintenance,  who monitors, etc. who monitors, etc.  ▪ Establish central coordination and regulatory ▪ Establish central coordination and regulatory  institutions institutions  ▪ Allow for flexibility in institutional arrangements ▪ Allow for flexibility in institutional arrangements  ▪ Empower stakeholders with existing know how and ▪ Empower stakeholders with existing know how and  political leverage political leverage  ▪ Understand and re-negotiate local water rights and ▪ Understand and re-negotiate local water rights and   Decreased Decreased   internal/ internal/   external external  Feedstock, protein energy demand Feedstock, proteinenergy demand Safe disposal for and ethanol production Carbon emissions offset Safe disposal forand ethanol productionCarbon emissions offset environmental health Avoided eutrophication  environmental healthAvoided eutrophication Surface water   Surface water quality   quality Environmental   Environmental flows   flows  "},{"text":" al 2022): ▪ Every country should adapt international water reuse guidelines based on local conditions and derive corresponding national standards. ▪ Standards should be enforceable and enforced. Standard values should be achievable and allow for enforcement, based on existing and affordable control measures. ▪ Environmental agencies should license, and banks should fund measures, that allow for stepwise improvement in water quality. ▪ Technologies should reflect countries' financial conditions. The use of appropriate technology should always be pursued. ▪ Efficient implementation of standards requires adequate infrastructure and institutional capacity to license, guide, monitor and control polluting activities  "}],"sieverID":"b499fffe-e74a-48ef-9b53-aa4d3cb01059","abstract":"IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged and kept informed in all such instances (see Fair use below).Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared with care. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IWMI, CGIAR, our partner institutions, or donors."}

data/part_2/0cf97ea42be3588765d8f2d943240b04.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cf97ea42be3588765d8f2d943240b04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f95a418-ae17-4a4b-9aed-66249d7b4c20/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"NATURAL DAYLENGTHS FOR PHOTOPERIOD SENf:>ITIVE PLANTS' ••","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"a recent fi.ld study of maize in lbe trapics (2), we used 5 hour. oí addilional Iight lo shorten lhe dark periodo Lighl intensiti ... hove the criticalleveis oí 5 root <andles and 1 lo 2 foo! eandles were effe.tive in delaying floral differenlialion hy Mout 20 snd .bou! S days, respec• tively, in photoperíod sensitive genotypes (oue foot candle js app-rGxi~ mately .qual to 10.76 lux). These critical intensilios have nol been established for many crup spedes. Therefore, to extend the applicatioil of these curves of \"Photoperiod Effeelíve Hours\" lo m.ny specios .nd locatiúDs; calculations were made uslng four critical intensitíes;: 10, 5. 2 and 1 fool candle (108, 54. 22 aud 11 lux). latitudes from 70° N lo 60~S. and 15-<1oy interval. Ihrough Ihe year. These cutves are reproduced in hulletin form to allow increa~d size and accuracy in their use. compared to lhe original puhlicalion (1). Tne tables of original data from which the curves were drawn are a1st\\' included to give more detail and precision 101' each latitude and season."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"To calculal. th. number of hours in the day with a Iight intensity aboye a eertain level., tbe time in the morning at which lhat intensity is reached and the time in the evcning al whích it 15 passed must be known. The NautÍcal AhnRnac (5), publ¡,hed yearly by the U.S. Naval ObseI'valory, gives the time. (jf Civil twiligh! (sun 6? below horizon). sunrise, and sunset. Frotn tabIes in the 1965 edition of this a]manac~ the hours of sunlight and hGur. wíth a light íntenoi!y above Civil twilight were calculated for latitudes at 10' intervals fram 70~N lo 60?S. Tbe light intensity oí the sun on a dear day with the disk near the horizon is 1.885 Lambert. (3). Thi. intcnsity Í5 approximately 42 ft.-c. Factors rol\" light energy oonversions are given in Table 1, Befóre the SUD reaches the horizon, the Hght intensities on a clear day at -69, -5?~ -4~~ -3?~ -2?~ aud -l? (angle ohun below horizon) are 2, .5. 13. 40, 113, and 250 luxo respectively (4). These v.Iu .. , in tbe order given. are abont 0.2, 0.5. 1.2,3.7. 10.5, and 23.2 ft..c. From these data a Hght intensity curve is drawn fol' SUD angles helow the horizon frOom Civil twilight to sunrise. This curve may be :reveI'sed for the period fmm su\"\",t lo Civil Iwilight in the evening. The sun angle below the horizon at whieh eaeh specifíc foot candlo intensity 15 reached on a elesl' day is then deterrnined."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Because of the essentially uniform angular velocity of Ihe oarth relativo to tbe sun, Ihe ratio of the dcgrees below Ihe hQriwn for a _cific Iight intensity lo -6<:' gives tbe proportion uf the time hetween Civil twHght aud sunrise, and between sunset and Civil twilight, which 18 aboye the crítica! intensily. This time is added to the hnurs oí sunlight lo give Ihe total hours pel day with an intensity aboye suy chosen leve!.     \" \" v cE ., 'j '\" L o '\" J:  ~ vi '6"},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":".. . .     Ir numher of day. lo floral initialion is correlated with 8nthesi., day. lo f10wering of speeific genotypes when grown in several loeslion. could he oompared to determine which fnctors in the environment were signifi. cant in their influenee on developmenl."}]},{"head":"Fotoperiodo en horas con uno intensidad superior a las dos bujias (21,5 lux).","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The precise data (rom which these curves were drawn are listed in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5, :for the 54ime critical íntensities. The data presented are hours and decimalf:i of hours, Le., 14.50 is 14 hours and 30 min, while 12.75 i. 12 hours and 45 mino These table. are useíul if the exaet honrs and minutes of light are needed ro. a specIfic loeatl\"n and date."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Intermediate dates and latitudes may he interpolated from these lables. Pinally, the hours of sunlight for Ihese same latitudes aud dates are prescnled in Table 6, along with exaet times of Sunri ... nd Sunset (5)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"These intensity cw:'ves for effeelive daylengths may he used lo evaluate field reactions ro photoperioo 1 one of the impGrtant factors whieh influences Ihe complex pattero of adaptation. Data on both erit. iea! iotensity and critica! daylength are needed íor eaeh apeeific crop lo oorrectly apply Ihe iniormation in these curves to sludies of davel• opment."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"As the faelors which influenee survival, adaptation and productivity beoome better understood for each er'Op apecies, Ihere will he inere.sed attention given lo those dates of planting .nd harvest which maximize the eeonomic yield per day. Since photoperiod ha. a direc! influenee on floral initiation in many sensitive specios, th. daylength during the ~ \"\\Jl8r1y growth and developmenl of the crop is frequently an Importanl '\"'. ' -40'N 15.40 15.05 14.56 13.98 13.21 12.56 11. 91 11.28 10.71 10.24 9.92 9.80 ' \" 30'N 14.42 14.20 13.87 13.46 12.93 12.49 12.06 11.62 11.24 10.92 10 La. sensibilids.d al fotoperíodo de cultivos ha mostrado tener un efecto nota• ble en el desarrollo y en su producción. El valor de la insensibilidad al largo del día demuestra ser de amplia adaptación para las variedades nuevas de arroz y de trigo; estas variedades se adaptan il.varias taUtudos. Actualmente, forman parte fundamental del conjunto tecnOlógico que se ha denominado ia \"Revolución verde\"."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Esta publicación presenta. los datos de la duración natunl del día, con una intensidad mínima. de lO. 5, 2 Y 1 bujfa U07J>, 53.8, 21,5 Y 10,8 lux, respectiva. mente), Las figuras Y cuadros incluyen tambíén los datos para cada 15 días durante todo e1 año y para cada latitud, desde los 'lO? N a lds 6O? S, La información fue presentada por primera vez en publicación Journal ot Agronomy (1); en la presente publicación se ha aumentado el tanlaüo de las gráficas y se han incluido los datos •onginales partt dal' al .investigador una idea más precis'!i de las condiciones que existen en su localidad. Esto ayuda en la interpretación de los resultados obtenidos en el campo y orientarle en la phneación de proyectos que pretenden resolver el probléma de sensibilidad al fotoperíodo."}]},{"head":"RESUMO","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"A seneibilidade BO lotoperíodo tem mostrado p08suir um efeito notável nO desenvolvimento da planta e na sua prodw;ao. O valor da insen~ $ibilídade ao comprimento do dia demostra ~er de grande valor para as novas variedades de arroz e de trigo; estas variedades se adaptam a vária'S latitudes e atualmente~ sa.o parte fundamental do conjunto tecnológico denominado ~•Rev()lu<;áo Verde\"."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"E~ta publica'Yao apr~enta 0$ dados da dura~iio natural do día~ oom ,una intensidad. mínima de 10, 5,2 e 1 vela (107.6.53.8,21.5 e 10.8 luxo rCfpectivamente). As figuras e quaclros encluem tam.bém os dados quinzenais durante (} ano e para cada latitude~ desde 70 o N. até 60°5. A informac¡ao foi apresentada pela primeira vez em publica~ao no .1, J OU1\"11al of Agronomy (1).; na presente publiru:u;ao se aumentou (; tao manho dos gráficos e \"!6 íneluiu os dados originaís para dar ao investigador urna idéia mais precisa das éondit;oes existentes em 'Sua looalidade. Na interpreta.¡;ao dos resultados nhtidos no campo e orientá•lo no p1anejamento 'de trabalhos que pretendem resolver o problema da fensí. bilid.de 30 fowperiOtlo."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 ,Figura 2 , Figure 2, Photoperiod in hours wrth an intensity greater than five foo! candles (53,8 lux), Figura 2, Fotoperíodo en hora. con una intensidad .uperior a l •• cinco bujía. (53,8 lux), "},{"text":"Figura 2 . Figura 2. "},{"text":" Figura 3, "},{"text":"Figura 3 ,Figure 4 ,Figura 4 ,Figura 4 , Figura 3, Fotoperíodo em horas com uma intensidade superior a 2 velas (21,5 lux), "},{"text":" Figure 5, "},{"text":"Figura 5 .- Figura 5. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Approximate factor. for lighl and energy conversions. Cuadro 1. Facto_ aproximados para convertir unid.des de luz y loot eandles (54Iux), 2 foot candles (22 lux), and 1 foot candle (11 lux). Figures 1 through 4 give Ihe .. photoperiods for clear days and no obstruclions on Ihe horizon. It is obviou. that heavy eloud eover  "},{"text":"during early morning or late after'noon, such as that whieh oocurs in the tropies during the monsoon season, significantly reduces the effootive photoperiod for a particular latitud. and date and exlends Ih. dark period crucial for photoperiod sensitive reaelions. Scaltered high clondo near the horizon, on Ihe olher hand, eould refleel sunlight from below tbe horizon and extend tbe photoperiod for several minutes. Although Ihe atmospheric path is tbe same al aUlaliludes and zero sola\" elevauufi,  "},{"text":"the amount of moisture and dust in the atmosphere may vary   "},{"text":"from the curves fo.r each intensity. As an example, one looation was  and 5 lo 10 minutes before and 5 lo 10 minutes before noon on tbe date of tbe June solsti .. , depending on the latitude. Time noon on tbe date of tbe June solsti .. , depending on the latitude. Time of solar noon may be found in labIes (5), .. timaled from the sunris •. of solar noon may be found in labIes (5), .. timaled from the sunris •. sunset curves in a geography texlhook, <:r interp~lated from Tabl. 6. sunset curves in a geography texlhook, <:r interp~lated from Tabl. 6. From tb. preceding Figures 1 to 4, a family of curves may be .\"\"n. From tb. preceding Figures 1 to 4, a family of curves may be .\"\"n. strueted iór a \"pecifie latitude or location of interest by interpelating strueted iór a \"pecifie latitude or location of interest by interpelating ehoscn {rom a nortb latitad. and on. from a distinet soutb latitud.. ehoscn {rom a nortb latitad. and on. from a distinet soutb latitud.. This is iIlustrated in Fig. 5 for Ithaca, New York (Lat. 42':25' N) aud This is iIlustrated in Fig. 5 for Ithaca, New York (Lat. 42':25' N) aud Sao Panlo, Brazil (I..at. 23?3Í)' S). The houro from sunrise lo sunsel also Sao Panlo, Brazil (I..at. 23?3Í)' S). The houro from sunrise lo sunsel also are presented in tbi. figure. Note tbal the scal. in hours is difierent are presented in tbi. figure. Note tbal the scal. in hours is difierent írom tbe \"tber figures. In IIh.co, New York, Ih. lO•ft.-c. photoperiodi. írom tbe \"tber figures. In IIh.co, New York, Ih. lO•ft.-c. photoperiodi. cally .ffectivo day. are 23 and 26 min longer tban sunlight hour day. cally .ffectivo day. are 23 and 26 min longer tban sunlight hour day. in O ... mber and June, respeetively. The l•ft .. e. day. are 24 snd 26 min in O ... mber and June, respeetively. The l•ft .. e. day. are 24 snd 26 min longer than Ihe lO-ft.•c. day. in Oecember and June. respectively. A longer than Ihe lO-ft.•c. day. in Oecember and June. respectively. A  "},{"text":"number of hours above a critical intensity, and thus the period of ~a1'\"kness, whieh have r Figure 1. photoperiod in hours with an lntenslty greoter than ten foot candles (107.6 lux l.  "},{"text":"Fotoperlodo en hora. con una intensidad superior a l •• diez buja. (107.6 lux) .  Figura 1, Fotoperiodo em horas com uma íntensidade superior. 10 Figura 1, Fotoperiodo em horas com uma íntensidade superior. 10 velas 007,6 lux l,   velas 007,6 lux l, .,¡ ..!! -u .,¡ .,¡ c: . . ..!! .. \" -¡¡ ~ :> >-.s:J $ 111 111 -u c: 'ti . . ~ .. Lo c: Lo o . . g. .;¡; .¡::; E ~ lO ... E -8 . . -~ -u .. .. 3! -u ~ '\" .¡;; \" .?;-t: ~ .¡;; ~ .= t: .= ., \" -., E .= c: :> :> e c: 9 ' \" o .:¡ u .¡ ~ ., Lo ~ O o :x: \" O ... :x: :x: .. E :¡; .. .; = e ., .!! ., ... l ] :> .<l ~ ,~ .\" e -n . . . . ., !-'¡¡; .s:: E ~ .. E -8 21 .. \"O . . I!! .. .\" :!? ';¡; '\" .. . § :t' <: '¡¡ .!l o!; ji .!: .. . . E o!; e :> :> e 8 ~ . . .s:: v ~ .. $ LAr .,¡ ..!! -u .,¡ .,¡ c: . . ..!! .. \" -¡¡ ~ :> >-.s:J $ 111 111 -u c: 'ti . . ~ .. Lo c: Lo o . . g. .;¡; .¡::; E ~ lO ... E -8 . . -~ -u .. .. 3! -u ~ '\" .¡;; \" .?;-t: ~ .¡;; ~ .= t: .= ., \" -., E .= c: :> :> e c: 9 ' \" o .:¡ u .¡ ~ ., Lo ~ O o :x: \" O ... :x: :x: .. E :¡; .. .; = e ., .!! ., ... l ] :> .<l ~ ,~ .\" e -n . . . . ., !-'¡¡; .s:: E ~ .. E -8 21 .. \"O . . I!! .. .\" :!? ';¡; '\" .. . § :t' <: '¡¡ .!l o!; ji .!: .. . . E o!; e :> :> e 8 ~ . . .s:: v ~ ..$LAr .... M\"Y  ....M\"Y  "},{"text":"Table 2 . actor in delermining the optimum pl.nting date. When critical light ia.tensities have been detennined for a cr'op, these foot candle curves Will he more precise thnn similar curves showing hours of direet sun .. li&ht. The ultimare value of the information presented here is lo aid in tbe Ilele.lion of photoperiod insen.jliv. genotypes of m()St economi. speci .. , and thus all_ wide adaptalion and promote exehange oí germ-Phataperiod in haurs with a minimum intensityaf 10 fool eandles (107.6 lux). 2. Fotoperíodo em horas com una intensidade mínima Ele 10 velas (107.6 lux). plasmo ' . plasmo' .  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Photoperiod in hours wílh a mínimum intensity oi 5 ioot candles (53.8 lux).  Cuadro 3. Fotoperlodo en hotas COn una Intensidad mínima de 5 bujlas 53.8 lux l.   Cuadro 3. Fotoperlodo en hotas COn una Intensidad mínima de 5 bujlas 53.8 lux l.  Quadro 3. Fotoperfodo' ~m ho~.,; corn urna intensidade mínima de 5 velas (53.8 lu~).   Quadro 3. Fotoperfodo' ~m ho~.,; corn urna intensidade mínima de 5 velas (53.8 lu~).   January February  March. April  May  June JanuaryFebruaryMarch.AprilMayJune  Latitude 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 Latitude722722722722722722  70'N 2.34 4.71 7.20 9.46 11.20 13.38 16.19 19.14 22.08 24.00 24.00 24.00 70'N2.344.717.209.4611.20 13.3816.19 19.1422.08 24.0024.00 24.00 <lO 60'N 500N 7.19 8.92 8.06 9.46 9.21 10.50 10:19 11.05 11.56 12.92 11.77 12.72 14.61 16.04 13.86 14.78 17.48 18.86 15.66 16.41 20.02 20.54 16.91 17.07 <lO60'N 500N7.19 8.928.06 9.469.21 10.50 10:19 11.0511.56 12.92 11.77 12.7214.61 16.04 13.86 14.7817.48 18.86 15.66 16.4120.02 20.54 16.91 17.07  40'N 9.97 10.32 10.83 11.43 11.94 12.61 13.39 14.03 14.62 15.11 15.43 15.53 40'N9.97 10.3210.83 11.4311.94 12.6113.39 14.0314.62 15.1115.43 15.53  30'N 10.74 10.97 11.31 11.72 12.07 12.53 13.07 13.51 13.90 14.23 14.45 14.51 30'N10.74 10.9711.31 11.7212.07 12.5313.07 13.5113.90 14.2314.45 14.51  20'N 11.36 11.51 11.72 11.97 12.19 12.46 12.81 13.10 13.34 13.55 13.68 13.73 20'N11.36 11.5111.72 11.9712.19 12.4612.81 13.1013.34 13.5513.68 13.73  10'N O' 11.94 12.00 12.47 12.46 12.09 12.21 12.45 12.45 12.31 12.45 12.44 12.43 12.61 12.75 12.43 12.45 12.88 12.99 12.46 12.46 13.04 13.06 12.47 12.47 10'N O'11.94 12.00 12.47 12.4612.09 12.21 12.45 12.4512.31 12.45 12.44 12.4312.61 12.75 12.43 12.4512.88 12.99 12.46 12.4613.04 13.06 12.47 12.47  10°5 13.04 12.95 12.82 12.69 12.58 12.44 12.26 12.15 12.05 11.96 11.92 11.89 10°513.04 12.9512.82 12.6912.58 12.4412.26 12.1512.05 11.9611.92 11.89  20'S 30 0 S 40'S 50'S 60'S 13.66 13.49 14.40 14.12 15.35 14.94 16.79 16.14 19.71 18.36 13.26 12.97 13.74 13.30 14.39 13.74 15.30 14.37 16.87 15.38 12.75 12.44 12.94 12.48 13.21 12.53 13.58 12.63 14.22 12.81 12.11 11.85 11.94 11.52 11.76 11.15 11.52 10.65 11.19 9.90 11.63 11.45 11.17 10.87 10.61 10.19 9.88 9.23 8.72 7.69 11.33 11.31 10.69 10.62 9.89 9.81 8.81 8.68 7.00 6.77 20'S 30 0 S 40'S 50'S 60'S13.66 13.49 14.40 14.12 15.35 14.94 16.79 16.14 19.71 18.3613.26 12.97 13.74 13.30 14.39 13.74 15.30 14.37 16.87 15.3812.75 12.44 12.94 12.48 13.21 12.53 13.58 12.63 14.22 12.8112.11 11.85 11.94 11.52 11.76 11.15 11.52 10.65 11.19 9.9011.63 11.45 11.17 10.87 10.61 10.19 9.88 9.23 8.72 7.6911.33 11.31 10.69 10.62 9.89 9.81 8.81 8.68 7.00 6.77  "},{"text":"Table 4 . 'Pholoperiod in hours w1tn a mínimum inlensily of 2 fool candles (21.5 luxl. .69 10.62 .69 10.62  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Photoperiod in hours with a minimum intensity of 1 foot eandle (10.8 lux).Cuadro 5. Fotoperíodo en horas con una intensi,dad mínima de 1 bujía (10.8 lux ¡.Quadro 5. Fotoperiodo em horas com urna intensidade mínima de urna vela (10.8 lux l.   J~nuary . February March' April   May Jun .. J~nuary .FebruaryMarch'AprilMayJun ..  Latitude 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 7 22 Latitude722722722722722722  70 0 N 3,.59 5.62 7.84 10.01 11.71 13.90 16.79 20.03 22.98 24.00 24.00 24.00 70 0 N3,.595.627.84 10.0111.71 13.9016.79 20.0322.98 24.0024.00 24.00  60 0 N 50 0 N 7.65 9.23 8.48 9.76 9.59 10.85 10.48 11,32 11.91 13.27 12.05 12.98 14.98 16.45 14.14 15.07 17.96 19.46 15.98 16.75 20.79 21.43 17.26 17.45 60 0 N 50 0 N7.65 9.238.48 9.769.59 10.85 10.48 11,3211.91 13.27 12.05 12.9814.98 16.45 14.14 15.0717.96 19.46 15.98 16.7520.79 21.43 17.26 17.45 N N 40'N 30 0 N 10.22 10.56 10.96 11.19 11.07 11.66 11.52 11.92 12.16 12.83 12.26 12.73 13.62 14.27 13.27 13.72 14.87 15.37 14.11 14.45 15.70 15.81 14.68 14.74 N N40'N 30 0 N10.22 10.56 10.96 11.1911.07 11.66 11.52 11.9212.16 12.83 12.26 12.7313.62 14.27 13.27 13.7214.87 15.37 14.11 14.4515.70 15.81 14.68 14.74  20'N 10 0 N O' 10 0 S 20'S 30'S 40'S 50'S 60'$ 11.56 11.71 12.12 12.19 12.66 12.64 13.22 1::1.13 13.86 13.68 14.63 14.34 15.62 15.19 17.15 16.48 20.43 18.90 11.91 12.16 12.28 12.39 12.63 12.62 13.00 12.87 13.45 13.16 13.96 13.50 14.63 13.97 15.60 14.65 17.32 15.78 12.38 12.64 12.49 12.62 12.61 12.60 12.75 12.62 12.93 12.63 13.14 12.68 13.44 12.76 13.86 12.90 14.58 13.16 13.00 13.28 12.80 12.93 12.60 12.62 12.44 12.33 12.29 12.04 12.14 11.73 11.98 11.38 11.78 10.92 11.54 10.27 13.54 13.75 13.06 13.17 12.64 12.64 12.23 12,14 11.82 11.65 11.38 11.08 10.85 10.44 10.17 9.54 9.12 8.13 13.89 13.93 13.24 13.25 12.66 12.66 12.11 12.09 11.53 11.51 10.91 10.85 10.15 10.06 9.13 9.00 7.47 7.25 20'N 10 0 N O' 10 0 S 20'S 30'S 40'S 50'S 60'$11.56 11.71 12.12 12.19 12.66 12.64 13.22 1::1.13 13.86 13.68 14.63 14.34 15.62 15.19 17.15 16.48 20.43 18.9011.91 12.16 12.28 12.39 12.63 12.62 13.00 12.87 13.45 13.16 13.96 13.50 14.63 13.97 15.60 14.65 17.32 15.7812.38 12.64 12.49 12.62 12.61 12.60 12.75 12.62 12.93 12.63 13.14 12.68 13.44 12.76 13.86 12.90 14.58 13.1613.00 13.28 12.80 12.93 12.60 12.62 12.44 12.33 12.29 12.04 12.14 11.73 11.98 11.38 11.78 10.92 11.54 10.2713.54 13.75 13.06 13.17 12.64 12.64 12.23 12,14 11.82 11.65 11.38 11.08 10.85 10.44 10.17 9.54 9.12 8.1313.89 13.93 13.24 13.25 12.66 12.66 12.11 12.09 11.53 11.51 10.91 10.85 10.15 10.06 9.13 9.00 7.47 7.25  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Times of sunríse and sunse!, hour •• nd minutes of sunlight, and hours (and decimals of hours) of sunllght. Cuadro 6. Hor. Cuadro 6. Hor.  "},{"text":"exacta de Sllida y puesta de sol, horas y minutos de luz solar y hora. (y decimales de horas) de luz solar. Quadro 6. Hora exata de salda e per do sol, horas e mi nutos de luz solar e horas (e décimos de horas) de luz solar.   , , 1<> '\" '\" <D I Sl ~ 11.58 0622 SUN SUN-HR-DEC Rlse O 1042 6.33 0834 8.33 0745 9.50 0716 10.33 0655 10.98 0638 12.12 0608 12.68 0554 13.28 0538 16.12 0426 18.37 0331 40\"5 I 0441 1932 14:51 14.85 0458 1925 14:27 14.45 0516 1912 13:56 13.93 January 7 January 22 February 7 SUN• SUN• SUN SUN~ SUN SUN SUN-SUN• SUN SUN Latitude RISE SET HR•MJN SET HR•MIN HR-DfC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-OEC 70\"N • • O 1343 3:01 3.02 0915 1515 6:00 6.00 60 0 N 0857 1517 6:20 1551 7: 17 7.28 0800 1630 8:30 8.50 50•N 0757 1617 8:20 1639 8'54 8.90 0725 1704 9:39 9.65 40\"N 0722 1652 9:30 1708 9:52 9.87 0703 1726 10:23 10.38 30\"N 0657 1717 10:20 1729 10:34 10.57 0647 1742 10:55 10.92 20\"N 0637 1736 10:59 1746 11 :08 11 . 13 0633 1755 11: 22 11.37 looN 0619 1754 11 :35 1801 11 :39 11 .65 0622 1807 11 :45 11.75 0° 0603 1810 12:07 1815 12:07 12.12 0611 1818 12:07 12.12 10°5 0546 1827 12:41 1830 12:36 12.60 0600 1829 12:29 12.48 20•$ 0528 1845 13: 17 1845 13:07 13.12 0547 1841 12:54 12.90 1903 13:43 13.72 0534 1854 13:20 13.33 50\"5 0403 2010 16:07 1957 15:31 15.52 0452 1935 14:43 60\"S 0255 2117 16:22 2051 17:20 17.33 0412 16:02 16.03 2014 14.72 30'S I 0508 1906 13:58 13.97 0520 Lat.itude 70 0 N 6()'lN SO'N 40'N 30'N 20 0 N lO'N O' 10'S 20'S 30'S 40'S 50'S 60•S SUN-RISE 0801 0719 0658 0644 ' 0634 0625 0617 ' 0610 0603 0555 0546 0534 0518 --0453 February 22 suN-SUN SUN SUN-SET HR-MIN HR-oec RISE May 22 June 7 June 22 SUN• SUN• SUN $UN SUN• SUN-SUN SUN SUN-SUN• SUN SUN: Latitude RISE SET HR.MIN HR.OEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-DEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-DEC 70\"N ** •• 24:00 24.00 ** •• 24:00 24.00 Tahle 6 (continued). July 1 July 22 7 SUN• SUN• SUN SUN SUN• SUN• SUN <iUN• SUN~ SUN SUN latitud. RISE SET HR-MIN HR-DEC RI$E SET HR-MIN HR•DEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR•DEC . * 24:00 24.00 ** ** 24:00 24.00 0202 2204 20:02 20.03 60'N 0249 2119 18:30 18.50 0-317 2054 17:37 17.62 0352 2018 16:24 16.40 50 0 N 0359 2010 16: 11 16.18 0415 1957 15:42 15.70 0436 1935 14:59 14.98 40'N 0438 1931 14:53 14.88 0449 1923 14:34 14.57 0503 1909 14:06 14.10 30 0 N 0505 1905 14:00 14.00 0513 1900 13:47 20 0 N 0526 1843 13: 17 13.28 0532 1841 13:09 13.15 0537 1835 12:58 12.97 10 0 N 0544 1825 12: 41 12.68 0548 1825 12:37 12.62 0550 1821 12: 31 12.52 0° 0601 1808 12:07 12.12 0603 1810 12:07 12.12 0602 0724 60'S 50\"S 0657 40'S 0640 30'S 0628 20'S 0618 10'S 0608 O' 0600 13.68 0522 1850 13:28 13.47 70'N 1O\"N 0551 20'N 0541 30'N 0531 4O'N 0517 50'N 0458 60'N 0428 0324 S~N. AU!just 22 I~SUN~ SUN SUN SUN-SUN• Latitude RISE SET HR•MIN HR•DEC RISE 1<> '\" '\" <DI Sl~ 11.58 0622 SUN SUN-HR-DEC Rlse O 1042 6.33 0834 8.33 0745 9.50 0716 10.33 0655 10.98 0638 12.12 0608 12.68 0554 13.28 0538 16.12 0426 18.37 0331 40\"5 I 0441 1932 14:51 14.85 0458 1925 14:27 14.45 0516 1912 13:56 13.93 January 7 January 22 February 7 SUN• SUN• SUN SUN~ SUN SUN SUN-SUN• SUN SUN Latitude RISE SET HR•MJN SET HR•MIN HR-DfC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-OEC 70\"N • • O 1343 3:01 3.02 0915 1515 6:00 6.00 60 0 N 0857 1517 6:20 1551 7: 17 7.28 0800 1630 8:30 8.50 50•N 0757 1617 8:20 1639 8'54 8.90 0725 1704 9:39 9.65 40\"N 0722 1652 9:30 1708 9:52 9.87 0703 1726 10:23 10.38 30\"N 0657 1717 10:20 1729 10:34 10.57 0647 1742 10:55 10.92 20\"N 0637 1736 10:59 1746 11 :08 11 . 13 0633 1755 11: 22 11.37 looN 0619 1754 11 :35 1801 11 :39 11 .65 0622 1807 11 :45 11.75 0° 0603 1810 12:07 1815 12:07 12.12 0611 1818 12:07 12.12 10°5 0546 1827 12:41 1830 12:36 12.60 0600 1829 12:29 12.48 20•$ 0528 1845 13: 17 1845 13:07 13.12 0547 1841 12:54 12.90 1903 13:43 13.72 0534 1854 13:20 13.33 50\"5 0403 2010 16:07 1957 15:31 15.52 0452 1935 14:43 60\"S 0255 2117 16:22 2051 17:20 17.33 0412 16:02 16.03 2014 14.72 30'S I 0508 1906 13:58 13.97 0520 Lat.itude 70 0 N 6()'lN SO'N 40'N 30'N 20 0 N lO'N O' 10'S 20'S 30'S 40'S 50'S 60•S SUN-RISE 0801 0719 0658 0644 ' 0634 0625 0617 ' 0610 0603 0555 0546 0534 0518 --0453 February 22 suN-SUN SUN SUN-SET HR-MIN HR-oec RISE May 22 June 7 June 22 SUN• SUN• SUN $UN SUN• SUN-SUN SUN SUN-SUN• SUN SUN: Latitude RISE SET HR.MIN HR.OEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-DEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR-DEC 70\"N ** •• 24:00 24.00 ** •• 24:00 24.00 Tahle 6 (continued). July 1 July 22 7 SUN• SUN• SUN SUN SUN• SUN• SUN <iUN• SUN~ SUN SUN latitud. RISE SET HR-MIN HR-DEC RI$E SET HR-MIN HR•DEC RISE SET HR•MIN HR•DEC . * 24:00 24.00 ** ** 24:00 24.00 0202 2204 20:02 20.03 60'N 0249 2119 18:30 18.50 0-317 2054 17:37 17.62 0352 2018 16:24 16.40 50 0 N 0359 2010 16: 11 16.18 0415 1957 15:42 15.70 0436 1935 14:59 14.98 40'N 0438 1931 14:53 14.88 0449 1923 14:34 14.57 0503 1909 14:06 14.10 30 0 N 0505 1905 14:00 14.00 0513 1900 13:47 20 0 N 0526 1843 13: 17 13.28 0532 1841 13:09 13.15 0537 1835 12:58 12.97 10 0 N 0544 1825 12: 41 12.68 0548 1825 12:37 12.62 0550 1821 12: 31 12.52 0° 0601 1808 12:07 12.12 0603 1810 12:07 12.12 0602 0724 60'S 50\"S 0657 40'S 0640 30'S 0628 20'S 0618 10'S 0608 O' 0600 13.68 0522 1850 13:28 13.47 70'N 1O\"N 0551 20'N 0541 30'N 0531 4O'N 0517 50'N 0458 60'N 0428 0324 S~N. AU!just 22 I~SUN~ SUN SUN SUN-SUN• Latitude RISE SET HR•MIN HR•DEC RISE  "},{"text":"Table 6 ( oontinued). --~  O:tober 7   O:tober 22   November7 --~O:tober 7O:tober 22November7 SUN-Latitude ~ISE SlJN. ser SUN H~-MIN SUN HR-Il€C SUN-RISE SUN• SET SUN HR-MIN SUN HR-OEC SUN-RISE SUN• SET SUN HR•MIN SUN HRoOEC SUN-Latitude ~ISESlJN. serSUN H~-MINSUN HR-Il€CSUN-RISESUN• SETSUN HR-MINSUN HR-OECSUN-RISESUN• SETSUN HR•MINSUN HRoOEC 7O\"N 60\"N 5O'N 0643 0622 1713 10:51 1651 10:08 10.13 0747 10.85 0659 0610 1724 11 : 14 11.23 0634 1540 7:53 1629 9:30 1654 10:20 7.88 0901 9.50 0737 1550 1426 10.33 0659 1628 5:25 8: 13 9:29 5.42 8.22 9.48 7O\"N 60\"N 5O'N0643 0622 1713 10:51 1651 10:08 10.13 0747 10.85 0659 0610 1724 11 : 14 11.23 06341540 7:53 1629 9:30 1654 10:207.88 0901 9.50 0737 1550 1426 10.33 0659 16285:25 8: 13 9:295.42 8.22 9.48 I!l            I!l  "}],"sieverID":"8037a198-91a4-4528-bc73-36e0b0c9482a","abstract":"SeJlllilivity in many crop spccies lo ebanges in nalural daylength mm oue latitude or seasou lo aMlbe. has a pronounced \"ffee! on plant developmenl and evenlual production. Thís seu.¡Uve reaelion also limitE/ Ibe rlUlJ!\" of adaptE/lion of comm\"rcial hyhrids and vari\"lies, and ntak •• lhe eDiliIUlJ!\" af germ plasm amang improvemenl progtllIllll very difficult. Altbongb factol'S sueh as temperature, maíslure, Íusect/dio\"a .. compl .. _, and albero also eonlribule lo adaptalion or its shsence, Ibe single factor \"pholoperiod\" ¡. Ihe one wilb most striking \"ffects on plant develapment. Abo, ít ís possible lo m\"asure and .tudy Ibe iufIuen .. of daylength, and by Ibis proceso daveIop malerial. insen.i!ive to photoperiod ehlUlJ!\"s. Then one may proeeed lo ovalua!e tempetature and othor faeloro without th\" confounding effects of photoperiod.'Ihe !remendan. voIue of pboloperiod insensilivity has heen demnnstratad clearly in Ibe new varioties oí wheat and rice developed by !he Internatinnal Wheat and Rice Programs iu Meneo snd Ibe J>hilippm...., respeclively. These varietes moyo easily acroso latitudes snd U'Onnd Ibe globo, and currently form a major part oí the basi. for Ibe grecn revo-Iution. The same advances will soon be made in olber crops.. but more infonnation on \"aeh erop and Ibe reaClÍon to different natural photoperiodo must be datermined in order lo pusb back Ihe harriero lo wider adaptalion.An importanl stop in tbis proceso is the definition of natural pbotoperiodo. Moa! elementary texts in geography inelude curves whieb show honro ol sunlight and \"darkness\" (í.e~ non..mnlighl hours). These are baaed on time oí sunrise and time ol su\"\"\"t. However, !he eritieallight intensitios tbat control pboloperiodíe roaetious in plants are eonaidershly lower Iban Ievels ooourring only during Ibe houro of sunlight. Thus, tb. \"off\"\"tive\" daylengtb for 8 pholoperiod ... nsitive reaolion may bo mucb Ionger Iban Ibe hou .. of SUD. The \"Iwilighl\" :rone is important.To adequately evaluat. plant dovelapment data foom past plantinga o,. lo ehoose IoeatioJlll between whicb one may alternate sellSOlIlI in a field program lo develop ÍD8eDSÍlÍve genotypes, Ibe eritieal number of honro oí effeetive lighl and darkne ... musl be known. This l. equaIly impor• tant if natural dayIengths are lo be extendCli artifioially in Ibe field. In • MaptecI Ifrom tecbnleal jouma! a:t!J:le, \"Effectlve dI;¡>Iengtbs for !he study of pbotoperiod sensitive reactions in plants\". C. A. l'rancls. Aaro-1l<lImY JournaI 611: '190-'192 (November•December). ll1lD (1)."}